zogadi da araorganuli qimia

m. cincaZe, n. maisuraZe, g. manveliZe 

zogadi da 

araorganuli qimia 

`teqnikuri universiteti”@

saqarTvelos teqnikuri universiteti 

m. cincaZe, n. maisuraZe, g. manveliZe 

zogadi da 

araorganuli qimia 

Tbilisi 

2009 

damtkicebulia stu-s 

saredaqcio-sagamomcemlo 

sabWos mier

obyfvlt,fht cf[tkv.qdfytkj ufsdfkbcobyt,ekbf evfqktcb 

ghjatcbek-ntmybrehb cofdkt,bc cneltynt,bcfsdbc\ xdtyb vbpfyb 

b'j vfhnbdfl vbudtojlt,byf vfssdbc pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb mbvbbc 

.bhbsflb cfrbs[t,b\ 

pjuflb mbvbbc yfobkib ufy[bkekbf mbvbbc .bhbsflb wyt,t,b lf 

rfyjyt,b= sfyfvtlhjdt it[tlekt,f fnjvbc lf vjktrekbc fqyfuj,fpt= 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc rfyjypjvbtht,f= [cyfht,b\ 

fhfjhufyek yfobkib vjwtvekbf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc .bhbsflb 

s, p lf d tktvtynt,bc vbqt,f= mbvbehb sdbct,t,b lf ufvj'tyt,f\ 

cf[tkv.qdfytkjc lfhsekb fmdc cfuyj,hbdb cfhxtdb\ 

htwtyptynb mbv\ vtw\ ljmnjhb b\ ifsbhbidbkb 

© sagamomcemlo saxli ,,teqnikuri universiteti’’, 2009 

ISBN 978-9941-14-310-6 

http://www.gtu.ge/publishinghouse/ 

yvela ufleba daculia. am wignis arc erTi nawili (iqneba es teqsti, foto, 

ilustracia Tu sxva) aranairi formiT da saSualebiT (iqneba es eleqtronuli Tu 

meqanikuri), ar SeiZleba gamoyenebul iqnas gamomcemlis werilobiTi nebarTvis 

gareSe. 

saavtoro uflebebis darRveva isjeba kanoniT.

SFDB 1\ 

MBVBBC >BHBSFLB WYT

mbvbehb tktvtynb 

fnjvsf 'jdtk ufhrdtek cf[tc mbvbehb tktvtynb tojlt,f\ 

fnjvbc .bhbsfl mbvbeh vf[fcbfst,tkc ofhvjflutyc fnjv,bhsdbc 

lflt,bsb ve[nb= hjvtkbw hbw[j,hbdfl njkbf tktvtynbc 

hbuj,hbdb yjvhbcf gthbjlek cbcntvfib= fvbnjv sfyfvtlhjdt 

ufyvfhnt,bs= mbvbehb tktvtynb tc fhbc fnjvsf thsj,kbj,f 

fnjv,bhsdbc thsyfbhb lflt,bsb ve[nbs\ vfufkbsfl= 'dtkf 

tktvtynb= hjvkbc fnjv,bhsdibw 11 ghjnjybf fhbc yfnhbevb 

(Na)+ 8 ghjnjybc itvwdtkb fnjvb ;fyu,flbf (O) lf f\i\ 

lqtbcfsdbc wyj,bkbf 116 tktvtynb\ 

fkjnhjgbf 

tktvtynb sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib ofhvjflutyc vfhnbd 

ybdsbtht,fc\ thscf lf bvfdt tktvtync ite.kbf vjudwtc hfvltybvt 

vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,f\ tktvtynbc sdbct,fc= ,eyt,fib bfhct,jc 

hfvltybvt vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs= fkjnhjgbf tojlt,f\ 

bub ufvjodtekbf jhb vbptpbs| 1) vjktrekfib fnjvsf hbw[dbc 

hfjltyj,bs\ vfufkbsfl= ;fyu,flb (O 2 ) lf jpjyb (O 3 )+ 2) rhbcnfkehb 

vtchbc c[dflfc[dfj,bs\ vfufkbsfl= fkvfcb= uhfabnb lf 

rfh,byb= hjvkt,bw tktvtyn yf[ibh,flbc (C) vbth ofhvjmvybkb 

vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ 

'dtkf tktvtync lf= itcf,fvbcfl= vfhnbd ybdsbtht,t,cfw 'jaty 

kbsjyt,fl lf fhfkbsjyt,fl\ kbsjyt,b= xdtekt,hbd gbhj- 

,t,ib= rhbcnfkehb vtchbc vmjyt v'fhb ybdsbtht,t,bf (ufhlf 

dthw[kbco'kbcf _ Hg)= [jkj fhfkbsjyt,b ud[dlt,f cfvbdt fuhtufnek 

vlujvfhtj,fib\ vfufkbsfl= fpjnb (N 2 ) _ fbhflbf= ajcajhb 

(P) _ v'fhb= ,hjvb (Br 2 ) _ s[tdflb\ 

kbsjyt,c f[fcbfst,c ,pbydfht,f= ztlflj,f= ufzbvdbcf lf ufukbydbc 

rfhub eyfhb\ cbs,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhj,f+ fhfkbsj- 

yt,b vjrkt,ekbf 'dtkf ptvjfqybiyek sdbct,fc\ ufvjyfrkbcbf 

uhfabnb (rfhufl fnfht,c tktmnhjltyc) lf bjlb (rhbcnfkehbf)\ 

yfhtdt,b lf mbvbehb yfthst,b 

yfhtdb tojlt,f jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bc ithtdbs vbqt,ek 

thsj,kbj,fc= hjvtkibw itvfdfk rjvgjytynt,c ityfhxeyt,ekb 

fmdc sfdbcb abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ yfhtdbc itlutybkj,f 

itb.kt,f yt,bcvbthfl dwdfkjs\ yfhtdbc lf'jaf itvflutytk rjvgjytynfl 

itb.kt,f vfhnbdb abpbrehb vtsjlt,bs\ yfhtdbc vjvpflt,bcfc 

fh [lt,f cbs,jc ufvj'jaf fy isfysmvf\ yfhtdt,b jhudfhbf| 

thsudfhjdfyb lf fhfthsudfhjdfyb\ 

thsudfhjdfyb tojlt,f yfhtdc= hjvtkibw vbrhjcrjgbsfw rb 

ite.kt,tkbf yfhtdbc itvflutytkb ybdsbtht,t,bc lfyf[df\ thsudfhjdfybf= 

vfufkbsfl= cgbhnbc o'fk[cyfhb= ]fthb lf c[df\ 

fhfthsudfhjdfyb tojlt,f yfhtdc= hjvtkibw sdfkbs fy vbrhjcrjgbs 

itcf.kt,tkbf yfhtdbc itvflutytkb ybdsbtht,t,bc lfyf[df\ 

fhfthsudfhjdfybf hrbybc a[dybkbcf lf [bc yf[th[bc= wfhwbcf 

lf ceahbc vfhbkbc= ptsbcf lf o'kbc yfhtdb lf c[df\ 

yfthsb tojlt,f jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bc mbvbehb ehsbthsmvtlt,bc 

itltufl vbqt,ek sdbcj,hbdfl f[fk thsj,kbj,fc= 

hjvtkibw itvfdfk ybdsbtht,t,c lfrfhuekb fmdc gbhdfyltkb 

sdbct,t,b\ yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc vbbqt,f sdbcj,hbdfl f[fkb ybdsbtht,f\ 

yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc ybdsbtht,t,b ufhrdtekb ojybsb 

sfyfafhlj,t,bs ethslt,f thsvfytsc\ 

mbvbehb yfthsbc lf'jaf cfo'bc ybdsbtht,t,fl vfhnbdb abpbrehb 

vtsjlt,bs fh itb.kt,f\ 

yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc cbs,j ufvjb'jaf fy isfbysmvt,f\ 

4 5

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb lf vjktrekehb vfcf 

vjktrekt,bcf lf fnjvt,bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf pjvf lf 

vfcf\ fnjvsf vfct,bc f,cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,b .fkbfy vwbht 

cblbltt,bf= vfuhfv rdktdbc sfyfvtlhjdt vtsjlt,b vfsb lblb cbpecnbs 

ufycfpqdhbc cfiefkt,fc b.ktdf\ o'fk,flbc fnjvbc vfcf 

njkbf 1=674 \ 10 _27 ru+ yf[ibh,flbcf _ 1=993 \ 10 _26 ru\ fctsb hbw[dt,bs 

cfhut,kj,f vje[th[t,tkbf= fvbnjv itvjqt,ekbf afhlj,bsb 

fnjvehb vfcbc wyt,f (A r )\ tktvtynbc afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcf 

bpjvt,f yf[ibh,flthstekt,ib lf udbxdtyt,c= se hfvlty/th 

vtnbf tktvtynbc fnjvbc vfcf yf[ibh,flbc C 12 bpjnjgbc fnjvbc 

vfcbc 1$12 yfobkpt\ vfc ufypjvbkt,f fhf fmdc\ 

vfufkbsfl= 

�26 

2, 

667 �10 

Ar ( O) 

� � �26 

1/ 

12 �1, 

993 �10 

15, 

999 

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcbc ufvjsdkbcfc v[tldtkj,fib eylf 

vbdbqjs fvf se bv tktvtynbc bpjnjgehb itlutybkj,f lf ufvjdsdfkjs 

cfiefkj afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcf\ tktvtynsf afhlj,bsb 

fnjvehb vfcbc vybidytkj,t,b vj'dfybkbf vtyltkttdbc 

gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ fnjveh vfcfcsfy f[kjvlujv vstk hbw[dc 

vfcehb hbw[db tojlt,f\ bub udbxdtyt,c tktvtynbc fnjvuekib 

ghjnjyt,bcf lf ytbnhjyt,bc /fvc\ 

afhlj,bsb vjktrekehb vfcf (M r ) udbxdtyt,c= hfvlty/th 

fqtvfnt,f fvf se bv vjktrekbc vfcf yf[ibh,flbc fnjvbc vfcbc 

1$12 yfobkc\ bub ufvjbsdkt,f vjktrekfib itvfdfkb 'dtkf fnjvbc 

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfct,bc /fvbs\ 

M r (H 2 O) = 2 . A r (H) + A r (O) = 2 . 1 + 16 = 18 

vjkb _ ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,bc thstekb 

thsteksf cfthsfijhbcj cbcntvfib (SI) ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,bc 

thstekfl vbqt,ekbf vjkb\ 

vjkb fhbc ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f= hjvtkbw itbwfdc bvlty 

cnhemnehek thstekc (vjktrekf= fnjvb= bjyb= tktmnhjyb 

lf c[d\)= hfvlty fnjvcfw itbwfdc C 12 yf[ibh,flbc bpjnjgbc 0=012 ru\ 

wyj,bkbf= hjv 'dtkf ybdsbtht,bc thsb vjkb itbwfdc vjktrekt,bc 

thscf lf bvfdt hbw[dc= rth.jl= 6=02 \ 10 23 (fdjuflhjc hbw[db)\ 

ybdsbtht,bc vfcfc= fqt,ekc thsb vjkbc hfjltyj,bs= 

tojlt,f vjkehb vfcf\ 

dfktynj,f 

mbvbehb ajhvekbc cojhfl lfothbcsdbc fewbkt,tkbf tktvtynsf 

dfktynj,bc fy ;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wjlyf\ 

dfktynj,f tojlt,f vjwtvekb tktvtynbc fnjvsf eyfhc= 

vbbthsjc fy xffyfwdkjc c[df tktvtynbc fnjvsf ufycfpqdhekb 

hbw[db\ 

dfktynj,bc thstekfl vbqt,ekbf o'fk,flbc fnjvbc dfktynj,f\ 

hflufyfw o'fk,flbc ths fnjvc fhf fmdc eyfhb= itbthsjc 

c[df tktvtynbc ths fnjvpt vtnb\ fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c= hjv 

se hjvtkbvt tktvtynbc thsb fnjvb bthst,c o'fk,flbc 1 fnjvc= 

vfiby tc tktvtynb bsdkt,f thsdfktynbfyfl+ se bthst,c o'fk- 

,flbc 2 fnjvc _ jhdfktynbfyfl+ se bthst,c cfvc _ cfvdfktynbfyfl 

lf f\i\ vfu\= HCl-ib mkjhb thsdfktynbfybf= H 2 S-ib ujubhlb 

jhdfktynbfyb= NH 3 -ib fpjnb cfvdfktynbfyb= H 2 O-ib lf 

'dtkf ;fyu,flyfthsib ;fyu,flb jhdfktynbfybf lf vbcb lf[vfht,bs 

itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs c[df tktvtynbc dfktynj,f\ 

fhct,j,c velvbddfktynbfyb lf wdfkt,fldfktynbfyb tktvtynt,b\ 

velvbddfktynbfybf= vfufkbsfl= H= Li= Na= K (dfktynj,f 

6 7

'jdtksdbc thsbc njkbf)= Ca= Ba= Mg (dfktynj,f 'jdtksdbc jhbc 

njkbf)= Al (dfktynj,f cfvbc njkbf)\ wdfkt,fldfktynbfybf= 

vfufkbsfl= yf[ibh,flb _ C (dfktynj,f itb.kt,f b'jc 2 lf 4)= 

ujubhlb _ S (dfktynj,f itb.kt,f b'jc 2= 4 fy 6)\ 

fv;fvfl dfktynj,bc wyt,f vtnfl ufafhsjdlf\ dfktynj,fc 

erfdibht,ty vjktrekfib fnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vbc ,eyt,fc\ 

fvbnjv vfc ufycfpqdhfdty hjujhw hbw[dc tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbcf 

(,vfsf hbw[dbc)= hjvkbsfw vjwtvekb fnjvb itthst,ekbf 

c[df fnjvsfy\ 

ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb 

tc rfyjyb fqvjxtybk bmyf 1748-1756 o\ kjvjyjcjdbc= [jkj 

1789 otkc kfdefpbtc vbth thsvfytsbcfufy lfvjerblt,kfl\ tc 

rfyjyb fv;fvfl itvltuyfbhfl ajhvekbhlt,f| mbvbeh htfmwbfib 

itcek ybdsbtht,fsf vfcf 'jdtksdbc njkbf htfmwbbc itltufl 

vbqt,ekb ybdsbtht,t,bc vfcbcf\ 

fnjveh-vjktrekehb vj.qdht,bc sdfkcfphbcbs= ybdsbtht,bc 

vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjybc fhcb vlujvfhtj,c bvfib= hjv 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc lhjc fnjvt,b fh mht,f lf fh ofhvjbmvyt,f 

fhfahbcfufy= fhfvtl htfmwbfvlt lf htfmwbbc itvltu vfsb hfjltyj,f 

hxt,f ewdktkb\ hfvltyflfw fnjvt,c fmdc velvbdb vfcf 

lf vfsb hfjltyj,f htfmwbbc itltufl fh bwdkt,f= ybdsbtht,bc 

vfcf htfmwbfvlt lf htfmwbbc itvltu hxt,f velvbdb\ 

vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjysfy vzblhj rfdibhibf tythubbc velvbdj,bc 

rfyjyb\ vfnthbbc sdbct,ff vj.hfj,f= hjvkbc hfjltyj,hbd 

cfpjvc ofhvjflutyc tythubf\ h\ vtbthvf lffvnrbwf 

vfnthbbc vj.hfj,bc c[dflfc[df ajhvbc trdbdfktynehj,f lf 

xfvjf'fkb,f rfyjyb= hjvtkbw wyj,bkbf tythubbc ufhlfmvybcf lf 

velvbdj,bc rfyjybc cf[tkojlt,bs\ bub vlujvfhtj,c itvltuib| 

tythubf fh ofhvjbmvyt,f fhfahbcfufy lf fhw erdfkjl mht,f= 

fhfvtl uflflbc thsb ajhvblfy vtjhtib\ 

fvudfhfl= ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb lf tythubbc 

velvbdj,bc rfyjyb _ tc fhbc ,eyt,bc thsbfyb rfyjybc jhb v[fht 

_ vfnthbbcf lf vbcb vj.hfj,bc vfhflbcj,f\ 

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb 

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb fqvjxtybkbf ahfyub vtwybthbc 

ghecnbc vbth lf itvltuyfbhfl ajhvekbhlt,f| 'jdtk 

mbvbehfl ceasf ybdsbtht,fc= lfvjerblt,kfl vbcb vbqt,bc 

[th[t,bcf= fmdc velvbdb sdbct,bsb lf hfjltyj,bsb itlutybkj,f\ 

vfufkbsfl= hf upbsfw fh eylf vbdbqjs o'fkb= vbcb itlutybkj,f 

velvbdbf\ bub itlut,f o'fk,flbcf lf ;fyu,flbcfufy (sdbcj,hbdb 

itlutybkj,f) fvfcsfy= vfcbc vb[tldbs o'fkib o'fk,flb itlbc 

11=19 %= ;fy,flb rb 88=81 %\ 

mbvbbc itvlujvvf ufydbsfht,fv udbxdtyf= hjv fhct,j,c hjujhw 

velvbdb= fctdt wdfkt,flb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,b\ 

velvbdb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,c tojlt,f lfknjyblt,b= 

[jkj wdkflb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,c _ ,thnjkblt,b\ 

trdbdfktynb lf trdbdfktynsf rfyjyb 

tktvtynbc mbvbehb trdbdfktynb tojlt,f vbc bcts ojybs 

hfjltyj,fc= hjvtkbw ethslt,f fy mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib xftyfwdkt,f 

1 ojybs yfobk o'fk,flc fy 8 ojybs yfobk ;fyu,flc\ 

trdbdfktynehb vfcf fhbc ybdsbtht,bc 1 trdbdfktynbc vfcf 

(ufypjvbkt,f u$vjkb)\ vjwtvek yfthsib tktvtynbc trdbdfktynehb 

vfcf njkbf tktvtynbc fnjvehb vfcbc (A) afhlj,bcf vbc 

dfktynj,fcsfy (v)\ 

8 9

A 

Э = 

v 

trdbdfktynbc wyt,fc fmdc lblb vybidytkj,f= hfvltyflfw vbcb 

cfiefkt,bs ajhvekbhlt,f mbvbbc ths-thsb .bhbsflb rfyjyb 

_ trdbdfktynt,bc rfyjyb| mbvbehb tktvtynt,b thsvfytsc ethslt,f 

vrfwhfl ufycfpqdhekb ojybsb hfjltyj,t,bs= fye trdbdfktynehb 

hfjltyj,bs= fye vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf vfct,b bct 

ittafhlt,f thsvfytsc= hjujhw vfsb trdbdfktynt,b _ 

m : m = Э : Э 1 2 1 2 

v;fdfc trdbdfktynehb vfcf njkbf v;fdfc vjktrekehb vfcbc 

itafhlt,bc vbc ae.bfyj,fpt\ vfufkbsfl= 

Э (H 2 SO 4 ) = 

M 2 4 � 

( H SO ) 98 

� 

2 2 

M( 

HCl) 

36, 

5 

Э (HCl) = � � 36, 

5 

1 1 

ae.bc trdbdfktynehb vfcf njkbf ae.bc vjktrekehb vfcbc 

itafhlt,bc vbc vjktrekfib itvfdfk OH /ueat,bc hbw[dpt= 

fye= hfw bubdtf= kbsjybc ;fyudbs [fhbc[pt\ vfufkbsfl= 

40 

Э (NaOH) = � 40 

1 

74 

Э (Ca(OH) ) = � 37 

2 2 

vfhbkbc trdbdfktynb njkbf vfhbkbc vjktrekehb vfcbc 

itafhlt,bc kbsjysf fnjvt,bc hbw[dbcf lf dfktynj,bc yfvhfdkpt\ 

vfufkbsfl= 

57, 5 

Э (NaCl) = � 57, 

5 

1�1 

142 

Э (Na SO ) = � 71 

2 4 1� 

2 

49 

fdjuflhjc rfyjyb 

fbht,c ijhbc vbvlbyfht htfmwbt,bc itcofdkbcfc utb-kecfrvf 

fqvjfxbyf vjwekj,fsf sfyfafhlj,bc rfyjyb= hjvkbc sfyf[vfl 

_ htfmwbfib vjyfobkt fbht,bc vjwekj,t,b bct ittafhlt,f 

thsvfytsc lf htfmwbbc itltufl vbqt,ek fbhfl ybdsbtht,fsf 

vjwekj,t,c= hjujhw vfhnbdb vstkb hbw[dt,b\ 

fv rfyjybc fcf[cytkfl bnfkbtkvf vtwybthvf fdjuflhjv 1811 

otkc ufvjsmdf ]bgjstpf= hjvtkbw itvltuib lflfcnehlf wlbc 

vjyfwtvt,bs= [jkj rfyjyc fdjuflhjc rfyjyb tojlf| c[dflfc[df 

fbht,bc njkb vjwekj,t,b thsyfbh abpbreh gbhj,t,ib vjktrekt,bc 

njk hbw[dc itbwfdc\ 

hfvltyflfw yt,bcvbthb ybdsbtht,bc 1 vjkb itbwfdc vjktrekt,bc 

lf fnjvt,bc thscf lf bvfdt hbw[dc= rth.jl= N = 6=02 \ 10 23 

(fdjuflhjc hbw[db)= fvbnjv fbht,bc 1 vjkbc vbth lfrfdt,ekb 

vjwekj,t,b (v) thsyfbh abpbreh gbhj,t,ib njkbf lf yjhvfkehb 

gbhj,t,bc lhjc (P 0 = 760 vv dthw[kbco'kbc cdtnbc 1 fnv = 

= 101=325 rgf lf t = 0 0 C, T 0 = 273,160 K) njkbf 22=4 kbnhbcf= 

hjvtkcfw vjkeh vjwekj,fc eojlt,ty\ 

fdjuflhjc rfyjyblfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c fuhtsdt= hjv thsyfbhb 

vjwekj,bc vmjyt c[dflfc[df fbhbc vfct,b bct ittafhlt,f thsvfytsc= 

hjujhw vfsb vjktrekehb vfct,b\ 

m 1 : m 2 = M 1 : M 2 

ufycfpqdhekb vjwekj,bc thsb fbhbc vfcbc itafhlt,fc 

bvfdt vjwekj,bc vtjht fbhbc vfcfcsfy (fqt,ekbf bvfdt gbhj,t,ib) 

tojlt,f gbhdtkb fbhbc cbvrdhbdt vtjhbc vbvfhs (fqbybiyt,f 

D fcjsb)\ fvbnjv= 

10 11 

M 

M 

1 

2 

D � cfblfyfw M = M . D 

1 2 

fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c= hjv fbhbc vjktrekehb vfcf elhbc 

vbc cbvrdhbdtc vtjht fbhbc vbvfhs= ufvhfdkt,ekc fvfdt fbhbc 

vjktrekeh vfcfpt\

xdtekt,hbd fbhbc cbvrdhbdtc ufycfpqdhfdty 'dtkfpt vce,emb 

fbhbc _ o'fk,flbc vbvfhs\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekf itlut,f jhb 

fnjvbcfufy= fvbnjv vbcb vjktrekehb vfcf njkbf 2 \ 1=00797= 

=2=01595 u$vjkb (lfvhudfkt,ekfl elhbc 2-c)\ t\b\ cf,jkjjl 

vbdbqt,s= hjv M = 2D H2 + 

vfifcflfvt= fbhflb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcf elhbc vbc 

ufjhrtwt,ek cbvrdhbdtc o'fl,flbc vbvfhs\ 

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb vjdktyt,b 

'jdtkudfh wdkbkt,fc= hfw xdtyc ufhtvjvwdtk cfv'fhjib 

[lt,f= vjdktyf tojlt,f\ ybdsbtht,bc wdkbkt,fcsfy lfrfdibht- 

,ekb vjdktyt,b itb.kt,f lfd'js jh /ueafl| abpbreh lf mbvbeh 

vjdktyt,fl\ 

vjdktyfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw bwdkt,f ybdsbtht,bc ajhvf fy 

fuhtufnekb vlujvfhtj,f= [jkj itlutybkj,f fh bwdkt,f= t\b\ 

f[fkb ybdsbtht,f fh ofhvjbmvyt,f= abpbrehb vjdktyf tojlt,f\ 

vfufkbsfl= o'kbc uf'bydf= 'byekbc lyj,f= o'kbc fjhsmkt,f= 

jhsmkbc rjyltycfwbf= ufdfhdfht,ekb vbybc vjqeydf _ abpbrehb 

vjdktyt,bf\ 

vjdktyfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw bwdkt,f ybdsbtht,bc itlutybkj,f= 

t\b\ f[fkb ybdsbtht,f ofhvjbmvyt,f= mbvbehb vjdktyf 

tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl= yf[ibhbc odf= hrbybc lf;fyudf _ mbvbehb 

vjdktyt,bf\ mbvbeh vjdktyt,c c[dfyfbhfl mbvbeh htfmwbt,c 

eojlt,ty\ 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc .bhbsflb nbgt,b 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,b itb.kt,f c[dflfc[df ybiybs lfdf/ueajs\ 

se htfmwbfsf rkfcbabrfwbfc cfae.dkfl lfdelt,s fqt,ek 

lf vbqt,ek ybdsbtht,fsf hbw[dbc wdkbkt,fc= vfiby vbdbqt,s 

htfmwbt,bc js[ nbgc| itthst,bc= lfikbc= xfyfwdkt,bcf lf 

vbvjwdkbc htfmwbt,c\ 

itthst,bc htfmwbf tojlt,f bcts htfmwbfc= hjvkbc vbvlbyfhtj,bcfc 

jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bcfufy vbbqt,f thsb f[fkb ybdsbtht,f\ 

itthst,bc htfmwbff vfufkbsfl o'kbc ofhvjmvyf o'fk,flbcf 

lf ;fyu,flbcfufy| 

2H 2 + O 2 � 2H 2 O 

fvjybevbc mkjhblbc ofhvjmvyf fvbfrbcf lf mkjho'fk,flbcfufy| 

NH 3 + HCl � NH 4 Cl 

lfikbc htfmwbf tojlt,f bcts htfmwbfc= hjvkbc vbvlbyfhtj,bcfc 

thsb ybdsbtht,bcfufy vbbqt,f hfvltybvt f[fkb ybdsbtht,f\ 

vfu rbhmdbc lfikbs vbbqt,f jhb f[fkb ybdsbtht,f xfevmhfkb 

rbhb lf yf[ibh,flbc lbjmcblb| 

CaCO 3 � CaO + CO 2 

dthw[kbco'kbc jmcblb uf[eht,bs lfbikt,f= hbc itltuflfw 

vbbqt,f dthw[kbco'fkb lf ;fyu,flb| 

2HgO � 2Hg + O 2 

cgbkty.bc ae.trfh,jyfnbc= fye vbythfk vfkfmbnbc lfikbs 

vbbqt,f cfvb f[fkb ybdsbtht,f _ fgbkty.bc jmcblb= yf[ibh,flbc 

lbjmcblb lf o'fkb| 

Cu 2 (OH) 2 CO 3 � 2CuO + CO 2 + H 2 O 

xfyfwdkt,bc htfmwbf tojlt,f htfmwbfc vfhnbd lf hsek ybdsbtht,fc 

ijhbc= hjvkbc lhjcfw vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc fnjvt,b 

xffyfwdkt,c hsekb ybdsbtht,bc itvflutytk ths-thsb tktvtynbc 

fnjvt,c\ vfufkbsfl= 

12 13

Fe + CuSO 4 � FeSO 4 + Cu 

fv htfmwbfib hrbybc fnjvt,b xftyfwdkt,f cgbkty.bc fnjvt,c= 

fye f.tdt,c vfc cgbkty.bc cekafnbc [cyfhblfy\ 

Zn + H 2 SO 4 � ZnSO 4 + H 2 

ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc sesbbc 

fnjvt,bs xfbyfwdkt,f o'fk,flbc fnjvt,b\ 

vbvjwdkbc htfmwbf tojlt,f jh hsek ybdsbtht,fc ijhbc 

vbvlbyfht htfmwbfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw hsekb ybdsbtht,bc itvflutytkb 

fnjvt,b fy fnjvsf /ueat,b vbvjbwdkt,f\ vfufkbsfl= 

AgNO 3 + NaCl � AgCl � + NaNO 3 

CuSO 4 + 2NaOH � Cu(OH) 2� + Na 2 SO 4 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc lhjc ufvj'jabkb fy 

isfysmvekb cbs,jc vb[tldbs= htfmwbt,c 'jaty tupjsthvek lf 

tyljsthvek htfmwbt,fl\ 

tupjsthvekbf htfmwbf= hjvtkbw cbs,jc ufvj'jabs vbvlbyfhtj,c\ 

vfufkbsfl= yf[ibhbc odf tupjsthvekb ghjwtcbf\ 

C + O � CO + Q, cflfw Q htfmwbbc cbs,jc ufvjcf[fdc\ 

2 2 

tyljsthvekbf htfmwbf= hjvtkbw vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs,jc isfysmvbs\ 

vfufkbsfl= fpjnblfy lf ;fyu,flblfy fpjnbc (II) jmcblbc 

ofhvjmvyf vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs,jc isfysmvbs| 

N + O � 2NO _ Q 

2 2 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,b vbvlbyfhtj,bc vbvfhsekt,bc vb[tldbs 

b'jaf itmwtdfl lf itemwtdfl htfmwbt,fl\ 

htfmwbt,b= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c v[jkjl thsb vbvfhsekt,bs 

lf vsfdhlt,f vjhtfubht ufvjcfdfkb ybdsbtht,t,bc vskbfyb 

ufhlfmvybs cf,jkjj ghjlemnfl= tojlt,f itemwtdflb htfmwbt,b\ 

vfufkbsfl= rfkbevbc ybnhfnb uf[eht,bs bikt,f| 

2KNO � 2KNO + O 3 2 2 

htfmwbf ito'lt,f vfiby= hjltcfw KNO vskbfyfl ufhlfbmv- 

3 

yt,f rfkbevbc ybnhbnfl lf ;fyu,flfl\ 

htfmwbt,b ,jkjvlt vblbc bv itvs[dtdfib= hjltcfw htfmwbbc 

itltufl ths-thsb ghjlemnb ufvjb'jaf fbhbc= yfktmbc fy yfrkt,lbcjwbht,ekb 

ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs\ vfufkbsfl= 

CaCO 3 + 2HCl � CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2 � 

BaCl 2 + K 2 SO 4 � BaSO 4� + 2KCl 

2NaOH + H 2 SO 4 � Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O 

itmwtdflbf htfmwbt,b hjvkt,bw thslhjekfl jhb ehsbthscfobyffqvltuj 

vbvfhsekt,bs vbvlbyfhtj,c\ itmwtdflb htfmwbt,b 

,jkjvlt fh vblbc lf vsfdhlt,f mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,bc 

lfv'fht,bs\ vfufkbsfl= fvbfrbc cbystpb itmwtdflb htfmwbff| 

N 2 + 3H 2 � 2NH 3 

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf itlutybkj,fib v'jab fnjvt,bc 

;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bc vb[tldbs htfmwt,c 'jaty| 

1) fnjvsf ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc itewdktkfl vbvlbyfht htfmwbt,fl\ 

vfufkbsfl= 

CaCO 3 � CaO + CO 2 lf 

2) ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bs vbvlbyfht htfmwbt,fl= fye 

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,fl\ vfufkbsfl= 

Al0 +3 _2 +3 _2 0 

+ Fe O3 � Al2 O3 + Fe 2 

14 15

SFDB ^^\ 

L\B\ VTYLTKTTDBC GTHBJLEKJ

yfobkib+ nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,b rb rblehf /ueat,ib= vfh/dybd+ ief 

/ueat,ib vjsfdct,ekbf ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc tktvtynt,b\ 

'jdtkb gthbjlb bo't,f nbgehb kbsjybs\ vjvltdyj tktvtynt,ib 

kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b cecnlt,f lf .kbthlt,f fhfkbsjyehb 

sdbct,t,b\ rfyjypjvbthfl bwdkt,f fv gthbjlt,ib tktvtynsf 

yfthst,bc sdbct,t,bw= rth.jl= ae.bc sdbct,t,blfy fvajnthek 

lf fmtlfy v;fdeh sdbct,t,pt uflfcdkbs\ 

tktvtynsf sdbct,t,b bwdkt,f fuhtsdt vtjht vbvfhsekt,bs| 

dthnbrfkehfl sbsjtekb mdt/ueabc afhukt,ib\ mdt/ueat,ib 

tktvtynsf fnjvehb vfcbc phlbc gfhfktkehfl ptdblfy mdtdbs 

.kbthlt,f kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b lf cecnlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ 

vfufkbsfl= ^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b 

'dtkfpt eahj .kbthfl fmdc ufvj[fnekb ahfywbevc (Fr)= 

'dtkfpt cecnfl kbsbevc (Li)\ &^^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib= 

bctdt= hjujhw c[df mdt/ueat,ib= ptdblfy mdtdbs fhfkbsjyehb 

sdbct,t,b cecnlt,f= 'dtkfpt fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf asjhb (F) 

lf 'dtkfpt cecnb _ bjlb (I)\ 

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc vybidytkj,f 

vtyltkttdbc tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyc lblb vybidytkj,f 

fmdc\ vfy lfcf,fvb vbcwf sfyfvtlhjdt mbvbfc= vnrbwt otchbub 

itbnfyf mbvbehb tktvtynt,bc cbcntvfnbrfib lf gbhdtkfl 

ufvjfhrdbf vfs ijhbc fhct,ekb cfthsj rfyjypjvbthb rfdibhb\ 

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc lf[vfht,bs it.kj vtyltkttdvf 

bv lhjbcfsdbc /th rbltd ewyj,b tktvtynt,bcfsdbc 

sfdbceafkb e/ht,bc lfnjdt,f (yjvhbs 21= 31 lf 32) lf vfsb sdbct,t,bc 

obyfcofhvtn'dtkt,f\ vtyltkttdvf fv tktvtynt,c eojlf 

trf-,jhb= trf-fkevbyb lf trf-cbkbwbevb\ tc tktvtynt,b fqvjxtybk 

bmyf .fkbfy vfkt= vtyltkttdbc cbwjw[ktibdt\ trf-,jhc 

eojltc _ crfylbevb (Sc)= trf-fkevbyc _ ufkbevb (Ga)= [jkj 

trf-cbkbwbevc _ uthvfybevb (Ge)\ fv tktvtynt,bc fqvjxtyf gthbjlekj,bc 

rfyjybc lblb ufvfh/dt,f b'j= dbyfblfy vtyltkttdbc 

vbth yfobyfcofhvtn'dtkb sdbct,t,b pecnfl lftvs[df tmcgthbvtynbs 

lflutybkc\ 

gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc cfae.dtkpt uf[lf itcf.kt,tkb 

tktvtynsf fnjvehb vfct,bc lfpecnt,f\ vfyltkttdbc vbth itcojht,ekb 

bmyf 20 tktvtynbc fnjvehb vfcf= hbc itltuflfw fv 

tktvtynt,vf sfdbfysb flubkb lfbrfdtc gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ 

18 19

SFDB ^^^\ 

FHFJHUFYEK YFTHSSF >BHBSFLB RKFCT

jmcblt,bc vbqt,bc otct,b 

jmcblt,b vbbqt,f| 

1\ itcf,fvbcb vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ;fyu,flsfy| 

2Cu O2 

2CuO 

� � 

4P � 5O2 

� 2P2O5 

4Al � 3O2 

� 2Al2O 

3 

2\ hsekb ybdbstht,t,bc odbs ;fyu,flib| 

2CuS � 3O2 

� 2CuO 

� 2SO2 

CH4 � 2O2 

� CO2 

� 2H2O 

2ZnS � 3O2 

� 2ZnO 

� 2SO2 

3\ ;fyu,flitvwdtkb hsekb ybdsbtht,t,bc sthvekb lfikbs| 

Mg( OH) 

2 � MgO � H2O 

H2SiO 3 � SiO 2 � H2O 

CaCO3 �CaO 

� CO2 

Al( 

OH) 

� Al O � 3H 

O 

2 3 2 3 2 

ae.t jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

1\ ae.t jmcblt,blfy nent lf nenfvbof kbsjyt,bc jmcblt,b 

ehsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfy lf ofhvjmvybfy itcf,fvbc= o'fkib 

[cyfl ]blhjmcblt,c (nentt,c)| 

O � H O � 2NaOH 

Na2 2 

CaO � H O � 

2 

2Ca( 

OH 

2\ ae.t jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty v;fdt,sfy= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb| 

CuO � 2HNO3 

� Cu( 

NO3) 

2 � H2O 

MgO � H 2SO4 

� MgSO4 

� H 2O 

3\ ae.t jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy vfhbkt- 

,bc ofhvjmvybs| 

) 

2 

2 

3 CaCO 

CO CaO � � 

Na O � SiO � Na SiO 

22 23 

2 

2 

v;fdf jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

1\ v;fdf jmcblt,b (ufhlf SiO 2 -cf) ehsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfy 

lf ofhvjmvybfy itcf,fvbc v;fdt,c| 

N O � H O � 2HNO 

2 

3 

5 

SO � H O � H 

2 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

SO 

P O � H O � 2HPO 

2\ v;fdf jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty nentt,sfy= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f fv v;fdehb jmcblbc itcf,fvbcb v;fdfc vfhbkb 

lf o'fkb| 

� Ca( 

OH) 

� CaCO � H O 

CO 2 

2 

3 2 

SiO2 � 2NaOH 

� Na2SiO 

3 � H2 

3\ v;fdf jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty ae.t jmcblt,sfy vfhbkt,bc 

ofhvjmvybs| 

SO � Na O � Na 

3 

2 

2 

2 

SO 

SiO � CaO � CaSiO 

fvajnthekb jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

fvajnthekb jmcblt,b [fcbfslt,f hjujhw ae.t= bct v;fdf 

jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,bs\ gbhj,t,bc vb[tldbs= bcbyb itlbfy 

htfmwbfib hjujhw v;fdfcsfy= bct nentcsfy lf jhbdt itvs[dtdfib 

ofhvjmvybfy vfhbkcf lf o'fkc\ v;fdt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt- 

,bcfc bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty ae.t jmcblbc sdbct,t,c| 

ZnO � H 2SO4 

� ZnSO 4 � H 2O 

Al 2O 

3 � 

6HCl 

� 2AlCl 

3 � 3H 

2O 

3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

O

nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty v;fdf 

jmcblbc sdbct,f| 

itkqj, f 

ZnO � 2NaOH 

�� 

�� 

� Na 2ZnO 

2 � H 2O 

2 

[cyfhib 

ZnO � 2NaOH 

� H O �� 

�� 

yfnhbevbc wbyrfnb 

Na 

2 

Na-bc 

ntnhf 

Al 2O3 

� 2NaOH 

� 2NaAlO 

2 � H 2O 

2 

3 

Na-bc 

vtnffkevby fnb 

Al O � 2NaOH 

� 3H 

O � 

Al O � 2NaOH 

� 7H 

O � 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2Na 

�Zn( OH) 

4 � 

]blhjmcbwbyrfnb 

�Al( OH) 

� 

4 

Na-bc 

ntnhf ]blhjmcb fkevbyfnb 

2Na 

�Al( OH) 

( H O) 

� 

4 2 2 

Na-bc 

lbfrdfntnh f]blhjmcb fkevbyfnb 

jmcblt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b 

Na 2 O CaO Al 2 O 3 SO 3 

Na \ 

/ O 

Na 

Ca = O 

O 

O 

\ \ // 

P_O_P 

P O // \ \ 

2 5 O 

O 

O 

// 

Al 

\ 

O 

/ 

Al 

\ \ 

O 

O 

|| 

S �� O 

|| 

O 

v;fdt,b 

v;fdf tojlt,f bcts hsek ybdsbtht,fc= hjvkbc vjktrekf 

itlut,f kbsjybc fnjvbs xfyfwdkt,bc eyfhbc vmjyt o'fk,flbc 

fnjvbcf lf v;fdfc yfisbcufy\ v;fdfc yfisb tojlt,f v;fdfib 

o'fk,flbc fnjvt,sfy ,vek fnjvc fy fnjvsf /ueac\ vfc fmdc 

efh'jabsb ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b lf bub njkbf o'fk,flbc fnjvsf 

hbw[dbcf\ 

itlutybkj,bc vb[tldbs fhxtdty ;fyu,flbfy lf e;fyu,flj 

v;fdt,c\ e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bf| HF, HCl, HBr, HI, H 2 S lf f\i\ ;fyu,flbfyb 

v;fdt,bf| H 2 CO 3 , HNO 3 , H 3 PO 4 , H 2 SO 4 lf f\i\ 

v;fdt,c ufyfc[dfdt,ty fuhtsdt ae.bfyj,bc lf cb.kbthbc 

vb[tldbs\ 

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib v;fdt,b fy cbs[tf (H 2 SO 4 , HNO 3 , HBr 

lf f\i\)= fy v'fhb ybdsbtht,f (H 3 PO 4 , H 2 SiO 3 , H 3 BO 3 ). 

v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f 

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f fhfkbsjybc cf- 

[tkojlt,bcfufy cbn'df o'fk,flbc lfvfnt,bs| HF _ asjho'fk- 

,flv;fdf= fye vkqj,b v;fdf+ HCl _ mkjho'fk,flv;fdf= fye vfhbkv;fdf+ 

HBr _ ,hjvo'fk,flv;fdf+ HI _ bjlo'fk,flv;fdf+ H 2 S _ 

ujubhlo'fk,flv;fdf\ 

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f v;fdfc ofhvjvmvytkb 

tktvtynbc cf[tkojlt,bcfufy= vfu\= H 2 CO 3 _ yf[ibhv;fdf\ 

vfuhfv se tktvtynb thsb lf bubdt ;fyudbc [fhbc[bs ofhvjmvybc 

hfvltybvt ;fyu,flbfy v;fdfc= hjvkt,bw thsvfytsbcufy o'fk,flbcf 

lf ;fyu,flbc fnjvsf hbw[dbs ufyc[dfdlt,f= vfiby ;fyu,flbc lf 

o'fk,flbc fnjvbc yfrkt,b hbw[dbc itvwdtkb v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,fc 

tvfnt,f ghtabmcb @vtnf#+ vtnb hb[wdbc itvwdtkc _ @jhsj#\ 

vfu\| HPO 3 _ vtnfajcajhv;fdf lf H 3 PO 4 _ jhsjajc- 

24 25

ajhv;fdf+ H 2 SiO 3 _ vtnfcbkbwbevv;fdf lf H 4 SiO 4 _ jhsjcbkbwbevv;fdf\ 

se thsb lf bubdt tktvtynb ofhvjmvybc jh v;fdfc c[dflfc[df 

;fyudbsb [fhbc[bs= vfiby bv v;fdfc= hjvtkibw v;fdfc ofhvjvmvytkb 

tktvtynbc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b lf,fkbf= tktvtynbc cf[tkojlt,fc 

tvfnt,f ceabmcb @jdfyb#= [jkj bv v;fdfc= cflfw tktvtynbc 

;fyudbsb [fhbc[b vfqfkbf= tktvtynbc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt- 

,f cbn'df v;fdf\ vfu\| 

3 

HN O 

� 

2 

4 

2 3 O S 

� 

H 

_ fpjnjdfyb v;fdf= 

_ ujubhljdfyb v;fdf= 

5 

HN O 

� 

3 

6 

2 4 O S 

� 

H 

_ fpjnv;fdf\ 

v;fdt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b 

_ ujubhlv;fdf\ 

e;fyu,flj v;fdt,b vbbqt,f| 

1\ itcf,fvbcb vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bc eiefkj itthst,bs= fye 

cbystpbs= lf vbqt,ekb ghjlemnbc o'fkib uf[cybs| 

H2 � Cl2 

� 2HCl 

H2 S H 2S 

� � 

2\ itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt .kbthb fy yfrkt,fl fmhjkflb v;fdfc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

2NaCl � H2SO 

4 � Na2SO 

4 � 2HCl 

2HCl 

FeCl H S 

� � 

FeS 2 2 � 

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,b vbbqt,f| 

1\ itcf,fvbcb jmcblbc= fye itcf,fvbcb fy]blhblbc= o'fksfy 

ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

N2O 5 � H2O 

� 2HNO3 

SO � H O � H SO 

3 

2 

2 

4 

2\ itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt .kbthb fy yfrkt,fl fmhjkflb v;fdfc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

NaNO3 � H2SO4 

� NaHSO4 

� HNO3 

Na SiO � 2HCl 

� 2NaCl 

� H SiO 

26 27 

2 

3 

v;fdt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

1\ v;fdt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfy\ kbsjyt,bc cnfylfhnek 

tktmnhjlek gjntywbfksf hbuib o'fk,flbc vfhw[ybd vjsfdct,ekb 

kbsjyt,b ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy (ufhlf HNO -cf) 3 

f.tdt,c o'fk,flc\ vfu\| 

� � 2 � 2 � H ZnCl Zn HCl 2 

H2SO4 

� Mg � MgSO4 

� H2 

� 

fv htfmwbfib o'fk,flbc bjyt,b fqlut,f lf lfv;fyufdt,bf\ v;fdt,blfy 

o'fk,flc dth f.tdt,c cnfylfhnekb tktmnhjlekb gjntywbfkt,bc 

hbuib o'fk,flbc vfh/dybd vlujvb kbsjyb\ o'fk,flb 

fh ufvjb'jaf kbsjyt,bc ufypfdt,ek lf rjywtynhbht,ek fpjnv;fdfcsfy 

lf rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt- 

,bc lhjcfw\ fv itvs[dtdfib fqlut,f fpjnb N+ 5 lf ujubhlb S+ 6 . 

Cu � 4HNO3 

� Cu( 

NO3 

) 2 � 2NO2 

� 2H2O 

rjyw\ 

3Cu � 8HNO3 

� 3Cu( 

NO3 

) 2 � 2NO 

� 4H2O 

ufyp\ 

Cu � 2H2SO 

4 � CuSO 4 � SO2 

� 2H 

2O 

rjyw\ 

Ca � 4H2SO 

4 � 3CaSO4 

� S � 4H2O 

rjyw\ 

2\ v;fdt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c kbsjysf jmcblt,sfy= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb| 

2HNO3 � MgO � Mg( 

NO3 

) 2 � H2O 

H SO � 

2Fe 

O � Fe ( SO ) � 3H 

O 

3 2 4 2 3 2 4 3 2 

2 

3

3\ v;fdt,b itlbc htfmwbfib ae.tt,sfy vfhbkbcf lf o'kbc 

ofhvjmvybs (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)| 

2HCl � Mg( 

OH) 

2 � MgCl 2 � 2H2O 

H2SO 4 � 2NaOH 

� Na 2SO4 

� 2H2O 

4\ v;fdt,b esbthsmvtlt,ty vfhbkt,sfy bv itvs[dtdfib= se htfmwbbc 

itltufl vbbqt,f fmhjkflb fy e[cyflb v;fdf= fy e[cyflb 

vfhbkb| 

H2SO4 � 2NaCl� 

Na2SO4 

� 2HCl 

� 

H2SO4 � K 2SiO3 

� K 2SO4 

� H2SiO 

3 

5\ pjubthsb v;fdf fhfvluhflbf lf fldbkfl bikt,f\ pjub 

bikt,f uf[eht,bs| 

H CO � H O � CO 

2 

2 

3 

3 

0 

2 

t C 

H SiO �� 

H O �SiO 

2 

6\ v;fdf vjmvtlt,c bylbrfnjhpt| kfrvecbc keh/ [cyfhc fy 

mfqfklc fobskt,c= atyjkanfktbybc eathj [cyfhc athc fh 

ewdkbc= vtsbkyfhby/c fdfhlbcaht,c\ 

v;fdt,bc ae.byj,f 

v;fdt,bc ae.bfyj,f ufybcfpqdht,f o'fk,fl fnjvt,bc hbw[dbs= 

hjvtksfw eyfhb fmds= xfbyfwdkjy kbsjybc fnjvt,bs\ ufyfc[dfdt,ty 

thsae.bfy= jhae.bfy lf f\i\ v;fdt,c\ vfu\| thsae.bfyb 

v;fdt,bf _ HCl, HBr, HNO 3 lf f\i\ jhae.bfybf _ H 2 SO 3 , H 2 CO 3 , 

H 2 SO 4 lf f\i\ cfvae.bfyb v;fdt,bf _ H 3 PO 4 , H 3 AsO 4 lf f\i\ 

H 3 PO 3 _ jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf vfhsfkbf cfv o'fk,flc 

itbwfdc= vfuhfv jhae.bfybf= dbyfblfy kbsjybc fnjvbs xfyfwdkt- 

,bc eyfhb v[jkjl jh o'fk,flc fmdc| 

2 

O_ 

H 

/ 

� P 

H \ 

O_H 

O .. 

2 

v;fdt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b 

H 2 CO 3 H 2 SO 4 H 3 PO 4 

H_O\ 

C � O / 

H_O 

H _O\ 

// O 

S / \ \ 

H_O 

O 

ae.tt,b 

28 29 

H_O 

\ 

H_O 

_ P � O 

H_O 

/ 

ae.t tojlt,f hsek ybdsbtht,fc= hjvkbc vjktrekf itlut,f 

kbsjybc thsb fnjvbcf lf vfcsfy lfrfdibht,ekb thsb fy 

hfvltybvt ]blhjmcbkbc (OH) /ueabcufy\ vfu\= ae.tt,bf Cu(OH) 2 , 

KOH, Ca(OH) 2 , Fe(OH) 3 lf c[df\ 

fhct,j,c o'fkib [cyflb lf o'fkib e[cyflb ae.tt,b\ o'fkib 

[cyfl ae.tc nent tojlt,f\ nentt,c ofhvjmvybc gthbjlek 

cbcntvbc ^ lf ^^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,b= Be lf 

Mg-bc ufhlf\ 

ae.tt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf v;fdehj,f= hjvtkbw ufybcfpqdht,f 

vbc vjktrekfib itvfdfkb ]blhjmcbkbc /ueabc hfjltyj,bs\ 

vfu\= thsv;fdehb ae.tt,bf NaOH, KOH= jhv;fdehbf 

Ca(OH) 2 , Ba(OH) 2 lf f\i\ 

ae.tt,b c[dflfc[df itathbkj,bc vmjyt v'fhb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ 

vfu\| Ca(OH) 2 , Zn(OH) 2 , NaOH _ stshbf= Cu(OH) 2 _ wbcathb= 

Fe(OH) 3 _ vehf obstkb lf f\i\ 

ae.tt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f kbsjybc cf[tkojlt,bcf 

lf cbn'df ]blhjmcblbcfufy\ vfu\| Ca(OH) 2 _ rfkwbevbc ]blhjmcblb= 

Mg(OH) 2 _ vfuybevbc ]blhjmcblb\ se kbsjyb ofhvjmvybc 

hfvltybvt ae.tc= vfiby cf[tkojlt,fib esbst,ty kbsjybc ;fyudbc 

[fhbc[c\ vfu\| Fe(OH) 2 _ hrbyf (^^)-bc ]blhjmcblb= Fe(OH) 3 

_ hrbyf (^^^)-bc ]blhjmcblb\

pjubthsb ae.bcsdbc ufvjb'tyt,f c[df cf[tkojlt,fw\ vfu\| 

NaOH _ yfnhbevbc nent= vodfyt yfnhb (ntmybrehb cf[tkojlt,ff 

rfecnbrehb cjlf)= Ca(OH) 2 xfvmhfkb rbhb= NH 4 OH _ 

fvjybevbc nent (ybiflehbc cgbhnb)\ 

ae.tt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b 

1\ nentt,b vbbqt,f itcf,fvbcb kbsjyt,bc o'fksfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

2Na � 2H 

O � 2NaOH 

� H 

2 

2 

Ca � 2H 

O � Ca( 

OH) 

� H 

2\ itcf,fvbc kbsjysf jmcblt,bc o'fksfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

K 2 2 

O � H O � 2KOH 

BaO � H O � 

2 

Ba( 

OH 

3\ o'fkib [cyflb ae.tt,b vbbqt,f itcf,fvbcb vfhbkbc o'fk- 

[cyfhpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

MgSO � 2NaOH 

� Mg( 

OH) 

� �Na 

SO 

4 

FeCl 3 � 3NaOH 

� Fe( 

OH) 

3 � 3NaCl 

fv [th[bs vbbqt,f nentw| 

Na2CO3 � Ca( 

OH) 

2 � CaCO3 

� �2NaOH 

ae.tt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

1\ 'dtkf ae.t ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdfcsfy= hbc itltuflfw ofhvj 

bmvyt , f vf hbk b l f o' f k b (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)| 

Fe( OH) 

2 � 2HCl 

� FeCl 2 � 2H 

2O 

KOH � HNO 3 � KNO 3 � H 2O 

) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

2\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c vfhbkt,sfy| 

2NaOH � CuSO4 

� Cu( 

OH) 

2 � �Na2SO 

2KOH � ZnSO4 

� Zn( 

OH) 

2 � �K 

2SO4 

3\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy| 

Ca( OH) 

2 � SiO 2 � CaSiO 3 � H 2O 

Ba( OH) 

2 � SO 3 � BaSO 4 � H 2O 

4\ o'fkib e[cyflb ae.t uf[eht,bs bikt,f| 

2Fe( OH) 

3 �� 

Fe 2O3 

� 3H2O 

30 31 

t 

t 

0 

0 

Cu( OH) 

2 �� 

CuO � H 2O 

5\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c bv kbsjyt,sfy= hjvtksf 

itcf,fvbcb jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b fvajnthekbf| 

2NaOH� 

Zn � Na2ZnO2 

� H2 

� 

�Zn( OH) 

�� H � 

2NaOH 

� Zn � 2H2O 

� Na2 

4 2 

2KOH 

� 2Al 

� 2H 

2O 

� 2KAlO2 

� 3H2 

� 

�Al( OH) 

( H O) 

�� 3H 

� 

2KOH 

� 2Al 

� 10H2O 

� 2K 

4 2 2 2 

ae.t athc ewdkbc bylbrfnjhc| kfrvecbc mfqfklc fy [cyfhc 

fkeh/t,c= atyjkanfktbybc eathj [cyfhc ;jkjcahfl qt,fdc= 

vtsbkyfhby/c f'dbskt,c\ 

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblt,b 

fvajnthekb tojlt,f ]blhjmcblc= hjvtkbw fv;qfdyt,c 

hjujhw ae.bc= bct v;fdfc sdbct,t,c\ fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblt,bf= 

vfu\| Zn(OH) 2 . Al(OH) 3 , Be(OH) 2 , Cr(OH) 3 lf f\i\ bcbyb 

o'fkib e[cyflb ae.tt,bf lf vbbqt,bfy itcf,fvbcb vfhbkbc 

o'fk[cyfhpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

BeSO � 2NaOH 

� Be( 

OH) 

� �Na 

SO 

4 

AlCl3 � 

3NaOH 

� Al( 

OH) 

3 � �3NaCl 

2 

2 

4 

4

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblb ae.bc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c v;fdt,sfy 

ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc| 

Be( OH) 

2 � 2HCl 

� BeCl 2 � 2H 

2O 

2Al( OH) 

3 � 3H 

2SO4 

� Al 2( 

SO 4 ) 3 � 6H 

2O 

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblb v;fdfc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c nentt,sfy 

ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc| 

itkqj, bs 

Be( OH) 

2 � 2NaOH 

�� 

Na2BeO 

2 � 2H 

2O 

2 

[cyfhib 

Be( OH) 

� 2NaOH 

�� 

�� 

itkqj, bs 

yfnhbevbc , thbkfnb 

Na 

�Be( OH) 

� 

2 

4 

yfnhbevbc ntnhf]blhjmcb, 

thbkfnb 

Al( OH) 

3 � KOH �� 

KAlO 2 � 2H 

2O 

3 

[cyfhib 

Al( OH) 

� KOH �� 

�� 

K-bc 

vtnffkevbyfnb 

K 

�Al( OH) 

� 

4 

K-bc 

ntnhf]blhjmcbfkevbyfnb 

ae.tt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b 

Na OH Ca(OH) 2 Fe(OH) 3 

Na _ O _ H 

O_H 

/ 

Ca 

\ 

O_H 

vfhbkt,b 

/ O_H 

Fe_ 

O_H 

\ O_H 

vfhbkt,b tojlt,f hsek ybdsbtht,t,c= hjvtksf vjktrekt,b 

itlut,f kbsjybc fnjvbcf lf v;fdfc yfisbcfufy\ 

itlutybkj,bc vb[tldbs fhxtdty| cfiefkj= fye yjhvfkeh 

vfhbkt,c= v;fdf= ae.t= jhvfu= ithtek lf rjvgktmceh vfhbkt,c\ 

se v;fdfc vjktrekfib xfyfwdkt,bc eyfhbc vmjyt o'fk,flbc 

'dtkf fnjvb xfyfwdkt,ekbf kbsjybc fnjvt,bs= fcts vfhbkc 

cfiefkj= fye yjhvfkehb tojlt,f\ cfiefkj vfhbkt,bf= vfu\| 

Na 2 SO 4 , K 2 CO 3 , Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 lf f\i\ 

v;fdf vfhbkt,bc ufypfdt,ekb [cyfht,b ufhlf kbsjyt,bcf lf 

v;fdehb yfisbc bjyt,bcf= itbwfdc fuhtsdt o'fk,flbc bjyt,cfw\ 

vfufkbsfl= v;fdf vfhbkt,bf| KHCO 3 , NaHSO 4 , NaH 2 PO 4 , CaHPO 4 

lf c[df\ 

thsae.bfyb v;fdf dth ofhvjmvybc v;fdf vfhbkt,c\ 

ae.t vfhbkt,b bctsb vfhbkt,bf= hjvtksf o'fk[cyfht,b 

kbsjybc bjyt,bcf lf v;fdehb yfisbc ufhlf itbwfdc ]blhjmcbl 

bjyt,c\ ae.t vfhbkt,bf| CaOHCl, AlOHSO 4 , MgOHNO 3 lf c[df\ 

thsv;fdehb ae.tt,b ae.t vfhbkt,c dth ofhvjmvybc\ 

se vfhbkb itlut,f ths v;fdeh yfissfy lfrfdibht,ekb jhb 

c[dflfc[df kbsjybc rfsbjybcfufy= vfc jhvfuc eojlt,ty\ vfu\| 

KAl(SO 4 ) 2 , KClMgCl 2 , KaNaSO 4 lf c[df\ 

hjltcfw vfhbkb itbwfdc ths rfsbjysfy lfrfdibht,ek jhb 

c[dflfc[df v;fdfc fybjyc _ vfc ithtekb tojlt,f\ vfu\| CaClNO 3 , 

AlClSO 4 lf f\i\ 

bcts vfhbkt,c= hjvkbc itvflutykj,fib itlbc rjvgktmcehb 

bjyt,b= rjvgktmcehb tojlt,f\ vfu\| K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ], K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ], 

[Ag(NH 3 ) 2 ]Cl lf c[df\ 

vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b 

cfiefkj vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,blfy= 

hjvtkcfw tvfnt,f kbsjybc lfcf[tkt,f\ vfu\| Na 2 CO 3 

_ yf[ibhv;fdf yfnhbevb= K 2 SO 4 _ ujubhlv;fdf rfkbevb lf f\i\ 

e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f fhfkbsjyt,bc 

cf[tkojlt,blfy= hjvtkcfw tvfnt,f ceabmcb @jdfyb# lf 

kbsjybc cf[tkojlt,f\ vfu\| K 2 SO 4 _ ujubhlv;fdf rfkbevb lf f\i\ 

eahj vtnfl ufdhwtkt,ekbf vfhbkt,bc cfthsfijhbcj cf- 

[tkojlt,t,b\ bub ofhvjlut,f kbsjybc cf[tkojlt,bcf lf v;fdfc 

32 33

yfisbc kfsbyehb cf[tkojlt,blfy\ gbhdtkfl fcf[tkt,ty kbsjyc= 

[jkj itvltu v;fdfc yfisc\ e;fyu,flj v;fdfsf vfhbkt,bc 

itvs[dtdfib fhfkbsjybc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt,f ceabmcb @lb#\ 

vfu\| NaCl _ yfnhbevbc mkjhblb\ 

bv ;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,bc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,fc= hjvkt,bw 

ofhvjmvybkbf thsb lf bvfdt tktvtynbcfufy c[dflfc[df ;fyudbsb 

hbw[dbs= lf,fkb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc vmjyt fhfkbsjybc itvwdtk 

v;fdfc vfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt,f ceabmcb @bnb#= [jkj vfqfkb 

;fyudbsb hbw[dbc itvwdtk v;fdfc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,fc 

lf,jkjt,f @fnb#\ vfu\|NaNO 2 _ yfnhbevbc ybnhbnb= NaNO 3 _ 

yfnhbevbc ybnhfnb\ 

se kbsjyb fv;qfdyt,c lf;fyuekj,bc c[dflfc[df [fhbc[c= 

vfiby fv erfyfcrytkc vbesbst,ty ahx[bkt,ib hjvfekb wbahbs\ 

vfu\| FeSO 4 _ hrbybc (^^) cekafnb= Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 _ hrbybc (^^^) cekafnb\ 

v;fdf vfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f itcf,fvbcb cfiefkj 

vfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,bcfufy cbn'df @]blhj#-c lfvfnt,bs\ vfu\| 

NaHCO 3 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb= NaH 2 PO 4 _ yfnhbevbc 

lb]blhjajcafnb\ 

ae.t vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f fctdt cfiefkj vfhbkbc 

cf[tkojlt,blfy lfvfnt,ekb cbn'df @]blhjmcbc# lfvfnt,bs\ 

vfu\| AlOHSO 4 _ fkevbybc cekafn ]blhjmcblb= Al(OH) 2 Cl 

_ fkevbybc mkjhbl lb]blhjmcblb\ 

vfhbkt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b 

vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f| 

1\ v;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs fmnbeh kbsjyt,sfy| 

H2SO4 

� Zn � ZnSO4 

� H2 

� 

� � 3 � 2 � H 3 AlCl 2 Al 2 HCl 6 

2\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ae.t jmcblt,sfy| 

2HNO3 � CuO � Cu( 

NO3 

) 2 � H2O 

H 2SO4 

� K 2O 

� K 2SO4 

� H2O 

3\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ae.tt,sfy| 

HCl 2 

� NaOH � NaCl � H O 

H 2SO4 

� Cu( 

OH) 

2 � CuSO 4 � 2H2O 

4\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthmvtlt,bs vfhbkt,sfy| 

2HCl � CaCO � CaCl � H O � CO 

H2SO4 � Na2SiO 

3 � Na2SO 

4 � H2SiO 

5\ nentt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs v;fdf jmcblt,sfy| 

34 35 

3 

2NaOH � CO2 

� Na2CO 

3 � H2O 

Ca( OH) 

2 � SO3 

� CaSO4 

� H2O 

6\ ae.t lf v;fdf jmcblbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

CaSiO 

SiO CaO � � 

Na2O � SiO 2 � Na 2SiO 

3 

7\ kbsjybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vfhbksfy| 

2 

Fe � CuSO 4 � FeSO4 

� Cu 

Zn � Hg( 

NO3 

) 2 � Zn( 

NO3 

) 2 � Hg 

8\ kbsjybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs fhfkbsjysfy| 

Fe � S � FeS 

Cu � Cl2 

� CuCl 2 

9\ vfhbkt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

AgNO � NaCl� 

AgCl� 

�NaNO 

3 

Na2SO4 � BaCl2 

� BaSO4 

� �2NaCl 

10\ nenbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs fvajnthek kbsjyt,sfy| 

2NaOH� 

Zn � Na2ZnO2 

� H2 

� 

2NaOH� 

2Al 

� 2H2O 

� 2NaAlO2 

� 3H2 

� 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3

11\ pjubthsb v'fhb v;fdf jmcblbc itkqj,bs vfhbkt,sfy= cfblfyfw 

bcbyb f.tdt,ty fmhjkfl v;fdf jmcblt,c| 

SiO � CaCO � CaSiO � CO 

2 

SiO2 � Na2CO 

3 � CaSiO3 

� CO 

12\ nentt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vfhbkt,sfy| 

3 

2NaOH� CuSO �Cu( 

OH) 

� �Na 

SO 

4 

2KOH� MgCl2 

� Mg( 

OH) 

2 � �KCl 

13\ fvbfrbcf lf v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vbbqt,f fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b| 

NH3 4 

� HCl � NH Cl 

vfhbkt,bc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b 

vfhbkt,b v'fhb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ o'fkib [cyflj,bc 

vb[tldbs bcbyb itb.kt,f lfd'js [cyfl= vwbhtl [cyfl lf 

ghfmnbrekfl e[cyfl vfhbkt,fl\ 

o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f fpjnv;fdfc lf .vfhv;fdfc vfhbkt,b= 

vfhbkv;fdfc vfhbkt,b ufhlf AgCl-cf lf Hg 2 Cl 2 -cf\ nent vfhbkt,bcf 

lf fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b 'dtkf [cyflbf\ 

vfhbkt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b 

vfhbkt,bcfsdbc 'dtkfpt lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf jbyehb vbvjwdkbc 

htfmwbt,b sdbs vfhbkt,sfy= ae.tt,sfy lf v;fdt,sfy\ tc vbvjwdkbc 

htfmwbt,b ,jkjvlt vblbc bv itvs[dtdfib= hjwf htfmwbbc 

ths-thsb ghjlemnb ufvjb'jaf yfktmbc= fbhflb ybdsbtht,bc 

fy vwbhtl lbcjwbht,flb ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs\ 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

1\ vfhbkb lf v;fdf| 

BaCl2 � H2SO4 

� BaSO4 

� �2HCl 

Na2CO3 

� 2HCl 

� 2NaCl� 

H2O 

� CO2 

� 

2\ vfhbkb lf nent| 

CuCl2 

� 2KOH� 

2KCl� 

Cu( 

OH) 

2 � 

FeCl3 

� 3NaOH� 

3NaCl� 

Fe( 

OH) 

3 � 

3\ vfhbkb lf vfhbkb| 

AgNO � NaCl� 

AgCl� 

�NaNO 

36 37 

3 

CaCl2 2 3 

3 

� Na CO �CaCO 

� �2NaCl 

4\ vfhbkb itlbfc htfmwbt,ib kbsjysfy\ cnfylfhnekb tktmnhjlekb 

gjntywbfkt,bc hbuib 'jdtkb obyfvlujvb kbsjyb f.tdt,c 

itvlujvc vfhbksf [cyfht,blfy\ 

Zn � Hg( 

NO3 

) 2 � Zn( 

NO3 

) 2 � Hg 

Fe � CuSO 4 � FeSO4 

� Cu 

5\ vfhbkt,b uf[eht,bs bikt,f| 

CaCO �CaO 

� CO 

3 

2Pb( NO ) � 2PbO 

� 4NO 

� O 

3 

2 

6\ vfhbkt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfy lf ofhvjmvybfy rhbcnfk]blhfnt,c| 

CuSO4 � 5H2O 

�CuSO 

4 �5H 

2 

if, bfvfyb 

CaSO4 � 

2H2O 

� CaSO4 

� 2H2 

sf, fibhb 

2 

2 

O 

O 

2 

3

vfhbkt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b 

Na 2 SO 4 K 2 CO 3 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 

O 

Na_O 

\ // 

S 

Na_O 

/ \ \ 

O 

K_O 

\ 

C � O 

K_O/ 

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf 

// O 

/ O \ S 

\ \ O 

Al_O 

/ 

\ O \ // O 

S 

/ O / \ \ O 

Al _O 

\ 

// O 

\ O / S 

\ \ O 

ae.tcf lf v;fdfc ijhbc htfmwbfc= hjvkbc itltuflfw vbbqt,f 

ytbnhfkehb ghjlemnt,b _ o'fkb lf vfhbkb= ytbnhfkbpfwbbc 

htfmwbf tojlt,f\ 

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbbc fhcb vlujvfhtj,c bvfib= hjv 

v;fdfc o'fk,fl bjyb _ H + ethslt,f ae.bc ]blhjmcbl bjyc _ (OH) _ = 

hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f ytbnhfkehb ghjlemnb o'fkb| 

� � 

H � OH � H2O 

fv ufynjkt,fc tojlt,f ytbnhfkbpfwbbc itvjrkt,ekb bjyehb 

ufynjkt,f= cflfw o'fk,fl bjybc (H + ) mdti buekbc[vt,f 'dtkf 

v;fdf= OH _ 

-bjybc mdti _ 'dtkf ae.t\ 

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf jhudfhbf _ chekb lf fhfchekb\ 

chekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc fewbkt,tkb gbhj,ff o'fk,fl 

bjyt,bc hbw[db njkb b'jc ae.bc ]blhjmcbl bjyt,bcf (H + = 

OH_ )\ chekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f cfiefkj= 

fye yjhvfkehb vfhbkt,b\ 

NaOH � HCl � NaCl � H2O 

( OH) 

� H SO � CaSO � 2H 

O 

Ca 2 2 4 

4 2 

fhfchek ytbnhfkbpfwbfc vfiby fmdc flubkb= hjltcfw v;fdfc 

o'fk,fl bjyt,bc (H + ) hbw[db njkb fh fhbc ae.bc ]blhjmcbl 

bj yt , bcf (OH_ � � 

)= t\b\ H � OH \ fhfchekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc itltufl 

vbbqt,f v;fdf fy ae.t vfhbkb\ v;fdf vfhbkt,b ofhvjbmvyt,f 

vfiby= hjwf H + > OH_ \ vfu\| 

NaOH � H2SO4 

� H2O 

� NaHSO4 

Ca( OH) 

2 � H3PO 

4 � 2H2O 

� CaHPO4 

v;fdf vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f vfhbkpt itcf,fvbcb v;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs| 

CaCO3 � H2O 

� CO2 

� Ca( 

HCO3 

) 2 

K 2SO4 

� H2SO 

4 � 2KHSO4 

hjwf OH_ >H + = vfiby ofhvjbmvyt,f ae.t vfhbkb| 

Ca( OH) 

2 � HCl � H2O 

� CaOHCl 

Al( OH) 

3 � H2SO 

4 � 2H2O 

� AlOHSO4 

ae.t vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f fuhtsdt vfhbkpt itcf,fvbcb ae.bc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

CuCl 2 � Cu( 

OH) 

2 � 2CuOHSO4 

Ca( NO ) � Ca( 

OH) 

� 2CaOHNO 

38 39 

3 

2 

2 

v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uflf'dfyf 

cfiefkj vfhbkt,ib 

bvbcfsdbc= hjv v;fdf vfhbkb uflfdb'dfyjs cfiefkj fye yjhvfkeh 

vfhbkib= cfzbhjf vfcpt dbvjmvtljs itcf,fvbcb ae.bs| 

NaHSO4 � NaOH � H2O 

� Na2SO 

4 

Ca( HCO3 

) 2 � Ca( 

OH) 

2 � 2CaCO3 

� 2H2O 

ae.t vfhbkbc cfiefkj vfhbkib uflfcf'dfyfl cfzbhjf vfcpt 

dbvjmvtljs itcf,fvbcb v;fdbs| 

CaOHCl� HCl � H2O 

� CaCl2 

2AlOHSO � 

H SO � 2H 

O � Al ( SO ) 

4 

2 

4 

2 

2 

3 

4 

3

v;fdfc 

ajhvekf 

HF 

HCl 

HBr 

HI 

H 2 S 

H 2 CO 3 

H 2 SiO 3 

HNO 3 

HNO 2 

HPO 3 

H 4 P 2 O 7 

H 3 PO 4 

H 2 SO 4 

H 2 SO 3 

H 2 CrO 4 

H 2 Cr 2 O 7 

HClO 

HClO 2 

HClO 3 

HClO 4 

v;fdt,b= vfsb fy]blhblt,b lf fybjyt,b 

v;fdfc 

cf[tkojlt,f 

anjho'fk,flv;fdf 

mkjho'fk,flv;fdf 

,hjvo'fk,flv;fdf 

bjlo'fk,flv;fdf 

ujubhlo'fk,flv;fdf 

yf[ibhv;fdf 

cbkbwbevv;fdf 

fpjnv;fdf 

fpjnjdfyb v;fdf 

vtnfajcajhv;fdf 

gbhjajcajhv;fdf 

jhsjajcajhv;fdf 

ujubhlv;fdf 

ujubhljdfyb v;fdf 

mhjvv;fdf 

,bmhjvv;fdf 

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf 

mkjhjdfyb v;fdf 

mdtmkjhv;fdf 

mkjhv;fdf 

itcf,fvbcb 

fy]blhblb 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

CO 2 

SiO 2 

N 2 O 5 

N 2 O 3 

P 2 O 5 

P 2 O 5 

P 2 O 5 

SO 3 

SO 2 

CrO 3 

CrO 3 

Cl 2 O 

ClO 2 

Cl 2 O 6 

Cl 2 O 7 

itcf,fvbcb 

fybjyb 

F_ Cl_ Br_ I_ S2_ HS_ 2_ CO3 _ HCO3 2_ SiO3 _ NO3 _ NO2 _ PO3 4_ 

P O 2 7 

H P O 2 2 7 

2_ 

3_ PO4 2_ HPO4 _ 

H 2 PO 4 

2_ SO4 _ HSO4 2_ SO3 2_ CrO4 2_ 

Cr O 2 7 

ClO_ _ ClO2 _ ClO3 _ ClO4 fybjybc 

cf[tkojlt,f 

anjhblb 

mkjhblb 

,hjvblb 

bjlblb 

cekablb 

]blhjcekablb 

rfh,jyfnb 

]blhjrfh,jyfnb 

cbkbrfnb 

ybnhfnb 

ybnhbnb 

vtnfajcafnb 

gbhjajcafnb 

lb]blhjgbhjajcafnb 

ajcafnb 

]blhjajcafnb 

lb]blhjajcafnb 

cekafnb 

]blhjcekafnb 

cekabnb 

mhjvfnb 

lbmhjvfnb 

]bgjmkjhbnb 

mkjhbnb 

mkjhfnb 

gthmkjhfnb 

v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b 

NaHSO 4 Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 

Na-bc ]blhjcekafnb Ca-bc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb 

Na_O 

\ // O 

S 

H_O 

/ \ \ O 

40 41 

H_O 

\ C � O 

O / 

Ca� 

O \ 

H_O 

/ 

C � O 

Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 CaOHCl 

Ca-bc lb]blhjajcafnb Ca-bc ]blhjmcbmkjhblb 

H_O 

\ 

H_O_ 

P � O 

O / 

Ca� 

O \ 

H_O_ 

P � O 

H_O 

/ 

Ca 

/ OH 

\ Cl 

AlOHSO 4 Cu 2 (OH) 2 CO 3 

Na-bc ]blhjmcbcekafnb Cu-bc ae.t rfh,jyfnb 

O \ 

HO_ Al� 

O 

S 

/ 

// O 

\ 

\ O 

Cu 

Cu 

/ O_H 

\ O \ 

/ O / 

\ O_H 

C � O

SFDB ^&\ 

FNJVBC FQYFUJ

A (Li) = 7 (0,927) + 6 (0073) = 6, 94 

r 

fhct,j,c bctsb fnjvt,b= hjvkt,cfw thsyfbhb vfcehb hbw[dt,b 

fmdc= vfuhfv bcbyb ufyc[dfdlt,bfy fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbs\ 

fcts fnjvt,c b p j ,fht,b tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl= 

40 40 40 

18 Ar, 

19 K, 

20 Ca \ 

bpj,fht,c fnjv,bhsdib ghjnjyt,bcf lf ytbnhjyt,bc cfthsj 

hbw[db thsyfbhb fmdc= vfuhfv bcbyb ghjnjyt,bc (Z) lf ytbnhjyt,bc 

(n) hbw[dbs ufyc[dfdlt,bfy\ 

wyj,bkbf fuhtsdt c[dflfc[df tktvtynbc fnjvt,b= hjvtksf 

fnjv,bhsdib vjsfdct,ekbf ytbnhjyt,bc njkb lf ghjnjyt,bc 

c[dflfc[df hfjltyj,f\ vfs bpjnjyt,b tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl= 

70 72 74 

30 Zn, 

32 Ge, 

34 Se (30 P, 40 n) (32 P, 40 n) (34 P, 40 n) 

fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ufhct,bc fqyfuj,f 

fnjvb hsekb fqyfuj,bc vmjyt tktmnhjytbnhfkehb cbcntvff\ 

bub itlut,f lflt,bsfl lfve[nekb fnjv,bhsdbcf lf vbc 

bhudkbd vj.hfdb efh'jabsfl lfve[nekb tktmnhjyt,bcfufy\ 

tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db fnjvib elhbc fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblbltc 

(ghjnjyt,bc hfjltyj,fc)\ vfifcflfvt= tktvtynbc hbuj,hbdb 

yjvthb gthbjlek cbcntvfib udbxdtyt,c hjujhw fnjv,bhsdbc 

lflt,bsb ve[nbc (ghjnjybc) hbw[dc= fctdt fnjv,bhsdbc ufhitvj 

vj.hfdb tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,fcfw\ 

mdfynehb vtmfybrbc sdfkcfphbcbs= tktmnhjyc f[fcbfst,c 

hjujhw rjhgecrekehb= fctdt nfkqehb ,eyt,f\ bub vj.hfj,c 

fnjvbc vstk vjwekj,fib lf ofhvjmvybc t\o\ tktmnhjyek 

qhe,tkc= hjvtkbw fqothc tktmnhjybc vlujvfhtj,fc fnjvib\ 

tktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt fnjvehb cbdhwbc c[dflfc[df 

yfobkib c[dflfc[dff\ cbdhwbc bv yfobkc= hjvtkibw 'dtkfpt 

vtnbf tktmnhjybc 'jaybc fk,fsj,f= t\b\ 'dtkfpt vtnbf tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt= jh,bnfkb tojlt,f\ 

fnjvib tktmnhjybc vlujvfhtj,fc f[fcbfst,ty js[b mdfynehb 

hbw[dbs\ tctybf| 

n _ vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db 

� _ jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb hbw[db 

m _ vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[db 

s _ cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[db 

vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db _ n fqybiyfdc tythutnbrekb 

ljybc yjvthc= ufycfpqdhfdc tktmnhjybc tythubfc fnjvib lf 

bqt,c yfnehfkeh hbw[dsf vorhbdbc vybidytkj,t,c n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 

...�\ vbcb vybidytkj,f lfvjrblt,ekbf tktmnhjybc lfijht,fpt 

fnjv,bhsdblfy\ bub f[fcbfst,c bv tktmnhjybc tythubfc= hjvtkcfw 

ezbhfdc vjwtvekb tythutnbrekb ljyt\ 'dtkfpt vwbht 

tythubf uffxybf gbhdtkb tythutnbrekb ljybc tktmnhjyt,c\ 

t\b\ bv ljybc= hjvtkbw 'dtkfpt f[kjf fnjv,bhsdsfy\ fnjv- 

,bhsdblfy hfw eahj lfijht,ek tythutnbrek ljytptf vjsfdct,ekb 

tktmnhjyb= vbs eahj vtnbf vbcb tythubf\ 

tktmnhjyt,bc tythubfpt= fye vsfdfh mdfyneh hbw[dpt lfvjrblt,ekt,bs 

fhxtdty K, L, M, N, O, P, Q tythutnbrek ljytt,c= 

hjvkt,bw vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[dbc itvltu vybidytkj,t,c gfce[j,c| 

K tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 1 

L tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 2 

M tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 3 

N tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 4 

O tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 5 

P tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 6 

Q tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 7 

fnjvib tythutnbrekb ljytt,bc hbw[db njkbf bv gthbjlbc 

yjvhbc= hjvtkibw tktvtynb bv'jat,f\ ^ gthbjlbc tktvtynt,c 

thsb tythutnbrekb ljyt fmdc+ ^^ gthbjlbc tktvtynt,c _ jhb+ 

^^^ gthbjlbcfc _ cfvb lf f\i\ 

44 45

tythutnbrek ljytpt tktmnhjyt,bc vfmcbvfkehb hfjltyj,f 

ufybcfpqdht,f ajhvekbs N = 2n 2 = cflfw N _ tktmnhjyt,bc 

hfjltyj,ff= n _ tythutnbrekb ljybc yjvthb= fye vsfdfhb mdfynehb 

hbw[db\ 

hjwf n = 1 N = 2.1 2 = 2; t\b\ gbhdtk tythutnbrek ljytpt 

vfmcbvfkehfl itb.kt,f ,heyfdltc 2 tktmnhjyb\ 

n = 2 N = 2 . 2 2 = 8; t\b\ vtjht tythutnbrek ljytpt 

vfmcbvfkehfl itb.kt,f ,heyfdltc 8 tktmnhjyb\ 

n = 3 N = 2 . 3 2 = 18; t\b\ vtcfvt tythutnbrek ljytpt itb.kt,f 

,heyfdltc 18 tktmnhjyb\ 

n = 4 N = 2 . 4 2 = 32; t\b\ vtjs[t tythutnbrek ljytpt itb.kt,f 

,heyfdltc 32 tktmnhjyb lf f\i\ 

ihtc= hjvtkptw ,heyfdc 2n 2 tktmnhjyb= tojlt,f lfchekt- 

,ekb= fye xfrtnbkb iht\ 

jh,bnfkehb= fye sfyfehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ � udf.ktdc 

ofhvjlutyfc jh,bnfkbc ajhvfpt lf tktmnhjybc tythubfpt= 

tythutnbrekb ljybc afhukt,ib\ bub bqt,c vybidytkj,t,c| 0= 1= 

2= 3= 4= \\\\ (n _ 1)-vlt= cflfw n vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[dbf\ hjwf= 

n = 1 n = 2 n = 3 n = 4 

� = 0 � = 0,1 � = 0,1,2 � = 0,1,2,3 

tythubbc itcf,fvbcfl tythutnbrekb ljytt,b= lfo't,ekb n= 

= 2-lfy= b'jaf mdtljytt,fl= hjvtksf hbw[db vsfdfhb mdfynehb 

hbw[dbc vybidytkj,bc njkbf| ^ tythutnbrek ljytc fmdc thsb 

mdtljyt= vtjhtc _ 2= vtcfvtc _ 3 lf f\i\ vbqt,ekbf mdtljytt,bc 

fqybidyf kfsbyehb fcjt,bs| lf s, p, d, f f\i\ 

jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb itcf,fvbcb tythutnbrekb 

hbw[db mdtljytt,b 

� = 0 s 

� = 1 p 

� = 2 d 

� = 3 f 

mdtljytt,b sfdbc v[hbd itlut,f jh,bnfkt,bcfufy\ s mdtljyt 

itlut,f 1s-jh,bnfkbcufy= p mdtljyt 3p-jh,bnfkbcfufy= d mdtljyt 

_ 5d-jh,bnfkbcfufy lf f mdtljyt _ 7f-jh,bnfkbcufy\ ufvjrdktdt,bs 

lflutybkbf= hjv s-jh,bnfkc fmdc cathjc ajhvf 

lf cbdhwtib vbvfhsekt,f fh f[fcbfst,c\ p-jh,bnfkt,c fmdc ]fyntkbc= 

fye vjwekj,bsb hdbfybc ajhvf lf cfvbdt p-jh,bnfkb 

ehsbthsgthgtylbrekfhekbf= fvbnjv vfs ufyb[bkfdty cbdh- 

yf[\ 1\ s, p, d tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc ajhvf lf 

cbdhwbsb jhbtynfwbf 

46 47 

P z 

P x 

dz 2 dxz dx 2 -y 2 

dyz dxy 

P y

wbsb rjjhlbyfnt,bc qth.bc vbvfhs\ d- lf f-jh,bnfkt,c fmdc 

eahj hsekb utjvtnhbekb ajhvf\ 

vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ m ufycfpqdhfdc tktmnhjyekb 

jh,bnfkt,bc jhbtynfwbfsf hbw[dc vfuybneh dtkib\ 

vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[db lfvjrblt,ekbf jh,bnfkeh mdfyneh 

hbw[dpt lf bwdkt,f _ � -lfy + � -vlt\ vfuybnehb mdfynehb 

hbw[dbc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f ufvjbsdkt,f ajhvekbs (2 � +1)= 

cflfw � _ jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb hbw[dbf\ 

hjwf � = 0, t\b\ udfmdc s mdtljyt lf itcf,fvbcfl s jh,bnfkb= 

vfiby m-bc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f njkb bmyt,f (2 . 0 + 1) = 1, 

t\b\ s jh,bnfkc fmdc thsb jhbtynfwbf= hjvtkbw cmtvfnehfl 

thsb e/htlbs fqbybiyt,f _ �+ 

hjwf � = 1, t\b\ udfmdc p mdtljyt= hjvtkcfw ittcf,fvt,f 3p 

jh,bnfkb= vfiby m-bc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f njkb bmyt,f 

(2 . 1 + 1) = 3, t\b\ p jh,bnfkt,c fmdc cfvb jhbtynfwbf vfuybneh 

dtkib lf cmtvfnehfl cfvb e/htlbs ufvjbcf[t,f _ 

�� 

\ 

fyfkjubehfl= d jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc udtmyt,f m-bc [esb 

vybidytkj,f= t\b\ [esb jhbtynfwbf cbdhwtib lf ufvjbcf[t,f 

itvltuyfbhfl| �� 

f jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc udtmyt,f m-bc 7 vybidytkj,f= hfw cmtvfnehfl 

itvltuyfbhfl ufvjbcf[t,f| �� 

cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ s f[fcbfst,c tktmnhjybc ,heydfc 

cfresfhb qth.bc ufhitvj= cffsbc bchbc vbvfhsekt,bs lf 

1 

cfobyffqvltujl lf bqt,c vybidytkj,t,c ± \ tktvtynsf fnjvt,ib 

2 

tktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt,fc ufycfpqdhfdc gfekbc ghbywbgb= 

tythubbc vbybvevbc ghbywbgb= ]eylbc otcb lf rktxrjdcrbc otcb\ 

gfekbc ghbywbgbc sfyf[vfl| fh itb.kt,f ths jh,bnfpt ,heyfdltc 

jhb bctsb tktmnhjyb= hjvlt,cfw js[bdt mdfynehb hbw[db 

thsyfbhb tmyt,f\ fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfht= dbyfblfy s mdtljytc 

fmdc thsb jh,bnfkb= vfcpt itb.kt,f vjsfdcltc vfmcbvev 2 

p 

x 

p 

y 

p 

z 

tktmnhjyb cfobyffqvltuj cgbyt,bs �= �� 

p mdtljytc fmdc cfvb 

jh,bnfkb lf vfcpt vjsfdclt,f 6 tktmnhjyb= d-pt 10 tktmnhjyb 

lf f-pt _ 14 tktmnhjyb\ 

evwbhtcb tythubbc ghbywbgbc sfyf[vfl| fnjvib tktmnhjybc 

'dtkfpt eahj vluhfl vlujvfhtj,fc ittcf,fvt,f vbcb itcf.kj 

vbybvfkehb tythubf\ t\b\ mdtljytt,pt tktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt- 

,bcfc /th itbdct,f bc mdtljytt,b= hjvlt,cfw vbybvfkehb tythubf 

fmdc\ tythubbc phlbc vb[tldbs rb mdtljytt,b itvltuyfbhfl fhbc 

ufykfut,ekb| 

1s

gbhdtk itvs[dtdfib cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[dt,bc /fvbc f,- 

1 1 1 1 

cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,b vfmcbvfkehbf ( � s � � � � 1 )\ 

2 2 2 2 

vtjht itvs[dtdfib rb /fvehb cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[dt,bc f,- 

1 

cjkenehb vybidytkj,f yfrkt,bf ( � s � )\ 2 

fnjvib tktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt,fc tythutnbrekb ljytt- 

,bcf lf mdtljytt,bc vb[tldbs ufvjcf[fdty tktmnhjyekb ajhvekt,bs\ 

[ibhfl tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc cnhemnehfc ufvjcf[fdty 

tythutnbrekb= fye mdfynehb e/htlt,bs\ tc fhbc uhfabrekb 

tktmnhjyekb ajhvekt,b= cflfw e/htlb jh,bnfkbf= bcfhb _ 

tktmnhjyb= bchbc vbvfhsekt,f _ cgbyb\ 

ufydb[bkjs= hjujh [lt,f fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ajhvekt,bc 

itlutyf| 

jh,bnfkb vbybvfkehb tythubbs _ tc fhbc 1s jh,bnfkb\ 

o'fk,flbc fnjvbcsdbc bub lfrfdt,ekbf thsflthsb tktmnhjybs= 

fvbnjv o'fk,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyek ajhvekfc tmyt,f 

fctsb cf[t| 1s1 = uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf rb bmyt,f 

n = \ 

1s jh,bnfkbc itdct,f vsfdhlt,f He-ib (Z = 2)\ vbcb tktmnhjyekb 

ajhvekff 1s2 = uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf bmyt,f 

\ 

vjvltdyj tktvtynt,ibw tktmnhjyt,bs mdtljytt,bc itdct- 

,bc sfyvbvltdhj,f tmdtvlt,fht,f gfekbcf lf evwbhtcb tythubbc 

ghbywbgc lf vbvlbyfhtj,c ]eylbc otcbcf lf rktxrjdcrbc otcbc 

lfwdbs\ 

'jdtkbdt ptvjsmvekbc ufsdfkbcobyt,bs= fpjnbc fnjvbc 

tktmnhjyek ajhvekfc tmyt,f itvltub cf[t| N (Z = 7) 1s22s22p3 s 

�� 

�� 

= 

uhfabrek tktmnhjyek ajhvekfc rb fctsb| 

�� n = 2 � � � 

p 

s 

�� 

n = 1 �� 

�� 

�� 

� 

pjubthsb tktvtynbcsdbc mdtljytt,bc tktmnhjyt,bs itdct,f 

vbvlbyfhtj,c ptvjs ufy[bkekb ghbywbgt,blfy ufhrdtekb 

uflf[hbs\ vfufkbsfl= mhjvbcf lf cgbkty.bc fnjvt,ib [lt,f tktmnhjyt,bc 

uflfcdkf (xfdfhlyf) 4s mdtljyblfy 3d-pt= hbc itltuflfw 

fv tktvtynt,bc tktmnhjyek ajhvekt,c fmdc itvltub 

cf[t| 

24 Cr - 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5 

29 Cu - 1s2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 10 

bvbc vb[tldbs= se hjvtkb jh,bnfkb (s, p, d, f) erfdbf fnjvbc 

,jkj tktmnhjyc= ufyfc[dfdt,ty s, p, d lf f tktvtynt,c\ ^ f lf ^^ f 

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b vbtresdyt,f s-tktvtynt,c\ tktvtynt,b 

^^^ f -lfy &^^ f mdt/ueabc xfsdkbs vbtresdyt,f p-tktvtynt,c= ^ , - 

lfy &^^ , mdt/ueabc xfsdkbs _ d-tktvtynt,bf= [jkj kfysfyjblt,b 

lf fmnbyjblt,b _ f-tktvtynt,c ofhvjflutyc\ 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f lf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,bc itcofdkfv lfudfyf[f= hjv tktvtynt,bc 

sdbct,t,b .bhbsflfl ufybcfpqdht,f fhf fnjvehb vfcbs= fhfvtl 

fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbs\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblbltptf 

lfvjrblt,ekb tktvtynbc 'dtkf sdbct,f lf fuhtsdt vbcb 

vlt,fhtj,f gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ fvfcsfy lfrfdibht,bs= wdkbkt,f 

ufybwflf l\b\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc ajhvekbht,fvfw| 

tktvtynbc sdbct,t,b= fuhtsdt vfsb yfthst,bc ajhvt,b 

lf sdbct,t,b gthbjlek lfvjrblt,ekt,fibf vfsb fnjvbc ,bhsdbc 

ve[nbc cblbltcsfy\ 

vtyltkttdbc tktvtynsf gthbjlekb cbcntvf pecnfl ufvj[fnfdc 

gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyc lf= fvfcsfy thsfl= tktvtynbc 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,fc\ 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,bc stjhbf rfhufl [cybc gthbjlek cbcntvfib 

tktvtynsf sdbct,t,bc gthbjlek wdkbkt,t,c\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc 

50 51

ve[nbc cblblbc phlf 1-lfy 116-vlt bodtdc tktvtynt,bc ufht 

tythutnbrekb ljybc fqyfuj,bc gthbjlek ufyvtjht,fc lf hflufy 

tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,b .bhbsflfl lfvjrblt,ekbf ufht ihbc 

tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,fpt= fvbnjv bcbyb gthbjlekfl vtjhlt,f\ 

fvfibf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc abpbrehb fhcb\ 

vfufkbsbcsdbc ufydb[bkjs ^^= ^^^ lf ^& gthbjlt,bc lfcfo'bcib 

vjsfdct,ekb tktvtynt,b _ Li _ 2 \ 1= Na _ 2 \ 8 \ 1= K _ 2 \ 8 \ 8 \ 1\ 

vfs ufht ihtpt fhbc 1s tktmnhjyb lf fvbnjvfw fv;qfdyt,ty 

vcufdc sdbct,t,c\ bcbyb tktmnhjyekb ihbc lfcfchekt,kfl fldbkfl 

ufcwtvty fv ths tktmnhjyc= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c vfs kbsjyeh 

sdbct,t,c= [jkj fv gthbjlbc ,jkjib vjsfdct,ek tktvtynt,c 

ufht ihtpt fmds 8 tktmnhjyb (s 2 p 6 )\ vfsb ufht iht lfchekt,tkbf\ 

tc tktvtynt,b bythnekb fbht,bf (Ne, Ar, Kr)\ 

vwbht gthbjlt,ib fnjvuekbc lflt,bsb ve[nbc cblblbc 

phlfcsfy thsfl ufht ihtpt tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db bphlt,f (1lfy 

2-vlt ^ gthbjlib lf 1-lfy 8-vlt ^^ lf ^^^ gthbjlt,ib)= hfw 

[cybc tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,bc wdkbkt,fc kbsjyehblfy (gthbjlt,bc 

lfcfo'bcib) fhfkbsjyt,bcfrty (gthbjlt,bc ,jkjc)\ gthbjlt,bc 

lfcfo'bcib= ufhlf ^ gthbjlbcf= vjsfdct,ekbf nent 

kbsjyt,b= itvltu kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b sfylfsfyj,bs cecnlt,f 

lf bphlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ cfdfktynj ihtib tktmnhjyt,bc 

hbw[dbc phlfcsfy thsfl vwbhlt,f tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvbc 

eyfhb lf bphlt,f tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,bc eyfhb\ hfw 

eahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktvtynbc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c= vbs eahj 

vrdtshfl tmyt,f ufvjv;qfdyt,ekb kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b+ hfw 

eahj fldbkfl vbbthst,c tktvtynbc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c= vbs 

eahj vrdtshfl tmyt,f ufvjv;qfdyt,ekb fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ 

lblb gthbjlbc keo vorhbdt,ib fnjvuekbc ve[nbc cblblbc 

phlbcfc ufht ihtib tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,f hxt,f velvbdb 

lf nbkb 2-bc fy 1-bc= fvbnjv= cfyfv ,jkjc obyf ihbc itdct,f 

vbvlbyfhtj,c= tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,b fv hbut,ib ufycfresht,bs 

ytkf bwdkt,f+ [jkj lblb gthbjlt,bc rtyn vorhbdt,ib fnjvbc 

,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,f tktmnhjyt,bc 

hfjltyj,f (1-lfy 8-vlt) ufht ihtib= hbc ufvjw tktvtynt,bc 

sdbct,t,bc wdkbkt,f rdkfd vrdtshfl vbvlbyfhtj,c\ 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f rfhufl [cybc vsfdfhb lf sfyfehb mdt/ueat,bc 

fhct,j,fc\ tc lf'jaf ufygbhj,t,ekbf bvbs= hjv tktvtynt,c 

tythutnbrekb ljytt,b tktmnhjyt,bs c[dflfc[dfyfbhfl 

tdct,f\ rth.jl= vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c tdct,f s mdtljyt 

(s tktvtynt,c) fy p mdtljyt (p tktvtynt,c) ufht ihbcf\ sfyfehb 

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c tdct,f ufhtcobyf ihbc d mdtljyt (d tktvtynt,b)= 

[jkj kfysfyjblt,c lf fmnbyjblt,c itcf,fvbcfl 4f lf 

5f mdtljytt,b\ 

fvudfhfl= sbsjtek mdt/ueaib ufthsbfyt,ekbf tktvtynt,b= 

hjvtksf fnjvt,cfw fmdc tktmnhjyekb ihtt,bc vcufdcb fqyfuj,f\ 

fvfcsfy= vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc ufht ihbc tktmnhjyt,bc 

hbw[db tvs[dtdf /ueabc yjvthc= [jkj sfyfehb 

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c rb fmdc jhb fy thsb tktmnhjyb\ 

cojhtl tc ufyc[dfdt,f fqyfuj,fib ufyfgbhj,t,c vfsb sdbct,t,bc 

c[dflfc[dfj,fc= hbc ufvjw bcbyb vjsfdct,ekb fhbfy thsb lf bubdt 

/ueabc c[dflfc[df mdt/ueaib\ fct vfufkbsfl= &^^ /ueabc vsfdfh 

mdt/ueaib vjsfdct,ekbf ]fkjutyt,b= hjvtksf fnjvt,c ufht 

ihtpt fmdc 7 tktmnhjyb= [jkj sfyfeh mdt/ueaib vjsfdct,ek 

Mn-bc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c _ 2 tktmnhjyb\ gbhdtkb nbgehb 

fhfkbsjyt,bf= [jkj vtjht _ kbsjyt,b= vfuhfv fv /ueabc tktvtynt,c 

cfthsj sdbct,fw fmdc= rth.jl bc= hjv vfsb fnjvt,b 

htfmwbfib vjyfobktj,c 7-7 tktmnhjybs= t\b\ mbvbehb ,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f 

7- tktmnhjybs (ufvjyfrkbcbf F)\ fvbs fhbc ufygbhj,t- 

,ekb vfsb vcufdct,f= vfuhfv bjlbc fnjvc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt- 

,b fnjv,bhsdblfy eahj lfijht,ekb fmdc= dblht asjhc= hbc ufvjw 

bjlbc fnjvc cecnfl fmdc itrfdibht,ekb tc tktmnhjyt,b lf 

fvbnjv bjlbc fnjvt,b fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c lf ite.kbf 

kbsjyehb sdbct,t,bc ufvjv;qfdyt,f= hfcfw dth dbn'dbs asjhpt\ 

fctsbdt rfyjypjvbtht,f itbvxytdf lfyfhxty /ueat,ibw\ fctsb 

vblujvbs fb[cyt,f H-bc vlt,fhtj,f thslhjekfl gthbjlekb 

52 53

cbcntvbc ^ lf &^^ /ueaib\ ^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc 

vcufdcfl vfc ufht cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc thsb tktmnhjyb\ 

mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib vjyfobktj,bc lhjc fldbkfl ufcwtvc fv ths 

tktmnhjyc lf uflflbc +1 ve[nbfy bjyib= fvbnjv o'fk,flb eylf 

vlt,fhtj,ltc ^ /ueaib\ vtjht v[hbd= o'fk,flbc fnjvc lfchekt,ekb 

(2-tktmnhjybfyb) ihbc itcfmvytkfl czbhlt,f thsb 

tktmnhjyb\ vfc eyfhb fmdc itbthsjc thsb tktmnhjyb &^^ /ueabc 

vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc _ ]fkjutyt,bc vcufdcfl\ 

o'fk,flb fv itvs[dtdfib fv;qfdyt,c fhfkbsjyeh sdbct,t,c= fvbnjv 

bc eylf vlt,fhtj,ltc &^^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib\ fmtlfy 

ufvjvlbyfht= ufcfut,bf= hfnjv fhbc o'fk,flb vjsfdct,ekb 

thslhjekfl gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^ lf &^^ /ueaib\ 

gthbjlek cbcntvfib tktvtynt,b js[ flubkfc fh fhbc ufykfut,ekb 

fnjvehb vfcbc phlbc vb[tldbs\ tctybf| Ar (39= 948) lf 

K (39= 102)+ Co (58= 933) lf Ni (58=71)+ Te (127=6) lf J(126= 9)= 

Th (232=0) lf Pa (231= 0)\ fv uflf[dtdt,c rfhufl [cybc fnjvbc fqyfuj,f= 

hjvkbc sfyf[vflfw= tktvtynbc sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbf 

fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblbltpt\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbc 

phlbc vb[tldbs rb bcbyb cojhfl fhbfy ufykfut,ekb gthbjlek 

cbcntvfib\ 

bjybpfwbbc tythubf= tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf lf 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f 

fnjvbc ths-ths vybidytkjdfy vf[fcbfst,tkc ofhvjflutyc 

bjybpfwbbc tythubf\ tc bc tythubff= hjvtkbw cfzbhjf yjhvfkeh 

vlujvfhtj,fib v'jab fnjvblfy tktmnhjybc vjcfo'dtnfl lf 

ecfchekjl lblb vfy.bkbs lfcfijht,kfl\ bjybpfwbbc tythubfc 

ufvjcf[fdty tktmnhjydjknt,bs lf f[fcbfst,c tktmnhjybc ufwtvbc 

eyfhc\ bjybpfwbbc tythubfpt vybidytkjdfyobkfl fhbc lfvjrblt,ekb 

mbvbehb ,vbc [fcbfsb lf cbvnrbwt= fuhtsdt= fnj- 

vbc fqvlutyb sdbct,f= fye _ hfw eahj vwbhtf bjybpfwbbc tythubf= 

vbs eahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c lf vbs eahj 

rfhub fqvlutybf\ 

bjybpfwbbc tythubbc cblblt lfvjrblt,ekbf fnjvbc hflbecpt= 

,bhsdbc ve[npt lf tktmnhjyek rjyabuehfwbfpt\ 

nent kbsjyt,bc bjybpfwbbc tythubf eahj yfrkt,bf= dblht 

nentvbofsf kbsjyt,bc= hflufy ntne kbsjyt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj 

s tktmnhjyt,b ufeo'dbkt,tkb fmdc= nentvbofsf kbsjyt,c 

rb _ ufo'dbkt,ekb\ 

thsb gthbjlbc tktvtynt,bcsdbc bjybpfwbbc tythubf bphlt,f 

vfhw[yblfy vfh/dybd= hflufy bphlt,f fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nb\ 

mdt/ueat,ib bjybpfwbbc tythubf vwbhlt,f ptvjlfy mdtvjs= 

hflufy bphlt,f vfy.bkb tktmnhjycf lf fnjv,bhsdc ijhbc= hbc 

ufvjw fnjv,bhsdb cecnfl bpblfdc ufht ihbc tktmnhjyc lf fvbnjv 

eahj vwbht tythubff cfzbhj tktmnhjybc vjcfo'dtnfl\ 

bjybpfwbbc tythubf ufdktyfc f[ltyc tktvtynt,bc mbvbeh 

sdbct,t,pt= rth.jl= hfw eahj vwbhtf bjybpfwbbc tythubf= vbs 

vrdtshfl fmdc ufvjcf[ekb tktvtync kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b lf gbhbmbs\ 

fnjvt,c ite.kbf fhf vfhnj ufcwtc= fhvtl itbthsjc rbltw 

tktmnhjyt,b\ tythubfc= hjvtkbw ufvjb'jaf fnjvsfy thsb 

tktmnhjybc vbthst,bcfc= tojlt,f tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf\ 

tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf= bjybpfwbbc tythubbc vcufdcfl= 

ufvjbcf[t,f tktmnhjydjknt,ib\ tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadbc cblblt 

'dtkf tktvtynbcfsdbc fh fhbc wyj,bkb= hflufy vbcb ufpjvdf 

cfrvfjl .ytkbf\ 

tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf bcts tktvtynt,c f[fcbfst,c= hjvtksf 

fnjvt,bc ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt 4-pt vtnb cfdfktynj 

tktmnhjyb vj.hfj,c\ fnjvbc vbth tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,bcfc 

ofhvjbmvyt,f efh'jabsfl lfve[nekb bjyb\ fv lhjc tc fnjvt,b 

fqlut,f lf ;fyufdc c[df fnjvt,c\ tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,f lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf 

fhfkbsjyt,bc fnjvt,bcfsdbc\ tktmnhjybcflvb 

54 55

cohfadbc hbw[j,hbdb vybidytkj,bc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,f 

tktvtynbc ;fyudbsb eyfhb\ 

tktvtynbc fnjvbc eyfhc vjktrekfib sfdbcrty vbbpbljc 

c[df fnjvbc tktmnhjyt,b= tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f tojlt,f\ 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc pjvfl bsdkt,f bc tythubf= hjvtkbw 

njkbf bjybpfwbbc tythubbc (I) lf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadbc 

(E) hbw[j,hbd vybidytkj,fsf /fvbc yf[tdhbc| 

I � E 

x = cflfw= x- tktmnhjefh'jabsj,ff\ 

2 

f,cjkenehb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc yfwdkfl b[vfht,f 

afhlj,bsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f= hjvkbc thstekfl vbxytekbf 

kbsbevbc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f\ c[df tktvtynt,bc 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f ufvjbsdkt,f vfsb f,cjkenehb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc 

afhlj,bs kbsbevbc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,fcsfy\ 

gjkbyubc vbth ,vbc tythubbc cfae.dtkpt ufycfpqdhek 

bmyf tktvtynt,bc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f (w[h\ 1)\ 

H 

2,1 

tktvtynt,bc afhlj,bsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f 

gjkbyubc vb[tldbs 

Li Be B C N O F 

1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl 

0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0 

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 

0,8 1,0 1,3 1,5 1,6 1,5 1,5 1,8 1,8 1,9 1,6 1,6 1,8 1,8 2,0 2,4 2,8 

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I 

0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 1,9 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,5 

Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Rb Bi Po At 

0,7 0,9 1,1-1,2 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,4 1,9 1,8 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,2 

Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np-Lw 

0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,3 

w[hbkb 1\ 

w[hbkblfy xfyc= hjv fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehbc 

ufhsekt,fcsfy thsfl sbsjtek gthbjlib tktvtynt,bc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc 

cblblt bphlt,f= wfkrtek /ueat,ib rb 

rkt,ekj,c\ fvbc vb[tldbs= gbhdtkb /ueabc s-tktvtynt,b (nent 

kbsjyt,b) [fcbfslt,f vwbht tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs= [jkj 

vtidblt /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b (]fkjutyt,b) elbltcb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs\ 

'dtkfpt vwbht tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f f[fcbfst,c 

kbsbevc (1=0) lf 'dtkfpt lblb _ asjhc (4=0)\ 

SFDB &\ 

MBVBEHB

o'dbkt,bc ofhvjmvybs\ sfyfvtlhjdt ofhvjlutyt,bc sfyf[vfl= 

mbvbeh ,vfc fmdc tktmnhekb ,eyt,f= vfuhfv bc [jhwbtklt,f 

c[dflfc[dfyfbhfl\ fvbc vb[tldbs fhxtdty mbvbehb ,vbc cfv 

.bhbsfl cf[tc| rjdfktynehc= bjyehc lf kbsjyehc\ 

bjyehb ,vbc stjhbf vjojlt,ekb bmyf 1916 otkc uthvfytkb 

vtwybthbc rjctkbc vbth= [jkj bvfdt otkc fvthbrtkvf vtwybthvf 

kebcvf ofvjf'tyf rjdfktynehb ,vbc stjhbf= hjvkbc sfyf[vfl= 

mbvbehb ,vf [jhwbtklt,f cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,bc 

ofhvjmvybs= hjvtkbw thslhjekfl tresdybc jh fnjvc\ 

rjctkbcf lf kebcbc stjhbfpt lf'hlyj,bs fqvjwtylf mbvbehb 

,vbc sfyfvtlhjdt stjhbf= t\o\ dfktynehb ,vbc stjhbf\ 

mdfynehb vtmfybrbc ofhvjlutyt,bc ufydbsfht,fv w[fl'j 

ufpbfht,ekb tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbc [fh/pt mbvbehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc 

vbptpb\ se fnjvib tktmnhjyt,c ufydb[bkfds hjujhw 

tktmnhjyek qhe,kt,c= vfiby cfpbfhj o'dbkbc ofhvjmvyf itb.kt,f 

ofhvjdblubyjs= hjujhw fv tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbc 

itltub\ 

,bhsdt,c ijhbc fhct,ekb zfh,b tktmnhjyekb cbvrdhbdt 

f[ltyc vfs ijhbc ufypbldbc .fkt,bc rjvgtycfwbfc\ fvudfhfl= .fkt,c= 

hjvkt,bw epheydtk'jac ,vt,bc ofhvjmvyfc= fmdc tktmnhjcnfnbrehb 

[fcbfsb\ 

cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,bs lfv'fht,ek mbvbeh ,vfc 

tojlt,f rjdfktynehb= fye fnjvehb ,vf\ 

rjdfktynehb ,vf ufydb[bkjs o'fk,flbc vjktrekt,bc ofhvjmvybc 

vfufkbspt\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekfib mbvbehb ,vbc .fkf 

mdfynehb vtmfybrbc gjpbwbblfy 1927 otkc vjudwtc byukbctkvf 

vtwybtht,vf ]tbnkthvf lf kjyljyvf\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekf itlut,f 

4 vbrhj yfobkfrbcfufy| jhb ,bhsdbcf lf jhb tktmnhjybcfufy 

(o'fk,flbc fnjv,bhsdb itvjafhukekbf cathekb s tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kbs)+ fnjvt,bc cfrvfj vfy.bkpt vbf[kjt,bcfc 

fqb.dht,f vbpblekj,bc .fkt,b= thsb v[hbd= gbhdtkbc ,bhsdcf 

lf vtjhbc tktmnhjyek qhe,tkc ijhbc lf= vtjht v[hbd= gbhb- 

yf[\ 2\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekfib 

tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdf 

58 59 

mbs\ fvfdt lhjc= fqb.dht,f ufypbldbc 

.fkt,b fv fnjvt,bc ,bhsdt,c ijhbc 

lf tktmnhjyt,c ijhbc\ vjktrekt,bc 

vluhflb vlujvfhtj,f vbbqotdf 

vfiby= hjwf vbpbldbc .fkt,b uflffzfh,t,c 

ufypbldbc .fkt,c\ tc gfce[j,c 

,vbc ufycfpqdhek cbuh.tc\ 

t\b\ fnjvt,bc ufycfpqdhek vfy.bkpt 

vbf[kjdt,bcfc [lt,f vfsb tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kt,bc (jh,bnt,bc) uflfafhdf= 

hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f 

vjktrekehb qhe,tkb= bc sfdclt,f 

jhbdt ,bhsdbc wtynht,c ijhbc lf 

fmdc ufphlbkb tktmnhjyekb cbvrd- 

hbdt= fvbnjv ,bhsdt,c ijhbc vfy.bkb vjktrekfib yfrkt,bf 

o'fk,flbc jhb fnjvbc hflbecbc /fvpt (r (H) = 0,053 y\v\+ eylf 

'jabkb'j 0=106 y\v\ fhbc 0=074 y\v\)\ b[\ yf[\ `2\ 

fvudfhfl= rjdfktynehb ,vbc fq.dhbcfc [lt,f fnjvt,bc tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdf= hfcfw sfy f[kfdc tythubbc 

ufvj'jaf= hbc ufvjw fnjvsf itthst,bcfc vjktrekfib cbcntvbc 

cfthsj tythubf vwbhlt,f\ 

hjwf mbvbehb ,vf jhb fnjvbc sbsj s tktmnhjyekb jh- 

,bnfkbc uflfafhdbs [jhwbtklt,f= vbbqt,f ��(cbuvf) ,vf= cflfw 

tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc vfmcbvfkehb uflfafhdf [jhwbtklt,f 

fnjvsf itvfthst,tkb [fpbc ufcodhbd\ �-,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt 

bv itvs[dtdfib= hjwf ,vbc ofhvjmvyfib vjyfobktj,c thsb 

fnjvbc s-jh,bnfkb lf vtjht fnjvbc p-jh,bnfkb\ hjwf ,vf jhb 

p jh,bnfkbs [jhwbtklt,f= vfiby vfsb uflfafhdf itb.kt,f 

vj[ltc hjujhw fnjvt,bc itvfthst,tkb [fpbc ufcodhbd= fctdt 

fv [fpbc gthgtylbrekfhekfl= cb,hn'bc jhbdt v[fhtc= hbc itltuflfw 

gbhdtk itvs[dtdfib ofhvjbmvyt,f � (cbuvf) ,vf= [jkj 

vtjht itvs[dtdfib � (gb) ,vf\

jhb d-jh,bnfkbc uflfafhdbs ofhvjbmvyt,f hjujhw � lf 

� ,vt,b= fctdt itb.kt,f ofhvjbmvyfc vtcfvt nbgbc ,vf _ ��(ltknf)\ 

fv erfyfcrytk itvs[dtdfib [lt,f d-tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc 

js[upbc uflfafhdf\ 

ptvjs fqybiyekb ,vt,bc ofhvjmvyf cmtvfnehfl ufvjcf[ekbf 

yf[\32-pt\ 

yf[\ 3\ tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdf 

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ufvjcf[df itb.kt,f 

c[dflfc[dfyfbhfl| f) cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc 

othnbkt,bc cf[bs xfothbc upbs mbvbehb 

cbv,jkjcsfy (vfu\= H . + . H; H:H) fy 

,) mdfynehb e/ht,bc cf[bs 

[ibhfl rjdfktynj,fc ufvjcf[fdty [fpbs 

H_H\ 

1s1 1s1 �� + �� 

�� 

se fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,f thsb rjdfktynehb ,vf= vfiby 

vfc vfhnbdb ,vf tojlt,f= [jkj se vtnb _ /thflb ,vf\ 

ufydb[bkjs mkjhbcf lf fpjnbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf\ 

1s 2 

Cl 2 -bc ofhvjmvyf 

mkjhbc fnjvbc hbuj,hbdb yjvthbf _ Z-17= tktmnhjyekb 

ajhvekff 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5 = vbcsdbc cfdfktynjf vtcfvt iht 

�� 

3p 

�� 

3s �� 

�� hjujhw d[tlfds= mkjhbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvb 

o'dbkb lf thsb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb\ mbvbehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf 

[lt,f jhb fnjvbc ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,bc ufo'dbkt,bc 

[fh/pt= hjvtkbw cfpbfhj [lt,f jhbdt fnjvbcsdbc= 

hbc itltuflfw lfchekt,ekb hdftktmnhjybfyb (s 2 p 6 ) iht tmyt,f 

mkjhbc jhbdt fnjvc lf tc cfpbfhj o'dbkb sfyf,hfl tresdybc 

jhbdt fnjvc\ 

: Cl� 

� �Cl 

: �: 

Cl : Cl : � Cl 

60 61 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

se v[tldtkj,fib vbdbqt,s= hjv Cl 2 -bc ofhvjmvyf [jhwbtklt,f 

p- tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbs= vfiby cmtvfnehfl 

itb.kt,f fct ufvjdcf[js| 

� 

�� 

�� 

� 

2 

Cl Cl 

ptvjs erdt bsmdf= hjv se fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,f thsb 

rjdfktynehb ,vf= vfiby vfc tojlt,f vfhnbdb (thsvfub) ,vf= [jkj 

se vtnb= vfiby vfc tojlt,f /thflb\ rth.jl= se fnjvt,c ijhbc 

ofhvjbmvyt,f jhb mbvbehb ,vf vfc jhvfub ,vf tojlt,f= se cfvb _ 

cfvvfub lf f\i\ thsvfub ,vf ufvjbcf[t,f thsb [fpbs= jhvfub _ 

jhbs lf f\i\

thflb (jhvfub lf cfvvfub) ,vt,b lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf vhfdfkdfktynjdfyb 

fnjvt,bcfufy ofhvjmvybkb vjktrekt,bcsdbc\ 

vfufkbsfl ufydb[bkjs fpjnbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf\ 

N 2 -bc ofhvjmvyf 

fpjnc fnjvbc hbuj,hbdb yjvthbf _ Z=7= tktmnhjyekb 

ajhvekf| 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 \ 

fpjnbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvb ufeo'dbkt,tkb 

tktmnhjyb= hbc ufvjw vjktrekfib fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,f 

cfvb cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb= hjvkt,bw sfyf,hfl tresdybc 

fpjnbc jhbdt fnjvc\ 

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fpjnbc fnjvbc cfvb p jh,bnfkb ufykfut,ekfh X, Y lf Z 

qth.t,bc vfhsj,ekfl\ fpjnbc jhb fnjvbc vbf[kjdt,bcfc P - X 

tktmnhjyt,bc tktmnhjyekb 

jh,bnfkt,b X-qth.bc ufcodhbd 

uflfafhfdc thsvfytsc= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f �-,vf\ P lf P Y Z 

jh,bnfkt,bc ehsbthsuflfafhdf 

vj[lt,f jh flubkpt= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f �-,vt,b\ �-,vf 

eahj cecnb ,vff= dblht �-,vf= hfl- 

yf[\ 4\ mbvbehb ,vt,b fpjnbc 

vjktrekfib 

ufy jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbc fht 

�-,vbc lhjc eahj vwbhtf= dblht 

��,vbc itvs[dtdfib= t\b\ fpjnbc vjktrekfib fpjnbc fnjvt,b 

cfvvfub ,vbs fhbc itrfdibht,ekb thsvfytssfy= thsb �-,vbs lf 

jhb �-,vbs\ cfvvfub ,vbc ufvj fpjnbc vjktrekf eahj vnrbwtf= 

dblht H 2 , Cl 2 lf c[df\ (yf[\ 4) 

ufyfc[dfdt,ty rjdfktynehb ,vbc jh cf[tc| gjkfhekc lf fhfgjkfhekc\ 

fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbc lhjc cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb 

o'dbkbs ofhvjmvybkb tktmnhjyekb qhe,tkb 

cbdhwtib sfyf,hfl fhbc ufyfobkt,ekb jhbdt fnjvbc ,bhsdt,c 

ijhbc\ fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbs thsvfytsc erfdibhlt,f 

thsb lf bubdt tktvtynbc fnjvt,b (vfu\= H 2 , F 2 , Cl 2 , O 2 , N 2 lf 

c[df)\ 

gjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib ,vbc tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,tkb uflfotekbf eahj tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc 

fnjvbcrty\ fvbc itltufl= vjwtvek fnjvc vbtybzt,f hfqfw 

cblblbc efh'jabsb ve[nb � (tktmnhjybc ve[nbc thstekt,bs 

ufvjcf[ekb)= hfcfw tojlt,f tatmnehb ve[nb\ vtjht fnjvc bvfdt 

cblblbc lflt,bsb ve[nb tmyt,f\ fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb 

,vbs ofhvjmvybkb yfthst,bcsdbc ��= hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib= hjujhw 

ptvjs fqdybiyts= tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbs ofhvjmvybkb 

tktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt cbvtnhbekfl fhbc ufykfut- 

,ekb fnjvt,c ijhbc\ lflt,bsb lf efh'jabsb ve[nt,bc cbv.bvbc 

wtynht,b ths othnbkibf ufykfut,ekb= hbc ufvjw vjktrekf 

fhfgjkfhekbf (vfu\| H 2 , O 2 , N 2 , lf f\i\)\ hjwf lflt,bsb lf efh- 

'jabsb tktmnhj,bc cbv.bvbc wtynht,b lfijht,ekbf thsvfytsc= 

vjktrekf gjkfhekbf= vfufkbsfl= fmhjkflb fhfjhufyekb 

ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekt,b (HCl, H 2 S, NH 3 lf c[df)\ 

gjkfhekb vjktrekt,b ofhvjflutyc lbgjkt,c\ ,vbc gjkfhj,bc 

[fhbc[bc cfpjvbf lbgjkehb vjvtynb (�)= hjvtkbw njkbf 

lbgjkbc cbuh.bc (l) lf tatmnehb ve[nb (e) yfvhfdkbcf| 

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gjkfhekb vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf ufydb[bkjs mkjho'fk- 

,flbc HCl-bc vfufkbspt\ mkjhbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc 

7 tktmnhjyb lf jmntnfvlt itcfdct,fl frkbf thsb tktmnhjyb\ 

fv 7 tktmnhjyblfy cfvb o'dbkbf lf thsb rtynb _ p-tktmnhjyb\ 

62 63

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�� mkjho'fk,flbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvybcfc mbvbehb ,vf [jhwbtklt,f 

mkjhbc fnjvbc thstktmnhjybfyb p-jh,bnfkbcf lf 

o'fk,flbc fnjvbc s-jh,bnfkbc 

uflfafhdbc [fh/pt\ tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt uflfotekb 

bmyt,f mkjhbcrty= hflufy mkjhbc 

fnjvbc afhlj,bsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f 

(2=83) vtnbf= dblht 

o'fk,flbc fnjvbc (2=1)\ (yf[\ 5) 

yf[\ 5\ mkjho'fk,flbc 

vjktrekbc jh,bnfkehb cmtvf 

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc 

ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvb 

ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vf ofhvjflutyc rjdfktynehb 

,vbc rth.j itvs[dtdfc\ xdtekt,hbdb rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc 

itvs[dtdfib vjyfobktj,c jhbdt itcfrfdibht,tkb fnjvbc cfgbhbcgbhj 

cgbyt,bc vmjyt ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,b= hjvtksf 

qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbs ofhvjbmvyt,f ,vf= [jkj ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb 

,vbc itvs[dtdfib mbvbehb ,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f 

thsb fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,kbcf lf vtjht fnjvbc sfdbceafkb 

jh,bnfkbc [fh/pt\ ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vbc 

nbgeh vfufkbsc ofhvjflutyc fvjybevbc bjybc ( NH ) ofhvjmvyf\ 

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fvbfrbc vjktrekfib fpjnbc fnjvc cfvb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb 

ufo'dbkt,ekb fmdc o'fk,flbc cfvb fnjvbc sbsj rtyn 

tktmnhjysfy\ ufhlf fvbcf= vfc uffxybf ufe'jatkb tktmnhjyekb 

o'dbkb (jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb)\ o'fk,flbc bjyc fmdc 

sfdbceafkb 1s jh,bnfkb\ fvbfrbcf lf o'fk,flbc bjybc vbf[kjt- 

,bcfc fpjnbc fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb cfthsj [lt,f 

jhbdt fnjvbcsdbc (hjujhw fpjnbcsdbc= fctdt o'fk,flbcsdbc)= 

hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vjktrekehb tktmnhjyekb qhe- 

,tkb= t\b\ ofhvjbmvyt,f vtjs[t rjdfktynehb ,vf\ 

fvjybevbc bjybc ofhvjmvyf itb.kt,f ufvjdcf[js cmtvbs| 

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fvudfhfl= fpjnbc fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb cfthsj 

[lt,f= [jkj o'fk,flbc bjybc ve[nb sfyf,hfl yfobklt,f 'dtkf 

fnjvt,c ijhbc= fvbnjv NH -bc ve[nb +1-bc njkbf\ 

4 

mbvbeh ,vfc= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbc 

uflfcdkbs thsb fnjvblfy jhb fnjvbcsdbc cfthsj cfhut,kj- 

,fib= tojlt,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb= fye rjjhlbyfwbekb ,vf\ 

fnjvc= hjvtkbw ufcwtvc ufepbfht,tk tktmnhjyek o'dbkc 

cfthsj cfhut,kj,fib= ljyjhb tojlt,f= [jkj fnjvc= hjvtkcfw 

fmdc sfdbceafkb jh,bnf lf bqt,c fv tktmnhjyek o'dbkc _ 

fmwtgnjhb\ t\b\ 

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NH -bc bjybc ofhvjmvybcfc ljyjhb fhbc fpjnb= 

4 

[jkj fmwtgnjhb _ o'fk,flbc bjyb\ 

fvudfhfl= fvjybevbc bjyib fhbc js[b rjdfktynehb ,vf= hjvtksfufyfw 

o'fk,flbc cfvb fnjvb fpjnbc fnjvsfy itrfdibht,ekbf 

rjdfktynehb ,vbs= [jkj vtjs[t ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb 

vtmfybpvbs\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= js[bdt ,vf thsvfytsbc njkafcbf\ 

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jdfktynehb ,vbc sdbct,t,b 

rjdfktynehb ,vf [fcbfslt,f ,vbc cbuh.bs= ,vbc tythubbs= 

uf/tht,ekj,bs lf vbvfhsekt,bs\ 

,vbc cbuh.t bpjvt,f fnjv,bhsdt,c ijhbc vfy.bkbs\ fqcfybiyfdbf= 

hjv hfw eahj yfrkt,bf ,vbc cbuh.t= vbs eahj vnrbwtf ,vf= vfuhfv 

,vbc cbvnrbwbc cfpjvc .bhbsflfl ofhvjflutyc ,vbc tythubf\ 

,vbc tythubf tojlt,f bv tythubfc= hjvtkbw fewbkt,tkbf 

vjktrekfib fhct,ekb ,vbc ufcfo'dtnfl\ ,vbc tythubf bpjvt,f 

rbkj/jekt,ib lf bfyufhbit,f ybdbstht,bc 1 vjkpt\ hfw vtnbf 

,vbc tythubf= vbs vnrbwtf ,vf\ ,vbc /thflj,bc ufphlbs ,vbc tythubf 

bphlt,f= [jkj cbuh.t vwbhlt,f\ 

,vbc uf/tht,ekj,f uekbc[vj,cf fnjvbc vbth 'dtkf cfdfktynj 

jh,bnfkbc chekfl ufvj'tyt,fc= hbc itltuflfw fnjvc 

erdt fqfh fmdc lfvfnt,bsb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc eyfhb\ ,vbc uf/tht- 

,ekj,bs fb[cyt,f bc afmnb= hjv vjktrekt,c fmdc ufycfpqdhekb 

itlutybkj,f= vfufkbsfl= H 2 lf fhf H 3 = CH 4 lf fhf CH 5 lf f\i\ 

rjdfktynehb ,vf [fcbfslt,f vbvfhsekt,bs= hfw ufyfgbhj- 

,t,c vjktrekbc cbdhwbs cnhemnehfc\ rjdfktynehb ,vf fqb.dht,f 

tktmnhjyekb qh,ekt,bc vfmcbvfkehb uflfafhdbc vbvfhsekt,bs\ 

,vt,c ijhbc res[tt,c tojlt,f cfdfktynj res[tt,b\ 

rjdfktynehb ,vbc vbvfhsekt,f lfvjrblt,ekbf cfdfktynj jh- 

,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbbc nbgcf lf vfs cbdhwbs ufykfut,fpt\ 

jh,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbbc lhjc [lt,f vfsb ithtdf lf 

ajhvbsf lf tythubbs ufsfyf,ht,f\ fv itvs[dtdfib tktmnhjyekb 

jh,bnfkt,bc cfo'bcb ajhvf bwdkt,f lf ofhvjbmvyt,f thsyfbhb 

ajhvbc jh,bnfkt,b\ ]b,hblekb jh,bnfkb fcbvtnhbekbf lf 

ufotkbkbf fnjv,bhsdblfy ths v[fhtc (yf[\ 6)\ ]b,hblekb jh,bnfkt,bc 

hbw[db cfo'bcb jh,bnfkt,bc hbw[db njkbf\ ]b,hblekb 

jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbs ofhvjmvybkb ,vf eahj vnrbwtf= 

dblht fhf]b,hblekbs= dbyfblfy ]b,hblekb jh,bnfkt,bc itv- 

itcf,fvbcfl vtnbf ,vbc tythubfw lf fvbnjv eahj vnrbwtf ,vf\ 

bvbc vb[tldbs= se hfvltyb lf hjvtkb jh,bnfkt,b vjyfobktj,c 

]b,hblbpfwbfib= ufyfc[dfdt,ty sp, sp 2 , sp 3 lf f\i\ ]b,hblbpfwbt,c\ 

sp-]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,c 

thsb s lf thsb p-jh,bnfkb 

(s+p)-jh,bnfkb 

sp 2 -]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,c 

thsb s lf jhb p-jh,bnfkb 

66 67 

jhb sp-jh,bnfkb 

(s+p+p)-jh,bnfkb cfvb sp 2 -jh,bnfkb 

sp 3 -]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,c 

thsb s lf cfvb p-jh,bnfkb 

(s+p+p+p)-jh,bnfkb js[b sp 3 -jh,bnfkb 

s[dtdfib tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbc [fhbc[b vtnbf= yf[\ 6\ cfdfktynj jh,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbf

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib fmdc js[b ufeo'dbkt,tkb 

tktmnhjyb| 

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vtsfybc (CH 4 ) vjktrekbc ofhvjmvybcfc yf[ibh,flbc fnjvib 

]b,hblbpfwbfc ufybwlbc thsb s- lf p-jh,bnfkb= ofhvjbmvyt,f 

js[b thsyfbhb ]b,hblekb sp 3 -jh,bnfkb= hjvkt,bw uflfbafht,f 

js[b fnjvb o'fk,flbc s-jh,bnfkt,bs lf ofhvjbmvyt,f 

vtsfybc vjktrekf js[b trdbdfktynehb ,vbs\ cfdfktynj res[t 

]b,hblek jh,bnfkt,c ijhbc itflutyc 109 0 28 ' (yf[\ 7). 

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yf[\ 7\ vtsfybc vjktrekbc fqyfuj,bc cmtvf 

mbvbehb ,vf lf dfktynj,f 

sfyfvtlhjdt vj.qdht,f dfktynj,bc itcf[t, xfvj'fkb,lf vfc 

itvltu= hfw lflubylf fnjvbc hsekb ,eyt,f lf itveifdlf mbvbehb 

,vbc stjhbf\ 

wyj,bkbf= hjv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c fmdc eyfhb= ufcwty fy 

vbbthsjc tktmnhjyt,bc ufhrdtekb hfjltyj,f fy ofhvjmvyfc 

cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,b c[df fnjvt,sfy\ tktmnhjyt,c= 

hjvkt,bw vjyfobktj,c fnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vt,bc ofhvjmvyfib= 

cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b tojlt,f\ mbvbehb tktvtynbc 

cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db njkbf tktvtynbc /ueabc 

yjvhbcf gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,c egbhdtktc'jdkbcf 

vbtresdyt,f ufht (lfevsfdht,tkb) ihbc tktmnhjyt,b= 

vfuhfv cfdfktynj itb.kt,f b'jc fuhtsdt ufht ihbc obyf 

ihbc tktmnhjyt,bw (vfu\| Cr, Fe lf 'dtkf sfyfehb mdt/ueabc 

tktvtynt,bcsdbc)\ 

mbvbehb ,vbc itcf[t, vj.qdht,bc ufydbsfht,fcsfy thsfl itbwdfkf 

sdbs wyt,f dfktynj,bc itcf[t,\ fv;fvfl dfktynj,f ufybcfpqdht,f 

mbvbehb ,vt,bc hbw[dbs= hjvkbsfw vjwtvekb tktvtynbc 

fnjvb erfdibhlt,f c[df fnjvt,c\ mbvbehb ,vt,bc hbw[db 

rb ufybcfpqdht,f fnjvib ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,bs= 

hjvkbc [fh/ptw [lt,f cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,bc 

ofhvjmvyf\ fvfcsfyfdt= v[tldtkj,fib fh vbbqt,f ,vbc gjkfhj,f= 

hbc ufvjw dfktynj,fc fhf fmdc ybifyb\ 

fvudfhfl= hflufy dfktynj,f ufybcfpqdht,f mbvbeh ,vfsf hbw[dbs= 

hjvtkbw fh itb.kt,f b'jc lflt,bsb= efh'jab fy yekbc 

njkb= itcf,fvbcfl dfktynj,fw fh itb.kt,f b'jc fhw lflt,bsb= 

fhw efh'jabsb lf fhw yekbc njkb\ fv sdfkcfphbcbs ufydb[bkjs 

fpjnbc dfktynj,f vbc pjubths yfthsib= vfu\= NH -ib lf 

3 

+ NH -ib\ fpjnbc fnjvbc uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekb- 

4 

lfy xfyc= hjv fpjnbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvb ufeo'db- 

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kt,tkb tktmnhjyb = fvbnjv vfc ite.kbf ofhvjmvyfc 

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cfvb mbvbehb ,vf lf vbcb dfktynj,f njkb bmyt,f cfvbc\ se rjdf- 

ktynehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytk sbsjtek o'dbkc fqdybiyfds [fpbs= 

vfiby vbdbqt,s itvltub cf[bc ajhvekt,c| 

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hjujhw dbwbs= rjdfktynehb ,vf itb.kt,f ufy[jhwbtkltc 

ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvbsfw\ vfufkbsfl= fvjybevbc 

+ bjyib (NH ) udfmdc js[b rjdfktynehb ,vf= fmtlfy thsb ofh- 

4 

vjmvybkbf ljyjhek fmwtgnjhekb-vtmfybpvbs|

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= fvbnjv fpjnbc fnjvb js[dfktynbfybf\ 

itcf.kt,tkbf fnjvib ufbpfhljc ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,bc 

hfjltyj,f lf= itcf,fvbcfl= dfktynj,fw\ tc [lt,f bv itvs[dtdfib= 

hjltcfw fnjvb uflflbc fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib\ fv 

lhjc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,kt,b bikt,f thstktmnhjybfy 

qhe,kt,fl\ vfufkbsfl= yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc yjhvfkeh vlujvfhtj,fib 

fmdc jhb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb| 

6C 1s22s22p3 �� 

t\b\ ite.kbf ufvjfv;qfdyjc 

2-bc njkb dfktynj,f\ fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib uflfcdkbcfc 

2p 

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[lt,f ufo'dbkt,ekb tktmnhjyt,bc ufywfkrtdt,f= hbc itltuflfw 

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc exylt,f 4 ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb= 

hjvtksf [fh/ptw ofhvjmvybc mbvbeh ,vfc lf= itcf,fvbcfl= fv;qfdyt,c 

4-bc njk dfktynj,fc| �� 

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;fyudbc [fhbc[b 

hsekb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekfib c[dflfc[df tktvtynbc 

fnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vf fhfcbvtnhbekbf\ bjyeh yfthst,ib 

tktmnhjyt,bc tc esfyf,hj ufyfobkt,f vfmcbvfkehbf= rth.jl= 

bjyehb yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b ghfmnbrekfl 

vskbfyfl uflflbc thsb tktvtynbc fnjvblfy vtjht tktvtynbc 

fnjvpt\ yfthst,ib fnjvt,c ijhbc tktmnhjyt,bc esfyf,hj 

ufyfobkt,fv vbbqj lf;fyuekj,bc cf[tkojlt,f\ fvfcsfy= 

tktvtynb= hjvkbc tktmnhjyt,b uflfbotdf c[df tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty 

(vskbfyfl bjyehb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib fy yfobkj,hbd _ gjkfhek-rjdfktynehb 

,vbc itvs[dtdfib)= fv;qfdyt,c lflt,bs lf- 

;fyuekj,fc= [jkj tktvtynb= hjvkbc fnjvbcrtyfw uflfbotdf 

c[df fnjvt,bc tktmnhjyt,b= fv;qfdyt,c efh'jabs lf;fyuekj,fc\ 

tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[dc= hjvtkbw uflfotekbf thsb tktvtynbc 

fnjvblfy vtjht tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty= tojlt,f ;fyudbc [fhbc- 

[b= fye ;fyudbc hbw[db\ 

fvudfhfl= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (fye ;fyudbc hbw[db) fhbc vjktrekfib 

fnjvt,bc gbhj,bsb ve[nb= ufvjsdkbkb bv vjcfpht,blfy= 

hjv vjktrekf itlut,f v[jkjl bjyt,bcfufy\ 

bjyeh yfthsib bjybc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b= fye ;fyudbc hbw[db= 

70 71 

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njkbf fv bjybc ve[nbc cblblbc= vfufkbsfl= Na Cl, 

Cu O lf f\i\ 

eylf fqbybiyjc= hjv lf;fyuekj,bc [fhbc[b ajhvfkehb ufut,ff 

lf fh f[fcbfst,c fnjvbc htfkeh vlujvfhtj,fc yfthst,ib= 

bvltyfl= hfvltyflfw rjdfktynehb yfthst,bw ufyb[bkt,f= hjujhw 

bjyt,bcufy itvlufhb= sevwf= cbyfvldbktib= fv yfthst,ib bjyt,b 

fh fhbc\ rjdfktyneh yfthst,ib sbsjtekb fnjvbc ;fyudbc 

hbw[dc cfpqdhfdty bv ve[nbc cblblbs= hjvtkbw lfhxt,f vjwtvek 

fnjvc vfc itvltu= hfw itvfthst,tk o'dbk tktmnhjyc jh= 

thsvfytssfy it,vekb fnjvblfy eahj tktmnhjefh'jabs fnjvc 

vbfresdyt,ty\ vfu\| 

�3 

� � �2 

� � 

N H, 

H2 

S, 

H2 

O2 

lf f\i\ 

vfhnbd ybdsbtht,fsf fnjvt,c f[fcbfst,c yekjdfyb ;fyudbc 

0 0 0 0 

hbw[db= vfu\| H 2, 

Cl2 

, O2 

, N lf f\i\= hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib 

2 

lfvfrfdibht,tkb tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb (tktmnhjyekb qhe- 

,tkb) sfyf,hfl tresdybc jhbdt fnjvc\ se ybdsbtht,f bv'jat,f 

fnjveh vlujvfhtj,fib= fnjvbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[bw fuhtsdt yekbc 

njkbf\ 

;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wyt,f ufycfresht,ek ufvj'tyt,fc gjekj,c 

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc itcofdkbc lhjc\ fv htfmwbt,ib 

thsb fnjvblfy vtjht fnjvpt tktmnhjyt,bc vskbfyb uflfcdkbs 

fy yfobkj,hbdb uflfpbldbc itvltu bwdkt,f vfsb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b\ 

o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 'dtkf yfthst,ib (+1)-bf= ufhlf 

kbsjysf ]blhblt,bc= hjvkt,ibw o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 

(-1)-bc njkbf\ vfu\| 

� 

� 

�2 

Na H, 

Ca H lf f\i\ 

� 

2

;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 'dtkf yfthsib (-2)-bc njkbf= 

ufvjyfrkbcbf asjhsfy yfthsb _ OF 2 = hjvtkibw ;fyu,flbc 

;fyudbc [fhbc[b (+2)-bf\ F-bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b rb 'jdtksdbc nj- 

kbf (-1)-bc\ gthjmcblt,ib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (-1)-bc nj- 

� 

� 

�2 

� 

kbf\ vfu\| Na 2 O2 

, Ca 2 O2 

lf f\i\ nent kbsjyt,bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 

'jdtksdbc (+1)-bc= [jkj nentvbofkbsjyt,bc (+2)\ 

yt,bcvbth yfthsib fnjvt,bc lflt,bsb lf efh'jabsb ;fyudbc 

[fhbc[bc /fvb yekbc njkbf\ 'jdtkbdt ptvjs fqybiyekbc lf[vfht,bs 

itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs yt,bcvbthb fnjvbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 

c[dflfc[df yfthsib\ vfu\| Na SO -ib ufydcfpqdhjs uj- 

2 3 

ubhlbc (S) ;fyudbc [fhbc[b\ bub fqdybiyjs �-bs\ dbwbs= hjv ;fyu- 

,flbc ;fyudbc hbw[db (-2)-bc njkbf= Na-bc _ (+1)-bc= vfiby vbdbqt,s| 

2 . (+1) + � + 3 . (-2) = 0 

2 + � + (-6) = 0 

� = +4 

ufydcfpqdhjs fpjnbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b vbc itvltu yfthst,ib| 

H + N5O-2 3 , N+4O-2 2 , H+ N +3O-2 2 , N+2O-2 , N + 

2O-2 0 -2 0 , N , N2 H , N- 

2 

4 

3 H + 

3 

\ t\b\ ;fyudbc [fhbc[b itb.kt,f b'jc lflt,bsb= efh'jabsb lf 

yekbc njkb= hbsfw bub ufyc[dfdlt,f dfktynj,bcufy\ 

,tdh itvs[dtdfib fnjvbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fh tvs[dtdf vfs 

vbth ofhvjmvybk ,vfsf hbw[dc= t\b\ dfktynj,fc\ tc ufycfresht,bs 

sdfkcfxbyjf jhufyek yfthst,ib\ wyj,bkbf= hjv jhufyek 

yfthst,ib yf[ibh,flbc dfktynj,f 'jdtksdbc js[bc njkbf 

(ofhvjmvybc js[ ,vfc)= vfuhfv vbcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b itb.kt,f b'jc 

(-4)-bc njkb CH 4 -ib+ (-2)-bc njkb _ CH 3 OH-ib+ 0-bc njkb _ 

// O 

ajhvfklt]blib ( H_ C )+ (+2)-bc njkb _ zbfyzdtkfv;fdfib 

\ H 

(HCOOH) lf f\i\ 

cfthsjl= tktvtynbc evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b yfthst,ib 

njkbf /ueabc yjvhbcf\ ufhlf evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[bcf= fh- 

6 2 

xtdty evlf,ktc lf cfiefkj ;fyudbc [fhbc[t,cfw\ vfu\| H2 S O4 

� � � 

- 

4 2 

ib ujubhlc fmdc evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (+6)+ H2 S O3 

� � � 

-ib uj- 

+ 

_ 

ubhlb fv;qfdyt,c iefktleh ;fyudbc [fhbc[c (+4)\ [jkj H S 2- 

2 

ib ujubhlbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[velf,ktcbf (_2)\ 

bjyehb ,vf 

,vfc= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f cfobyffqvltujl lfve[nek 

bjyt,c ijhbc tktmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpblekj,bc .fkt,bs= tojlt,f 

bjyehb= fye tktmnhjdfktynehb ,vf\ 

bjyehb ,vbs thsvfytsc erfdibhlt,f bctsb tktvtynt,bc 

fnjvt,b= hjvkt,bw vrdtshfl ufyc[dfdlt,f thsvfytsbcfufy tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs\ 

fctst,bf nbgehb kbsjyt,b lf nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,b\ 

bjyehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf ufydb[bkjs NaCl-bc ofhvjmvybc vfufkbspt\ 

yfnhbevbcf lf mkjhbc fnjvsf fqyfuj,blfy (Na - 

1s22s22p63s1 , Cl - 1s22s22p63s23p5 ) xfyc= hjv vfs fnjvt,c fmdc lfechekt,tkb 

ufht iht\ fv ihbc lfvsfdht,bcsdbc Na-bc fnjvb fldbkfl 

ufcwtvc cfdfktynj ihbc ths tktmnhjyc lf ufhlfbmvyt,f 

+1 ve[nbfy bjyfl 

72 73 

� 

Na � e � Na 

0 = hbc itltuflfw Na-bc rjy- 

abuehfwbf uflflbc vluhfl hdftktmnhjybfy ufhcib lf tvcufdct,f 

bythnek fbh Ne-c (Na + -bc bjyb 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 )= [jkj Cl-bc fnjvb 

rb (cfdfktynj ihbc lfchekt,fc frkbf thsb tktmnhjyb) fldbkfl 

bthst,c tktmnhjyc lf ufhlfbmvyt,f efh'jabs thsve[nbfy 

bjyfl 

Cl 0 

� 

� e � Cl \ fv lhjc Cl-bc ufhcb uflflbc bythnekb fbhbc 

fhujybc vluhfl rjyabuehfwbfib (Cl _ -bc bjyb 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 )\

Na + lf Cl - bjyt,c ijhbc fqb.dht,f tktmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpbldbc 

.fkt,b lf ofhvjbmvyt,f bjyehb yfthsb NaCl\ 

mbvbehb ,vbc sfyfvtlhjdt stjhbf bjyeh ,vfc ufyb[bkfdc= 

hjujhw rjdfktynehb ,vbc pqdhekb gjkfhbpfwbbc itvs[dtdfc= 

hjwf cfthsj tktmnhjyekb od'bkb vskbfyfl uflflbc ths-thsb 

fnjvbc vakj,tkj,fib| 

�� 

�� 

Na� 

� �Cl 

: � Na: 

Cl : 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

� � � 

Na : Cl : � Na 

�� 

�: 

Cl : 

�� 

� 

� � 

bjyeh ,vfc= ufyc[dfdt,bs rjdfktynehbcufy= fh f[fcbfst,c 

vbvfhsekt,f lf uf/tht,ekj,f\ 

'dtkf bjyehb yfthsb (v'fh vlujvfhtj,fib) [fcbfslt,f bjyehb 

rhbcnfkehb vtchbs= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c fv nbgbc yfthst,bc 

leqbkbcf lf kqj,bc vfqfk ntvgthfnehfc\ 

bjyehb yfthst,bc vybidytkjdfyb sdbct,ff bc= hjv o'fkib 

uf[cybcfc fy ufkqj,bcfc bikt,f bjyt,fl= hbc itltuflfw vfsb 

[cyfht,b lf yfkqj,t,bw fnfht,c tktmnhek ltyc= fvbnjv vfs 

tktmnhjkbnt,b tojlt,f\ 

kbsjyehb ,vf 

wyj,bkbf= hjv kbsjyt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf vfqfkb 

kqj,bc ntvgthfnehf= cbyfskbc c[bdt,bc fhtrdkbc eyfhb= vfqfkb 

tktmnhj- lf cbs,jufvnfhj,f= ufzbvdbcf lf ukbydbc rfhub 

eyfhb\ kbsjysf 'dtkf tc sfdbct,eht,f fb[cyt,f vfsb rhbcnfkehb 

vtchbc fqyfuj,bs= vfs rhbcnfkeh vtcthib fnjvt,c ijhbc 

ufycfresht,ekb [fcbfsbc ,vbc _ kbsjyehb ,vbc fhct,j,bs\ 

kbsjysf fnjvt,bc evtntcj,f ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt 

itbwfdc tktmnhjyt,bc vwbht hbw[dc\ ufhlf fvbcf= kbsjysf 

� 

fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt fmdc ,tdhb sfdbceafkb jh- 

,bnfkb= cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b cfrvfjl cecnfl fhbc itrfdibht,ekb 

fnjv,bhsdsfy\ kbsjyt,bc bjybpfwbbc tythubf vwbhtf= 

fvbnjv tktmnhjyt,bc rfdibhb fnjvt,sfy fldbkfl o'lt,f= hbc 

ufvjw rhbcnfkeh vtcthib uflfyfwdkt,bc lblb sfdbceakt,f 

fmdc\ wfkrtek fnjvt,c vjo'dtnbkb tktmnhjyt,b ofhvjmvybc 

t\o\ tktmnhjyek ufpc _ @sfdbceafkb# tktmnhjyt,bc thsj,kbj,fc\ 

fvudfhfl= kbsjyt,b itudb.kbf ofhvjdblubyjs= hjujhw lflt,bsb 

bjyt,bc vzblhjl itrfdibht,ekb cnhemnehf= hjvkt,bw 

thsvfytssfy lfrfdibht,ekbf tktmnhjyekb ufpbs= fvfcsfy= 

ufthsbfyt,ekb tktmnhjyt,bc itlfht,bs vwbht hbw[db frfdibht,c 

thsvfytssfy bjysf lbl hbw[dc\ 

mbvbehb ,vbc cf[tc= hjvtkbw kbsjybc bjyt,cf lf sfdbceakfl 

vj.hfd ufthsbfyt,ek tktmnhjyt,c (tktmnhjyek ufpc) ijhbc 

ehsbthsvbpblekj,bc itltufl [jhwbtklt,f= kbsjyehb 

,vf tojlt,f\ 

hfvltyflfw kbsjybc rhbcnfkib cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b 

ufyfobkt,ekbf sbsmvbc sfyf,hfl= bvltyfl ite.kt,tkbf kfgfhfrb 

kbsjyehb ,vbc vbvfhsekt,fpt\ fvbs bc vrdtshfl ufyc[dfdlt,f 

rjdfktynehb ,vbcfufy= hjvtkcfw fmdc ufhrdtekb vbvfhsekt,f 

cbdhwtib\ kbsjyehb ,vf ufyc[dfdlt,f rjdfktynehb ,vbcfufy 

cbvnrbwbsfw\ vbcb ,vbc tythubf 3-4-/th vwbhtf rjdfktynehb 

,vbc tythubfcsfy itlfht,bs\ kbsjyeh ,vfc fmdc cfthsj 

rjdfktyneh ,vfcsfy= rth.jl bc= hjv kbsjyehb ,vfw [jhwbtklt,f 

cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc ufthsbfyt,bc cfae.dtkpt= 

v[jkjl bv ufyc[dfdt,bs= hjv rjdfktynehb ,vbc lhjc cfpbfhj 

[lt,f jhb vtpj,tkb fnjvbc tktmnhjyt,b= [jkj kbsjyehb ,vbc 

ofhvjmvyfib tktmnhjyt,bc ufthsbfyt,fib 'dtkf fnjvb bqt,c 

vjyfobktj,fc\ rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytkb tktmnhjyt,b 

thsvfytssfy frfdibht,c jh fnjvc lf vfssfy vnrbwtlff lfrfdibht,ekb\ 

kbsjyehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytkb tktmnhjyt,b rb sf- 

74 75

dbceakfl uflfflubklt,f vstk rhbcnfkib lf thsyfbhfl tresdybc 

'dtkf fnjvc\ 

fvudfhfl= kbsjyehb ,vf fhbc .ktbh fhfkjrfkbpt,ekb mbvbehb 

,vf= hjvtkbw fqb.dht,f bv itvs[dtdfib= hjltcfw sfdbceafkb 

cfdfktynj jh,bnfkt,bc hfjltyj,fcsfy itlfht,bs fnjvt,c 

fmdc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc vwbht hbw[db= hjvkt,bw 

bjybpfwbbc lf,fkb tythubbc ufvj cecnfl fhbc lfrfdibht,ekb 

fnjv,bhsdsfy\ 

o'fk,flehb ,vf 

,vf= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f o'fk,flbc lflt,bs bjycf lf 

hjvtkbvt .kbthb tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvt,c ijhbc 

(fctsb tktvtynt,bf F, O, N lf f\i\)= o'fk,flehb ,vf tojlt,f\ 

o'fk,flehb ,vf itb.kt,f b'jc vjktrekfsfijhbcb lf ibufvjktrekehb\ 

vjktrekfsfijhbcb o'fk,flehb ,vf [jhwbtklt,f bcts vjktrekt,c 

ijhbc= hjvtksf itlutybkj,fib itlbc o'fk,flbcf 

lf hjvtkbvt .kbth tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvt,b\ 

fcts vjktrekfib cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb uflfpblekbf 

o'fk,flblfy tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty\ 

o'fk,flc exylt,f lflt,bsb ve[nb= bub ehsbthsmvtlt,c c[df 

fnjvbc fy bjybc ufe'jatk tktmnhjyek o'dbksfy= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f o'fk,flehb ,vf\ flht o'fk,flehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyfc 

[cyblyty tktmnhjcnfnbrehb ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ghjnjycf 

lf c[df gjkfhek /ueac ijhbc\ lqtbcfsdbc rb sdkbfy= 

hjv o'fk,flehb ,vbc ufy[jhwbtkt,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb 

vtmfybpvbs vbvlbfyhtj,c= cflfw o'fk,flbc lflt,bsb bjyb (ghjnjyb) 

fmwtgnjhbf= [jkj .kbth tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc 

fnjvb _ ljyjhb\ xdtekt,hbd= o'fk,fleh ,vfc fqybiyfdty 

othnbkt,bs\ bub eahj cecnb ,vff= dblht rjdfktynehb ,vf (lff[kjt,bs 

15-20-/th)\ o'fk,flehb ,vbc cb.kbtht lfvjrblt,e- 

kbf bv fnjvt,bc hflbecpt lf tktmnhjefh'jabsj,fpt= hjvtksf 

ijhbcfw ofhvjbmvyt,f\ rth.jl= hfw eahj vwbhtf fnjvbc hflbecb 

lf lblbf tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f= vbs eahj .kbthbf o'fk,flehb 

,vf\ o'fk,flehb ,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f vfu\= o'kbc vjktrekt,c ijhbc\ 

o'kbc vjktrekfib ,vf o'fk,flcf lf ;fyu,flc ijhbc fhbc gjkfhekb= 

cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb uflfpblekbf o'fk,flblfy 

;fyu,flbcrty= hbc ufvjw o'fk,flc fmdc vwbht lflt,bsb 

ve[nb lf ite.kbf ehsbthsmvtlt,f o'kbc vtjht vjktrekbc 

;fyu,flbc fnjvbc ufepbfht,tk tktmnhjyek o'dbksfy= hbc 

itltuflfw fqb.dht,f o'fk,flehb ,vf= [lt,f o'kbc vjktrekt,bc 

fcjwbfwbf lf ofhvjbmvyt,f ntnhftlhekb cnhemnehf\ 

O O 

76 77 

. . 

O 

. . . 

H 

H 

. . . 

O 

o'fk,flehb ,vt,b ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt cgbhnbc vjktrekt,c 

ijhbc= HF-bc vjktrekt,c ijhbc lf c[df\ 

H _ O � H _ O � H _ O � 

C 

| 

R 

O _ H 

O 

. . . 

O _ H 

| 

R 

H 

H 

. . 

. . 

O 

hjujhw fqdybiyts= o'fk,flehb ,vf 

itb.kt,f ufy[jhwbtkltc vjktrekbc ibuybs\ 

vfu\= cfkbwbkbc v;fdfib o'fk,flehb 

,vf fqb.dht,f jh aeymwbjyfkeh /ueac ijhbc= 

hjvtkbw bodtdc O_H ,vbc gjkfhbpt,fc 

lf v;fdfc cb.kbthbc ufphlfc\ 

| 

R

o'fk,flehb ,vt,b ufycfresht,bs ufdhwtkt,ekbf ,bjkjubehfl 

vybidytkjdfyb yfthst,bc vjktrekt,ib= hjujhbwff wbkt,b= 

yerktbybc v;fdt,b lf c[df\ 

o'fk,flehb ,vf ufdktyfc f[ltyc ybdsbtht,fsf sdbct,t,pt\ 

fv ,vbc fhct,j,bs fb[cyt,f o'kbc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc 

(100 0 C) uflblt,f= ;fyu,flbc /ueabc c[df tktvtynbc o'fk,flyfthst,sfy 

itlfht,bs (H 2 S, H 2 Se, H 2 Te)= hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib cfzbhjf 

lfvfnt,bsb tythubf o'fk,flehb ,vt,bc ufcf[ktxfl\ 

HF-bc vjktrekt,c ijhbc o'fk,flehb ,vbc fhct,j,bs fb[cyt,f 

bc afmnb= hjv anjho'fk,flb xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib cbs[tf= 

lfyfhxtyb ]fkjutyo'fk,flt,b rb fbhflbf\ 

SFDB &^ 

MBVBEHB HTFMWBT

ht,bc vbvfhs 1 fnv\ oytdbc lf 250C-bc (198=15 K) ntvgthfnehbc 

lhjc\ bub fqbybiyt,f �H0 lf bpjvt,f r/jekbs\ vfufkbsfl= 

298 

H + 1/2 (O ) = H O ��H = -286 r/jekb\ 

2(fbhb) 2 (fbhb) 2 (cbs[t) 

tynhjgbf\ 'dtkf mbvbehb ghjwtcb itbwfdc jh sfyfvbvltdhek 

vjdktyfc| tythubbc uflfwtvfc lf yfobkfrt,bc vjeotchbut,kj- 

,fib uflfcdkfc\ cbcntvbc vjeotchbut,kj,bc vfc[fcbfst,tkb fhbc 

tynhjgbf\ tynhjgbf vwbhlt,f= se cbcntvf eahj vjotchbut,ekb 

[lt,f\ tc ghjwtcb rb sfdbcsfdfl fh vbvlbyfhtj,c\ se jh ,fkjyib 

udfmdc c[dflfc[df fbhb bltfkeh vlujvfhtj,fib lf vfs ijhbc 

itvfthst,tk jyrfyc ufd[cybs= bcbyb itthtdbfy thsvfytsc= cfyfv 

fh ufdhwtklt,bfy vstk vjwekj,fib thsyfbhfl\ tynhjgbf ufbphlt,f\ 

vfsb ufywfkrtdt,f sfdbcsfdfl fh vj[lt,f\ 

mbvbeh htfmwbfib tynhjgbbc wdkbkt,f ufybcfpqdht,f ajhvekbs| 

�S = S 2 _ S 1 = cflfw S 1 fhbc 'dtkf cfo'bcb ybdsbtht,bc 

tynhjgbt,bc /fvb= [jkj S 2 _ htfmwbbc 'dtkf rjvgjytynbc tynhjgbt,bc 

/fvb\ 

mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib tynhjgbbc wdkbkt,fpt itb.kt,f dbvc- 

/tkjs vjwekj,bc wdkbkt,bs\ 

1/2 C (v'fhb) + 1/2CO 2 (fbhb) = CO (fbhb) 

fv htfmwbfib vjwekj,f bphlt,f �V>0= tynhjgbfw ufbphlt,f\ 

fvbfrbc ofhvjmvybcfc N 2 (fbhb) + 3H 2 (fbhb) = 2NH 3 (fbhb) cbcntvbc 

vjwekj,f vwbhlt,f= itcf,fvbcfl itvwbhlt,f tynhjgbfw\ 

se htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c v'fh afpfib= vfufkbsfl= 

Al + Sb = AlSb = fhw vjwekj,f lf fhw tynhjgbf 

(v'fhb) (v'fhb) v'fhb) 

fh bwdkt,f\ 

cnfylfhnek tynhjgbfc= tysfkgbbc vcufdcfl= pjvfdty 1 vjkb 

ybdsbtht,bc vbvfhs= 1 fnv\ oytdbc lf 250C (298,15 K) ntvgthfnehbc 

gbhj,t,ib\ bub fqbybiyt,f S0 298 \ 

bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb\ 

/b,cbc tythubf 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc lhjc flubkb fmdc jh ntyltywbfc| 1) yfobkfrt,bc 

cohfadfc ufthsbfylyty= hfw fvwbht,c tysfkgbfc+ 2) yfobkfrt,bc 

cohfadfc ufywfkrtdlyty= hfw phlbc tynhjgbfc\ fv ghjwtcbc 

/fvehb tatmnb velvbdb oytdbc lf ntvgthfnehbc gbhj,t,ib 

fhbc bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb= fye /b,cbc tythubf\ 

�G = �H _ T�S 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc itcf.kt,tkb vbvlbyfhtj,bc vfxdtyt,tkbf= 

hjwf �G < 0\ se �G > 0 htfmwbbc vbvlbyfhtj,f ite.kt,tkbf\ 

[jkj se �G = 0= vfiby cbcntvf ojyfcojhj,fibf\ 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lf 

vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfhbc vf[fcbfst,tkb fhbc cfo'bcb lf cf,jkjj 

ghjlemnbc rjywtynhfwbbc wdkbkt,f lhjbc thstekib\ 

se rjywtynhfwbbc cfo'bc lf cf,jkjj vybidytkj,t,c fqdybiyfds 

C 1 lf C 2 -bs= [jkj ntvgthfnehfc itcf,fvbcfl t 1 lf t 2 -bs= vfiby 

c 

V � � 

t 

80 81 

2 

2 

� c 

� t 

1 

1 

�c 

� � 

�t 

(_) ybifyb botht,f vfiby= hjltcfw ybdsbtht,bc rjywtynhfwbfc 

dfyufhbij,s cfo'bcb ghjlemnbcfufy= hflufy C 2 < C 1 \ se 

rjywtynhfwbbc ufycfpqdhf [lt,f cf,jkjj ghlemnbs= vfiby cfzbhjf 

(+) ybifyb= hflufy vbqt,ekb ghjlemnbc rjywtynhfwbf 

bphlt,f (C 2 > C 1 )\ 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lfvjrblt,ekbf _ vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,bc 

,eyt,fpt= rjywtynhfwbfpt= ntvgthfnehfpt= fmnbdfwbbc 

tythubfpt= rfnfkbpfnjhpt\

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf ,eyt,bc ufdktyf mbvbehb htfmwbbc 

cbxmfhtpt itb.kt,f ufvjbcf[jc itvltub htfmwbt,bc vb[tldbs| 

H2 � F2 

� 

H 

2 

� Cl 

2 

2HF 

h� 

� 2HCl 

gbhdtkb htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c cb,ytktibw= vtjht rb v[jkjl 

cbyfsktpt\ 

2NO + O 2 = 2NO 

2CO + O 2 = 2CO 2 

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfptw fpjnb (^^) jmcblb cohfafl htfubht,c 

;fyu,flsfy= hfw vehf obstkb athbc fpjnbc (^&) jmcblbc 

ofhvjmvybs fhbc ufygbhj,t,ekb= vfiby= hjltcfw yf[ibh,flbc 

(^^) jmcblb bvfdt gbhj,t,ib sbsmvbc fh htfubht,c ;fyu,flsfy\ 

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf rjywtynhfwbbc ufdktyf\ mbvbehb htfmwbbc 

cbxmfht lfvjrblt,ekbf vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktrekt,bc 

ehsbthsmvtlt,fpt thstek lhjib lf thstek vjwekj- 

,fib\ vjktrekt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,f sfdbc v[hbd lfvjrblt,ekbf 

vfs rjywtynhfwbfpt\ fqybiyekb rfyjypjvbtht,f fhbc vjvmvtl vfcfsf 

rfyjyb= hjvkbc vb[tldbsfw= htfmwbbc cbxmfht gbhlfgbhghjgjhwbekbf 

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbbc yfvhfdkbc\ 

H 2 + J 2 = 2HJ 

tc htfmwbf vjmvtl vfcfsf rfyjybc ufvj'tyt,bs xfbotht,f itvltuyfbhfl| 

V = K [H 2 ][J 2 ]=cflfw V _ htfmwbbc cbxmfhtf= [jkj 

[H 2 ] lf [J 2 ] fhbc o'fk,flbc lf bjlbc rjywtynhfwbt,b\ 

htfmwbbcfsdbc N 2 + 3H 2 = 2NH 3 V = K [N 2 ][H 2 ] 3 

K _ ghjgjhwbekj,bc rjtabwbtynbf= fye htfmwbbc cbxmfhbc 

rjycnfynf\ bub hbw[j,hbdfl htfmwbbc cbxmfhbc njkbf= hjltcfw 

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbf fhbc 1 vjkb\ 

ntvgthfnehbc ufdktyf mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfhtpt\ ntvgthfnehbc 

ufphlbs bphlt,f htfmwbbc cbxmfht\ vfufkbsfl= 

2H 2 + O 2 = 2H 2 O htfmwbbc cbxmfht 300 0 C-pt evybidytkjf= 700 0 C-pt 

htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c v'bcbthfl= fatsmt,bs\ 

dfyn-]jabc otcbc vb[tldbs ntvgthfnehbc 'jdtkb 10 0 Cbs 

ufphlbs= evtntcb htfmwbt,bc cbxmfht bphlt,f 2-4-/th\ 

82 83 

T 

2 

T2 

�T1 

10 

V � � � V 

cflfw VT1 lf V fhbc cbxmfhtt,b cfo'bcc lf cf,jkjj ntvgt- 

T 

2 

hfneht,pt= [jkj g= htfmwbbc ntvgthfnehekb rjtabwbtynb= 

hjvtkbw udbxdtyt,c= hfvlty/th bphlt,f htfmwbbc cbxmfht vjhtfubht 

ybdsbtht,t,bc ntvgthfnehbc 100C-bs ufphlbs\ 

fmnbdfwbbc tythubf\ bvbcfsdbc= hjv vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,c 

ijhbc vj[ltc htfmwbf= cfzbhjf= hjv vjktrekt,c ijhbc vj[ltc 

it/f[t,f\ vfuhfv vjktrekt,c ijhbc 'dtkf it/f[t,f fh bodtdc 

mbvbeh htfmwbfc\ htfmwbf [lt,f v[jkjl vfiby= hjltcfw vjhtfubht 

ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktrekt,b bvltyfl vbef[kjdlt,bfy thsvfytsc= 

hjv vfs ijhbc itcf.kt,tkb [lt,f tktmnhjyekb cbvrdhbdbc 

uflfyfobkt,f lf f[fkb mbvbehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf\ t\b\ vjhtfubht 

ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktrekt,c eylf ]mjyltc bvltyb tythubf= 

hjv itcf.kt,tkb uf[ltc vfs ijhbc fhct,ekb ufypbldbc .fkt,bc 

(tythutnbrekb ,fhbthbc) uflfafhdf\ fcts htfmwbbceyfhbfy vjktrekt,c 

tojlt,f fmnbehb vjktrekt,b= [jkj itcf,fvbc tythubfc 

tojlt,f fmnbdfwbbc tythubf\ yfobkfrt,bc /ueac= hjvtkbw 

vjyfobktj,c fv ghjwtcib= tojlt,f fmnbehb rjvgktmcb\ 

tythubf 

a 

b 

cfo'bcb 

vlujvfhtj,f 

uffmnbdt,ekb 

vlujvfhtj,f 

C 

E 1 

Q 

E 2 

d 

cf,jkjj vlujvfhtj,f 

htfmwbbc rjjhlbyfnb 

T 

1 

yf[\8\ gjntywbfkehb vhelbc 

wdkbkt,f htfmwbbc lhjc

jhlbyfnsf qth.pt uflfpjvbkbf cbcntvbc gjntywbfkehb 

tythubf= [jkj f,cwbcsf qth.pt htfmwbbc rjhlbyfnf= fye htfmwbbc 

upf\ htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c itvltuyfbhfl| fmnbehb H 2 lf J 2 

vjktrekt,b lf/f[t,bcfc ofhvjmvybfy iefktleh fmnbeh rjvgktmcc 

H 2 ....J 2 \ fv rjvgktmcib H_J rfdibhb ofhvjbmvyt,f H_H lf 

J_J rfdibht,bc ufo'dtnbc gfhfktkehfl\ 

H H 

I I 

H - - - - - H 

- - - - 

I - - - - - - - - - - - - - I 

fmnbehb rjvgktmcb 

H 2 - - - - - I 2 

fv uflf/ueat,bc itltufl ofhvjmvybk fmnbeh rjvgktmcib 

fmnbdfwbbc tythubf eahj vwbhtf= dblht cfo'bc vjktrekt,ib 

rfdibhbc vskbfyb ufo'dtnbcfsdbc cfzbhj tythubf\ tyljsthvekb 

lfikbc htfmwbbcsdbc 2HJ(fbhb) �� H 2(fbhb) + J 2(fbhb) �H = 175 

r/jekb= htfmwbbc upf bmyt,f it,heyt,ekb\ cfo'bc lf cf,jkjj 

ljytt,c ijhbc c[dfj,f fhbc htfmwbbc cbs,ehb tatmnb �H\ 

rfnfkbpfnjhbc ufdktyf\ rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc ybdsbtht,f= 

hjvtkbw wdkbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc lf cf,jkjj ghjlemnbc itvflutykj,fib 

fh itlbc\ htfmwbt,c= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c rfnfkbpfnjhbc 

sfy[kt,bs= rfnfkbpehb htfmwbt,b tojlt,f\ 

rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc jhudfhb| lflt,bsb _ fxmfht,c htfmwbbc 

cbxmfhtc lf efh'jabsb _ fvwbht,c htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc\ fv 

erfyfcrytkbc vfufkbsbf ,typbypt hrbybc rfh,jybkbc lfvfnt,f= 

hfw fvwbht,c fatsmt,bc itcf.kt,kj,fc\ 

ufydb[bkjs lflt,bsb rfnfkbpbc vfufkbst,b\ 

rfnfkbpfnjhb ths-ths vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fcsfy itlbc 

htfmwbfib= ofhvjmvybc iefktleh ghjlemnc= hjvkbc cfiefkt- 

,bsfw cf,jkjj ghjlemnb eahj fldbkfl vbbqt,f\ rfnfkbpfnjhb 

fvwbht,c fmnbdfwbbc tythubfcfw\ 

I 

I 

rfnfkbpfnjhbc vjmvtlt,f itb.kt,f itvltuyfbhfl ufvjdcf[js| 

A + B = AB A + K = AK AK + B = AB + K 

vfufkbsfl= SO 2 -bc lf;fyudf SO 3 -fl\ rfnfkbpfnjhbf NO 2 \ 

SO 2 + 1/2O 2 = SO 3 \ 

sfdlfgbhdtkfl SO 2 + NO 2 = SO 3 + NO 

itvltu rb NO + 1/2O 2 = NO 2 

rfnfkbpehb htfmwbt,b b'jaf jh /ueafl _ ]jvjutyehfl 

lf ]tnthjutyekfl\ 

]jvjutyehb rfnfkbpbc lhjc _ rfnfkbpfnjhb lf vjhtfubht 

ybdsbtht,t,b ths afpfibf (fbhflb fy s[tdflb)\ ]tnthjutyekb 

rfnfkbpbc lhjc rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc lfvjerblt,tk 

(v'fh) afpfib\ vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,cf lf rfnfkbpfnjhc ijhbc 

htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c rfnfkbpfnjhbc ptlfgbhpt\ 

rfnfkbpfnjht,b [ibhfl cgtwbabrehfl vjmvtlt,c\ vfufkbsfl= 

tsbkbc cgbhnbc lt]blhfnfwbbc lhjc rfnfkbpfnjhbc 

nbgbc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f vbdbqjs c[dflfc[df ghjlemnb\ 

Al 2O3 C2H 5OH 

�� 

� C2H 

4 � H 2O 

H 3PO4 2C2H 5OH 

��( 

C2H 

5 ) 2O 

� H2O 

Cu 

C2H 5OH 

�� 

CH 3CHO 

� 

84 85 

H 

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f lf 

vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc evtntcj,f itmwtdflbf\ hjltcfw gbhlfgbhb 

lf it,heyt,ekb htfmwbbc cbxmfhtt,b thsyfbhbf= vfiby 

v'fhlt,f ojyfcojhj,f\ vfufkbsfl= htfmwbfib H 2 + J 2 � 2HJ gbhlfgbhb 

htfmwbbc cbxmfht njkbf| V 1 = k 1 [H 2 ][J 2 ]= [jkj it,heyt,ekb 

htfmwbbc cbxmfht V 2 = k 2 [HJ] 2 \ hflufyfw V 1 = V 2 lf K 1 

lf K 2 velvbdb cblbltt,bf= vfsb afhlj,fw bmyt,f velvbdb\ 

2

2 �HI� �H ��I � 

K � K _ ojyfcojhj,bc velvbdff\ 

2 

2 

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f ittcf,fvt,f ufhrdtek gbhj,t,c\ fhct,ekb 

gbhj,t,bc lfhqdtdf bodtdc ojyfcojhj,bc lfhqdtdfc\ 

ufhrdtekb lhjbc itvltu cbcntvf bctd e,heylt,f ojyfcojhek 

vlujvfhtj,fc\ gbhj,t,bc itwdkbc ufdktyfc ojyfcojhj,fpt 

ufycfpqdhfdc kt-ifntkbtc ghbywbgb| se cbcntvf ojyfcojhj- 

,fibf lf hjvtkbvt ufhtufyb afmnjhb fhqdtdc fv ojyfcojhj,fc= 

vfiby sdbsjy cbcntvfib fqb.dht,f .fkt,b= hjvkt,bw lfvhqdtdb 

afmnjhb obyffqvltu fhbc vbvfhsekb\ 

ntvgthfnehbc ufdktyf\ cfhtfmwbj fhtib ntvgthfnehbc vjvfnt,f 

ufphlbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc bv vbvfhsekt,bs= hjvtkbw 

vbvlbyfhtj,c ntvgthfnehbc isfysmvbs (tyljsthvekb htfmwbf)\ 

itcf,fvbcfl= ntvgthfnehbc itvwbht,f ojyfcojhj,fc uflf[hbc 

tupjsthvekb htfmwbbcrty\ vfufkbsfl= 

N + 3H �2NH �H 2 2 3 0 = - 46,2 r/jekb\ 

298 

ntvgthfnehbc vjvfnt,f ufphlbc fvbfrbc lfikbc htfmwbbc 

cbxmfhtc= hflufy cbcntvbc tysfkgbf vwbhlt,f= t\b\ cbs,j ufvjb- 

'jaf\ ghjwtcb tupjsthvekbf\ ntvgthfnehb itvwbht,f lffxmfht,c 

fvbfrbc ofhvjmvyfc (it,heyt,ekb htfmwbf tyljsthvekbf)\ 

oytdbc ufdktyf\ fvbfrbc ofhvjmvybc vfufkbspt ufydb[bkjs 

oytdbc ufdktyf ojyfcojhj,fpt\ gbhlfgbhb htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c 

vjwekj,bc= t\b\ oytdbc itvwbht,bs\ fvbnjv oytdbc ufphlbcfc 

ufbphlt,f gbhlfgbhb htfmwbbc cbxmfht\ 

rjywtynhfwbbc ufdktyf\ se ojyfcojhj,fib v'ja cbcntvfc 

lfdevfnt,s hjvtkbvt rjvgjytync (ufdphlbs rjywtynhfwbfc)= 

vfiby ojyfcojhj,f lfbhqdtdf ufhrdtekb lhjbc ufyvfdkj,fib= 

itvltu [tkf[kf fqlut,f\ vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbbc 

ufphlf phlbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc ghjlemnt,bc ofhvjmvybcfrty\ 

SFDB &^^ 

LBCGTHCBEKB CBCNTVT

cytkb fhbc bc rjvgjytynb= hjvtkbw vtnb hfjltyj,bsff\ xdty 

ufydb[bkfds s[tdfl [cyfht,c\ 

ghfmnbrfib cfertstcj ufv[cytkfl bsdkt,f o'fkb= s[tdflb 

fvbfrb= tsfyjkb= njkejkb= ,typjkb lf c[df\ [cyfht,c lblb vybidytkj,f 

fmdc hjujhw kf,jhfnjhbek rdktdfib= fctdt ofhvjt- 

,fib\ vybidytkjdfybf bcbw= hjv wjw[fk jhufybpvib ybdsbtht,fsf 

wdkbc ghjwtcb vbvlbyfhtj,c s[tdfl vlujvfhtj,fib\ 

[cyfht,ib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc yfobkfrt,b lfrfdibht,ekbf 

ufv[cytkbc vjktrekt,sfy\ se ufv[cytkb o'fkbf= vfs ]blhfnt,b 

tojlt,f (HSO_ . nH2O)= [jkj se ufv[cytkb c[df ybdsbt- 

4 

ht,ff _ cjkdfnt,b\ [cyflj,bc vb[tldbs ufyfc[dfdt,ty| rfhufl 

[cyfl= vwbhtl [cyfl lf ghfmnbrekfl e[cyfl ybdsbtht,t,c 

(f,cjkenehfl e[cyflb ybdsbtht,f fh fhct,j,c)\ 

[cyflj,bc vf[fcbfst,tkb fhbc [cyflj,bc rjtabwbtynb\ hfjltyj,hbdfl 

bub njkbf ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc vfmcbvfkehb 

hfjltyj,bcf uhfvt,ib= hjvtkbw b[cyt,f vjwtvek ntvgthfnehfpt 

100 uhfv ufv[cytkib\ rfhufl [cyflb ybdsbtht,f jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt 

b[cyt,f 10 u-vlt= vwbhtl [cyflb _ 0=1_1 u-vlt= ghfmnbrekfl 

e[cyflb _ 0=001 u-pt yfrkt,b\ 

v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc [cyflj,f ntvgthfnehbc ufphlbs evtntcfl 

bphlt,f= pjubthsb v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc vwbhlt,f\ fctsbf vfufkbsfl= 

Ca(OH) , Li SO \ (yf[\ 9) 

2 2 4 

uf[cyf abpbreh-mbvbehb ghjwtcbf\ bub vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs- 

,ehb tatmnbc sfy[kt,bs\ v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc uf[cybcfc ufv[cytkib 

flubkb fmdc jh ghjwtcc| v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc lfikf vjktrekt,fl 

fy bjyt,fl= hfptw b[fh/t,f tythubf Q lf vjktrekt,bc 

1 

fy bjyt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,f ufv[cytksfy\ fv ghjwtcbc lhjc tythubf 

ufvjb'jaf Q \ 2 

Q = Q + Q 1 2 

se Q < Q = vfiby cbs,j ufvjb'jaf lf uf[cybc ghjwtcb tu- 

1 2 

pjsthvekbf\ hjwf Q > Q = vfiby [lt,f cbs,jc isfysmvf _ ghj- 

1 2 

wtcb tyljsthvekbf\ 

yf[\9\ v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc [cyflj,bc lfvjrblt,ekt,f ntvgthfnehfpt 

fbht,bc o'fkib uf[cybcfc flubkb fmdc v[jkjl ]blhfnfwbbc 

ghjwtcc= fvbnjv cbs,ehb tatmnb 'jdtksdbc lflt,bsbf\ 

kt-ifntkbtc ghbywbgbc vb[tldbs= ntvgthfnehbc ufphlbcfc 

fbht,bc [cyflj,f vwbhlt,f\ ]tyhbc rfyjybc sfyf[vfl= uf[cybkb 

fbhbc hfjltyj,f lfvjrblt,ekbf fv fbht,bc oytdfpt cbs[bc 

ptvjs\ 

N = Kp, cflfw N _ fhbc uf[cybkb fbhbc vjkehb obkb+ p _ 

gfhwbfkehb oytdf= K _ ghjgjhwbekj,bc rjtabwbtynb= hjvtkbw 

lfvjrblt,ekbf fbhbc udfhj,fcf lf ntvgthfnehfpt\ 

fbht,bc [cyflj,f oytdbc ufphlbs bphlt,f\ 

88 89

[cyfht,b fhct,j,c yf/thb= e/thb lf vtnyf/thb\ 

yf/thbf [cyfhb= se ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,f vjwtvek ntvgthfnehfpt 

vtnfl fqfh b[cyt,f vjwtvekb hfjltyj,bc ufv[cytkib\ 

se ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f yfrkt,bf fv ybdsbtht,bc 

[cyflj,fpt= vfiby [cyfhb fhbc e/thb\ se ybdsbtht,bc 

hfjltyj,f vtnbf= dblht vbcb [cyflj,f ([cyfhbc vjvpflt,f itb.kt,f= 

se uf[cybcfc ufdphlbs ntvgthfnehfc lf itvltu ufdfwbt,s 

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfvlt)= fctsb [cyfhb fhbc ptyf/thb= fye 

vtnyf/thb\ fctsb [cyfht,b fhfvluhflbf\ 

fhct,j,c rjywtynhbht,ekb lf ufypfdt,ekb [cyfht,b\ rjywtynhbht,ek 

[cyfhib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,f lblb hfjltyj,bsff= 

ufypfdt,ekib _ vwbht hfjltyj,bs\ [cyfht,bc rjywtynhfwbbc 

ufvjcf[dbc c[dflfc[df [th[b fhct,j,c\ 

1\ ojybsb ghjwtynb udbxdtyt,c uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,fc 

100 uhfv [cyfhib\ 

muf[cy\ 

w% � �100 

m 

[cyfhbc 

se [cyfhb s[tdflbf vbcb vfcbc ufycfpqdhf [lt,f ajhvekbs| 

m = V . r= cflfw V _ vjwekj,ff= r _ cbvrdhbdt (u$vk)\ 

2\ vjwekj,bsb ghjwtynb _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc vbkbkbnhbc 

hfjltyj,f 100 vk [cyfhib\ 

3\ vjkehj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc vjkt,bc hbw[db 1000 vk 

[cyfhib\ 

4\ vjkfkj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc 1 vjkb 1000 vk 

ufv[cytkib\ 

5\ yjhvfkj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc uhfvtmdbdfktynb 1000 

vk [cyfhib\ 

yjhvfkehb [cyfht,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf nbnhb T\ bub 

fhbc 1 vk [cyfhib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f| 

N�" 

T � 

1000 

thsyfbhb yjhvfkj,bc [cyfht,b thsvfytssfy htfubht,c thsyfbhb 

vjwekj,bs\ 

90 91 

N 

N 

v;\ 

nenbc 

V 

� 

V 

v;\ 

nenbc 

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf\ 

t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf 

leqbkbc ntvgthfnehf fhbc bc ntvgthfnehf= hjvkbc lhjcfw 

yf/thb jhsmkbc oytdf cbs[bc ptvjs enjklt,f ufht oytdfc\ 

velvbdb oytdbc lhjc [cyfht,c fmdc eahj vfqfkb leqbkbc ntvgthfnehf= 

dblht ceasf ufv[cytkt,c\ 

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf _ Dt _ gbhlfgbhghjgjhwbekbf 

[cyfhbc rjywtynhfwbbc lf fhf fhbc lfvjrblt- 

,ekb uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt,fpt (hfekbc rfyjyb)\ 

[cyfhbc rjywtynhfwbfl vbqt,ekbf vjkfkj,f (1 vjkb 1 k 

ufv[cytkib)| 

Dt = K t,\ . m 

K t,\ _ t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdff\ vjwtvekb ufv[cytkbcfsdbc 

K t,\ fhbc velvbdb cblblt\ vfufkbsfl= ceasf o'fkb fnvjcathekb 

oytdbc gbhj,t,ib leqc 100 0 C\ 1-vjkfkb rjywtynhfwbbc ybdsbtht,bc 

o'fk[cyfhbc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehf= bubdt oytdfpt= bmyt,f 

100=52 0 C\ 

se wyj,bkbf ufv[cytkbc t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf lf [cyfhbc 

leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf= vfiby itcf.kt,tkbf uf[cybkb 

ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcbc ufvjsdkf\

1000�g 

2 

Mg1 

�t � K t,\ fmtlfy= M � K t,\ � 

1000 g2 

t1g 

1 

cflfw g 1 _ fhbc ufv[cytkbc vfcf+ g 2 _ ybdsbtht,bc vfcf\ 

uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf\ 

rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdf 

[cyfhbc uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf= bctdt= hjujhw leqbkbc 

ntvgthfnehbc fotdf= ceasf ufv[cytksfy itlfht,bs= fh 

fhbc lfvjrblt,ekb uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt,fpt\ 

[cyfhbc uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf gbhlfgbhghjgjhwbekbf 

[cyfhbc vjkfkb rjywtynhfwbbc| 

Dt uf'\ = K rhbjcrjg\ . m 

se ufv[cytkbc vfcfc fqdybiyfds g 1 = [jkj ybdsbtht,bc vfcfc 

g 2 = vbdbqt,s ajhvekfc= cfblfyfw itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs uf[cybkb 

ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcf\ 

1000� 

g 

1000 � g 

2 

� tuf'\ 

� K rhbjcrjg\ 

Mg 

fmtlfy= 

M � K rhbjcr\ 

�t 

g 

1 

rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdt,b ufvjsdkbkbf c[dflfc[df ufv[cytkt,bcsdbc\ 

vfufkbsfl= hjwf 1000 u o'fkib uf[cybkbf thsb 

vjkb ifmfhb fy hjvtkbvt c[df fhftkjmnhjkbnb= uf'bydbc othnbkb 

bmyt,f fhf 0 0 C= fhfvtl _ 1=86 0 C\ t\b\ o'kbc rhbjcrjgbekb 

velvbdf njkbf 1= 86\ 

jcvjcb lf jcvjcehb oytdf 

ybdsbtht,bc uf[cybcfc yt,bcvbth ufv[cytkib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc 

cjkdfnbht,ekb (o'kbc itvs[dtdfib _ ]blhfnbht- 

,ekb) vjktrekt,b lblb rjywtynhfwbbc flubkblfy bo't,ty vj.hfj,fc 

yfrkt,b rjywtynhfwbbcrty\ fv ghjwtcc lbaepbf toj- 

uf'\ 

1 

2 

lt,f\ lbaepbf vsfdhlt,f vfiby= hjwf uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc cjkdfnbht,ekb 

vjktrelkt,b sfyf,hfl ufyfobklt,f [cyfhbc vstk 

vjwekj,fib\ se [cyfhc ufd'jas yf[tdfhitqotdflb vtv,hfybs= 

hjvtkbw fnfht,c ufv[cytkbc vjktrekt,c= vfiby ofhvjbmvyt,f 

oytdf _ jcvjcehb oytdf\ ewdktkb ntvgthfnehbc gbhj,t,ib 

bub uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc rjywtynhfwbbc ghjgjhwbekbf lf fh 

fhbc lfvjrblt,ekb ufv[cytkb lf ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt- 

,fpt\ fvfdt lhjc= bub ntvgthfnehbc gbhlfgbhghjgjhwbekbf\ 

jcvjcehb oytdbc ufvjrdktdt,b cfae.dkfl lftlj dfyn-]jabc 

[cyfhsf stjhbfc\ vtwybthvf itfvxybf= hjv [cyfhbc jcvjcehb oytdf 

njkbf bv oytdbc= hjvtkcfw vjf[ltylf uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,f= se 

bub bvfdt ntvgthfnehfpt fbhfl vlujvfhtj,fib bmyt,jlf lf [cyfhbc 

vjwekj,bc njk vjwekj,fc lfbrfdt,lf\ t\b\ ufypfdt,ekb 

[cyfht,bc jcvjcehb oytdf itb.kt,f ufybcfpqdhjc vtyltkttdrkfgtbhjybc 

ufynjkt,bs| 

pV = nRT= fye p . v = nRT, 

jcv\ 

cflfw v _ [cyfhbc vjwekj,ff= n _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc 

vjkt,bc hbw[db= R _ eybdthcfkehb velvbdf\ 

n 

se ufydcfpqdhfds p = udtmyt,f p = RT 

jcv\ jcv\ v 

n 

_ fhbc vjkehb rjywtynhfwbf= t\b\ pjcv = CRT 

v 

se udfmdc 1-vjkfkb [cyfhb= vfiby 00C-pt p = 0,082 jcv\ . 273 . 1 = 22,4 fnv\ 

ptvjfqybiyekb rfyjypjvbtht,t,b vbcfqt,b b'j bctsb [cyfht,bcsdbc= 

hjvkt,bw fh fnfht,lf tktmnhek ltyc (fhftktmnhjkbnt,b)\ 

bltfkehb [cyfht,blfy uflf[hf itbvxytjlf v;fdt,bc= ae.tt,bc 

lf vfhbkt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc itvs[dtdfib\ tc ghj,ktvf uflfo'dbnf 

fhtybecbc tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbbc stjhbfv\ fv 

stjhbbc sfyf[vfl| v;fdt,b= ae.tt,b lf vfhbkt,b uf[cybcfc sdbs- 

92 93

yt,ehfl ofhvjmvybfy bjyt,c\ fcts [cyfht,c vfy eojlf tktmnhjkbnt,b\ 

bvbcfsdbc= hjv tktmnhjkbnt,bc [cyfht,bw vjmwtekb'j 

fhtybecbc stjhbbc xfhxjt,ib= dfyn-]javf itvjbqj bpjnjyehb 

rjtabwbtynb i\ bub udbxdtyt,c tktmnhjkbnsf [cyfht,ib tmcgthbvtynekfl 

ufycfpqdhekb jcvjcehb oytdf= leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc 

fotdf= uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf= hfvlty/th vtnbf 

stjhbekfl ufvjsdkbk cblbltpt\ 

p = iRTC 

fhtybecvf lfflubyf= hjv 'dtkf [cyfhb= hjvtkbw cfzbhjt,c 

i bpjnjyehb rjtabwbtynbc itvjqt,fc= fhbc tktmnhjkbnb\ 

SFDB &^^^ 

TKTMNHJKBNSF {CYFHT

Ba(OH) 2 lf c[df\ cecnb tktmnhjkbnt,bf| pjubthsb vbythfkehb 

v;fdf _ H 2 CO 3 , H 2 SO 3 , HNO 2 lf c[df= kbsjyt,bc ,tdhb ]blhjmcblb= 

vfs ijhbc nent _ NH 4 OH\ .kbthbf tktmnhjkbnb se 

vbcb ��30%-pt= cfiefkj .fkbc tktmnhjkbnbc ��vth'tj,c 3- 

30%-vlt= [jkj cecnb tktmnhjkbnbf= se vbcb ��\ 

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b lfvjrblt,ekbf c[dflfc[df afmnjhpt| 

f) ufypfdt,fpt| lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b bphlt,f ufypfdt,bcfc\ 

vfufkbsfl= 100%-bfyb H 2 SO 4 ghfmnbrekfl fh itbwfdc bjyt,c\ 

fvbnjv bub htfmwbbceyfhbfyb fh fhbc (fh vjmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfy)= 

vfiby= hjwf ufypfdt,bcfc vbcb fmnbehj,f vrdtshfl bphlt,f\ 

,) tktmnhjkbnbc ,eyt,fpt| vfufkbsfl= 0=1N vfhbkv;fdfc 

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b 18 0 C-pt fhbc 92%\ bvfdt ntvgthfnehfpt 

0,1N ,jhv;fdfc lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b ��= 0,01%\ 

u) ufv[cytkbc ,eyt,fpt= hjvtkbw sfdbc v[hbd lfvjrblt,ekbf 

vbc lbtktmnhbrek itqotdflj,fpt\ hfw eahj vtnbf ufv[cytkbc 

lbtktmnhbrekb velvbdf= vbs yfrkt,bf bjyt,c ijhbc vjmvtlb 

tktmnhjcnfnbrehb .fkf\ 

q1 

� q2 

F � , 

D� 

r 

cflfw q lf q _ c[dflfc[dfybiybfyb bjyt,bf= r _ bjyt,c ijhbc 

1 2 

vfy.bkb\ o'kbcsdbc D = 80= [jkj yfdsib _ D = 2,3\ fvbnjv o'fkib 

ufwbkt,bs fldbkfl [lt,f lbcjwbfwbf\ 

l) ntvgthfnehfpt| ntvgthfnehbc ufphlbcfc cecnb tktmnhjkbnt,bc 

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b bphlt,f= .kbthb tktmnhjkbnt,bc 

rb gbhbmbs= vwbhlt,f\ 

v;fdt,bc= ae.tt,bc= vfhbkt,bc 

tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbf 

tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbbc stjhbbc sdfkcfphbcbs= 

v;fdf tktmnhjkbnbf= hjvtkbw lbcjwbbc lhjc rfsbjybc cf[bs 

ofhvjmvybc v[jkjl o'fk,flbc bjyc\ 

HCl � H + + Cl _ 

vhfdfkae.bfyb v;fdt,b lbcjwbhlt,f cfat[eht,hbdfl| 

H SO � H 2 4 + _ + HSO4 _ + 2_ 

HSO � H + SO4 

4 

H SO � 2H 2 4 + 2_ + SO4 ae.t tktmnhjkbnbf= hjvtkbw lbcjwbfwbbc lhjc efh- 

'jabsb bjybc cf[bs (fybjyb) ofhvjmvybc v[jkjl ]blhjmcblbc 

OH _ bjyc\ ae.tt,b= hjvkt,bw itbwfdc thspt vtn ]blhjmcblbc 

bjyc= lbcjwbhlt,f cfat[eht,hbdfl\ 

Ca(OH) 2 � CaOH + + OH _ 

CaOH + � Ca 2+ + OH _ 

Ca(OH) 2 � Ca 2+ + 2OH _ 

fvajnthekb ae.tt,b lbcjwbhlt,f hjujhw v;fdf= bct _ ae- 

.t\ fvajnthekb ae.tt,b e[cyflbf= vfuhfv vwbht yfobkb vfbyw 

lbcjwbhlt,f| 

96 97 

�Zn( OH) 

� 

2� 

� 

2H 

2O � 

�2 

Zn � 2OH 

� Zn( 

OH) 

2 �� 

2H 

� 

4 

ae.t 

v; fdf 

cfiefkj vfhbkt,b lbcjwbhlt,f kbsjybc lflt,bs lf v;fdehb 

yfisbc efh'jabs bjyt,fl\ 

NaCl � Na + + Cl _ 

Al (SO ) � 2Al 2 4 3 3+ 2_ + 3SO4

v;fdf vfhbkt,b lbcjwbfwbbc itltufl rfsbjybc cf[bs ofhvjmvybc 

kbsjybcf lf o'fk,flbc lflt,bs bjyt,c\ 

NaHCO � Na 3 + _ + HCO3 _ + 2_ 

HCO � H + CO3 

3 

NaHCO � Na 3 + + H + 2_ + CO3 ae.t vfhbkt,b fybjybc cf[bs b.ktdf v;fdehb yfisbcf lf ]blhjmcblbc 

bjyt,c\ 

CaOHCl � CaOH + + Cl_ CaOH + � Ca 2+ + OH _ 

CaOHCl � Ca 2+ + OH _ + Cl _ 

v;fdt,bc lf ae.tt,bc ghjnjkbnehb stjhbf 

fv stjhbbc vb[tldbs= v;fdf fhbc mbvbehb yfthsb= hjvtkcfw ite.kbf 

ufcwtc ghjnjyb\ t\b\ v;fdf ghjnjybc ljyjhbf HA= A _ +H + = 

[jkj ae.t b.tyc ghjnjyc= t\b\ ae.t ghjnjybc fmwtgnjhbf 

B+H + = HB + (HA _ v;fdfc cfthsj ajhvekff= B _ ae.bc)\ ghjnjyekb 

stjhbbc vb[tldbs= sbsjtek v;fdfc ittcf,fvt,f sfdbcb 

ae.t= hjvtkcfw vbybvev thsb ghjnjybs vtnb fmdc\ 

HA � A _ + H + lf B + H + � HB + 

v;fdf 1 ae.t 1 ghjnjyb ae.t 2 ghjnjyb v;fdf 2 

fcts ghjwtcib vjyfobkt v;fdfc lf ae.tc iteqkt,ekb tojlt,f\ 

sbsjtekb v;fdf uflflbc sfdbc itcf,fvbc ae.tib _ ghjnjybc 

lfrfhudbc itltufl= [jkj sbsjtekb ae.t uflflbc sfdbc itcf- 

,fvbc v;fdfib _ ghjnjybc vbthst,bc ufvj\ 

HA/A_ lf HB + /B; vfufkbsfl= 

_ 

fpjnv;fdf lf ybnhfnbjyb| HNO / NO 3 3 

mkjho'fk,flb lf mkjhbjyb| HCl / Cl_ fvjybevbc bjyb lf fvbfrb| NH + 

4 / NH3 ghjnjyekb stjhbbc vb[tldbs v;fdeh sdbct,fc ufvj[fnfdc 

HNO , HCL, NH 3 + 

4 bjyb= [jkj ae.t sdbct,fc NO _ _ + = Cl = NH bjyt,b\ 

3 

4 

ufydb[bkjs fvbfrbs .vfhv;fdfc ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf| 

CH 3 COOH � CH 3 COO _ + H + 

NH 3 + H + � NH + 

4 

CH 3 COOH + NH 3 � CH 3 COO _ + NH + 

4 

v;fdf ae.t ae.t v;fdf 

ghjnjyekb stjhbbc sfyf[vfl= v;fdt,bw lf ae.tt,bw itb.kt,f 

ufdfthsbfyjs cfthsj cf[tkojlt,bs _ ghjnjkbnt,b\ 

ghjnjkbnt,b ybdsbtht,t,bf= hjvkt,cfw ite.kbf ghjnjybc vbthst,f 

(ae.t sdbct,f) fy ufwtvf (v;fdf sdbct,f)\ 

fhct,j,c bctsb ghjnjkbnt,b= hjvkt,cfw gbhj,t,bc vb- 

[tldbs ite.kbf ghjnjybc hjujhw ufwtvf= bct vbthst,f\ vfs tojlt,f 

fvajkbnt,b\ t\b\ fvajkbnt,b thslhjekfl ljyjhbw fhbc 

lf fmwtgnjhbw\ vfufkbsfl= fvajkbnbf ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc bjyb| 

_ _2 + 

HCO � CO3 + H 3 

98 99 

lf HCO _ + _ + H � H2CO \ t\b\ HCO itb.- 

3 

3 3 

_ _2 kt,f itlbjltc jh iteqkt,ek o'dbkib| HCO /CO3 (v;fdehb 

3 

_ sdbct,f) lf H CO / HCO (ae.t sdbct,f)\ 

2 3 3 

o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb 

ceasf o'fkb vwbhtl fhbc lbcjwbht,ekb bjyt,fl| 

H 2 O �� H + + OH _ \ 

1 kbnhb ceasf o'fkb 25 0 C-pt itbwfdc 1 \ 10 _7 vjk o'fk,flbc 

rfsbjyc [H + ] lf 1 \ 10 _7 vjk ]blhjmcbkbc [OH _ ] fybjyc\ velvbdb ntvgthfnehbc 

lhjc [H + ] lf [OH _ ] bjyt,bc vjkehb rjywtynhfwbt,bc 

yfvhfdkb [H + ][OH _ ]= 10 _7\ 10 _7 = 10 _14 vjkb$k velvbdb cblbltf 

lf tojlt,f o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb\ lfdeidfs= [cyfhbcsdbc v;fdbc 

lfvfnt,bcfc [H + ] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf uf[lf 1 \ 10 _3 vjkb$k\ hflufy 

[H + ][OH _ ] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbt,bc yfvhfdkb velvbdb cblbltf= 

fvbnjv [OH _ ] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf uf[lt,f 1 \ 10 _11

vjkb$k\ fyufhbibc ufcfvfhnbdt,kfl itvjqt,ekb bmyf o'fk- 

,flehb vfxdtyt,tkb _ pH= hjvtkbw fhbc [H + ] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbbc 

it,heyt,ekb cblblbc kjufhbsvb\ 

1 

pH � lg 

H 

� � � 

xdtyb itvs[dtdbcfsdbc ([H + ]=1 \ 10 _3 vjkb$k) udtmyt,f 

1 

pH lg 3 3 � 

� � \ itcf,fvbcfl= [OH_ ] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf 

�10 � 

bmyt,f 11\ 

pH cblblt ufvjb'tyt,f [cyfht,bc ufhtvjc lfcflutyfl| 

pH7 _ nent ufhtvj+ 

pH=7 _ ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj\ 

vfhbksf ]blhjkbpb 

]blhjkbpb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc it,heyt,ekb ghjwtcbf= hjvkbc 

lhjcfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vwbhtl lbcjwbht,ekb ghjlemnb\ 

]blhjkbpbc itcf.kt,kj,f lf [fhbc[b ufybcfpqdht,f vfhbkbc 

,eyt,bs= fye bv v;fdbcf lf ae.bc cb.kbthbs= hjvkt,bcufyfw fhbc 

itlutybkb vjwtvekb vfhbkb\ 

cb.kbthbc vb[tldbs ufyfc[dfdt,ty .kbth lf cecn v;fdt,c 

lf ae.tt,c\ 

cecnb v;fdt,bf| HNO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , CH 3 COOH, HF, H 2 S, 

H 2 SO 3 lf f\i\ 

.kbthb v;fdt,bf| HNO 3 , H 2 SO 4 , HCl, HBr, HJ, HClO 4 lf f\i\ 

cecnb ae.tt,bf| NH 4 OH, Cu(OH) 2 , Fe(OH) 2 , Mn(OH) 2 , 

Al(OH) 3 , Be(OH) 2 , Zn(OH) 2 lf f\i\ 

.kbthb ae.tt,bf| LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, Ca(OH) 2 , 

Sr(OH) 2 , Ba(OH) 2 lf f\i\ 

vfhbkt,b itb.kt,f lfd'js js[ .bhbsfl /ueafl| 

1\ .kbthb nenbc lf cecnb v;fdfc vfhbkb+ 

2\ .kbthb v;fdfc lf cecnb ae.bc vfhbkb+ 

3\ cecnb v;fdfc lf cecnb ae.bc vfhbkb+ 

4\ .kbthb v;fdfc lf .kbthb nenbc vfhbkb\ 

ufydb[bkjs sbsjtekb vfsufyb\ 

1\ .kbthb nenbc lf cecnb v;fdfc vfhbkb\ ufydb[bkjs 

NaNO ]blhjkbpb (fybjyehb ]blhjkbpb)\ fqybiyekb vfhbkb 

2 

lbcjwbhlt,f| NaNO �Na 2 + _ + + NO \ yfnhbevbc rfsbjyb Na dth 

2 

it,jzfdc o'kbc ]blhjmcblbc bjyt,c= hflufy NaOH .kbthb ne- 

_ ntf\ ybnhbnbjyb NO ,jzfdc o'fk,flbc bjyt,c= hflufy ofh- 

2 

vjmvybkb fpjnjdfyb v;fdf (HNO ) cecnbf lf bub vwbhtl lbcj- 

2 

wbht,c\ 

NaNO + H O � NaOH + HNO 2 2 2 

Na + _ + NO2 _ NO2 100 101 

+ H 2 O � Na+ OH _ + HNO 2 

+ H 2 O � Na+ + OH _ + HNO 2 

pH>7 

fvhbufl= vfhbkb= hjvtkbw vbqt,ekbf .kbthb nenbc lf 

cecnb v;fdbcufy= ]blhjkbpbc lhjc ofhvjmvybc nent ufhtvjc\ 

2\ .kbthb v;fdbcf lf cecnb ae.bcufy ofhvjmvybkb vfhbkb\ 

ufydb[bkjs NH 4 Cl-bc ]blhjkbpb (rfsbjyehb ]blhjkbpb)\ 

NH 4 Cl + H 2 O � NH 4 OH + HCl 

+ _ NH + Cl 4 

+ H 2 O � NH 4 OH + H+ + Cl _ 

+ NH + H2O � NH OH + H 4 

4 + pH

fv nbgbc vfhbkbc ]blhjkbpb itb.kt,f b'jc hjujhw rfsbjyehb= 

bct fybjyehb\ fvbnjv itb.kt,f ]mjyltc cecnb v;fdf= 

cecnb nent fy sbsmvbc ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj\ 'dtkfathb lfvjrblt,ekbf= 

ufvj'jabkb vwbhtl lbcjwbht,ek v;fdfcf lf ae.tc 

ijhbc hjvtkc fmdc eahj vfqfkb lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b\ 

4\ .kbthb ae.bcufy lf .kbthb v;fdbcufy ofhvjmvybkb vfhbkt,b 

fh ufybwlbc ]blhjkbpc= hflufy ufvj'jabkb v;fdfw lf ae- 

.tw .kbthbf\ fvbnjv dthwthsb dth ,jzfdc o'fk,flbc (H + ) lf 

]blhjmcblbc (OH_ ) bjyt,c\ t\b\ [cyfhc tmyt,f ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj\ 

NaCl + H O � NaOH + HCl 

2 

Na + + Cl_ + H2O � Na+ + OH_ + H + + Cl_ H 2 O � H + + OH _ pH = 7 

SFDB ^* 

:FYUDF-FQLUTYF 

htfmwbt,c= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc 

fnjvt,bc fy bjyt,bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bs= tojlt,f ;fyudf-fqlutybsb 

htfmwbt,b\ tktmnhjyekb stjhbbc sdfkcfphbcbs= 

fnjvt,bc fy bjyt,bc vbth tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvfc ;fyudf tojlt,f= 

tktmnhjyt,bc it.tyfc _ fqlutyf\ tktvtynbc lflt,bsb ve[nb 

ufybcfpqdhf fv tktvtynbc fnjvbc fy bjybc vbth ufwtvekb tktmnhjyt,bc 

hbw[dbs\ 

S 0 _ 6e ��S +6 ; S +4 + 2e ��S +6 ; S _2 _ 6e ��S +4 ; 

it.tybkb tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,f ufycfpqdhfdc ofhvjmvybkb 

bjybc efh'jabs ve[nc\ 

N 0 + 3e �� N _3 ; N +5 + 8e �� N _3 ; N +3 + 6e �� N _3 ; 

fnjvt,b fy bjyt,b= hjvkt,bw ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c= fhbc 

fqvlutyt,b= sdbsjy b;fyut,f\ fqvlutybf 'dtkf bc fnjvb= hjvtkcfw 

cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc js[ tktmnhjypt yfrkt,b\ t\b\ fqvlutyt,bf 

^= ^^ lf ^^^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,b\ fqvlutybc 

sdbct,t,b itb.kt,f ]mjyltc fhfkbsjyt,cfw (;fyu,flbcf lf asjhbc 

ufhlf)\ 

vfhnbd ybdsbtht,fsf fqvlutyb sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbf 

bjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkpt\ hfw eahj yfrkt,b fmdc fnjvc bjybpfwbbc 

gjntywbfkb= vbs eahj .kbthb fqvlutybf\ fhfkbsjyt- 

,blfy fqvlutybc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c= vfufkbsfl= o'fk,flb= yf[ibh,flb= 

fctdt pjubthsb vfhnbdb fybjyb _ Cl _ , Br _ , J _ ,S _2 , C +2 \ 

fqvlutybc sdbct,t,c bxtyc kbsjybc bjyt,b lf,fkb ;fyudbc 

hbw[dbs| Fe +2 = Sn +2 = Cu + = Cr +2 \ 

ytbnhfkehb fnjvt,b fy bjyt,b= hjvkt,bw b.tyc tktmnhjyt,c 

(sdbsjy fqlut,f)= v;fyufdt,bf\ fctsbf vfufkbsfl= fhfkbsjyt,bc 

fnjvt,b| fpjnb= ujubhlb= asjhb= ;fyu,flb= mkjhb= ,hjvb= 

bjlb+ kbsjyt,bc lf fhfkbsjyt,bc bjyt,b evfqktcb ;fyudbc 

[fhbc[bs| Cu +2 , Fe +3 = Sn +4 = Cr +6 , Mn +7 , N +5 = S +6 , Cl +7 \ 

kbsjyt,bc lf fhfkbsjyt,bc bjyt,b= iefktlehb ;fyudbc [fhbc[bs= 

v;fyufdbw fhbc lf fqvlutybw| Cu + , Cr +3 , S +4 , N +3 lf c[df\ 

v;fyufdbc sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadbc 

cblbltpt\ hfw vtnbf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf= vbs eahj 

.kbthfl fhbc ufvj[fnekb v;fyufdb sdbct,f\ 

vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bc ;fyudf-fqlutybs sdbct,t,c rfhufl 

ufvj[fnfdc vfsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f\ tktvtynbc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc 

phlfcsfy thsfl rkt,ekj,c vbcb fqvlutyb sdbct,t,b 

lf= gbhbmbs= vfnekj,c v;fyufdb sdbct,t,b\ 

102 103

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc ufynjkt,bc itlutyf 

;fyudf fqlutybc ufhnjkt,fib rjtabwbtynt,bc ithxtdbcfsdbc 

ufvjb'tyt,f jhb vtsjlb| tktmnhjyekb ,fkfycbc lf tktmnhjyek-bjyehb 

,fkfycbc\ xdty ufydb[bkfds tktmnhjyekb 

,fkfycbc vtsjlc\ fv vtsjlc cfae.dkfl eltdc itvltub gbhj,f| 

fqvlutybc vbth ufwtvekb tktmnhjyt,bc lf v;fyufdbc vbth vbqt,ekb 

tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db thsvfytsbc njkbf\ vjwtvek 

htfmwbfib sfdlfgbhdtkfl cfpqdhfdty ;fyudbc hbw[dc\ 

Pb +2S_2 _ +2 +6 _2 + 

+ H O �� Pb S O4 + H 2 2 

2O_2 S_2 _ 8e ��S +6 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

(O ) 2 _2 + 2e �� 2O_2 4 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

v;fyufdbc lf fqvlutybc vbth it.tybkb lf ufwtvekb tktmnhjyt,bcsdbc 

gjekj,ty evwbhtc cfthsj /thflc\ vbqt,ek rjtabwbtync 

eothty mbvbeh htfmwbfib fqvluty lf v;fyufd ybdsbt- 

ht,t,c\ 

PbS + 4H O �� PbSO4 + 4H2O 2 2 

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bc 

rkfcbabrfwbf 

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,b b'jaf cfv /ueafl| 

1\ fnjvsfijhbcb= vjktrekfsijhbcb fy bjsfijhbcb ;fyudffqlutybc 

htfmwbt,b+ 

2\ ibuf vjktrekehb+ 

3\ sdbs;fyudf-sdbsfqlutybc= fye lbcghjgjhwbbc htfmwbt,b\ 

ufydb[bkjs sbsjtekb vfsufyb\ 

1\ fnjvsfijhbcb= vjktrekfsfijhbcb fy bysfijhbcb ;fyudffqlutybc 

htfmwbt,c vbtresdyt,f bctsb htfmwbt,b= hjvkt,bw 

vbvlbyfhtj,c vfhnbd ybdsbtht,t,c fy bjyt,c ijhbc (v;fyufdb lf 

fqvlutyb c[dflfc[df vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fibf)\ 

f) Zn 0 + S 0 ��Zn +2 S _ 2 

Zn 0 _ 2e ��Zn +2 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

S 0 + 2e ��S _2 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

�� Hg 0 + Sn +4 Cl4 

104 105 

,) Hg +2 +2 Cl + Sn Cl2 

2 

Hg +2 + 2e ��Hg0 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

Sn +2 _ 2e ��Sn +4 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

2\ ibufvjktrekehbf htfmwbt,b= hjvkbc lhjcfw v;fyufdbw 

lf fqvlutybw itlbc thsb lf bubdt vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fib\ 

f) NaN +5 _2 +3 0 

O �� NaN O2 + O 3 

2 

N +5 + 2e ��N +3 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

2O_2 0 _ 4e ��O2 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

2O 0 �� N + Cr+3 

7 2 

,) (N_3H ) Cr 4 2 +6 

2O3 + 4H2O 2N_3 0 _ 6e ��N 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

2 

2Cr +6 + 6e ��2Cr +6 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

3\ lbcghjgjhwbbc= fye sdbs;fyudf-sdbsfqlutybc htfmwbt,b 

bctsb htfmwbt,bf= hjvkbc lhjcfw thsb lf bubdt fnjvb fy bjyb 

fqvlutytkbw fhbc lf lfv;fyufdbw\ 

0 f) Cl2 + H2O ��HCl_ + HCl + O 

Cl0 _ e ��Cl + 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

Cl0 + e ��Cl_ 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

,) 2N +4 O 2 + H 2 O �� HN +5 O 3 + N +2 O 

N +4 _ e ��N +5 2 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

N +4 + 2e ��N +2 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,f vybidytkjdyfl 

fhbc lfvjrblt,ekb ufhtvjpt\ c[dflfc[df ufhtvjib thsb lf bubdt 

v;fyufdbc lf fqvlutybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bc ghjlemnt,b itb.kt,f 

chekbfl ufyc[dfdt,ekb b'jc\ ufydb[bkjs KMnO -bc fqlutyf 

4 

yfnhbevbc cekabnbs (Na SO ) v;fdf= nent lf ytbnhfkeh 

2 3 

ufhtvjib\ 

f) v;fdf ufhtvj| 

2KMn +7O + 5Na S 4 2 +4O + H SO �� K2SO + 2Mn 3 2 4 

4 +2SO + 4 

+5Na S 2 +6O + 3H O 

4 2 

Mn +7 + 5e �� Mn +2 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

S +4 _ 2e ��S +6 5 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

,) nent ufhtvj| 

2KMn +7O + Na S 4 2 +4O + 2KOH �� 2K Mn 3 2 +6O + Na S 4 2 +6O + 4 

+ 3H O 2 

Mn +7 + e �� Mn +6 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 


u) ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj| 

2KMn +7O + 3Na S 4 2 +4O + H O �� 2MnO + 3Na S 3 2 2 2 +6O + 4 

+KOH 

Mn +7 + 3e �� Mn +4 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 


fmdt eylf fqdybiyjs= hjv e.kbthtcb fqvlutybf rfsjlb lf 

e.kbthtcb v;fyufdbf fyjlb\ 

SFDB * 

TKTMNHJMBVBF 

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsf vorhbdb 

ybdsbtht,t,bc ;fyudf-fqlutybsb sdbct,t,bc ths-ths cfpjvfl 

ufvjb'tyt,f cnfylfhnekb tktmnhekb gjntywbfkb= se hjvtkbvt 

kbsjyc xfdeidt,s sfdbcbdt vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfhib vfu\= 

Cu 2+ __ CuSO 4 lf Zn 2+ __ ZnSO 4 ofhvjmvybk cbcntvfib flubkb 

tmyt,f jhudfh ghjwtcc| 

f) vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfhblfy kbsjybc rfsbjyb itb.kt,f fqlutc 

lf lfbktmjc kbsjybc abhabnfpt= hflufyfw rfsbjyt,bc fqlutybcsdbc 

cfzbhjf tktmnhjyt,b\ fv tktmnhjyt,c bub bqt,c kbsjybc 

abhabnblfy= fvbnjv abhabnfpt bmyt,f tktmnhjyt,bc 

yfrkt,j,f\ 

n� 0 

M � ne � M 

,) kbsjybc fnjvt,b itb.kt,f lfb;fyujc\ fcts itvs[dtdfib 

kbsjybc bjyt,b uflflbc [cyfhib= [jkj ufysfdbceakt,ekb tktmnhjyt,b 

zfh,fl hxt,f kbsjybc abhabnfpt\ 

M ne M n 

0 � 

� � 

kbsjyt,bc vblhtrbkt,f ;fyudbcfrty c[dflfc[dff lf lfvjrblt,ekbf 

vfs ,eyt,fpt\ vfu\= cgbkty.bc lf sesbbc itvs[dtdfib| 

sesbf ufwbkt,bs eahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c= dblht 

cgbkty.b\ se ybdsbtht,t,bc [cyfht,bc rjywtynhfwbt,b thsyfbhbf= 

vfiby sesbbc abhabnfpt udtmyt,f vtnb tktmnhjyt,b= dblht 

cgbkty.bc abhabnfpt\ rfsbjyt,c lf tktmnhjyt,c ijhbc tktmnhjcnfnbrehb 

vbpblekj,bc ufvj= abhabnbc vf[kj,kfl bmyt,f 

rfsbjyt,bc cbqfhb,t\ tc rb ufvjbodtdc jhvfub tktmnhekb 

ihbc ofhvjmvyfc= hfcfw sfdbcsfdfl vjcltdc gjntywbfksf c[dfj,bc 

ofhvjmvyf\ bvbcfsdbc= hjv itd.kjs c[dflfc[df tktmnhjlekb 

gjntywbfkbc itlfht,f= eylf itdfhxbjs cnfylfhnekb 

gbhj,t,b\ fctsb gbhj,t,bf| ntvgthfnehf 250 C= oytdf 1 fnv= rjywtynhfwbf 

1 vjkb$k\ 

106 107

tktmnhjyekb gjntywbfkt,bc f,cjkenehb cblbltt,bc ufpjvdf 

lqtbcsdbc ite.kt,tkbf= fvbnjv f,cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,bc 

vfubdhfl cfhut,kj,ty afhlj,bsb vybidytkj,t,bs= hjvtkbw 

bpjvt,f thstekfl vbqt,ek o'fk,flbc cnfylfhnek tktmnhjlek 

gjntywbfksfy itlfht,bs (w[h\ 2)\ w[hbkib 

vjwtvekbf kbsjyt,bc .f,dfsf vorhbdb\ 

tktmnhjlekb fghwtcbc 

ufynjkt,f 

Li + e _ = Li 

Rb + + e _ =Rb 

K + + e _ = K 

Cs + + e _ = Cs 

Ca 2+ + 2e _ = Ca 

Na + + e _ = Na 

Mg 2+ + 2e _ = Mg 

Al 3+ + 3e _ = Al 

Ti 2+ + 2e _ = Ti 

Mn 2+ + 2e _ = Mn 

Cr 2+ + 2e _ = Cr 

Zn 2+ + 2e _ = Zn 

Cr 5+ + 3e _ = Cr 

Fe 2+ + 2e _ = Fe 

Cd 2+ +2e _ = Cd 

kbsjyt,bc .f,dfsf vorhbdb 

cnfylfhnekbgjntywbfkb 

- 3,045 

- 2,925 

- 2,925 

- 2,925 

- 2,866 

- 2,714 

- 2,363 

- 1,662 

- 1,628 

- 1,180 

- 0,913 

- 0,763 

- 0,744 

- 0,440 

- 0,403 

tktmnhjlekb 

fghwtcbc ufynjkt,f 

Co2+ + 2e_ = Co 

Ni2+ + 2e_ = Ni 

Sn2+ + 2e_ = Sn 

Pb3+ + 3e_ = Pb 

Fe3+ + 3e_ = Fe 

2H + + 2e_ = H2 Bi3+ + 3e_ = Bi 

Cu2+ + 2e_ = Cu 

Cu + + e_ = Cu 

2+ _ Hg + 2e = 2Hg 

2 

Ag + + e_ = Ag 

Hg + + e_ = Hg 

Pt2+ + 2e_ = Pt 

Au3+ + 3e_ = Au 

Au + + e_ = Au 

w[hbkb 2 

cnfylfhnekbgjntywbfkb 

- 0,277 

- 0,250 

- 0,136 

- 0,126 

- 0,036 

0 

+ 0,215 

+ 0,337 

+ 0,521 

+ 0,788 

+ 0,799 

+ 0,854 

+ 1,200 

+ 1,498 

+ 1,691 

yt,bcvbthb kbsjybc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ufhrdtekobkfl ufygbhj,t,ekbf 

bvbs= se hfvltyfl fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c\ 

se kbsjyt,c ufydfkfut,s vfsb ;fyudbc eyfhbc itvwbht,bc vb[tldbs= 

vbdbqt,s kbsjyt,bc .f,dbc tktmnjmbvbeh hbuc| 

Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Cr, Zn, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, H, Cu, Ag, Pl, Au 

sbsjtekb kbsjyb o'fk[cyfhblfy f.tdt,c sfdbc itvlujv 

kbsjyc\ tktmnhjmbvbeh .f,dfsf vorhbdib vjsfdct,ekbf o'fk- 

,flb= hflufyfw vfc= kbsjyt,bc vcufdcfl ite,kbf ofhvjmvyfc rfsbjyb 

H + \ bub tmdtvlt,fht,f bv rfyjypjvbtht,fc= hfcfw c[df kbsjyt,b\ 

rth.jl= o'fk,flbc oby vlujvb kbsjyt,b f.tdt,ty ufypf- 

dt,ekb v;fdt,blfy o'fk,flc\ 

Zn � H SO � ZnSO � H 

108 109 

2 4(ufyp\) 4 2 

o'fk,flbc itvltu fhct,ekb kbsjyt,b dth f.tdt,ty o'fk,flc 

ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy\ tktmnhjmbvbeh .f,dfsf vorhbdib o'fk- 

,flbc vlt,fhtj,bs fhbc ufygbhj,t,ekb v;fdt,bc lf'jaf fhflfv;fyufd 

lf lfv;fyufd v;fdt,fl\ 

fhflfv;fyufdb v;fdt,b htfmwbfib itlbfy v[jkjl o'fk,flbc 

oby vlujv kbsjyt,sfy (v;fyufdbf o'fk,flbc bjyb)\ 

Zn � 2HCl � ZnCl 2 � H 2 

2Al � 3H SO � Al ( SO ) � 3H 

2 4 2 4 3 2 

v;fyufdb v;fdt,b vjmvtlt,ty kbsjyt,sfy wtynhfkehb fnjvbc 

[fh/pt| 

2Al � 6H 

2SO4(rjyw\) 

� Al2 

( SO4 

) 3 � 3SO2 

� 6H 

2O 

Cu � 4HNO 3(rjyw\) � Cu( NO3 ) 2 � 2NO 2 � 2H 

2O 

ufkdfyehb tktvtynb 

se jh c[dflfc[df abhabnfc xfdeidt,s tktmnhjkbnbc 

[cyfhib= vfs ijhbc fqb.dht,f gjntywbfksf c[dfj,f _ kbsjyb 

1 $tktmnhjkbnbc [cyfhb$kbsjyb 2 \ fcts cbcntvfc tojlt,f 

ufkdfyehb tktvtynb\ gjntywbfksf c[dfj,bc ofhvjmvyf ufvjodtekbf 

kbsjyt,bc sdbct,bs uflfcwtc rfsbjyt,b [cyfhib\ sbsjtekb 

kbsjybc ptlfgbhsfy ofhvjbmvyt,f jhvfub tktmnhjyekb 

iht= hjvtkbw [tkc eikbc rfsbjyt,bc itvlujv uflfcdkfc\ se

- 

Zn 2+ 

Zn Cu 

2 SO 4 

e _ 

2 SO 4 

Cu 3+ 

+ 

2 SO 4 

yf[\ 10\ ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc 

cmtvf 

jhbdt kbsjyc thsvfytssfy itdfthst,s 

kbsjybc ufvnfhbs= vbdbqt,s 

xfrtnbk tktmnhek ohtlc\ 

ohtlib tktmnhjyt,bc yfrflb 

fmnbehb kbsjyblfy uflfbyfwdkt,c 

yfrkt,fmnbehb kbsjybcfrty 

lf ufybve[nt,f fv erfyfcrytkbc tktmnhjyt,bc 

cfiefkt,bs\ fv ghjwtcbc 

htpeknfnb bmyt,f tktmnhekb 

ltybc ofhvjmvyf\ 

ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc vjmvtlt,fc 

cfae.dkfl eltdc tktmnhjmbvbehb ghjwtcb\ bub itb.kt,f 

itvltuyfbhfl ufvjdcf[js| 

fmnbehb kbsjyb 

;fyudf 

(tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvf 

rfsbjyt,bc ofhvjmvyf) 

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyb 

fqlutyf 

(tktmnhjyt,bc vbqt,f 

rfsbjyt,bc ufyve[ndf) 

fvhbufl= ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc efh'jabsb gjkecb fhbc fmnbehb 

kbsjyb= hjvtkptw udfmdc tktmnhjyt,bc cbzfh,t\ ufkdfyehb 

tktvtynbc lflt,bsb gjkecb yfrkt,flfmnbehb kbsjybf= 

cflfw itbvxytdf tktmnhjyt,bc yfrkt,j,f\ ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc 

.f,df vbs eahj vtnb bmyt,f= hfw eahj lblb ufyc[dfdt,f bmyt,f 

tktmnhjlt,bc cnfylfhnek gjntywbfksf ijhbc\ 

frevekfnjhb\ ufkdfyeh tktvtynib vbvlbyfhtj,c ghfmnbrekfl 

itemwtdflb ghjwtcb\ ltybc fctsb mbvbehb o'fhjc [tkf[kf 

lfve[ndf lf ufvj'tyt,f sfdbcsfdfl fh [lt,f\ frevekfnjhb 

bubdt ufkdfyehb tktvtynbf= hjvtkbw itmwtdflb tktmnhjmbvbehb 

htfmwbt,bc [fh/pt= itb.kt,f vhfdfk/th lfbve[njc\ 

frevekfnjhbc tktmnhjlt,b xfidt,ekbf tktmnhjkbnbc [cyfhib\ 

vbcb gjkfhbpfwbf [lt,f ufhtlfy (lfve[ndf)\ frevekfnj- 

hblfy tktmnhjtythubbc ufvj'tyt,bc itltufl gjkfhbpfwbf vwbhlt,f= 

t\b\ [lt,f ufyve[ndf\ frevekfnjhbc lfve[ndbcfc tktmnhjtythubf 

ufhlfbmvyt,f mbvbehfl= ufyve[ndbcfc _ gbhbmbs\ 

lfve[ndf 

�� 

tktmnhjtythubf mbvbehb tythubf 

�� 

ufyve[ndf 

'dtkfpt vtnfl ufdhwtkt,ekbf n'dbbc lf ybrtk-rflvbevbc 

frevekfnjht,b\ n'dbbc frevekfnjhb itlut,f n'dbbc tktmnhjlbcfufy 

(rfsjlb)= fyjlfl ufvj'tyt,ekbf n'dbbc tktmnhjlb= 

hjvtkbw lfafhekbf n'dbbc jh;fyubc (PbO 2 ) atybs\ tktmnhjlt,b 

vjsfdcte,kbf ujubhlv;fdfib\ n'dbbc frevekfnjhib udfmdc 

itvltuyfbhb o'dbkb| Pb/H 2 SO 4 /PbO 2 

ghjwtcb vbvlbyfhtj,c c[dflfc[df lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dbc 

vmjyt n'dbbc bjyt,c ojhbc\ 

110 111 

� 2 

rfsjlb _ Pb SO 

fyjlb _ 

4 

� 

lfve[ndf 

�� 

� � �� 

2e 

Pb 

�� 

� � �� 

ufyve[ndf 

lfve[ndf 

0 

� SO 

2� 

4 

� � 

Pb � H O � e PbO H 

�� 

2 2 � 4 

/fvehb htfmwbf fctsbf| 

2 2 

�� 

ufyve[ndf 

lfve[ndf 

�� 

2PbSO � 2H O Pb � PbO � 2H 

SO 

�� 

4 2 2 2 4 

ufyve[ndf 

rflvbevb-ybrtkbc frevekfnjhib\ rfsjlb fhbc rflvbevb= 

[jkj fyjlb _ NiO(OH)\ bcbyb xfidt,ekb fhbfy KOH-bc o'fk- 

[cyfhib\ Cd/KOH/NiO(OH) 

/fvehb tktmnhjmbvbeh htfmwbfc fmdc itvltub cf[t| 

lfve[ndf 

�� 

2Ni( OH) 2 � Cd( OH) 2 2NiO( OH) � Cd � 2H 

2O 

�� 

ufyve[ndf 

�

tktmnhjkbpb 

v;fdt,b= nentt,b= vfhbkt,b vbtresdyt,f tktmnhjkbnt,c\ 

tktmnhekb ltybc uflfnfyf [lt,f bjyt,bc cfiefkt,bs= hjvkt- 

,bw velvbd vj.hfj,fibf\ ufkqj,bk vlujvfhtj,fib fy o'fk[cyfht,ib 

tktmnhjkbnt,b rfhub ufvnfht,bf\ se tktmnhjkbnbc 

o'fk[cyfhib xfdeidt,s kbsjybc jh abhabnfc (tktmnhjlt,c) 

lf itdethst,s velvbd ltybc o'fhjc= vfiby efh'jabs gjkecsfy 

itthst,ekb abhabnf bmyt,f rfsjlb= [jkj lflt,bs gjkecsfy 

itthst,ekb abhabnf _ fyjlb\ sfdbc v[hbd tktmnhjkbnbc 

[cyfhb itbwfdc lflt,bs lf efh'jabs bjyt,c\ lflt,bsb bjyt,b 

vbbpblt,f rfsjlbs= fvbnjv vfs rfsbjyt,c eojlt,ty\ itcf,fvbcfl= 

efh'jabs bjyt,c _ fybjyt,b tojlt,f\ rfsbjyb rfsjlbcufy bqt,c 

tktmnhjyt,c lf fqlut,f= t\b\ rfsjlb fqvlutytkbf lf ghjwtcbw 

[lt,f fqlutybc\ fybjyb rb gbhbmbs= fyjlc uflfcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c 

lf b;fyut,f= t\b\ fyjlb lfv;fyufdbf lf ghjwtcbw [lt,f lf- 

;fyudbc\ 

tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpbc lhjc= 

tktmnhjkbnbc bjyt,bc ufhlf= vjyfobktj,fc qt,ekj,c o'kbc 

vjktrekt,bw\ bcbyb thsvfytssfy velvbd rjyrehtywbfib fhbfy\ 

tktmnhjlt,pt vj[lt,f bv bjyt,bc ufyve[ndf= hjvkt,cfw fmdc 

eahj lf,fkb ufyve[ndbc .f,df\ tktmnhjkbnsf o'fk[cyfht,ib 

rfsbjyt,bcfsdbc fhct,j,c rfsbjypt ufyve[ndbc itvltub hbub| 

fmnbehb kbsjyt,b| K + , Na + , Mg 2+ , Al 3+ _ vfhnj H 2 

yfrkt, fmnbehb kbsjyt,b| Zn 2+ , Fe 2+ , Sn 2+ , Pb 2+ _ kbsjyb lf H 2 

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,b| Cu 2+ , Ag + _ kbsjyb 

fmnbehb kbsjyt,bc fqlutyf [lt,f v[jkjl yfkqj,blfy| 

2NaCl � 2Na � 2Cl 

yfkqj,b 

� � 

K _ � 

2Na � 2e � 2Na 

A + 2 2 � 0 

Cl � e � Cl2 

0 

fybjyt,bcsdbc udfmdc itvltub hbub| 

2_ _ ;fyu,flitvwdtkb v;fehb yfisb| SO , NO3 lf c[df\ _ O2 

4 

e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bc v;fehb yfisb| Cl_ , Br_ , I_ lf c[df _ Cl , Br , I 2 2 2 

ptvjs fqybiyekb hbut,bc ufvj'tyt,bs itcf.kt,tkbf= obyfcofh 

ufydcfpqdhjs c[dflfc[df tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc 

tktmnhjkbpbc itltufl= rfsjlpt lf fyjlpt vbqt,ekb ghjlemnt,bc 

itlutybkj,f\ w[hbkib vjwtvekbf 'dtkfpt vtnfl 

ufdhwtkt,ekb tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpbc 

lhjc ufvj'jabkb ghjlemnt,b (w[h\ 3)\ 

tktmnhjkbnb 

HCl 

H 2 SO 4 

HNO 3 

NaOH 

CuCl 2 

ghjlemnt,b 

rfsjlb fyjlb 

112 113 

H 2 

H 2 

H 2 

H 2 

Cu 

Cl 2 

O 2 

O 2 

O 2 

Cl 2 

O 2 

tktmnhjkbnb 

CuSO 4 

NiSO 4 

NaCl 

Na 2 SO 4 

ghjlemnt,b 

rfsjlb fyjlb 

Cu 

Ni, H 2 

H 2 

H 2 

rjyrhtnek vfufkbspt ufydb[bkjs c[dflfc[df vfhbkbc 

o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpb\ 

f) Na 2 SO 4 -bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb| 

Na SO � 2Na 

� SO 

K 

A 

2 4 

H2O � 2� 

4 

_ � 

2H 2O 

� 2e 

� H 2 � 2OH 

+ � 

2H2O � 4e 

� O2 

� 4H 

w[hbkb 3\ 

O 2 

O 2 

Cl 2 

O 2

,) Ni(NO 3 ) 2 -bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb| 

Ni( NO ) � Ni � 2NO 

3 2 

H2O 2� 

� 

3 

K _ � 

Ni � 2e 

� Ni 

2 0 

0 

2 2 

2H O � 2e � H � 2OH 

+ A 2H2O � 4e � O2 � 4H 

u) CuCl 2 -bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb| 

CuCl � Cu � 2Cl 

K _ 

A + 

H O 2 

2 

2� 

� 

� 

Cu � 2e 

� Cu 

2 0 

� 0 

2Cl � 2e � Cl2 

tktmnhjkbpb [cyflb fyjlbs 

fmfvlt xdty ufydb[bkts ghjwtcb= hjvtkbw vbvlbyfhtj,lf 

e[cyflb fyjlbs (yf[ibhbc= gkfnbybc= bhblbevbc= nfynfkbc tktmnhjlt,b)\ 

tktmnhjkbpbc ghjwtcb itb.kt,f vbvlbyfhtj,ltc 

[cyflb fyjlbs (ufycfresht,ekfl ceasf kbsjybc vbcfqt,fl)\ 

[cyfl fyjlfl itb.kt,f ufvj'tyt,ekb b'jc cgbkty.b= ybrtkb= 

rflvbevb= fkevbyb lf c[df\ [cyflb fyjlbs vbvlbyfht tktmnhjkbpbc 

lhjc fyjlb b;fyut,f (b[cyt,f)= bub [cyfhib uflflbc rfsbjyt,bc 

cf[bs\ rfsjlpt vj[lt,f vbcb fqlutyf\ vfu\= CuSO 4 -bc 

o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbc lhjc= [cyflb cgbkty.bc fyjlbs 

[lt,f itvltub ghjwtcb| 

K _ 

A + 

0 2 

Cu � 2e 

� Cu 

� ;fyudf 

2� 0 

Cu � 2e 

� Cu fqlutyf 

� 

� 

tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbf 

kbsjyt,bc rjhjpbf fhbc vfsb ptlfgbhbc lfpbfyt,f tktmnhjmbvbehb 

ptvjmvtlt,bc ufvj\ bub ofhvjbmvyt,f vfiby= hjltcfw 

kbsjyb eiefkj rfdibhibf tktmnhjkbnsfy\ tktmnhjmbvbehb 

rjhjpbbc lhjc kbsjybc ptlfgbhpt vbvlbyfhtj,c thslhjekfl 

jhb ghjwtcb| kbsjybc ;fyudf _ fyjlehb ghjwtcb= 

M ne M n 

0 � � � 

lf v;fyufdbc fqlutyf (vfu\| ;fyu,flb fy o'fk,flbc rfsbjyb) _ 

rfsjyehb ghjwtcb| 

114 115 

� 

O 2H O � 4e � 4OH 

(;fyu,flehb rjhjpbf) 

2 2 

� 

2H O � 2e � H � 2H 

O (o'fk,flehb rjhjpbf) 

3 2 2 

;fyu,flehb rjhjpbf vbvlbyfhtj,c ytbnhfkeh fy nent ufhtvjib= 

o'fk,flehb _ v;fdf ufhtvjib\ 

tktmnhjkbnb itb.kt,f b'jc o'fkb\ ceasf o'fkb welb 

tktmnhjufvnfhbf\ vbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= fnvjcathekb o'fkb= 

vfcib uf[cybkb c[dflfc[df fbht,bc ufvj (CO 2 , SO 2 )= rfhub tktmnhjufvnfhbf\ 

rjhjpbfc ufycfresht,bs rfhu ufhtvjc emvybc jhb c[dflfc[df 

gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjynfmnb\ fcts itvs[dtdfib 

efh'jabsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjhjpbf bphlt,f= eahj 

lf,fkb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjhjpbf rb ytklt,f\ 

fcts rjhjpbfc tojlt,f rjynfmnehb\ vfu\= ufydb[bkjs hrbybc 

lf cgbkty.bc o'dbkbc rjhjpbf= fnvjcathekb o'kbc ufdktybs 

(vfcib uf[cybkb fnvjcathekb ;fyu,flbs)\ hrbyf b;fyut,f 

0 2 

Fe � 2e 

� Fe 

� 

ufysfdbceakt,ekb tktmnhjyt,b fqflutyty ;fyu,flc ]blhjmcblbjyfvlt| 

O � 2H O � 4e � 4OH 

2 2 

�

hrbybc lf ]blhjmcblbc bjyt,b ofhvjmvybc e[cyfl Fe(OH) 2: 

2� 

� 

Fe � 2OH 

� Fe( OH) 

fnvjcathekb ;fyu,flb yfobkj,hbd ;fyufdc hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcbkc 

Fe(OH) -c\ vbbqt,f hrbybc vtnf]blhjmcblb FeO(OH)\ 

2 

4Fe( OH) 2 � O 2 � 4FeO( OH) � 2H 

2O 

Fe( OH) � 2FeO( OH) � Fe O � 2H 

O 

2 3 4 2 

tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbbc ufhlf fhct,j,c mbvbehb rjhjpbf\ 

fv itvs[dtdbc lhjc kbsjyt,bc lfikf [lt,f tktmnhekb 

ltybc fq.dhbc ufhtit\ 

kbsjyt,bc lfwdf rjhjpbbcfufy 

rjhjpbbcufy lfcfwfdfl .bhbsflfl ufvjb'tyt,f itvtub vtsjlt,b| 

kbsjyt,bc ptlfgbhekb lfafhdf= vluhflb ityflyj,t,bc 

itmvyf= ghjntmnjhekb lfwdf\ 

ptlfgbhekb lfafhdbc jhb cf[t fhct,j,c| kbsjyehb lf fhfkbsjyehb\ 

kbsjyehb lfafhdbc lhjc= lfvwfdb kbsjyb tktmnhjmbvbeh 

.f,dfsf vorhbdib lufc lfcfwfdb kbsjybc vfh/dybd\ 

fhfkbsjyehb lfafhdbcfc ufvjb'tyt,f| kfmb= cfqt,fdb= vbyfymfhb 

lf c[df\ 

rjhjpbbcfufy lfwdf itb.kt,f vluhflb ityflyj,t,bc itmvybs\ 

vfu\= ajkflbc ityflyj,t,ib mhjvbc= vfyufyevbc= ybrtkbc itnfyf 

itcf.kt,kj,fc udf.ktdc= vbdbqjs e;fyufdb ajkflb\ 

[ibhfl [cyfhib= hjvtkbw fhbc rjhjpbbc ufvjvodtdb= itfmds 

bctsb ybdsbtht,t,b= hjvkt,bw fytkt,ty vbc fuhtcbek vjmvtl 

t , f c\ f ct s ybds bt ht , t , c by]b,bnjht,b tojlt,fs\ 

fhct,j,c rbltd kbsjyt,bc ghjntmnjhekb lfwdf\ o'fkib 

fy ybflfuib fhct,ek rjycnhemwbfc itethst,ty vfcpt eahj 

fmnbeh kbsjyc\ ofhvjbmvyt,f ufkdfyehb o'dbkb= fvbnjv lfbikt,f 

ghjntmnjhekb kbsjyb= [jkj kbsjybc rjycnhemwbf 

lfhxt,f lfepbfyt,tkb\ 

2 

f h f j h u f y e k b 

m b v b f 

116 117

^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b 

o'fk,flb 

cbv,jkj H= hbuj,hbdb yjvthb _ 1= afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcf 

_ 1=008= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b _ (+1)= bidbfsfl _ (-1)\ 

o'fk,flbc bpjnjgt,b| 

1H 

ghjsbevb _ fnjvuekib fmdc thsb ghjnjyb= fh fmdc 

1 

ytbnhjyb\ 

2H 

ltbnthbevb (D) _ thsb ghjnjyb + thsb ytbnhjyb\ 

1 

H nhbnbevb (Ti) _ thsb ghjnjyb + jhb ytbnhjyb\ 

3 

1 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ sfdbceafkb o'fk,flb ufdhwtkt,ekbf 

rjcvjcib\ ltlfvbofpt ud[dlt,f yfthst,bc cf[bs (o'fkb= yfdsj,b= 

mdfyf[ibhb= vbythfkt,b lf c[df)\ gthbjlek cbcntvfib vfc ezbhfdc 

ufycfresht,ekb flubkb= hfw ufygbhj,t,ekbf vbcb fnjvbc 

fqyfuj,bs\ o'fk,flbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s 1 \ nent kbsjyt,bc 

vcufdcfl ite.kbf thsb tktmnhjybc ufwtvf lf lflt,bsb 

thsdfktynbfyb bjybc ofhvjmvyf\ hflufy tythutnbrekb ihbc lfcfvsfdht,kfl 

czbhlt,f thsb tktmnhjyb= fvbnjv ofhvjmvybc 

(]fkjutyt,bc vcufdcfl) efh'jabs thsdfktynbfy bjyc (H _ )\ sfdbceafk 

vlujvfhtj,fib vbcb vjktrekf jhfnjvbfybf H 2 _ fhfgjkfhekb 

rjdfktynehb ,vbs\ 

o'fk,flbc vbqt,f\ kf,jhfnjhbekb [th[bs o'fk,flb vbbqt,f| 

1\ sesbbc fy fkevbybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ufypfdt,ek vfhbkv;fdfcsfy 

fy ujubhlv;fdfcsfy| 

Zn � HCl( ufyp\ ) � ZnCl � H � 

2 2 2 

2Al � 3H SO ( ufyp\ 

) � Al ( SO ) � 3H 

� 

2 4 2 4 3 2 

2\ nent lf nentvbof kbsjyt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs o'fksfy\ 

2Na � 2H O � 2NaOH 

� H � 

2 2 

Ca � H O � Ca( OH) � H � 

2 2 2 2 

3\ nent lf nentvbof ]blhblt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs o'fksfy| 

CaH2 

� H2O 

� Ca( 

OH) 

2 � H2 

� 

NaH � H2O � NaOH � H2 

� 

vhtodtkj,fib vbbqt,f| 

1\ yf[ibhbc rjydthcbbs| 

C � H 2O � CO � H 2 (o'fkufpb) ^ cnflbf 

CO � ( H2 

) � H2O 

� CO2 

� 2H2 

^^ cnflbf 

_____________________ 

C � 2H O � CO � 2H 

� 

2 2 2 

2\ uf[eht,ek hrbyfpt o'kbc jhsmkbc ufnfht,bs| 

3Fe � 4H O � Fe O � 4H 

� 

2 3 4 2 

3\ vtsfybc rjydthcbbs (Ni rfnfkbpfnjhbs)| 

� H 2O 

�� 

CO � 3H 

2 � 

118 119 

CH 

4 

Ni 

4\ o'kbc tktmnhjkbpbs (evfnt,ty v;fdfc fy nentc)| 

tktmnhjkbpb 

2 2 2 

2H O �� 2H 

� O 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt o'fk,flb yfrkt,fmnbehbf\ 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt vjmvtlt,c hjujhw kbsjyt,sfy= 

bct fhfkbsjyt,sfy\ ]fthpt bodbc ,fwb wbcathb fkbs| 

2H � O � 2H 

O 

2 2 2

o'fk,flbc yfhtdb ]fthsfy (vuhudbyfdb ufpb) .kbth atsmt- 

,flbf\ 

o'fk,flb ethslt,f c[df fhfkbsjyt,cfw\ 

H 2 � Cl2 � 2HCl 

H 2 � S � H 2S 

nent lf nentvbofsf kbsjyt,sfy ofhvjbmvybc ]blhblt,c\ 

fv yfthst,ib o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fhbc (-1)\ 

2Li � H � 2LiH 

2 

]blhblt,b itb.kt,f lfb'jc cfv /ueafl| vfhbkjdfy (nent 

lf nentvbof kbsjyt,sfy)= gjkbvthek (ZnH 2 ) n = kbsjyeh (d lf 

f tktvtynt,sfy _ TiH 2 , VH lf c[df) ]blhblt,fl\ 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,bs ]blhblt,b b'jaf| ae.t= v;feh lf fvajnthek 

]blhblt,fl\ ]blhjkbpbc itltufl ae.t ]blhblt,b ofhvjmvybc 

ae.tt,c= v;fdf ]blhblt,b _ v;fdt,c\ 

NaH � H2O � NaOH � H2 

� 

SiH � H O � H SiO � 4H 

� 

4 2 2 3 2 

fvajnthekb ]blhblt,b vjmvtlt,c hjujhw v;fdf= bct ae.t 

]blhblt,sfy| 

� � 

� � 

AlH � NaH � Na AlH 

3 4 

2AlH � 3SiH 

� Al SiH 

3 4 2 6 3 

o'fk,flb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmvybc hfvltybvt yfthsc| H 2 O, 

H 2 O 2 , H 2 O 3 lf c[df\ vfsufy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf o'fkb _ H 2 O 

lf o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb H 2 O 2 \ 

o'fkb\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib o'kbc vjktrekt,b fcjwbht,ekbf 

o'fk,flehb ,vt,bc [fh/pt\ fvbc ufvj vbcb leqbkbcf 

lf uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehf ufybwlbc fyjvfkeh wdkbkt,t,c\ 

sdbct,t,b\ ceasf o'fkc fh uffxybf ceyb= athb= utvj\ yjhvfkehb 

fnvjcathekb oytdbc lhjc bub leqc 100 0 C-pt\ 0 0 C-pt 

b'byt,f lf bphlt,f vjwekj,fib 9%-bs\ evfqktcb cbvrdhbdt 1u$cv 3 

fmdc 4 0 C-pt (rbltd thsb fyjvfkbf)\ ceasf o'kbc tktmnhekb 

ufvnfhj,f .fkbfy vwbhtf\ o'kbc vjktrekfc fmdc lblb lbgjkehb 

vjvtynb\ fvbnjv bub .fkbfy rfhub ufv[cytkbf\ 

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb _ H O \ fv yfthsib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc 

2 2 

+1 -1 [ f hbc[ bf (- 1) _ H O2 \ bub wbcathb= ptsbcvfudfhb cbs[tf\ kf- 

2 

,jhfnjhbfib ufvjb'tyt,f 3% lf 30%-bfyb [cyfht,b\ o'fk,flbc 

gthjmcblb atsmt,flbf\ 

vbbqt,f ,fhbevbc gthjmcblpt (vbc vfhbkpt) ujubhlv;fdfc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

BaO 2 � H2SO4 � BaSO4 � �H2O 

2 

vhtodtkj,fib qt,ekj,ty tsbkfynhf]blhjmbyjybc ]fthbc 

;fyu,flbs lf;fydubcfc\ 

C 2 H 5 

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ ofhvjmvybc 

jhb cf[bc vfhbkc\ Na 2 O 2 _ yfnhbevbc gthjmcblb (cfiefkj 

vfhbkb= NaHO 2 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjgthjmcblb (v;fdf vfhbkb)\ 

H 2 O 2 fldbkfl bikt,f\ 

2H O � 2H 

O � O 

2 2 2 2 

hflufy o'fk,flbc gthjmcblib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fh 

fhbc vfmcbvfkehb= fvbnjv bcbw lf vbcb vfhbkt,bw fv;qfdyt,c 

fqvlutybcf lf v;fyufdbc sdbct,t,c| 

120 121 

OH 

+ O 2 

C 2 H 5 

O 

O 

+ H 2 O 2

7� 

2K MnO � 5Na ( O ) � 8H SO � K SO � 2MnSO 

� 

0 

2 

� 5O � 8H 

O 

�1 �2 

4 2 2 

2 

2 4 2 4 

7� 2� 

Mn � 5e 

� Mn 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

�2 0 

( O ) � 2e 

� O 5 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

2 

2� 

� 2� 

2 2 

2 

6� 

PbS � 4H ( O ) � Pb S O � 4H 

O 

4 2 

2� 6� 

S � 8e 

� S 

1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

�2 

�2 2� 

( O ) � 2e � 2O 

4 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

2 

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb ufvjb'tyt,f vtlbwbyfib= hjujhw rfhub 

fynbctgnbrb lf cflbpbyatmwbj cfiefkt,f\ 

nent kbsjyt,b (yfnhbevb) 

vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^f mdt/ueaib vjsfdct- 

,ekbf nent kbsjyt,b| kbsbevb Li= yfnhbevb Na= rfkbevb K= 

he,blbevb Rb= wtpbevb Cs= ahfywbevb Fr\ fqybiyek tktvtynt,c 

cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc thsb tktmnhjyb _ ns1 \ fvbnjv vfs ite.kbf 

v[jkjl thsb tktmnhjybc ufwtvf lf lflt,bsb bjybc ofhvjmvyf 

M_ e � M 

� \ nent kbsjyt,b v[jkjl fqvlutykt,bf\ mdt- 

/ueaib ptdblfy mdtdbs vwbhlt,f bjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkb= itcf,fvbcfl= 

ptdblfy mdtdbs bphlt,f kbsjyt,bc fmnbdj,fw\ 

nent kbsjyt,b vjdthw[kbcathj (wtpbevb jmhjcathb 

'dbstkb) h,bkb kbsjyt,bf (vfsb ufzhf itb.kt,f lfybs= kbsbevbc 

ufhlf)\ he,blbevb lf wtpbevb ]fthpt sdbsffkt,flbf\ bcbyb 

fldbkfl b;fyut,bfy= fvbnjv vfs byf[fdty yfdsib fy gfhfabyib\ 

fv /ueabc tktvtynt,b= .kbthb fmnbehj,bc ufvj= sfdbceafk 

vlujvfhtj,fib fh ud[dlt,f\ ufdhwtkt,ekbf vfsb yfthst,b| NaCl 

2� 

4 

_ mdfvfhbkb= NaCl . KCl _ cfkdbybnb= KCl . MgCl . 6H2O _ 

2 

rfhyfkbnb= Na SO . 10H2O _ ukfe,thbc vfhbkb= K CO _ 

2 4 

2 3 

gjnfib= Na CO . 10H2O _ rhbcnfkehb cjlf= NaHCO _ 

2 3 

3 

cfcvtkb cjlf= NaNO , KNO _ udfh/bkt,b\ 

3 3 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ vbe[tlfdfl bvbcf= hjv nent kbsjyt,b 

sdbct,t,b .fkbfy ]ufdc thsvfytsc= vfs ijhbc vfbyw fhbc vwbhtlb 

ufyc[dfdt,f\ ;fyu,flbcrty 'dtkfpt lbl cohfadfc bxtyc kbsbevb\ 

uf[eht,bs v[jkjl bc udf.ktdc jmcblc| 2Li � O � 2Li 

O + yfn- 

122 123 

2 2 

hbevb udf.ktdc gthjmcblc _ 2Na � O 2 � Na 2O 2 + 

rfkbevb= he,blbevb lf wtpbevb b.ktdf _ ptgthjmcblt,c| 

K O , Rb O , Cs O \ 

2 4 2 4 2 4 

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt v[jkjl kbsbevb ethslt,f fpjnc| 

6Li � N � 2Li 

N (ybnhblb) 

2 3 

ufdfhdfht,ekb kbsbevb= vfuybevbc vcufdcfl= bodbc yf[ibhjh;fyubc 

fhtib| 

4Li � CO � 2Li 

O � C 

2 2 

kbsbevbc nent _ LiOH= fvfdt mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,bc 

nentt,bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= uf[eht,bs bikt,f| 

2LiOH � 2Li 2O � H 2O 

yfnhbevbc vbqt,f [lt,f NaCl fy NaOH yfkqj,bc tktmnhjkbpbs| 

� � 

2MeCl � 2Me 2Cl 

K _ � 

2Me 0 

� 2e 

� 2Me 

A + � 0 

2Cl � 2e � Cl2 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ yfnhbevb tythubekfl vjmvtlt,c o'fksfy| 

2Na � 2H O � 2NaOH 

� H � 

2 2 

]fkjutyt,sfy| 2Na � Cl2 � 2NaCl 

(mkjhblb) 

ujubhlsfy| 2Na � S � Na 2S 

(cekablb) 

fpjnsfy| 6Na � N 

t 

�� 3Na 

N (ybnhblb) 

2 3

jmcblb lf ]blhjmcblb\ yfnhbevb ofhvjmvybc ae.t jmcblc 

Na 2 O lf nentc NaOH (rfecnbrehb cjlf)\ cfvhtodtkj [th[bs 

vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f NaCl o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbs| 

NaCl � Na � Cl 

H2O � � 

K _ _ 

2H O � 2e � H � 2OH 

A + 

2 2 

� 0 

2Cl � 2e � Cl2 

tktmnhkbpb 

2 2 2 

2NaCl � 2H O �� 2NaOH 

� H � Cl 

fy nentt,bc vbqt,bc cfthsj [th[bs _ itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt 

c[df nenbc lfvfnt,bs\ v[tldtkj,fib eylf vbdbqjs= hjv ufvj'jabkb 

vfhbkb eylf b'jc e[cyflb| 

Na CO � Ca( OH) � CaCO � � NaOH 

2 3 2 3 2 

kf,jhfnjhbfib vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f| 

kbsjybc o'fkib uf[cybs| 2Na � 2H O � 2NaOH 

� H � 

2 2 

jmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| Na 2O � H 2O � 2NaOH 

]blhblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| 2NaH� H2O� 

2NaOH� 

H2 

gthjmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| Na 2O 2 � H 2O � 2NaOH 

� O 

sdbct,t,b\ stshb athbc .kbth ]buhjcrjgekb ybdsbtht,ff\ 

bub ]fthblfy isfysmfdc yf[ihjh;fyuc= fvbnjv eylf itdbyf[js 

lf[ehek zehztkib\ NaOH rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ nenbc 

fqvjxtyf itb.kt,f eathj atyjkanfktbybs ([cyfhb itbatht,f 

;jkjcahfl) fy obstkb kfrvecbs ([cyfhb ufkeh/lt,f)\ 

NaOH vjmvtlt,c v;fdtt,sfy (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)| 

NaOH � HCl � NaCl � H 2O 

v;fdf jmcblt,sfy| 

NaOH � CO 2 � NaHCO 3 

2NaOH � CO 2 � Na 2CO 3 � 

H 2O 

vfhbkt,sfy| 

CuSO � 2NaOH 

� Cu( OH) � Na SO 

fvajnthek kbsjyt,sfy| 

124 125 

4 2 2 4 

2 

�Al( OH) 

4( 

H2O) 

2� 

3H2 

2Al � 2NaOH� 

10H 

O � 2Na 

� 

]fkjutyt,sfy| 

Cl 2 � 2NaOH 

� NaCl � NaClO � H2 

wbdb 

kf, fhrbc o'fkb 

yfnhbevbc yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf| 

NaHCO 3 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb= fye cfcvtkb cjlf\ 

vfc qt,ekj,ty cjkdtc [th[bs | 

NaCl � H 2O � NH 3 � CO 2 � NaHCO 3 � NH4Cl Na CO _ rfkwbybht,ekb cjlf= Na CO . 10H2O _ 

2 3 2 3 

rhbcnfkehb cjlf\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f NaHCO -bc _ yfnhbevbc 

3 

]blhjrfh,jyfnbc uf[eht,bs| 

2NaHCO 3 � Na 2CO 3 � H 2O 

+CO 2 

ufvj'tyt,f\ nent kbsjyt,blfy Li lf Na yfthst,b lbl hjkc 

fchekt,c wjw[fk jhufybpvib vbvlbyfht ghjwtct,ib\ kbsbevb 

.bhbsflfl flfvbfybc reyst,ibf= lbl ufdktyfc f[ltyc jhufybpvib 

yfnhbevbc lf rfkbevbc bjyt,bc nhfycgjhnbht,fib\ Na + lf K + 

bjyt,b ythdekb bvgekct,bc uflfvnfybf\ itlbc pjubthsb athvtynbc 

itvflutykj,fib\ 

NaOH _ yfnhbevbc nent ufvjb'tyt,f wtkekjpbc= cfgybc 

ofhvjt,fib= o'kbc cb[bcnbc vjcfcgj,fl\ 

O

^^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b 

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vtjht 

/ueabc tktvtynt,bf| ,thbkbevb _ Be= vfuybevb _ Mg= rfkwbevb 

_ Ca= cnhjywbevb _ Sr ,fhbevb _ Ba lf hflbevb _ 

Ra\ erfyfcrytkb tktvtynb hflbjfmnbehbf\ Ca, Sr lf Ba _ nent 

vbofsf kbsjyt,b tojlt,f\ 

sdbct,t,b\ eahj v.bvt lf vfufhb kbsjyt,bf= dblht nent kbsjyt,b\ 

mbvbehb fmnbdj,f bphlt,f hbuj,hbdb yjvhbc phlfcsfy 

thsfl\ ,thbkbevb lf vfuybevb o'kbc vbvfhs bxtyc vluhflj,fc\ 

nentvbofsf kbsjyt,b b[cyt,f o'fkib| 

Me � H O � Me( OH) � H � 

2 2 2 2 

fv /ueabc tktvtynt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf ;fyu,flbcrty 

cohfadf\ bcbyb ofhvjmvybfy vluhfl jmcblt,c\ 

itcf,fvbcb ]blhjmcblt,b fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,c= ,thbkbevbc 

ufhlf (fvajnthekbf)\ fv tktvtynt,bc vfhbkt,bc [cyflj,f c[dflfc[dfyfbhbf\ 

fhbc rfhufl [cyflb vfhbkt,b _ mkjhblt,b= ,hjvblt,b= 

bjlblt,b= cekablt,b (Ca_Ra)= ybnhfnb= ybnhbnb= wbfyblb 

(Mg_Ra) lf vwbhtl [cyflb fy ghfmnbrekfl e[cyflb vfhbkt,b 

_ asjhblt,b (Be ufhlf)= cekafnt,b (Be lf Mg ufhlf)= jhsjajcafnt,b= 

rfh,jyfnt,b lf c[df\ fv kbsjyt,bc rfsbjyt,b eathjf\ 

pjubthsbc itathbkj,f ufvjodtekbf fybjybs\ 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ fnjvbc fut,ekt,blfy ufvjvlbyfht= fv tktvtynt,c 

cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc ufo'dbkt,ekb jhb tktmnhjyb\ 

fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib s-mdtljyblfy thsb tktmnhjyb uflflbc 

p-mdtljytpt\ dfktynj,f [lt,f jhbc njkb\ 

�� 

�� 

�� 

� �� 

s 

p 

fldbkfl ite.kbfs jhbdt tktmnhjybc 

s 

p ufwtvf lf lflt,bsb 

� � 

bjybc ofhvjmvyf| 

M � e � M 

� 2 

2 

,thbkbevb _ Be\ ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f yfthst,bc cf[bs\ vfs 

ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf ,thbkb Be 2 Al 2 (SiO 3 ) 6 = hjvtkbw vbyfhtdt,bc 

ufvj c[dflfc[dfyfbhfl fhbc itathbkb\ vodfyt ,thbkb 

fhbc .dbhafcb mdf _ pehve[nb\ ,thbkbevb lf vbcb yfthst,bw 

fvajnthekbf\ 

vfuybevb _ Mg\ ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf .bhbsflfl rfh- 

,jyfnt,bc= cekafnt,bc lf cbkbrfnt,bc cf[bs (ljkjvbnb _ 

MgCO 3 . CaCO3 = rfhyfkbnb KCl . MgCl 2 . 6H2 O)\ 

vfuybevb dthw[kbcathb vce,emb kbsjybf\ mbvbehfl cfrvfjl 

fmnbehbf\ ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy f.tdt,c o'fk,flc\ bodbc ;fyu- 

,flbc lf ]fkjutyt,bc fhtib\ ofhvjmvybc vwbhtl [cyfl ae.t ]blhjmcblc 

_ Mg(OH) 2 \ 

rfkwbevb= cnhjywbevb= ,fhbevb _ Ca, Sr, Ba\ vfs nentvbofsf 

kbsjyt,c eojlt,ty\ 

rfkwbevb _ Ca ,eyt,fib ufdhwkt,bc vb[tldbs vt[est tktvtynbf\ 

,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfkt,bc cf[bs\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f 

CaCl 2 yfkqj,bc tktmnhjkbpbs\ 

CaCl 

2� 

� 

2 � Ca � 2Cl 

K _ � 

Ca � 2e 

� Ca 

2 0 

A + � 0 

2Cl � 2e � Cl2 

sdbct,t,b\ vjdthw[kbcahj kbsjybf\ lfybs fh bzht,f\ ]fthpt 

ufybs[tdf ]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybc ufvj\ ]fthpt uf[eht- 

,bcfc bodbc obstkb fkbs\ vfuybevbcfufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= o'fksfy 

ehsbthsmvtlt,c byntycbehfl\ 

Ca � H O � Ca( OH) � H � 

2 2 2 2 

126 127

fldbkfl b[cyt,f hjujhw ufypfdt,ek= bct rjywtynhbht,ek 

v;fdt,ib| 

Ca � H SO ( ufyp\ ) � CaSO � H 

2 4 4 2 

4Ca � 5H SO ( rjyw\ ) � 4CaSO � H S � 4H 

O 

2 4 4 2 2 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt b;fyut,f| 2Ca � O � 2CaO 

vjmvtlt,c| o'fk,flsfy _ Ca � H 2 � CaH 2 

]fkjutyt,sfy _ Ca � Cl2 � CaCl 2 

ujubhlsfy _ Ca � S � CaS 

ajcajhsfy _ 3Ca � 2P � Ca 3P2 fpjnsfy _ 3Ca � N2 � Ca 3N 2 

CaO _ xfevmhfkb rbhb _ ae.t jmcblbf\ 

b[cyt,f o'fkib| CaO � H O � Ca( OH) 

(xfvmhfkb rbhb) 

2 2 

b[cyt,f v;fdfib| CaO � H 2SO4 � CaSO 4 � H 2O 

t 

vjmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy| CaO � SiO �� CaSiO 

2 

2 3 

Ca(OH) 2 _ xfvmhfkb rbhb\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb .kbthb nentf\ 

vbbqt,f xfevmhfkb rbhbc (CaO) o'fkib uf[cybs\ v'fhb Ca(OH) 2 

o'fkib .ytkfl b[cyt,f\ ]fthpt bvqdhtdf yf[ibhjh;fyubc isfysmvbc 

ufvj\ 

Ca(OH) 2 +CO 2 � �� CaCO 3 � � +H 2 O 

se CO 2 -c zfh,fl ufdfnfht,s= vfiby yfktmb ufb[cyt,f| 

CaCO 3 +CO 2 +H 2 O�Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 

xfvmhfkb rbhbc mdbibc lf o'kbc yfhtdb ufvjb'tyt,f vityt,kj,fib= 

rtlkt,bc itcfktcfl\ bub wyj,bkbf @rbhleqf,bc# cf- 

[tkbs\ 

Ca(OH) 2 fv;qfdyt,c ae.bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tk 'dtkf sdbct,fc\ 

vjmvtlt,c v;fdt,sfy _ Ca(OH) 2 + 2HCl � CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

v;fdf jmcblt,sfy _ Ca(OH) + SiO � CaSiO + H O 

2 2 3 2 

vfhbkt,sfy _ Na CO + Ca(OH) � CaCO � 2 3 2 3 � + 2NaOH 

o'kbc cb[bcnt ufygbhj,t,ekbf Ca 2+ lf Mg 2+ bjyt,bc fhct- 

,j,bs\ hfw eahj vfqfkbf vfsb itvwdtkj,f o'fkib= vbs eahj 

vtnbf o'kbc cb[bcnt\ fhct,j,c cfvb cf[bc cb[bcnt| lhjt,bsb= 

velvbdb lf cfthsj\ 

lhjt,bsb cb[bcnt= fye rfh,jyfnekb= ufvjodtekbf rfkwbevbc 

lf vfuybevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc fhct,j,bs [Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 = 

Mg(HCO 3 ) 2 ]\ o'kbcsdbc cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f ybiyfdc Ca 2+ lf Mg 2+ 

bjyt,bc vjwbkt,fc= fye [cyflb ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc uflf'dfyfc 

e[cyfl rfh,jyfnt,ib\ 

lhjt,bs cb[bcntc fwbkt,ty fleqt,bs 

t 

3 2 3 2 2 

Ca( HCO ) �� CaCO 

� �H O � CO 

fy rfkwbevbc nenbc lfvfnt,bs| 

Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 +Ca(OH) 2 � 2CaCO 3 �+2H 2 O 

velvbd cb[bcntc o'fkib ofhvjmvybc CaSO 4 , MgSO 4 , CaCl 2 , 

MgCl 2 \ velvbd cb[bcntc fwbkt,ty rfkwbybht,bs (cjlbc lfvfnt,bs)| 

CaCl 2 + Na 2 CO 3 � CaCO 3�� + 2NaCl 

CaSO 4 + Na 2 CO 3 � CaCO 3�� + Na 2 SO 4 

it htekb= fye cfthsj cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f itb.kt,f 

yfnhbevbc nenbs| 

Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 + 2NaOH � CaCO 3� � + Na 2 CO 3 + 2H 2 O 

CaCl 2 + Na 2 CO 3 � CaCO 3� + 2NaCl 

CaSO 4 + Na 2 CO 3 � CaCO 3� + Na 2 SO 4 

o'kbc 'jdtkudfhb cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f itb.kt,f bjybnt,bs\ 

128 129

ufvj'tyt,f\ ^^f /ueabc tktvtynt,b ufvj'btyt,f 'dtkf cathjib\ 

,thbkbevc b'tyt,ty fnjveh htfmnjht,ib\ vfuybevc b'tyt,ty 

c[dflfc[df ityflyj,t,ib= gbhjntmybrfib= jhufyek cbystpib= 

[cyflb fyjlbc lfcfvpflt,kfl= tktmnhjmbvbeh lfvwfdfl 

rjhjpbbc cfobyffqvltujl\ rfkwbevbc yfthst,bc evtntcj,f ufvjb'tyt,f 

cfvityt,kj ghfmnbrfib (CaO, Ca(OH) , CaCO ; 

2 3 

CaSO . 0,5H2O _ fkt,fcnhb), vtlbwbyfib (CaCl ; CaSO . 2H2O _ 

4 

2 4 

sf,fibhb+)\ 

^^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b 

vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^^^ f /ueabc tktvtynt,bf| 

,jhb _ B= fkevbyb _ Al= ufkbevb _ Ga= bylbevb _ In, 

sfkbev _ Tl\ fv tktvtynt,blfy ,jhb fhfkbsjybf\ vbcb ]blhjmcblb 

_ B(OH) 3 cecnb v;fdehb sdbct,t,bs [fcbfslt,f\ fkevbyb= 

ufkbevb= bylbevb _ fvajnthekb kbsjyt,bf\ vfsb itcf,fvbcb 

]blhjmcblt,b fvajnthekbf\ fvajnthj,f rkt,ekj,c Al-lfy 

In-rty\ sfkbevb fh ofhvjmvybc cfvdfktynbfy ]blhjmcblc\ TlOH 

_ .kbthb nentf\ 

fkevbyb _ Al\ fv tktvtynib cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b vjsfdct,ekbf 

3s2sp1 mdtljytt,pt\ ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,bc vb[tldbs 

bub vtjs[t tktvtynbf\ evsfdhtcfl fkevbycbkbrfnt,bc cf[bs fhbc 

ufdhwtkt,ekb\ fkevbybc yfthst,blfy vybdiytljdfybf Al O _ rj- 

2 3 

heylb\ (c[dflfc[df vbyfhtdt,bs itathbkb rjheylb ud[dlt,f 

.dbhafcb mdt,bc cf[bs| kfkb (mhjvbc vbyfhtdbs)= cfabhjyb (nbnfybc 

lf hrbybc vbyfhtdbs))+ ,jmcbnt,b _ Al O . 2H2O= rhbjkbsb 

2 3 

_ Na [AlF ]= stshb sb[f _ Al (Si O )(OH) \ 

3 6 2 2 5 4 

vbqt,f\ ntmybrfib fkevbyc qt,ekj,ty rhbjkbsib Na 3 [AlF 6 ]ib 

uf[cybkb fkevbybc jmcblbc (Al 2 O 3 ) tktmnhjkbpbs\rfsjlpt 

ufvjb'jaf ceasf fkevbyb= [jkj fyjlpt lfb;fyut,f ;fyu,flb\ 

sdbct,t,b\ fkevbyb vjdthw[kbcahj-stshb athbc ztlflb 

kbsjybf\ bub rfhub cbs,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhbf\ 

]fthpt fkevbyb vluhflbf= hfw ufvjodtekbf vfcpt jmcblbc 

lfvwfdb atybc fhct,j,bs (nAl O . mH2O)\ 2 3 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt fkevbyb vjmvtlt,c o'kbc jhsmksfy| 

2Al+3H O�Al O +3H 2 2 3 2 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f| 

;fyu,flc _ 4Al + 3O � 2Al O = 

2 2 3 

ujubhlc _ 2A l+ 3S � Al S = 2 3 

fpjnc _ 2Al + N � 2AlN 

2 

mkjhc lf ,hjvc ethslt,f xdtekt,hbd ntvgthfnehfpt\ 

htfmwbfib eiefkjl fh itlbc o'fk,flsfy\ 

fkevbyc fmdc jhudfhb ,eyt,f (fvajnthekbf)\ b[cyt,f cfiefkj 

rjywtynhfwbbc v;fdt,ib| 

2Al + 6HNO � Al(NO ) + 3NO + 3H O 

3 3 3 2 2 

2Al + 6H SO � Al (SO ) + 3SO + 6H O 

2 4 2 4 3 2 2 

rfhufl b[cyt,f nentt,ibw| 

2Al + 2NaOH + 10H O � 2Na[Al(OH) (H O) ] + 3H 2 4 2 2 2 

fkevbyb ofhvjmvybc o'fk,flyfthsc _ AlH lf ;fyu,flyf- 

3 

thscfw _ Al O \ 2 3 

Al 2 O 3 _ fkevbybc jmcblb= bctdt= hjujhw fkevbyb= fvajnthekbf\ 

vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f fkevbybc ;fyu,flsfy eiefkj itthst,bs 

fy fkevbybc ]blhjmcblbc _ Al(OH) 3 -bc lfikbs| 

2Al(OH) 3 � Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O 

fkevbybc ]blhjmcblb _ Al(OH) 3 o'fkib e[cyflb= fvajnthekb 

ae.tf\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs\ 

Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 6NaOH � 2Al(OH) 3�� + 3Na 2 SO 4 

130 131

hflufy ufvj'jabkb Al(OH) 3 fvajnthekbf= fvbnjv yfnhbevbc 

nent eylf lfdfvfnjs odts-odtsfl\ c[df itvs[dtdfib yfktmb 

ufb[cyt,f\ 

Al(OH) 3 -bc vbqt,bcfc yfnhbevbc nenbc vfubdhfl c/j,c ufvjdb'tyjs 

cecnb nent NH 4 OH 

Al 2 (SO 4 ) + 6NH 4 OH � 2Al(OH) 3 + 3(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 

Al(OH) 3 _ b[cyt,f v;fdfibw lf zfh, nentibw\ 

2Al(OH) 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 � Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 6H 2 O (ae.bc sdbct,f) 

Al(OH) 3 + NaOH + 2H 2 O � Na[Al(OH) 4 (H 2 O) 2 ] (v;fdbc sdbct,f) 

ufvj'tyt,f\ fkevbyb .bhbsflfl ufvjb'tyt,f ityflyj,t,ib\ lfvfnt,t,bc 

it'dfybcfc fkevbybc cbvfuht bphlt,f= vfuhfv vwbhlt,f 

rjhjpbekb vluhflj,f\ fkevbybc ityflyj,t,b= hjvkt,bw itbwfdc 

cgbkty.c lf vwbht hfjltyj,bs vfuybevc _ vluhflbf\ fctsbf 

lehfkevbyb (5% Cu lf 2% Mg)\ wyj,bkbf fkevbybc ,hby/fj (Cu 

_ 5-10%)\ ufvjb'tyt,f [ehlf aekbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

fkevbybc ityflyj,t,c b'tyt,ty sdbsvahbyfdvityt,kj,fib\ 

ufvjb'tyt,f hjujhw rfhub fqvlutytkb vtnfkehubfib\ fv 

vtsjlc fkevbyjsthvbf tojlt,f| 

3Fe 3 O 4 + 8Al � 9Fe + 4Al 2 O 3 

^& /ueabc p_tktvtynt,b 

yf[ibh,flb 

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f| gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^& /ueabc vsfdfhb 

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bf| yf[ibh,flb _ C= cbkbwbevb _ Si= uthvfybevb 

_ Ge= rfkf _ Sn= n'dbf _ Pb\ mdt/ueaib ptdblfy mdtdbs 

bphlt,f fnjvbc hflbecb= rkt,ekj,c bjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkb= 

fvbnjv ptdblfy mdtdbs vwbhlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ yf[ibh,flb 

lf cbkbwbevb nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ uthvfybevc erfdbf 

iefktlehb vlujvfhtj,f= [jkj rfkfcf lf n'dbfib kbsjyehb 

sdbct,t,b zfh,j,c\ fv mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c cfdfktynj ihtpt 

fmdc js[b tktmnhjyb ns 2 np 2 (n _ gthbjlbc yjvthbf)= fvbnjv 

yfthst,ib bcbyb .bhbsflfl js[dfktynbfybf= sevwf jhbc njkb 

dfktynj,fw lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf (Si-bc ufhlf)\ 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| yf[ibh,flb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf 

hjujhw sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib= fctdt yfthst,bc cf[bs\ fhct,j,c 

yf[ibh,flbc cfvb fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,f| fkvfcb= 

uhfabnb= [bc yf[ibhb (rfh,byb)\ vfsb fkjnhjgbbc cfae.dtkb 

fhbc rhbcnfkehb vtchbc c[dflfc[dfj,f\ 

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy fkvfcb 'dtkfpt vfufhbf\ vbcb lfveifdt,bs 

vbbqt,f .dbhafcb cfbedtkbhj mdf _ ,hbkbfynb\ [bc yf[ibhc 

fmdc flcjh,wbbc lblb eyfhb= ajht,bfyb cnhemnehbc ufvj\ 

uffmnbdt,ek yf[ibhc fh ite.kbf o'kbc jhsmkbc isfysmvf= cfvfubthjl 

rfhufl isfysmfdc bctsb ybdsbtht,t,bc jhsmkc= hjujhbwff 

,typjkb= njkejkb= cgbhnb lf c[dflfc[df vjvofvdktkb 

ybdsbtht,f\ yf[ibhbc tc sdbct,f ptkbycrbv ufvjb'tyf fbhobyfqt,ib\ 

,eyt,fib yf[ibh,flb ufdhwtkt,ekbf| rfh,jyfnt,bc [wfhwb= 

rbhmdf= vfhvfhbkj (CaCO 3 )+ ljkjvbnb (CaCO 3 .MgCO 3 )] lf 

]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc [Mg(HCO 3 ) 2 , Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 ] cf[bs\ 

lblb hfjltyj,bs yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc ,eyt,hbdb cfodfdb _ 

yfdsj,b= mdfyf[ibhb= cfodfdb fbht,b\ 

132 133

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf fhbc _ 6 C _ 

1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 \ cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b vjsfdct,ekbf 2s 2 2p 2 mdtlj- 

2 s 

2p 

ytpt _ �� \ t\b\ fmdc jhb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb 

(jhdfktynbfyb yfthst,b) fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib yf[ibh,flbc 

fnjvc ite.kbf 2s-mdtljyblfy thsb tktmnhjyb uflfbnfyjc 2p- 

mdtljytpt= hbc itltuflfw vfc ufe[lt,f js[b ufeo'dbkt,tkb 

2 s 2p 

tktmnhjyb _ �� \ 

fv itvs[dtdfib bub js[dfktynbfybf\ 

yf[ibh,flbc yt,bcvbthb fkjnhjgbekb vjlbabrfwbf xdtekt,hbd 

gbhj,t,ib bythnekbf\ fmnbehlt,f v[jkjl vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt\ 

bub .kbthb fqvlutybf\ tc sdbct,f ufvj'tyt,ekbf 

vtnfkehubfib\ 

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvt,c fmdc thsvfytssfy itthst,bc eyfhb\ fv 

sdbct,fv ufyfgbhj,f efvhfdb jhufyekb yfthsbc ofhvjmvyf\ 

yf[ibh,flbc o'fk,flyfthst,b| yf[ibh,flb o'fk,flsfy ofhvjmvybc 

vhfdfkhbw[jdfy yfthsc\ vjktrekfib o'fk,flbc lf yf[ibh,flbc 

fnjvt,bc sfyfafhlj,bc vb[tldbs= bcbyb itb.kt,f hfvltybvt 

/ueafl lfd'js| 

yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,b _ C H n 2n+2 

e/thb (tsbktybc hbubc) yf[ibho'fk,flt,b _ C H n 2n 

e/thb (fwtnbktybc hbubc) yf[ibho'fk,flt,b) _ C H \ 

n 2n _ 2 

yf[ibho'fk,flt,b ofhvjmvybc ]jvjkjubeh hbuc= cflfw sbsjtekb 

otdhb vjvltdyj otdhbcufy ufyc[dfdlt,f _ CH /ueabs\ 

2 

CH -c ]jvjkjubehb c[dfj,f tojlt,f\ 

2 

yf[ibho'fk,flt,blfy 'dtkfpt vtnfl wyj,bkbf _ vtsfyb= 

tsbktyb= fwtnbktyb\ 

vtsfyb _ CH yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,bc gbhdtkb ofhvj- 

4 

vflutytkbf\ ,eyt,hbdb fbht,b .bhbsflfl vtsfybcufy itlut,f\ bub 

eathj= eceyj= o'fkib sbsmvbc e[cyflb yfthsbf\ vtsfyb .bhbsflfl 

ufvjb'tyt,f cfodfdfl\ ]fthpt bodbc wbcathb fkbs\ 

CH + 2O �� CO + 2H O 

4 2 2 2 

tsbktyb _ C 2 H 4 e/thb yf[ibho'fk,flbf\ bub cfcbfvjdyj 

ceybc cecnb fbhbf\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f\ ufvjb'tyt,f .bhbsflfl 

ntmybrehb tsbkbc cgbhnbc vbcfqt,fl\ 

fwtnbktyb _ C 2 H 2 eathj= vjvofvkfdb fbhbf\ fwtnbktybc 

vbqt,f itb.kt,f rfkwbevbc rfh,blpt o'kbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

CaC 2 + 2H 2 O �� Ca(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 

]fthsfy lf ;fyu,flsfy fwtnbktybc yfhtdb .kbth atsmt,flbf\ 

]fthpt bodbc zdfhnkbfyb fkbs| 

C 2 H 2 + 2,5 O 2 ��2CO 2 + H 2 O + 151 r/jekb 

hflufy fwtnbktybc odbcfc lbl.fkb cbs,j ufvjb'jaf= fvbnjv 

vfy afhsj ufvj'tyt,f vjbgjdf ntmybrfib _ evsfdhtcfl kbsjyt,bc 

fdnjutyehb itleqt,bc lhjc\ fwtnbktyblfy vpfllt,f .vfhv;fdf\ 

ufvjb'tyt,f fuhtsdt cbystpehb rfexerbc ofhvjt,bcsdbc\ 

rfh,blt,b tojlt,f yf[ibh,flbc yfthst,c kbsjyt,sfy= ,jhsfy 

lf cbkbwbevsfy\ rfh,blt,b b'jaf cfv /ueafl _ bjyeh= rjdfktyneh 

lf bynthvtnfkehfl\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf rfkwbevbc 

rfh,blb= hjvtkbw bjyeh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f\ fv nbgbc 

rfh,blt,c fwtnbktyblt,cfw eojlt,ty= hflufy o'fksfy vfsb 

ehsbthsmvtlt,bc itltufl vbbqt,f fwtnbktyb| 

CaC 2 + 2H 2 O �� Ca(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 

rfkwbevbc rfh,blb vbbqt,f tktmnhek qevtkib rbhbcf lf 

yf[ibhbc yfhtdbc .kbthb uf[eht,bs 

CaO + 3C ��CaC 2 + CO 

bjyeh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f vtsfyjutyehb rfh,blt,b= hjvkt,bcufyfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f vtsfyb\ 

Al 4 C 3 + 12H 2 O �� 2Al(OH) 3 + 3CH 4 

rjdfktyneh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f ,jhbc rfh,blb (B 4 C) lf 

cbkbwbevbc rfh,blb (SiC)\ bcbyb cbvfuhbs fkvfcc ef[kjdlt,bfy\ 

134 135

yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb _ CO v[esfdb fbhbf\ vbbqt,f 

yf[ibh,flbc fhfchekb odbc itltufl| 

2C + O 2 ��2CO 

CO-c vbqt,f itb.kt,f yf[ibhbcf lf CO 2 -bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt| 

CO 2 + C ��2CO 

CO _ ]fthpt vce,emb= eathj= eceyj fbhbf\ o'fkib evybidytkjl 

b[cyt,f\ ;fyu,flbc fhtib (]fthib) bodbc keh/b fkbs| 

2CO + O 2 ��2CO 2 + 2 . 282,4 r/ 

lfodbcfc ufvjb'jaf cbs,jc lblb hfjltyj,f= fvbnjv ufvjb- 

'tyt,f= hjujhw rfhub cfodfdb\ 

CO rfhub fqvlutybf lf tc sdbct,f ufvjb'tyt,f vtnfkehubfib| 

Fe 3 O 4 + 4CO �� 3Fe + 4CO 2 

CO vfhbkfhofhvjvmvytkb jmcblbf\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= bub 

b[cyt,f yfnhbevbc nentib| 

CO + NaOH �� HCOONa 

itltufl vbbqt,f zbfyzdtkfv;fdfc vfhbkb _ yfnhbevbc ajhvbfnb\ 

CO vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f pjubths kbsjyc lf 

vbbqt,f kbsjysf rfh,jybkt,b| Ni(CO) 4 ; Fe(CO) 5 lf c[df\ 

CO 500 0 C-pt ethslt,f mkjhc lf vbbqt,f ajcutyb\ 

CO + Cl 2 �� COCl 2 

ajcutyb v[esfdb= .kbthvjvofvdktkb= eathj fbhbf\ gbhdtk 

vcjakbj jvbc lhjc bc b'j gbhdtkb mbvbehb bfhfqb= hjvtkbw 

uthvfybfv ufvjb'tyf\ 

yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb fhbc .bhbsflb itvflutytkb yfobkb 

utythfnjhbc lf o'fkufpbc\ utythfnjhbc ufpb vbbqt,f yf[ibhbc 

fy rjmcbc fhfchekb odbc lhjc\ vbcb itvflutykj,f (vjwekj,bsb 

ghjwtynb) fhbc _ 25% CO+ 70% N 2 ; 4% CO 2 \ 1v 3 \ fctsb fbhbc 

lfodbcfc ufvjb'jaf 33 000_40 000 r/ cbs,j\ 

o'fkufpb vbbqt,f ufdfhdfht,ekb rjmcbc atyfib o'kbc jhsmkbc 

ufnfht,bs| 

C + H 2 O �� CO + H 2 

o'fkufpb lf utythfnjhbc ufpb rfhub cfodfdbf\ 

yf[ibh,flbc (^&) jmcblb _ CO 2 \ yf[ibh,flbc chekb 

odbcfc ufvjb'jaf yf[ibhjh;fyub| 

C + O 2 ��CO 2 

bub ]fthpt 1=5-/th v.bvtf\ cohfab fjhsmkt,bcfc b'byt,f lf 

vbbqt,f @vihfkb 'byekb#\ v'fhb CO 2 ufkqj,bc ufhtit fldbkfl 

uflflbc fbhfl vlujvfhtj,fib\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f= fmdc 

cfcbfvjdyj utvj= fvbnjvfw afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f ufvfuhbkt,tkb 

cfcvtkt,bc ofhvjt,fib\ 

CO 2 yf[ibhv;fdfc fy]blhblbf\ b[cyt,f nentt,ib lf vbbqt,f 

rfh,jyfnt,b lf ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,b| 

CO 2 + 2NaOH 

� Na 2CO 

3 + H 2O 

CO + NaOH � 

136 137 

2 

rfh, jyfnb 

NaHCO 

3 

]blhjrfh, jyfnb 

ntmybrehb vbpyt,bcfsdbc CO 2 -c qt,ekj,ty rbhmdbc fy ljkjvbnbc 

ufvjodbs| 

CaCO 3 ��CaO + CO 2 

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib vbbqt,f rbgbc fgfhfnib= vfhvfhbkjc 

yfnt[pt vfhbkv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs 

CaCO 

3 

+ 2HCl 

� 

CaCl 

2 

� H 2O 

+ H2CO 

3 

� CO 

fy yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc uf[eht,bs| 

2NaHCO 3 �� Na 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O 

CO 2 -bc o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f cecnb= fhfvluhflb yf[ibhv;fdf\ 

CO 2 + H 2 O �� H 2 CO 3 

yf[ibhv;fdf cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ lbcjwbhlt,f jh cfat- 

[ehfl| 

2

H CO �� H 2 3 + _ + HCO3 H _ O \ 

C � O 

H _ O / 

_ + _2 

HCO �� H + CO3 

3 

H CO ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhbkc _ ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,c 

2 3 

lf rfh,jyfnt,c\ 

NaOH + H CO �� NaHCO + H O 

2 3 3 2 

2NaOH + H CO �� Na CO + 2H O 

2 3 2 3 2 

rfh,jyfnt,b ]blhjkbplt,f nent ufhtvjc ofhvjmvybs| 

Na CO + H O �� NaHCO + NaOH 

2 3 2 3 

_2 _ _ CO + H2O ��HCO + OH pH>7 

3 

3 

NaHCO + H O �� NaOH + H CO 3 2 2 3 

_ HCO + H2O ��OH 3 

_ + H CO pH>7 

2 3 

rfh,jyfnt,blfy o'fkib v[jkjl nent kbsjyt,bc lf fvjybevbc 

rfh,jyfnt,b b[cyt,f rfhufl\ ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,blfy o'fkib 

rfhufl b[cyt,f nent lf nentvbofsf kbsjyt,bc ]blhjrfh- 

,jyfnt,b (yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc ufhlf)\ 

yf[ibh,flbc c[df yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf ujubhlyf[ibh,flb 

(CS 2 ) lf js[mkjhbfyb yf[ibh,flb (CCl 4 )\ jhbdt rfhub 

ufv[cytkbf\ 

js[mkjhbfyb yf[ibh,flbc jhsmkbc fhtib fh dhwtklt,f 

fkb\ fvbnjv bub b[vfht,f cf[fy.hj cfmvtib= wtw[kbc xfcfmhj,fl\ 

cbkbwbevb 

cbkbwbevb ltlfvbofpt 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb tktvtynbf\ 

,eyt,fib sfdbceafkb cf[bs fh ud[dlt,f= fhct,j,c yfthst,bc 

cf[bs= hjvkt,bw itb.t,f ufydb[bkjs SiO -bc yfofhvfl\ 

2 

SiO ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f rdfhwbc= vsbc ,hjkbc= mdbibc cf[bs\ 

2 

vsbc ,hjkb ufvzdbhdfkt rhbcnfkt,bf\ vbyfhtdt,bcufy bc vemahfl 

itathbkb vsbc ,hjkb _ yf[tdhfl .dbhafcb vbythfkb 

njgfpbf= bbcahfl itathbkb _ fvtsdbcnj\ SiO ud[dlt,f byae- 

2 

pjhbekb vbobc cf[bsfw\ bub ofhvjflutyc o'fkvwtyfhtt,bc 

rf;jdfyb /fdiyt,bc yfhxtyt,c\ ite.kbf lblb hfjltyj,bs cbs[bc 

itojdf\ tc sdbct,f ufvj'tyt,ekbf lbyfvbnbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

cbkbwbevbc ,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf fkevbycbkbrfnt,b| 

vbyldhbc igfnb= mfhcb= ,bdhbkb lfc[df\ 

pjubthsb ,eyt,hbdb cbkbrfnb o'kbc lf yf[ibhjh;fyubc 

vjmvtlt,bs ytk-ytkf bikt,f lf ofhvjmvybc o'fkib e[cyfl rfjkbyc 

_ Al O . 2SiO2. 

2H2O= fye stsh sb[fc lf mdbifc _ SiO \ 

2 3 

2 

yf[ibh,flbc vcufdcfl cbkbwbevcfw uffxybf js[b cfdfktynj 

tktmnhjyb 2s22p2 mdtljytt,pt\ yfthst,ib bub .bhbsflfl js[dfktynbfybf\ 

;fyudbc hbw[db +4 (bidbfsfl _ +2)= o'fk,flyfthsib 

rb -4\ 

cbkbwbevb fhct,j,c jhb vjlbabrfwbbc cf[bs\ rhbcnfkehb 

lf fvjhaekb\rhbcnfkeh cbkbwbevc fkvfcbc vcufdcb cbvfuht 

fmdc\ fhbc rfhub tktmnhjufvnfhb\ 

cbkbwbevb vbbqt,f SiO -bc fqlutybs tktnhjqevtkib\ 

2 

SiO + 2C ��Si + 2CO 

2 

fvjhaekb cbkbwbevb fhbc vehf a[dybkb\ mbvbehfl eahj 

fmnbehbf= dblht rhbcnfkehb cbkbwbevb\ jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt 

ethslt,f v[jkjl asjhc\ 

Si + 2F ��SiF 2 4 

lfyfhxty ]fkjutyt,c ethslt,f uf[eht,bs\ ;fyu,flc ethslt,f 

8000-pt\ 138 139

Si + O 2 ��SiO 2 

fh b[cyt,f fhwths v;fdfib= ufhlf fpjnv;fdbcf lf asjho'fk,flv;fdbc 

yfhtdbcf\ 

3Si 0 + 4HN +5 O 3 + 18HF �� 3H 2 Si +4 F 6 + 4N +2 O + 8H 2 O 

Si 0 _ 4e ��Si +4 3 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 

N +5 + 3e �� N +2 4 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 

cbkbwbevb b[cyt,f nentt,ib lf ofhvjmvybc vtnfcbkbrfnt,c\ 

Si + 2NaO + H 2 O �� Na 2 SiO 3 + 2H 2 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f pjubths kbsjyc lf ofhvjmvybc 

cbkbwblt,c\ 

2Mg + Si �� Mg 2 Si 

tktmnhjqevtkib rjmcbc (C) lf mdbibc (SiO 2 ) itkqj,bs vbbqt,f 

cbkbwbevbc rfh,blb SiC_ rfh,jheylb\ vfc f[fcbfst,c 

fkvfcbc vcufdcb cbvfuht\ 

cbkfyt,b _ cbkbwbevbc o'fk,flyfthst,bf\ vfsb cfthsj ajhvekff 

Si n H 2n+2 \ 

cbkbwbevbc ;fyu,flyfthst,blfy wyj,bkbf vjyjmcblb SiO lf 

jmcblb SiO 2 \ 

SiO ,eyt,fib fh vjbgjdt,f\ 

SiO 2 xdtekt,hbdb rf;vboff lf ,eyt,hbdb gjkbvthbf (SiO 2 ) n \ 

rf;vbof [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb lyj,bc ntvgthfnehbs= cbcfkbsf lf 

mbvbehb vluhflj,bs (xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib)\ SiO 2 cbkbwbevv;fdfc 

fy]blhblbf\ o'fkib fh b[cyt,f\ ehsbthsmvtlt,c nentt,sfy 

lf vbbqt,f cbkbwbevv;fdfc vfhbkt,b _ cbkbrfnt,b\ 

SiO 2 + 2NaOH �� Na 2 SiO 3 + H 2 O 

o'fkib [cyflbf v[jkjl nent kbsjyt,bc cbkbrfnt,b\ 

Na 2 SiO 3 _ s[tdflb vbyf ufvjb'tyt,f cfvityt,kj cfmvtib uheynbc 

ufcfvfuht,kfl= cffdnjvj,bkj upt,bc vityt,kj,fib\ s[tdfl 

vbyfpt v;fdt,bc vjmvtlt,bs vbbqt,f vtnfcbkbwbevv;fdf H 2 SiO 3 \ 

Na 2 SiO 3 + 2HCl �� 2NaCl + H 2 SiO 3 

wyj,bkbf cbkbwbevbc hfvltybvt v;fdf\ vfsufy vybidytkjdfybf 

(H 2 SiO 3 -bc ufhlf) H 4 SiO 4 _ jhsjajcajhv;fdf= hjvkbc gjkbvthbpfwbbc 

itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f cbkbwbevbc c[df v;fdt,b\ 

vbyf\ rf;vbof lf cbkbwbevv;fdfc vfhbkt,b vhfdfkb ntmybrehb 

ghjlemnbc itvflutytkb yfobkbf\ SiO 2 -bc= yfnhbevbcf lf 

rfkwbevbc rfh,jyfnt,bc itkqj,bs vbbqt,f vbyf\ 

140 141 

Na 

2 

CO 

3 

+ CaCO 

3 

+ 6SiO 

2 

� 

Na O � CaO � 6SiO 

2 

xdtek\ (afy/hbc) vbyf 

2 

+ 2CO 

se yfnhbevbc jmcblc (Na 2 O) itdwdkbs rfkbevbc jmcblbs 

(K 2 O)= vbbqt,f wtw[kufv.kt mbvbehb vbyf\ se CaO xfdfyfwdkt,s 

n'dbbc jmcblbs= vbdbqt,s ,hjkc\ wyj,bkbf fuhtsdt 

rdfhwbc vbyf\ bub .bhbsflfl SiO 2 -ufy itlut,f\ vfc fmdc .fkbfy 

vwbht ufafhsjt,bc rjtabwbtynb= hbc ufvjw ntvgthfnehbc wdfkt,flj,f 

vfcpt ufdktyfc fh f[ltyc\ ufvjb'tyt,f cgtwbfkehb 

[tkcfo'jt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

athflb vbyt,bc vbcfqt,fl evfnt,ty c[dflfc[df kbsjyt,bc 

jmcblt,c\ keh/b vbybc vbcfqt,fl evfnt,ty rj,fknbc jmcblc\ 

bbcathb vbyf vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc lfvfnt,bs= vodfyt _ mhjvbc jmcblbc 

cfiefkt,bs\ 

vbyfymfhb fhbc fhfufvzdbhdfkt vbyf\ ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjybc 

yfrtsj,t,bc ptlfgbhbc lfcfafhfdfl\ 

afbaehb vbbqt,f sb[bc= rfjkbybc= vbyldhbc igfnbcf lf rdfhwbc 

yfhtdbc ufvjodbs\ 

SiO 2 -bc itvwdtkb vfcfkbcufy vpfllt,f wtw[kufv.kt lbyfcbc 

fuehb= hjvtkbw ufvjb'tyt,f wtw[kufv.kt qevtkt,bc fcfut,fl\ 

wtvtynb itvrdhtkb vfcfkff= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f lfobkflt- 

,ekb rbhmdbc (CaCO 3 ) lf SiO 2 -bs ufvlblht,ekb sb[bc yfhtdbc 

uf[eht,bs\ vbqt,ek vfcfc rkbyrthb tojlt,f\ fv vfcbc itvlujvb 

lfamdbs vbbqt,f wtvtynb\ 

2

,eyt,fib fhct,j,c mfyt,b _ vthutkt,b= hjvkt,bw sfdbcb itlutybkj,bs 

wtvtynbcsdbc cfzbhj sb[bc lf rbhmdbc yfhtdbc 

vcufdcbf\ [ibhfl cojhtl vthutkt,c ufvjodfdty lf vbqt,ek 

rkbyrthc amdfdty\ 

wtvtynb yfwhbcathb a[dybkbf= hjvkbc mdbifcsfy yfhtdb 

o'fksfy ofhvjmvybc wjvbct,h vfcfc= ufihj,bcfc bub itzbldfc 

ufybwlbc\ 

,tnjyb wtvtynbc lf [htibc yfhtdbc o'fk[cyfhbf= hjvtkcfw 

fsfdct,ty ajhvt,ib\ bub afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f cfvityt,kj cfmvtib\ 

& /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b 

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ gthbjlekb cbcntvbc & f mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bf| 

fpjnb N+ ajcajhb P+ lfhbi[fyb As+ cnb,bevb Sb+ 

,bcvenb Bi\ fpjnb lf ajcajhb nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ lfhbi- 

[fyb lf cnb,bevb ufhlfvfdfkb ,eyt,bc tktvtynt,bf= [jkj ,bcvenib 

zfh,j,c kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ fv mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc 

.bhbsflb dfktynj,f fhbc ^^^ lf & (fpjnbc ufhlf)\ evfqktcb 

lflt,bsb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b +5= [jkj efh'jabsb ve[nb _ -3\ 

fpjnb 

sfdbceafkb fpjnb ]fthbc itvflutykj,fibf (78%)\ fpjnbc 

yfthst,b ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf yfnhbevbc lf rfkbevbc udfh- 

/bkt,bc _ NaNO 3 , KNO 3 cf[bs\ 

fpjnbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 \ cfdfktynj 

tktmnhjyt,b vjsfdct,ekbf 2s 2 2p 3 mdtljytt,pt\ fh uffxybf 

sfdbceafkb jh,bnfkb= fvbnjv s-mdtljyblfy tktmnhjyt,bc 

ufywfkrtdt,f fh ite.kbf\ fpjnb ofhvjmvybc v[jkjl js[ rjdfktyneh 

,vfc\ vbc fnjvc ite.kbf lfrfhujc thsb tktmnhjyb lf 

vbbqt,f fpjnbc lflt,bsb bjyb N + = hjvtkcfw ite.kbf thsb 

bjyehb lf js[b rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf\ 

kf,jhfnjhbekb upbs fpjnbc vbqt,f itb.kt,f fvjybevbc 

ybnhbnbc uf[eht,bs\ 

NH 4 NO 2 �� N 2 + 2H 2 O 

ofhvjt,fib fpjnc qt,ekj,ty ufs[tdflt,ekb ]fthbc ahfmwbekb 

ufvj[lbs\ 

fpjnb eathj= eceyj fbhbf\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib vbcb vjktrekf 

N = N (N 2 ) vluhflbf cfvvfub ,vbc ufvj\ htfmwbbceyfhbfyb 

[lt,f v[jkjl vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt\ uf[eht,bs ethslt,f kbsjyt,c 

lf ofhvjmvybc ybnhblt,c\ 

3Ca + N 2 �� Ca 3 N 2 

tktmnhekb hrfkbc mdti ethslt,f ;fyu,flc| 

N 2 + O 2 ��2NO 

o'fk,flyfthst,b\ fpjnb o'fk,flsfy ofhvjmvybc hfvltybvt 

yfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf fvbfrb _ NH \ vbcb vbqt,f 

3 

itb.kt,f fpjnbc lf o'fk,flbc eiefkj itthst,bs\ htfmwbf 

vbvlbyfhtj,c 400-5000C-pt= 1000 fnv\ oytdbc mdti\ 

N + 3H �� 2NH 2 2 3 

kf,jhfnjhbfib qt,ekj,ty fvjybevbc mkjhblblfy (NH Cl)= 4 

hjvtkcfw lfntybfyt,ek rfkwbevbc jmcblsfy thsfl f[eht,ty\ 

2NH Cl + CaO �� CaCl + H O + 2NH 4 2 2 3 

fvbfrb (NH ) vrdtshb ceybc= eathj fbhbf\ bodbc ceasf ;fyu- 

3 

,flib\ 

4NH + 3O �� 2N + 6H O 

3 2 2 2 

gkfnbybc rfnfkbpfnjhpt fpjnbc bjyb vtnfl b;fyut,f\ 

4NH + 5O �� 4NO + 6H O 

3 2 2 

fvbfrb o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc fhfvluhfl cecn 

nentc _ NH OH\ nenbc itvflutykj,fib itlbc thsdfktynbfyb 

4 

+ fvjybevbc bjyb _ NH \ 4 

142 143

fvbfrb fldbkfl itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfy lf ofhvjmvybc 

fvjybevbc vfhbkt,c| 

NH 3 + HCl �� NH 4 Cl 

2NH 3 + H 2 SO 4 �� (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 

fv htfmwbt,ib fvbfrb fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,c\ 

fvbfrc uffxybf v;fdehb sdbct,fw\ vfufkbsfl= vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt 

vjmvtlt,c pjubths kbsjysfy| 

2Na + 2NH 3 �� 2NaNH 2 + H 2 

vbqt,ekb yfnhbevfvblb (NaNH 2 ) fvbfrbc v;fdf vfhbkbf\ 

fvjybevbc nent _ NH OH vbbqt,f fvbfrbc o'fkib uf[cybs| 

4 

NH + 3H O �� NH OH 

3 2 4 

fvjybevbc ]blhjmcblb ofhvjmvybcsfyfdt bikt,f bjyt,fl 

+ 

_ 

(NH , OH )\ [cyfhib fv bjyt,bc ufhlf 'jdtksdbc fhct,j,c fvbf- 

4 

rbc ]blhfnb NH ....H O= fvbnjvfw fvjybevbc nentc 'jdtksdbc 

3 2 

fmdc fvbfrbc .kbthb ceyb\ 

NH + bjyb nent kbsjyt,bc (M 4 + ) bjyt,bc vcufdcbf\ 

fvbfrbc vjktrekbc lf o'fk,flbc bjybc vbf[kjdt,bcfc fpjnbc 

ufye'jatk tktmnhjyek o'dbkc lf o'fk,flbc bjybc sfdbceafk 

jh,bnfkc ijhbc fqb.dht,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vf 

(fpjnb ljyjhbf= o'fk,flbc bjyb _ fmwtgnjhb)\ ofhvjmvybkb 

js[bdt ,vf thsvfytsbc njkafcbf\ 

H � H � 

�� 

�� 

� � � 

H : N : ��H � 

�� 

�H 

: N : H 

�� 

� 

H � � 

� H � 

fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b o'fk[cyfhib ]blhjkbplt,f= evtntcfl 

v;fdf ufhtvjc ofhvjmvybs\ fvjybevbc vfhbkt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf 

_ NH 4 Cl (ybiflehb)\ ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjyt,bc hxbkdbc 

lhjc\ 

� 

fvjybevbc udfh/bkf _ NH 4 NO 3 fpjnbs vlblfhbf\ fvbnjv 

ufvjb'tyt,f cfcemfl\ fhbc cfrvfjl atsmt,flb yfthsb lf fv sdbct,bc 

ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f cffhnbkthbj dfpyt,ib= nhjnbksfy thsfl\ 

bubdt lfybiyekt,bcsdbc ufvjb'tyt,f fvjyfkb= hjvtkbw itbwfdc 

72% fvjybevbc ybnhfnc= 25% fkevbybc a[dybkc lf 3% yf[ibhc\ 

fctsb yfhtdb ltnjyfwbbs atsmlt,f\ 

fpjnbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b\ fpjnb ofhvjmvybc [es jmcblc| 

N O, NO, N O , NO (N O ), N O \ N O lf NO vfhbkfhofh- 

2 2 3 2 2 4 2 5 2 

vjvmvytkb jmcblt,bf\ N O lf N O , itcf,fvbcfl= fpjnjdfyb v;f- 

2 3 2 5 

dfc (HNO ) lf fpjnv;fdfc (HNO ) fy]blhblt,bf\ 

2 3 

fpjnbc (^^^) jmcblb _ N O keh/b athbc cbs[tf\ vbcb 

2 3 

itcf,fvbcb v;fdf _ HNO evluhflbf\ fv v;fdfc vbqt,f itb.kt,f 

2 

nent vbofsf kbsjyt,bc ybnhbnt,pt ujubhlv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs| 

NaNO + H SO �� NaHSO + HNO 2 2 4 4 2 

HNO �� N O + H O 

2 2 3 2 

hflufy fpjnbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fpjnjdfy v;fdfcf lf vbc vfhbkt,ib 

_ ybnhbnt,ib iefktlehbf (+3)= fvbnjv bcbyb fqvlutyt- 

,bw fhbfy lf v;fyufdt,bw\ 

2KMn +7O + 5HN 4 +3O + 3H SO �� K SO + 2Mn 2 2 4 2 4 +2SO + 4 

+ 5HN +3O + 3H O 

3 2 

Mn +7 + 5e �� Mn +2 2 

N +3 _ 2e �� N +5 5 fqvlutyb 

2HN +3 0 +2 O + 2HJ �� J + 2N O + 2H O 

2 2 

2 

N +3 + e �� N +2 2 

2J_ 0 _ 2e �� J2 1 fqvlutyb 

fpjnbc (^&) jmcblb _ NO 2 vemb obstkb athbc fbhbf\-11 0 C-pt 

ufhlfbmvyt,f eathj rhbcnfkt,fl= hjvtkbw itlut,f N 2 O 4 -bc vj- 

144 145

ktrekt,bcfufy\ t\b\ lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt v'fhlt,f ojyfcojhj,f 

2NO 2 ��N 2 O 4 \ 

NO 2 ithtekb fy]blhblbf\ nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ofhvjmvybc fpjnjdfyb v;fdfc lf fpjnv;fdfc 

vfhbkt,c\ 

2NO 2 + 2NaOH �� NaNO 3 + NaNO 2 + H 2 O 

fpjnbc (&) jmcblb (N 2 O 5 ) lf fpjnv;fdf (HNO 3 )\ fpjnbc 

fy]blhblb vbbqt,f fpjnv;fdfpt o'fkofvhsvtdb ybdsbtht,bc 

vjmvtlt,bs\ 

2HNO 3 + P 2 O 5 �� 2HPO 3 + N 2 O 5 

N 2 O 5 fhfvluhflb= stshb athbc rhbcnfkt,bf\ lyj,bcfc bikt,f 

fatsmt,bs\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb fpjnv;fdff\ 

N 2 O 5 + H 2 O �� 2HNO 3 

fpjnv;fdf fpjnbc ;fyu,flbfy v;fdt,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf\ 

vbcb vbqt,bc cfvhtodtkj [th[b fhbc fvbfrbc rfnfkbpehb 

lf;fyudf| 

4NH 3 + 5O2 

�� 

4NO 

+ 4H 

2O 

2NO + O 2 �� 2NO 2 

4NO 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2 �� 4HNO 3 

fpjnv;fdf kf,jhfnjhbfib vbbqt,f ybnhfnt,pt ujubhlv;fdfc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

NaNO 3 + H 2 SO 4 �� NaHSO 4 + HNO 3 

ceasf fpjnv;fdf eathj cbs[tf\ bub thsae.bfyb= .kbthb 

v;fdff\ vbc vfhbkt,c ybnhfnt,b tojlt,f\ ufs,j,bcfc ybnhfnt,b 

fldbkfl bikt,f\ nent kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc lfikbcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f 

ybnhbnt,b\ 

NaNO 3 ��Na 2 NO 2 + O 2 

v.bvt kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc lfikbcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f itcf- 

,fvbcb kbsjybc jmcblb| 

Pt 

2Pb(NO ) �� 2PbO + 4NO + O 3 2 2 2 

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc uf[eht,bcfc ufvjb'jaf 

itcf,fvbcb kbsjyb| 

2AgNO �� 2Ag + 2NO + O 3 2 2 

fpjnv;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdb v;fdff\ vfcib b[cyt,f fhfkbsjyt,b| 

3P + 5HNO �� 3HPO + 5NO + H O 

3 3 2 

fpjnv;fdf vjmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfyfw\ fmnbeh kbsjyt,sfy 

ufyp\ fpjnv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bcfc fpjnbc fnjvb (+5) ;fyudbc 

hbw[dbs, bjyb fqlut,f (-3)-vlt| 

4Zn0 + 10HN +5O �� 4Zn 3 +2 _3 (NO ) + N H4NO + 3H O 

3 2 

3 2 

Zn0 _ 2e ��Zn +2 4 

N +5 + 8e �� N_3 1 

lflt,bsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,pt ufypfdt,ekb fpjnv;fdbc 

vjmvtlt,bcfc N +5 fqlut,f N +2-vlt| 3Cu0 + 8HN +5O �� 3Cu 3 +2 +2 (NO ) + 2N O + 4H O 

3 2 

2 

Cu0 _ 2e �� Cu +2 3 

N +5 + 3e �� N +2 1 

rjywtynhbht,ekb fpjnv;fdbc kbsjyt,sfy vjmvtlt,bcfc N +5 

'dtkf itvs[dtdfib fqlut,f N +4-vlt\ +4 + 2N O2 + 2H O 2 

Zn0 + 4HN +5O �� Zn 3 +2 (NO ) 3 2 

Zn0 _ 2e ��Zn +2 1 

N +5 + e �� N +4 2 

Cu 0 + 4HN +5 O 3 �� Cu +2 (NO 3 ) 2 

Cu 0 _ 2e �� Cu +2 1 

N +5 + e �� N +4 2 

146 147 

+ 2N +4 O2 + 2H 2 O 

fpjnv;fdf dth ;fyufdc jmhjc lf gkfnbyfc= fctdt= gkfnbybc 

hbubc tktvtynt,c\ fqybiyekb kbsjyt,b b[cyt,f v[jkjl cfvtaj 

o'fkib (1 vjw\ HNO 3 + 3 vjw\ HCl)\

Au + HNO + 3HCl �� AuCl + NO + 2H O 

3 3 

2 

pjubthsb kbsjyb (Al, Cr, Ni, Fe lf c[df) gfcbdlt,f fpjnv;fdfib\ 

ufgfcbdt,f bvfib ufvjb[fnt,f= hjv vfs ptlfgbhpt ofhvjbmvyt,f 

jmcblt,bc s[tkb fgrb= hjvtkbw bwfdc kbsjyc itvlujvb 

lf;fyudbcufy\ 

fpjnv;fdfc vfhbkt,b= rth.jl= rfkbevbc ybnhfnb= ufvjb- 

'tyt,f ifdb ltysbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

2KNO + 3C + S ��K S + 3CO + N + 169 rrfk\ 

3 2 2 2 

fpjnb yf[ibh,flsfy ofhvjmvybc lbwbfyc (CN) 2 _ eathj= vofht 

yeibc ceybc vmjyt fbhbc= hjvtkbw e.kbthtcb cfofvkfdbf\ 

vfc actdlj]fkjutycfw eojlt,ty mbvbehb sdbct,t,bc ufvj\ ]fkjutyt,bc 

vcufdcfl ethslt,f o'fk,flc| 

H 2 + (CN) 2 �� 2HCN 

b[cyt,f nentt,ib| 

(CN) 2 + 2NaOH ��NaCN + NaOCN + H 2 O 

[Cl 2 + 2NaOH ��NaCl + NaOCl + H 2 O 

wbfyo'fk,flv;fdf lf wbfyblt,b\ HCN _ wbfyo'fk,flb eathj= 

vofht yeibc ceybc vmjyt fmhjkflb cbs[tf\ vbbqt,f wbfyblt,pt 

ufypfdt,ekb ujubhlv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs (v;fdt,bc vbqt,bc 

cfthsj [th[b)\ 

KCN + H 2 SO 4 �� KHSO 4 + HCN 

wbfyo'fk,flv;fdfc vfhbkt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf yfnhbevbc 

lf rfkbevbc wbfyblt,b _ NaCN lf KCN\ bcbyb e.kbthtcb cfofvkfdt,bf\ 

wbfyv;fdf lf wbfyfnt,b\ HNCO _ wbfyv;fdf eathj= .vfhv;fdfc 

ceybc vmjyt cbs[tf\ sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib evluhflbf\ 

vbc vfhbkt,c wbfyfnt,b tojlt,f\ vbbqt,f lbwbfybc uf[cybs nenbc 

o'fk[cyfhib| 

(CN) 2 + 2KOH �� KCN + KOCN + H 2 O 

wyj,bkbf wbfyv;fdfc jhb nfenjvthekb ajhvf| 

H_N = C = O � H _O_ C � N 

H _O_ C � N wyj,bkbf vuhudbyfdb v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,bs\ 

vbcb vfhbkt,blfy fqcfybiyfdbf AgONC_ vuhudbyfdb dthw[kb 

lf Hg(ONC) 2 _ vuhudbyfdb dthw[kbco'fkb\ jhbdt yfthsb .kbth 

atsmt,flbf\ 

sbjwbfyv;fdf lf sbjwbfyfnt,b (hjlfyblt,b)\ HNCS _ 

sbjwbfyv;fdf vbbqt,f vbc vfhbkpt ufypfdt,ekb v;fdfc vjmvtlt- 

,bs| 

2KCNS + H 2 SO 4 �� K 2 SO 4 + 2HCNS 

sbjwbfyv;fdfc vfhbkt,c hjlfyblt,b (sbjwbfyfnt,b) tojlt,f\ 

sbjwbfyfnt,b Fe +3 bjybc fqvjcfxtyfl ufvjb'tyt,f| 

FeCl 3 + 3NH 4 NCS �� Fe(NCS) 3� + NH 4 Cl 

148 149 

obstkb 

ybnhfnt,b rfhub vbythfkehb cfcemt,bf\ fvjybevbc ybnhfnb 

(NH 4 NO 3 )= fvjybevbc cekafnb [(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ]= udfh/bkt,b| xbktc 

udfh/bkf (NaNO 3 )= byljtsbc udfh/bkf (KNO 3 )= yjhdtubbc 

udfh/bkf [Ca(NO 3 ) 2 ] bc cfcemt,bf= hjvtkcfw 'dtkf mdt'ybc 

cjakbc vtehytj,f fmnbehfl b'tyt,c\ 

ajcajhb 

fpjnbc vcufdcfl= ajcajhbc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b ns 2 np 3 

vlujvfhtj,fibf= vfuhfv fpjnbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= ajcajhc fmdc 

sfdbceafkb 3d-jh,bnfkb= fvbnjv fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib 3smdtljyblfy 

ite.kbf uflfbnfyjc thsb tktmnhjyb d-jh,bnfkpt\ 

t\b\ ajcajhbc vfmcbvfkehb dfktynj,f [esbc njkbf\ 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ ajcajhb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf 

yfthst,bc cf[bs\ vbcb .bhbsflb vbythfkt,bf| ajcajhbnb _

Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 = fgfnbnb _ 3Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .CaX 2 (X = F, Cl, OH) lf c[df\ 

ajcajhb itlbc wjw[fkb jhufybpvt,bc ythdek mcjdbkt,ib rfh- 

,jyfnfgfnbnt,bc cf[bs _ 3Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 \ 

wyj,bkbf ajcajhbc hfvltybvt fkjnhjgbekb cf[tc[dfj,f| 

stshb= obstkb= ifdb\ 

stshb ajcajhb wdbkbc vcufdcb= yf[tdhfl ufvzdbhdfkt= lfvf[fcbfst,tkb 

ceybc vmjyt ybdsbtht,f\ rfhufl b[cyt,f s[tdfl 

fvbfrib= ujubhlyf[ibh,flib\ vwbhtl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ stshb 

ajcajhb [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb htfmwbbceyfhbfyj,bs\ ufs,j,bcfc 

[lt,f sdbsffkt,flb\ ]fthpt fldbkfl b;fyut,f lf b.ktdf wbcath 

yfst,fc (ajcajhtcwtywbf)\ stshb ajcajhb .kbthb cfofvkfdbf\ 

stshb ajcajhb ;fyu,flbc fhtib uf[eht,bs ufhlfbmvyt,f 

obstk ajcajhfl= hjvtkbw yfrkt,htfmwbbceyfhbfybf\ fh b[cyt,f 

ujubhlyf[ibh,flib= fh fhbc cfofvkfdb\ 

ifdb ajcajhb= ajcajhbc vtcfvt vjlbabrfwbf= vbbqt,f stshb 

ajcajhbc 200 0 -pt uf[eht,bs 12 000 fnv\ oytdbc gbhj,t,ib\ ifd 

ajcajhc f[fcbfst,c kbsjyehb s,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhj,f\ 

vbcb jhsmkb itlut,f P 4 vjktrekt,bcufy\ 

vbqt,f lf sdbct,t,b| ajcajhb vbbqt,f rfkwbevbc ajcafnbc 

_ Ca (PO ) = rdfhwbc mdbibc _ SiO lf yf[ibhbc _ C yfhtdbc 

3 4 2 2 

uf[eht,b| 

Ca (PO ) + 3SiO �� 3CaSiO + P2O 3 4 2 2 3 5 

P 2 O 5 +5C �� 2P + 5CO 

Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 3SiO 2 + 5C�� 3CaSiO 3 

+ 5CO + 2P 

]fthpt ajcajhb bodbc| 4P + 5O 2 �P 2 O 5 \ 

ethslt,f ]fkjutyt,c| 2P + 5Cl 2 �2PCl 5 \ 

ethslt,f kbsjyt,c lf ofhvjmvybc ajcablt,c| 

3Ca + 2P �Ca 3 P 2 \ 

ethslt,f ujubhlc| 2P + 5S �P 2 S 5 \ 

ajcajhbc o'fk,flyfthst,b\ ajcajhb o'fk,flsfy ofhvjmvybc 

hfvltybvt yfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf ajcabyb _ PH \ 3 

fvbfrbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs bub o'fkib vwbhtl b[cyt,f\ ajcajybevbc 

PH +4 bjyc ofhvjmvybc ]fkjutyo'fk,flsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc\ 

PH + HCl �� PH Cl (mkjhajcajybevb) 

3 4 

PH + 5HJ �� PH J (bjlajcajybevb) 

3 4 

tc yfthst,b fhfvluhflbf lf .fkbfy cohfafl bikt,f\ 

ajcabyb .kbthb fqvlutybf\ 

5P _ 3H3 + 8KMn +7O + 12H SO �� 5H P 4 2 4 3 +5O + 8Mn 4 +2SO + 4 

+ 4K SO + 12H O 

2 4 2 

P _ 3 _ 8e ��P +5 5 

Mn +7 + 5e �� Mn +2 8 

ajcajhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b| ajcajhb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmvybc 

hfvltybvt yfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf P O _ ajc- 

2 3 

ajhbc (^^^) jmcblb= ajcajhbc ithtekb fy]blhblb _ P O lf 2 4 

ajcajhbc (&) fy]blhblb _ P O \ 2 5 

ajcajhjdfyb fy]blhblb _ P O vbbqt,f ajcajhbc ytkb 

2 3 

lf;fyudbs| 

4P + 3O �� 2P O 2 2 3 

]fthpt uf[eht,bs bub fldbkfl b;fyut,f| 

P O + O �� P O 2 3 2 2 5 

ajcajhjdfy fy]blhblc ittcf,fvt,f cfvb v;fdf\ bcbyb vbbqt,f 

P O o'fkib uf[cybcfc\ 

2 3 

P O + H O �� 2HPO vtnfajcajhjdfyb v;fdf 

2 3 2 2 

P O + 2H O �� H P O gbhjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf 

2 3 2 4 2 5 

P O + 3H O �� 2H PO jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf\ 

2 3 2 3 3 

fv v;fdt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf _ 

H PO \ bub jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fib fh- 

3 3 

ct,ekb cfvb o'fk,flbc fnjvblfy v[jkjl jhc ite.kbf kbsjybs 

xfyfwdkt,f\ vbcb cnhemnehekb ajhvekblfy xfyc= hjv jhb 

150 151

o'fk,flb ajcajhsfy lfrfdibht,ekbf tktmnhjdfktynehfl= 

vtcfvt rb _ rjdfktynehfl\ 

H \ 

H_O 

P 

/ 

// O 

\ O_H 

H 3 PO 3 -bc vfhbkt,c tojlt,f ajcabnt,b\ fctsbf vfufkbsfl= 

yfnhbevbc ajcabnb _ Na 2 HPO 3 \ 

P O _ stshb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,ff\ o'fkib rfhufl 

2 4 

b[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc jh v;fdfc| ajcajhjdfy v;fdfc (H PO ) lf 

3 3 

ajcajhv;fdfc (H PO )\ 3 4 

P O + 3H O �� H PO + H3PO 2 4 2 3 3 

4 

fv htfmwbbc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f lfdfcrdyfs= hjv P O -ib 

2 4 

thsb ajcajhbc ;fyudbc hbw[db fhbc +3= [jkj vtjhtcb _ +5\ 

3 � // O 

O P O P 

\ \ O 

� 5 

� _ _ 

P O _ ajcajhbc fy]blhblb vbbqt,f stshb ajcajhbc odbs| 

2 5 

4P + 5O �� 2P O 2 5 

bub .kbth ]buhjcrjgekbf _ fpjnv;fdfc lf ujubhlv;fdfcfw 

rb fhsvtdc o'fkc\ ]fthpt ,jkfdc= rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ o'kbc 

c[dflfc[df hfjltyj,bc itcf,fvbcfl ofhvjmvybc c[dflfc[df v;fdfc| 

P O + H O �� 2HPO vtnfajcajhv;fdf 

2 5 2 3 

P O + 2H O �� H P O gbhjajcajhv;fdf 

2 5 2 4 2 7 

P O + 3H O �� 2H PO jhsjajcajhv;fdf 

2 5 2 3 4 

ajcajhbc (&)-bc v;fdt,blfy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf jhsjajcajhv;fdf\ 

bub vbqt,f ajcajhbc uf[eht,bs fpjnv;fdfcsfy| 

3P + 5HNO 3 + 2H 2 O �� 5NO + 3H 3 PO 4 

ntmybrehb vbpyt,bcsdbc qt,ekj,ty rfkwbevbc ajcafnpt 

ufypfdt,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 3H 2 SO 4 �� 3CaSO 4 + 2H 3 PO 4 

jhsjajcajhv;fdf cfiefkj cb.kbthbc cfvae.bfyb v;fdff| 

H PO � ��H 3 4 + _ + H PO 2 4 

_ H PO 2 4 

_2 HPO4 152 153 

� ��H+ _2 + HPO4 �� H+ _3 + PO4 ofhvjmvybc cfvb cf[bc vfhbkt,c| 

NaOH + H3PO 4 � NaH 2PO 

4 + H2O 

yfnhbevbc 

lb]blhjajcafnb 

2NaOH + H3PO 

4 � Na2HPO 

4 + 2H 

2O 

yfnhbevbc 

]blhjajcafnb 

3NaOH + H3PO 

4 � Na3PO 

4 + 3H 

2O 

yfnhbevbc 

ajcafnb 

'dtkf thsxfyfwdkt,ekb ajcafnb o'fkib [cyflbf= jh lf 

cfvxfyfwdkt,ekb ajcafnt,blfy o'fkib [cyflb v[jkjl nent 

kbsjyt,bc vfhbkt,bf\ 

ajcafnbjybc fqvjxtyf itb.kt,f dthw[kbc ybnhfnbc o'fk- 

[cyfhbs| 

3Na 3 PO 4 + 2AgNO 3 �� 3NaNO 3 + Ag 3 PO 4� 

fv htfmwbbc lhjc ufvjb'jaf 'dbstkb athbc dthw[kbc ajcafnbc 

yfktmb\ 

HPO 3 _ vtnfajcajhv;fdf v'fhb= vbybct,hb vfcff= o'fkib 

rfhufl b[cyt,f\ leqbkbcfc uflflbc jhsjajcajhv;fdfib\ 

HPO 3 + H 2 O �� H 3 PO 4 

cfcemt,b\ vwtyfhbc phlbcf lf ufydbsfht,bcfsdbc fewbkt- 

,tkbf ajcajhb\ bub ybflfuib itfmds ajcajhjdfyb cfcemt,bc cf- 

[bs\ 

1\ vfhnbdb cegthajcafnb _ vbbqt,f rfkwbevbc ajcafnbc 

lf ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

Ca (PO ) + H SO �� 2CaSO + Ca(H PO ) 3 4 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 

fv lhjc ufvjb'jaf CaSO = hjvtkbw bodtdc ybflfubc ufv'f- 

4 

ht,fc\ tc rb fhfcfcehdtkb ghjwtcbf\ 

2\ jhvfub cegthajcafnb itlut,f rfhufl [cyflb rfkwbevbc 

lb]blhjajcafnbcufy\ bub fh itbwfdc ybflfubcsdbc fhfcfcehdtk 

ybdsbtht,t,c\ 

Ca (PO ) + H PO �� 3Ca(H PO ) 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 2 

3\ ghtwbgbnfnb (lfktmbkb ajcafnb) vbbqt,f rfkwbevbc 

nenbcf lf ajcajhv;fdbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

Ca(OH) + H PO �� CaHPO . 2H2O 2 3 4 4 

4\ fvjajct,b [NH H PO ; (NH ) HPO ] thslhjekfl itb- 

4 2 4 4 2 4 

wfdc vwtyfhbcsdbc fewbkt,tk fpjnc lf ajcajhc\ vfsb vbqt,f 

itb.kt,f fvbfrbc lf ajcajhv;fdbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs\ 

&^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b 

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^ /ueabc ptktvtynt,bf| 

;fyu,flb _ O= ujubhlb _ S= ctktyb _ Se= ntkehb 

_ Te= lf gjkjybevb _ Po\ cfdfktynj ihtpt fv mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c 

fmdc tmdcb tktmnhjyb ns2np4 s p 

mdtljytpt| �� 

hdftktmnhjybfyb ufhcbc ofhvjmvybcfsdbc vfs tcfzbhjt,f 

jhb tktmnhjyb\ fvbnjv fv tktvtynt,c f[fcbfst,c dfktynj,f _ 

2= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b _ -2\ ;fyu,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb 

rjyabuehfwbf ufyc[dfdlt,f lfyfhxtyb tktvtynt,bc fnjvbc 

rjyabuehfwbbcufy\ ;fyu,flbc fnjvc fh uffxybf sfdbceafkb djh,bnfkb= 

fvbnjv vfc fh ite.kbf tktmnhjyt,bc ufywfkrtdt,f\ 

yfthst,ib bub .bhbsflfl jhdfktynbfybf= ;fyudbc hbw[db _ -2\ 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs bub v[jkjl asjhc xfvjedfhlt,f\ 

vfcsfy ;fyu,flb +2 ;fyudbc hbw[dc fv;qfdyt,c (OF )\ fv /ueabc 

2 

lfyfhxty tktvtynt,c= fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib= ite.kbf tktmnhjyt,bc 

uflfnfyf sfdbceafk d-jh,bnfkpt\ fvbc itvltu vfsb 

dfktynj,f [lt,f js[b fy tmdcb= ;fyudbc hbw[dbs= itcf,fvbcfl= 

+4 lf +6\ 

;fyu,flb 

ltlfvbofpt 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb tktvtynbf ;fyu,flb\ itlbc 

]fthbc itvflutykj,fib (20=9% vjwekj,bs)\ ;fyu,flb eathj= 

eceyj= ]fthpt v.bvt fbhbf\ vwbht hfjltyj,bs b[cyt,f o'fkib\ 

vbcb vjktrekf jhfnjvbfybf _ O \ kf,jhfnjhbfib ;fyu,flc 

2 

qt,ekj,ty rfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnbc fy rfkbevbc mkjhfnbc sthvekb 

lfikbs\ 

2KMnO �� K MnO + MnO2 + O 4 2 4 

2 

2KClO �� 2KCl + 3O2 

3 

ofhvjt,fib ;fyu,flc qt,ekj,ty o'kbc tktmnhjkbpbs fy 

ufs[tdflt,ekb ]fthbc ahfmwbekb ufvj[lbs\ ;fyu,flb mbvbehfl 

.fkbfy fmnbehbf\ ]fkjutyt,bc lf pjubthsb rtsbkij,bkb kbsjybc 

(Au, Pt) ufhlf= bub eiefkjl ethslt,f tktvtynt,bc evtntcj,fc| 

kbsjyt,c _ 4Li + O ��2Li O 

2 2 

fhfkbsjyt,c _ S + O ��SO 2 2 

ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc kbsjyt,c _ 4Al + O ��2Al O 2 2 3 

;fyu,flbc fhtib bodbc vhfdfkb hsekb ybdsbtht,f| 

2H S + 3O �� 2SO + 2H O 

2 2 2 2 

4NH + 5O �� 4NO + 6H O 

3 2 2 

;fyu,flb .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ fhct,j,c ytkb lf cohfab ;fyudf\ 

ytkb ;fyudbc vfufkbsbf hrbybc ybdst,bc ptlfgbhpt ;fyubc ofhvjmvyf= 

ptsbc cfqt,fdt,bc ufv'fht,f\ cohfa ;fyudfc [ibhfl sfy 

f[kfdc fkbc ofhvjmvyf\ fv ghjwtcc tojlt,f odf\ 

jpjyb _ O 3 ;fyu,flbc fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,ff\ bub 

vbbqt,f tktmnhjyekb ufyve[ndbc lhjc| 3O 2 � 2O 3 \ 

154 155

jpjyb keh/b athbc= vrdtshb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\ ufs,j,bcfc 

atsmlt,f\ ;fyu,flsfy itlfht,bs bub eahj .kbthb lfv;fyudtkbf\ 

2KJ + O 3 + H 2 O ��J 2 + 2KOH + O 2 

PbS + 2O 3 ��PbSO 4 + O 2 

nent kbsjyt,sfy jpjyb ofhvjmvybc jpjyblt,c\ 

K + O 3 ��KO 3 

ufvj'tyt,f\ ;fyu,flb ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjyt,bc fdnjutyehb zhbc 

lf itleqt,bc lhjc\ htfmnbekb cfodfdbc ;fyudbcsdbc\ ;fyu,flbs 

ufvlblht,ekb ]fthb fxmfht,c ,tdh cfvhtodtkj lf ,bjkjubeh 

ghjwtcc\ jpjyb ufvjb'tyt,f o'kbc ufcfceasfdt,kfl vfdyt ,fmnthbt,bcufy= 

]fthbc ltpbyatmwbbcfsdbc\ 

ujubhlb 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ ujubhlb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf 

hjujhw sfdbceafkb (sdbsyf,flb)= bct yfthst,bc cf[bs\ cekablt,bcf 

lf cekafnt,bc cf[bs bub itlbc ,tdhb vbythfkbc itvflutykj,fib\ 

vbcb ,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy wyj,bkbf| FeS 2 _ hrbybc 

fkvflfyb (gbhbnb)= Cu 2 S _ cgbkty.bc rhbfkf= PbS _ n'dbbc 

rhbfkf= CaSO 4 . 2H2 O _ sf,fibhb= Na 2 SO 4 . 10H2 O _ ukfe,thbc 

vfhbkb= MgSO 4 . 7H2 O _ vofht vfhbkb lf c[df\ ufhlf fvbcf= ujubhlb 

itlbc mdfyf[ibhbcf lf yfdsj,bc itvflutykj,fib\ 

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib ujubhlb 'dbstkb athbc ybdsbtht,ff\ 

o'fkib fh b[cyt,f\ rfhufl b[cyt,f ujubhlyf[ibh,flib (CS 2 )\ 

fhct,j,c ujubhlbc cfvb fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,f| hjv- 

,ekb _ vluhflbf 95 0 C-pt lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt+ vjyjrkbyehb 

_ vluhflbf 95 0 C-pt vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt+ gkfcnbrehb _ 

vbbqt,f ufvlyfhb ujubhlbc wbd o'fkib ithtdbs\ 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ ]fthpt uf[eht,bs ujubhlb bodbc wbcathb 

fkbs| S + O 2 ��SO 2 . vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f _ 

kbsjyt,c cekablt,bc ofhvjmvybs| Fe + S ��FeS\ 

fhfkbsjyt,c| 2P + 5S ��P 2 S 5; S + 2Cl 2 ��SCl 4 \ 

b[cyt,f ujubhlv;fdfib (rjyw\)| S + 2H 2 SO 4 ��3SO 2 + 2H 2 O\ 

o'fk,flyfthst,b\ ujubhlb o'fk,flsfy udf.ktdc hfvltybvt 

yfthsc _ ujubhlo'fk,flc (H 2 S) lf gjkbujubhlo'fk,flt,c (H 2 S 2 , 

H 2 S 3 , H 2 S 5 )\ 

vfsufy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf ujubhlo'fk,flb _ H 2 S\ 

bub ud[dlt,f pjubths vbythfkeh o'fkib= dekrfyehb fvjahmdtdt,bc 

lhjc lf c[df\ 

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib vbbqt,f hrbybc cekablpt vfhbkv;fdbc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

FeS +2HCl �� FeCl 2 + H 2 S 

ujubhlo'fk,flb eathj= fhfcfcbfvjdyj ceybc (kf't rdthw[bc)= 

vjvofvdktkb fbhbf\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f\ ]fthpt bodbc| 

2H 2 S +3O 2 �� 2SO 2 + 2H 2 O 

H 2 S-bc o'fk[cyfhb cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ lbcjwbhlt,f 

cfat[eht,fl| 

H 2 S � �� H + + HS _ 

HS _ �� H + + S _2 

H 2 S � �� 2H + + S _2 

ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhbkt,c| v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhjcekablt,b) 

lf cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekablt,b)\ 

cekablt,bc vbqt,f itb.kt,f| 

f) kbsjyt,bc lf ujubhlbc eiefkj itthst,bs| 

Fe +S �� FeS 

,) ujubhlo'fk,flbc lf nenbc rhsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

H 2 S +2NaOH �� Na 2 S + 2H 2 O 

u) kbsjysf vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfht,ib ujubhlo'fk,flbc ufnfht,bs| 

156 157

CuSO 4 + H 2 S �� CuS � + H 2 SO 4 

]blhjcekablt,b itb.kt,f vbdbqjs fhfchekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbs| 

H 2 S +NaOH ��NaHS + H 2 O 

]blhjcekablt,b rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ 

cekablt,blfy rfhufl [cyflbf nent kbsjyt,bc lf fvjybevbc 

cekablt,b\ yfrkt,[cyflbf nent vbofsf kbsjyt,bc cekablt,b\ 

v.bvt kbsjyt,bc cekablt,b fhf vfhnj o'fkib= fhfvtl 

v;fdt,ibw fh b[cyt,f\ vfsb tc sdbct,f ufvjb'tyt,f v.bvt kbsjyt,bc 

bjyt,bc fqvjcfxtyfl\ 

Pb(NO 32 + H 2 S �� PbS � + 2HNO 3 

ujubhlo'fk,flb .kbthb fqvlutybf| 

Cl 2 + H 2 S ��2HCl + S 

2FeCl 3 + H 2 S �� 2FeCl 2 + 2HCl + S 

ujubhlbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b 

ujubhlbc lbjmcblb SO 2 _ ujubhljdfyb fy]blhblb vbbqt,f 

ujubhlbc odbcfc ]fthpt| S + O 2 ��SO 2 \ 

fctdt= w[tkb rjyw\ ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs lflt,bsb gjntywbfkbc 

vmjyt kbsjyt,pt| 

Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 ��CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O 

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib eathj= vrdtshb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\ 

b[cyt,f o'fkib lf ofhvjmvybc evluhfl= cecn jhae.bfy ujubhljdfy 

v;fdfc| SO 2 + H 2 O �� H 2 SO 3 \ 

hflufy H 2 SO 3 jhae.bfyb v;fdff= fvbnjv ofhvjmvybc jhb 

cf[bc vfhbkt,c _ cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekabnt,b _ vfu\= Na 2 SO 3 ) 

lf v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhjcekabnb _ vfu\= NaHSO 3 )\ 

ujubhljdfy v;fdbcf lf vbcb itcf,fvbcb vfhbkt,bc itvflutykj,fib 

itlbc ujubhlbc S +4 bjyb= iefktlehb ;fyudbc [fhbc[bc 

ufvj bub itb.kt,f b'jc fqvlutybw lf v;fyufdbw\ 

H S 2 +4 0 O + Cl + H2O �� H S 3 2 

2 +6 _ O + 2HCl 4 

S +4 _ 2e �� S +6 1 fqvlutyb 

2Cl0 + 2e �� 2Cl_ 1 

H S 2 +4O + 2H S 3 2 _2 �� 3H2O + S 

S +4 + 4e ��S 0 1 v;fyufdb 

S _2 _ 2e ��S 0 2 

ujubhlbc fy]blhblb _ SO \ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f ujubh- 

3 

lbc lbjmcblbc lf;fyudbs| 

2SO + O ��2SO 2 2 3 

SO eathj= fldbkfl.dhflb cbs[tf\ bub rfhufl b[cyt,f 

3 

o'fkib lf ofhvjmvybc ujubhlv;fdfc| 

SO + H O �� H SO 3 2 2 4 

ofhvjt,fib ujubhlv;fdfc bqt,ty ujubhljdfyb vflyt,bc ufvjodbs| 

4Fe +2 _ 0 

S + 11O2 

2 

Fe +2 _ e �� Fe +3 

2S _ _ 10e �� 2S +4 4 

2O 0 + 4e �� 2O 0 11 

158 159 

�� 8S+4 O 2 

+3 + 2Fe2 O3 

itvltu ;fyufdty SO 2 -c| 2SO 2 + O 2 ��2SO 3 

vbqt,ek SO 3 [cybfy ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfib\ vbbqt,f 

jktevb _ H 2 S 2 O 7 | 

SO 3 + H 2 SO 4 �� H 2 S 2 O 7 

jktevbc ufypfdt,bs vbbqt,f cfcehdtkb rjywtynhfwbbc ujubhlv;fdf\ 

H 2 S 2 O 7 + H 2 O �� 2H 2 SO 4 

H 2 SO 4 _ ujubhlv;fdf b[cyt,f o'fkib= lblb hfjltyj,bc cbs- 

,jc ufvj'jabs\ fvbnjv ujubhlv;fdbc ufypfdt,bcfc v;fdf eylf lfdfvfnjs 

o'fkc lf fhf gbhbmbs\

ujubhlv;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfib 

v;fyufdbf o'fk,flbc bjyb= fvbnjv vfcib b[cyt,f v[jkjl efh'jabsb 

gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,b (o'fk,flbc oby vlujvb)\ 

Zn + H 2 SO 4 ��ZnSO 4 + H 2 � 

rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfib v;fyufdbf ujubhlbc fnjvb 

(+6) ;fyudbc hbw[dbs\ fvbnjv vfcib b[cyt,f hjujhw efh'jabsb= 

bct lflt,bsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,b| 

4Zn + 5H 

2SO 

4 � 4ZnSO 

4 + H 2S 

+ 4H 

2O 

rjyw\ 

Cu + 2H 

2SO 

4 � CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 

2O 

rjyw\ 

rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdf vjmvtlt,c fhfkbsjyt,ptw| 

C + 2H 2 SO 4 �� CO 2 + 2SO 2 + 2H 2 O 

H 2 SO 4 jhae.bfyb .kbthb v;fdff\ ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhbkt,c| 

cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekafnt,b) lf v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhjcekafnt,b)\ 

vbcb vfhbkt,blfy evhfdktcj,f rfhufl b[cyt,f 

o'fkib\ vwbhtl [cyflbf CaSO 4 lf ghfmnbrekfl e[cyflbf BaSO 4 = 

SrSO lf PbSO \ 

4 4 

-2 +2 

SO -cekafn bjybc fqvjcfxtyfl b'tyt,ty Ba 4 

bjyc\ 

2H SO + BaCl �� BaSO 2 4 2 4� 

+ 2HCl 

BaSO odhbklbcgthcekb stshb athbc yfktmbf= hjvtkbw 

4 

v;fdt,ibw rb fh b[cyt,f\ 

wbd rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfib fh b[cyt,f (ufgfcbdt,f) 

hrbyf= mhjvb= fkevbyb lf c[df kbsjyt,b= fvbnjv rjyw\ ujubhlv;fdf 

uflffmds ajkflbc wbcnthyt,bs\ 

ujubhlv;fdf rfhub o'fkofvhsvtdbf= fvbnjv vfc ofhvjt,fib 

b'tyt,ty= hjujhw ufvihj,c\ bc feo'kjt,c yf[ibho'kt,c| 

H SO 

2 4 

C12H 22O11 

�� 

12C 

+ 11H 

2O 

lbcfmfhjpf 

ufvj'tyt,f\ ujubhlv;fdfc b'tyt,ty cbystpehb mcjdbkt,bc 

ofhvjt,fib= cfcemt,bc (vfhnbdb cegthajcafnb)= fcfatsmt,tkb 

ybdsbtht,t,bc= cfhtw[b cfiefkt,t,bc= tvekufnjht,bc= cfvrehyfkj 

ghtgfhfnt,bc vbcfqt,fl= fyjlehb lf;fyudbcfc= n'dbbc frevekfnjht,ib 

lf c[df\ 

&^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vtidblt /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc p 

tktvtynt,bf| asjhb _ F= mkjhb _ Cl= ,hjvb _ Br= bjlb _ J 

lf fcnfnb _ At\ tc tktvtynt,b wyj,bkbf ]fkjutyt,bc cf[tkojlt,bs\ 

cbn'df ]fkjutyb vfhbkv,flc ybiyfdc\ 

]fkjutyt,b eiefkjl ethslt,f kbsjyt,c lf ofhvjbmvyt,f 

vfhbkt,b= t\o\ ]fkblt,b\ 

]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc 7 tktmnhjyb\ 

cfdfktynj ihbc pjuflb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff ns 2 np 5 \ ]fkjutyt,bc 

fnjvt,bc ufht tktmnhjyekb ihbc vcufdcb fqyfuj,bs 

fb[cyt,f vfsb sdbct,t,bc vcufdct,f\ 

]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihbc lfchekt,fvlt frkbf 

thsb tktmnhjyb\ ]fkjutyb fv thsb tktmnhjybc vbthst,fc fldbkfl 

f[th[t,c lf bve[nt,f efh'jabsfl (t\b\ ;fyudbsb hbw[db 

-1 njkbf)\ ]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c fctdt fldbkfl ite.kbf tktmnhjyt,bc 

ufwtvfw (F-bc fnjvbc ufhlf) lf itcf,fvbcfl bve[nt,f 

lflt,bsfl\ vfssdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[db +1, +3, 

+5 lf +7\ 

]fkjutyt,b nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ vfsufy gthbjlekb cbcntvbc 

tktvtynsf ijhbc 'dtkfpt fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf asjhb 

(fctdt [fcbfslt,f 'dtkfpt vfqfkb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs _ 4=1)\ 

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib asjhb lf mkjhb fbhflb ybdsbtht- 

,t,bf= ,hjvb _ s[tdflb= [jkj bjlb lf fcnfnb v'fhbf\ fbhfl vlujvfhtj,fib 

]fkjutyt,b jhfnjvbfyb vjktrekt,bcufy itlut,f (F 2 , 

Cl 2 , ...)\ 

160 161

mbvbehb fmnbdj,bc ufvj ]fkjutyt,b ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f v[jkjl 

yfthst,bc cf[bs= .bhbsflfl ]fkjutyo'fk,flv;fdt,bc vfhbkt,bc 

cf[bs\ 

mkjhb _ Cl 

z = 17 Ar = 35= 453 

tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s 2 23 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5 

mkjhbc vjktrekbc _ Cl 2 -bc ofhvjmvyf| 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

�� 

: Cl� 

� � Cl : �: 

Cl : Cl : 

�� 

mkjhbc vjktrerkbc ofhvjmvyf [jhwbtklt,f p-tktmnhjyekb 

qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbs= ,vf rjdfktyneh-fhfgjkfhekbf\ 

p x 

� 

p x 

Cl Cl 

� 

�� 

p 3 

3s 

� �� 

�� 

�� 

Cl Cl 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ mkjhb sfdbceafkb cf[bs v[jkjl 

dekrfyeh fbht,ib ud[dlt,f= yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf| NaCl 

_ ceahbc vfhbkb+ vbythfkt,b| cbkdbyb _ KCl= cbkdbybnb _ 

NaCl . KCl= rfhyfkbnb _ KCl . MgCl 2 . 6H2 O lf c[df\ 

vbqt,f\ cfvhtodtkj vfcinf,bs mkjhb vbbqt,f ceahbc vfhbkbc 

_ NaCl-bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbs| 

NaCl ��Na+ + Cl_ 2H O + 2e ��H + OH 2 2 _ (rfsjlpt) 

2Cl_ _ 2e �� Cl (fyjlpt) 

2 

[cyfhib hxt,f yfnhbevb ]blhjmcblb _ NaOH 

2NaCl + 2H O ��2NaOH + H + Cl 2 2 2 

kf,jhfnjhbfib mkjhb vbbqt,f rjywtynhbht,ek vfhbkv;fdfpt 

hjvtkbvt v;fyufdbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

4HCl + MnO 2 �� MnCl 4 + 2H 2 O 

MnCl 4 �� MnCl 2 + Cl 2 

4HCl + MnO 2 �� MnCl 2 + Cl 2 + 2H 2 O 

2KMnO 4 + 16HCl �� 2MnCl 2 + 5Cl 2 + 2KCl + 8H 2 O 

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ mkjhb vj'dbsfkj-vjvodfyj 

athbc= v.fahb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\ bub ]fthpt 2=5-/th v.bvtf\ 

.kbth vjmvtlt,c cfceysmb upt,bc kjhojdfy ufhcpt\ lblb 

hfjltyj,bc xfceysmdf bodtdc cbrdlbkc! 

mkjhb fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf\ fv v[hbd bub xfvjedfhlt,f v[jkjl 

asjhcf lf ;fyu,flc\ mkjhb .kbthb v;fyufdbf= tythubekfl 

itlbc htfmwbt,ib kbsjyt,sfy lf ofhvjbmvyt,f mkjhblt,b (htfmwbf 

vbvlbyfhtj,c uf[eht,ekb kbsjybc itnfybs mkjhbc fhtib)\ 

2Fe + 3Cl 2 �� 2FeCl 3 

Cu + Cl 2 ��CuCl 2 

mkjhb htfmwbfib itlbc o'fk,flsfy\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib= 

mkjhb o'fk,flc ytkf ethslt,f= vwbht uf[eht,bs fy mkjhbcf 

lf o'fk,flbc yfhtdbc lfc[bdt,bs htfmwbf cohfafl vblbc| 

� Cl 

162 163 

H 

2 

2 

h� 

�� 

2HCl 

mkjhb ehsbthsmvtlt,c fhfkbsjyt,sfy| 

3Cl + 2P �� 2PCl 2 3 

5Cl + 2P �� 2PCl 2 5 

mkjhbc o'fksfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f 

jhb v;fdf| vfhbkv;fdf (HCl) lf mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf (HClO)\ htfmwbf 

itmwtdflbf| 

Cl + H O 

2 2 �� HCl + HClO 

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf _ HClO vtnfl .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ vbcb 

ofhvjmvybs fb[cyt,f mkjhbc vfstsht,tkb sdbct,t,b cbytcnbc 

sfyfj,bcfc\ vihfkb mkjhb fh fstsht,c\

eylf fqbybiyjc= hjv mkjhb eiefkjl fh vjmvtlt,c ;fyu- 

,flsfy= fpjnsfy lf yf[ibh,flsfy (vfsb yfthst,b vbbqt,f fhfgbhlfgbhb 

upbs)\ 

ufvj'tyt,f\ mkjhb ufvjb'tyt,f cfcvtkb o'kbc cfltpbyatmwbjl 

(o'kbc mkjhbht,f= mcjdbkt,bcf lf mfqfklbc ufcfstsht,kfl= 

mkjhbfyb rbhbc vbcfqt,fl (vfstsht,tkb lf cfltpbyatmwbj 

cfiefkt,f)= athfl vtnfkehubfib= vfhbkv;fdbc ofhvjt,fib 

lf c[df\ 

mkjho'fk,flb lf vfhbkv;fdf 

HCl-ib (Mr = 36,5; D n = 18,25) ,vf rjdfktyneh-gjkfhekbf\ 

tktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt uflfotekbf mkjhbcrty= hj- 

ujhw eahj tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty| H : Cl : 

� � 

\ 

mkjho'fk,flb xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib eathj= vrdtshb ceybc 

vmjyt fbhbf= .ytkfl s[tdfllt,f= rfhufl b][cyt,f o'fkib (0 0 -pt 

1 vjwekj,f o'fkib b[cyt,f 500 vjwekj,fvlt mkjho'fk,flb)\ 

mkjho'fk,flbc o'fk[cyfhc mkjho'fk,flv;fdf= fye vfhbkv;fdf 

tojlt,f\ 

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib mkjho'fk,flc qt,ekj,ty yfnhbevbc 

mkjhblpt rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs\ 

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt tc htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c mkjho'fk- 

,flbcf lf yfnhbevbc ]blhjcekafnbc ofhvjmvybs| 

NaCl + H 2 SO 4 ��NaHSO 4 + HCl 

vfqfkb ntvgthfnehbc lhjc rb htfmwbf vblbc ,jkjvlt| 

2NaCl + H 2 SO 4 �� Na 2 SO 4 + 2HCl 

fv;fvfl ntmybrfib mkjho'fk,flc lblb hfjltyj,bs qt,ekj,ty 

o'fk,flbcf lf mkjhbc cbystpbs| 

H 2 + Cl 2 ��HCl 

�� 

tc htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c cbyfskbc mdfynbc vjmvtlt,bs\ 

mkjhbc vjktrekf isfysmfdc cbyfskbc mdfync (hn) lf bikt,f 

fnjvt,fl= hfcfw vj]'dt,f /fzdehb htfmwbf\ 

Cl 2 + hn ��Cl . + Cl . 

Cl . + H 2 ��HCl + H . 

H . + Cl 2 ��HCl + Cl . lf f\i\ 

vfhbkv;fdf _ HCl eathj cbs[tf\ rjywtynhbht,ekb vfhbkv;fdf 

37%-vlt mkjho'fk,flc itbwfdc lf ytcnbfy ]fthpt @,jkfdc#\ 

vfhbkv;fdf .kbthb= thsae.bfyb v;fdff\ vfc uffxybf v;fdbc 

'dtkf sdbct,f\ vfcib b[cyt,f 'dtkf kbsjyb= ufhlf bv kbsjyt- 

,bcf= hjvkt,bw vjsfdct,ekbf kbsjysf tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dbc 

vorhbdib o'fk,flbc vfh/dybd\ vfhbkv;fdfib fh b[cyt,f fuhtsdt 

n'dbf= hflufy n'dbbc ptlfgbhpt xylt,f PbCl 2 -bc lfvwfdb 

atyf= hjvtkbw [tkc eikbc n'dbbc itvlujv uf[cyfc\ 

Zn + 2HCl ��ZnCl 2 + H 2 � 

Mg + 2HCl �� MgCl 2 + H 2 � 

vfhbkv;fdf ehsbthsmvtlt,c ae.t jmcblt,sfy= ae.tt,sfy lf 

pjubths vfhbksfy| 

2HCl + CaO ��CaCl 2 + H 2 O 

2HCl + Ca(OH) 2 �� CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

HCl + AgNO 3 �� AgCl� + HNO 3 

mkjho'fk,flb eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c fvbfrsfy fvjybevbc 

mkjhblbc ofhvjmvybs| 

HCl + NH 3 �� NH 4 Cl 

ufvj'tyt,f\ vfhbkv;fdf afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f ofhvjt,fib _ vtnfkehubfib= 

rdt,bc vhtodtkj,fib= kbsjysf mkjhblt,bc vbcfqt,fl= 

cfqt,fdt,bc ofhvjt,fib= vtlbwbyfib= mbvbeh kf,jhfnjhbt,ib\ 

164 165

vfhbkv;fdfc vfhbkt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf| 

NaCl _ yfnhbevbc mkjhblb (ceahbc vfhbkb)\ ufvjb'tyt,f 

rdt,bc vhtodtkj,fib= ytlktekfl yfnhbevbc ]blhjmcblbc= 

mkjhbc= vfhbkv;fdfc= cjlbcf lf c[d\ vbcfqt,fl\ 

KCl _ rfkbevbc mkjhblb .dbhafcb rfkbevbc itvwdtkb cfcembf\ 

ZnCl 2 _ sesbbc mkjhblb bwfdc vthmfyc kgj,bcufy\ ufvjb- 

'tyt,f fuhtsdt hxbkdbcfc _ kbsjybc ptlfgbhblfy jmcblbc atybc 

vjcfwbkt,kfl\ 

BaCl 2 _ ,fhbevbc mkjhblb vjvofvkfdb ybdsbtht,ff\ ufvjb- 

'tyt,f cjakbc vtehytj,fib vfdyt,kt,sfy cf,h.jkdtkfl\ 

CaCl 2 _ rfkwbevbc mkjhblb (eo'kj) ufvjb'tyt,f fbht,bc 

ufcfihj,fl lf vtlbwbyfib\ 

AlCl 3 _ fkevbybc mkjhblb [ibhfl ufvjb'tyt,f jhufyek 

cbystpib= hjujhw rfnfkbpfnjhb\ 

AgCl _dthw[kbc mkjhblb ufvjb'tyt,f ajnjuhfabfib\ 

mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b 

mkjhb ;fyu,flsfy yfthst,ib fv;qfdyt,c lflt,bs lf;fyuekj,bc 

[fhbc[c\ vbcb vybidytkjdfyb ;fyu,flyfthst,bf| Cl 2 O _ 

mkjhbc (^) jmcblb= vehf-'dbstkb athbc fbhb+ ClO 2 _ mkjhbc 

lbjmcblb (lf;fyuekj,bc [fhbc[bs +3 lf +5) vjvodfyj-'dbstkb 

v[hxjkfdb fbhbf+ ClO 3 (Cl 2 O 6 ) _ mkjhbc lbjmcblb (lf;fyuekj,bc 

[fhbc[bs +5 lf +7) vemb obstkb athbc ptsbct,hb cbs[tf+ 

Cl 2 O 7 _ mkjhbc (&^^) jmcblb eathj= ptsbct,hb cbs[tf\ 

mkjhbc 'dtkf jmcblb o'fkib b[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc v;fdt,c| 

Cl 2 O + H 2 O �� 2HClO (mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf) 

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt mkjhbc o'fkib 

uf[cybs| 

Cl 2 + H 2 O ��HCl + HClO 

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdb lf .fkbfy cecnb v;fdff= 

cbyfsktpt fldbkfl bikt,f fnjvehb ;fyu,flbc ufvj'jabs| 

HClO ��HCl + O 

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdfc vfhbkt,b _ ]bgjmkjhbnt,b vbbqt,f 

mkjhbc vjmvtlt,bs nentt,bc wbd o'fk[cyfhpt| (kf,fhfrbc o'fkb) 

Cl 2 + 2NaOH ��NaCl + NaClO + H 2 O 

166 167 

Na-bc ]bgjmkjhbnb 

ClO 2 _ mkjhbc lbjmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f mkjhjdfyb 

v;fdf _ HClO 2 lf mdtmkjhv;fdf _ HClO 3 | 

2ClO 2 + H 2 O �� HClO 2 + HClO 3 

mkjhjdfyb v;fdf (HClO 2 ) fhfvluhflbf= fldbkfl bikt,f\ itlfht,bs 

vluhflbf vbcb vfhbkt,b _ mkjhbnt,b= hjvkt,bw vbbqt,f 

mkjhbc lbjmcblbc nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bs| 

2ClO 2 + 2KOH 

� KClO 2 + KClO 3 + H 2O 

mkjhbnb 

mkjhfnb 

ClO 2 _ mkjhbc nhbjmcblb fhfvluhflb yfthsbf\ vbcb o'fkib 

uf[cybs vbbqt,f jhb v;fdf_ mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf lf mkjhv;fdf| 

2ClO 3 + H 2 O �� HClO 3 + HClO 4 

HClO 3 _ mdtmkjhv;fdf thsae.bfyb .kbthb v;fdff\ vluhflbf 

v[jkjl o'fk[cyfhib\ vbc vfhbkt,c mkjhfnt,b tojlt,f\ mkjhfnt,blfy 

vybidytkjdfybf rfkbevbc mkjhfnb (KClO 3 )= fye 

,thsjktc vfhbkb= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f mkjhbc uf[cybs w[tk nentib| 

3Cl 2 + 6KOH �� 5KCl + KClO 3 + 3H 2 O 

mdtmkjhv;fdf lf vbcb vfhbkt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf| 

KClO 3 + 6HCl �� KCl + 3Cl 2 + 3H 2 O 

tct bub rfkbevbc mkjhfnb mkjhbc efh'jabs bjyc ;fyufdc 

sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fvlt\ 

rfkbevbc mkjhfnc b'tyt,ty fcfysbc ofhvjt,fib= gbhjntmybrfib= 

vtlbwbyfib= hjujhw cfltpbyatmwbj cfiefkt,fc\

mkjhfnt,b xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib cfrvfjl vuhflb= o'fkib 

rfhufl [cyflb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ tc yfthst,b uf[eht- 

,bs bikt,f ;fyu,flbc ufvj'jabs| 

2KClO 3 �� KClO 4 + KCl + O 2 

se rfnfkbpfnjhbc (MnO 2 ) sfy[kt,bs vbvlbyfhtj,c htfmwbf= 

vfiby itltufl ufvjb'jaf KCl lf O 2 | 

2KClO 3 �� 2KCl + 3O 2 

Cl 2 O 7 _ mkjhbc (&^^) jmcblb c[df jmcblt,sfy itlfht,bs 

vluhflbf\ vbcb o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f mkjhv;fdf _ HClO 4 | 

Cl 2 O 7 + H 2 O �� 2HClO 4 

HClO 4 _ mkjhv;fdf thsae.bfyb= ]fthpt v,jkfdb= o'fkib 

rfhufl [cyflb= 'dtkfpt .kbthb v;fdff\ bub sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib 

fhct,j,c\ 

mkjhv;fdfc vfhbkt,c gthmkjhfnt,b tojlt,f\ bcbyb 'dtkfpt 

vluhflbf mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,c ijhbc\ vfsb evhfdktcj,f 

rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ 

fvudfhfl= 'jdtkbdt ptvjs ufy[bkekbc cfae.dtkpt itb.kt,f 

bsmdfc= hjv mkjhbc ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,f 

;fyu,fljdfyb v;fdt,bc .fkf lf vluhflj,f= [jkj vfsb ;fyudbsb 

fmnbehj,f vwbhlt,f\ 

^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc gbhdtkb /ueabc d-tktvtynt,bf| cgbkty.b 

_ Cu= dthw[kb _ Ag lf jmhj _ Au\ 

fv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc sbsj tktmnhjyb 

lf cfdfktynj ihbc obyf ihtib _ 18\ sbsjtek vfsufyc ,jkj 

ihbc obyf ihbc d-jh,bnfpt eylf ]mjylts w[hf-w[hf tktmnhjyb= 

vfuhfv flubkb fmdc ufht ihbc s-jh,bnfkblfy thsb tktmnhjybc 

uflfcdkfc ,jkjc obyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkpt= hbc itltuflfw 

d-jh,bnfkpt tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db [lt,f 10\ vbe[tlfdfl 

bvbcf= hjv cgbkty.bc= dthw[kbc lf jmhjc fnjvt,bc djh,bnfkb 

lfchekt,ekbf= bub vfbyw fh fhbc cnf,bkehb\ fvbnjv= 

ufhrdtek gbhj,t,ib= fv tktvtynt,c ufht ihblfy thsb stktmnhjybc 

lf d-jh,bnfkblfy 2 tktmnhjybc ufwtvf ite.kbf\ 

fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfht= fv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,bc ;fyudbsb hbw[db 

itb.kt,f b'jc +1, +2 lf +3\ cgbkty.bcsdbc eahj lfvf[fcbfst- 

,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[db +2= dthw[kbcfsdbc _ +1= [jkj jmhjcsdbc 

_ +3\ 

cgbkty.b 

cgbkty.bc (Cu, Z=29) fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff| 

1s 2 ,2s 2 ,2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6 ,4s 1 ,3d 10 = tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4s 

jh,bnfkt,bcfsdbc fctsbf| 

� �� 3d 

�� 4s 

�� 

�� 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| cgbkty.b ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf 

hjujhw sdbsyf,flb= bct yfthst,bc cf[bs\ cgbkty.bc ,eyt,hbdb 

yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf mfkrjpbyb _ Cu 2 S, hjvtkbw 79=8% 

cgbkty.c itbwfdc\ cgbkty.c itbwfdc| mfkrjgbhbnb _ CuFeS 2 

168 169

(cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,f 34=57%)= ,jhybnb _ 3Cu 2 S . FeS 2 . FeS 

(cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,f 63=3%)= rjdtkbyb _ CuS (66=5% cgbkty.bc 

itvwdtkj,bs)= reghbnb _ Cu 2 O (88=8% cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,bs)= 

vfkfmbnb _ Cu 2 (CO 3 )(OH) 2 (57=4% cgbkty.b)= fpehbnb _ 

Cu 2 (CO 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 (55=3% cgbkty.b) lf c[df\ 

,eyt,fib cgbkty.bc yfthst,bc evtntcj,f c[df kbsjyt,bc 

yfthst,sfy thsfl ud[dlt,f gjkbvtnfkeh cf,fljt,ib\ 

vbqt,f| kbsjyeh cgbkty.c qt,ekj,ty cgbkty.bc itvwdtkb 

cekablehb= jmcblehb lf rfh,jyfnekb vflyt,bc uflfveifdt,bs\ 

2Cu 2 S + 3O 2 �� 2Cu 2 O + 2SO 2 

Cu 2 S + 2Cu 2 O � 6Cu + SO 2 

Cu 2 S + O 2 � 2Cu + SO 2 

abpbrehb sdbct,t,b| kbsjyehb cgbkty.b [fcbfslt,f ,pbydfht,bs= 

fmdc vjobsfkj athb= h,bkbf= fmdc ufzbvdbc eyfhb= fldbkfl 

bukbyt,f= gkfcnbrehbf= f[fcbfst,c rfhub cbs,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhj,f\ 

vbtresdyt,f v.bvt kbsjyt,c (cbvrdhbdt 8=96u$cv 3 )\ 

cgbkty.bc kqj,bc ntvgthfnehff 1083 0 \ 

cgbkty.b .fkbfy ,tdh kbsjysfy ofhvjmvybc ityflyj,c\ vfu\| 

wyj,bkbf cgbkty.bc ityflyj,b sesbfcsfy (Zn) _ sbs,thb+ cgbkty.bc 

ityflyj,b rfkfcsfy (Sn) _ ,hby/fj= ybrtksfy (Ni) _ 

vtkmbjhb lf c[df\ 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| mbvbehb sdfkcfphbcbs cgbkty.b vbtresdyt,f 

yfrkt,fmnbeh kbsjyt,c\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= ]fthib fy ;fyu- 

,flib uf[eht,bs bc eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c ;fyu,flsfy= hbc 

itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f Cu (^^) jmcblb| 

2Cu + O 2 � 2CuO (ifdb athbc) 

uf[eht,ekb cgbkty.b eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c ]fkjutyt,sfy= 

ujubhlsfy lf ofhvjmvybc itcf,fvbcfl ]fkjutyblt,cf lf 

cekablt,c\ 

Cu + Cl 2 � CuCl 2 

2Cu + S � Cu 2 S 

cgbkty.b ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdflfy lf vfhbkv;fdflfy dth 

f.tdt,c o'fk,flc= hflufy .f,dfsf vorhbdib o'fk,flbc itvltu fhbc 

vjsfdct,ekb\ ehsbthsmvtlt,c ufypfdt,ek lf rjywtynhbht,ek 

fpjnv;fdfcsfy= rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy| 

3Cu + 8HNO 

3 3Cu(NO 

3) 

2 + 2NO 

+ 4H 

2O 

� 

170 171 

ufyp\ 

Cu + 4HNO 

3 Cu(NO 3) 

2 + 2NO 

2 + 2H 

2O 

� 

rjyw\ 

2Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 � CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O 

a[dybkbct,ehb cgbkty.b ;fyu,flbc (fy ]fthbc) sfyfj,bcfc 

ehsbthsmvtlt,c ufvs,fh rjywtynhbht,ek ]fkjutyo'fk,flv;fdfcsfy\ 

2Cu + 4HCl + O 2 � 2CuCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

cgbkty.b itlbc htfmwbfib fvbfrsfy fy fvjybevbc vfhbkt,bc 

[cyfht,sfy rjvgktmcbehb vfhbkt,bc ofhvjmvybs| 

Cu + 4NH 4 OH + 1/2O 2 � [Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ](OH) 2 + 3H 2 O 

cgbkty.bc ;fyu,flyfthst,b| cgbkty.bc (^) jmcblb _ Cu 2 O 

obstkb athbc rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,ff\ vfc ittcf,fvt,f ]blhjmcblb 

CuOH= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f cgbkty.bc (^) vfhbkpt nenbc 

vjmvtlt,bs| 

CuCl + KOH � CuOH + KCl 

CuOH 'dbstkb athbc yfktmbf\ fleqt,bcfc fldbkfl ufhlfbmvyt,f 

obstkb athbc cgbkty.bc (^) jmcblfl\ 

2CuOH � Cu 2 O + H 2 O 

cgbkty.bc (^) yfthst,b yfrkt,fl vluhflbf cgbkty.bc (^^) yfthst,sfy 

itlfht,bs\ 

cgbkty.bc (^^) jmcblb _ CuO ifdb athbc a[dybkbf\ vbbqt,f 

kbsjyehb cgbkty.bc uf[eht,bs 80 0 C-pt ptdbs\

2Cu + O 2 � 2CuO 

fy cgbkty.bc (^^) ]blhjmcblbc uf[eht,bs| 

Cu(OH) 2 � CuO + H 2 O 

cgbkty.bc (^^) ]blhjmcblb _ Cu(OH) 2 vbbqt,f cgbkty.bc (^^) 

vfhbkpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs\ ufvjb'jaf wbcathb yfktmbc cf[bs| 

CuSO 4 + 2NaOH � Cu(OH) 2� + Na 2 SO 4 

Cu(OH) 2 _ fvajnthekbf= b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib lf ofhvjmvybc 

cgbkty.bc (^^) vfhbkt,c| 

Cu(OH) 2 + 2HCl � CuCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

ufw[tkt,bcfc b[cyt,f zfh, nentib lf ofhvjmvybc rjvgktmceh 

yfthst,c| 

Cu(OH) 2 + 2NaOH � Na 2 [Cu(OH) 4 ] 

Cu(OH) 2 fldbkfl b[cyt,f fvbfrbc o'fk[cyfhib= hbc itltuflfw 

ofhvjbmvyt,f vemb keh/b itathbkj,bc rjvgktmcehb yfthsb| 

Cu(OH) 2 + 4NH 3 � [Cu(NH 3 ) 4 ](OH) 2 

ufvj'tyt,f| cgbkty.b= vbcb ityflyj,t,b lf yfthst,b= vfsb 

ufycfresht,ekb sdbct,t,bc ufvj= afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f sfyfvtlhjdt 

ntmybrbc sbsmvbc 'dtkf lfhuib\ tktmnhjntmybreh vhtodtkj,fib 

b'tyt,ty tktmnhjcfltyt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ rfhub 

s,jufvnthj,bc ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f tktmnhj.hfdt,cf lf lbyfvjvfymfyt,ib\ 

cgbkty.b ufvjb'tyt,f vhfdfkb ityflyj,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

mbvbeh vhtodtkj,fib cgbkty.b ufvjb'tyt,f rfnfkbpfnjhfl 

vtsfybcf lf c[df yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,bc lfikbc lhjc\ rjhjpbekb 

vtltuj,bc ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f rjhjpbbcfufy c[df kbsjyt,bc 

lfcfwfdfl\ 

vbythfkehb cfqt,fdt,bc ofhvjt,fib ufvjb'tyt,f vfkfmbnbc 

vodfyt\ cjakbc vtehytj,fib ufvjb'tyt,f if,bfvybc _ CuSO . 5H2O 4 

lf rbhbfyb o'kbc yfhtdb= hjvtkcfw ,jhljc cbs[tc eojlt,ty\ 

vfc aeyubwblehb sdbct,t,b fmdc\ 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vttmdct /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabc (mhjvbc 

/ueabc) d-tktvtynt,bf| mhjvb _ Cr= vjkb,ltyb _ Mo lf 

djkahfvb _ W\ 

mhjvbcf lf vjkb,ltybc fnjvt,bc erfyfcrytk tktmnhjyek 

ihtpt sbsj-sbsj tktmnhjybf= [jkj erfyfcrytkbc obyf ihtpt 

_ 13-13 tktmnhjyb\ djkahfvbc fnjvc rb ,jkj ihtpt fmdc 2 

tktmnhjyb= ,jkjc obyf ihtpt _ 12 tktmnhjyb\ fv tktvtynt,bc 

fnjvt,bc ,jkjc obyfihbc d-jh,bnfkt,b tktmnhjyt,bs fh fhbc 

,jkjvlt itdct,ekb\ fqybiyekb tktvtynt,bc mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib 

vjyfobktj,bcfc ofhvjmvyt,f yfthst,b= hjvkt,ibw bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty 

jh= cfv= js[= [es lf tmdcbc njk dfktynj,fc\ 

mhjvb 

mhjv bc (Cr= Z=24) fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5 \ 3d lf 4s-jh,bnfkt,bc tktmnhjyekb 

cnhemnehf fctsbf| 

� �� 

�� 

172 173 

3d 

4s 

� � � � � � 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| mhjvb ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f yfthst,bc 

cf[bs c[dflfc[df vbythfkt,ib\ 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekbf vbythfkb 

mhjvbnb= fye mhjvjdfyb hrbyfmdf (FeCr 2 O 4 )= rhjrjbnb _ 

PbCrO 4 (n'dbbc obstkb vflfyb= itlfht,bs bidbfsb vbythfkbf)\ 

vwbht hfjltyj,bs mhjvbc yfthst,c itbwfds wbv,bhbc vlbyfhtt,b= 

bfgjybbc pqdf lf vwtyfhtsf yfwfhb\ 

vbqt,f\ kbsjyehb mhjvbc vbqt,f itb.kt,f Cr 2 O 3 -bc fqlutybs 

uf[eht,bcfc fkevbysfy (fkevbyjsthvbf)= fuhtsdt cbkbwbevsfy= 

rfkwbevsfy= o'fk,flsfy\

Cr O + 2Al � 2Ce + Al O 2 3 2 3 

fy 

2Cr O + 3Si + 3CaO � 4Cr + 3CaSiO 2 3 3 

fvfdt lhjc= Cr-bc vbqt,f itb.kt,f fuhtsdt vbcb vfhbkt,bc 

yfkqj,t,bc fy o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpbs\ 

abpbrehb sdbct,t,b\ mhjvb vjyfwhbcahj-stshb v,pbydfht 

kbsjybf\ kbsjyt,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt vfufhbf (cbvrdhbdt 7=2 u$cv 3 )= 

.ytkfl lyj,flbf xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib\ ;fyu,flbcf lf ]fthbc 

ntybc vjmvtlt,bc vbvfhs vluhflbf= hflufy vbcb ptlfgbhb bafht,f 

rjhjpbbcflvb vluhflb jmcblehb atybs\ ceasf mhjvb ztlflb= 

,kfynb kbsjybf\ 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ ufdfhdfht,ekb mhjvb vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt 

o'kbc jhsmksfy itlbc htfmwbfib\ 

2Cr + 3H 2 O � Cr 2 O 3 + 3H 2 

600-800 0 C-vlt uf[eht,bcfc kbsjyehb mhjvb itlbc htfmwbfib 

mkjhsfy= ,hjvsfy= ujubhlsfy lf itcf,fvbcfl ofhvjmvybc 

mkjhblt,c= cekablt,c= ,hjvblt,c| 

Cr + 3Cl 2 � 3CrCl 3 

2Cr + 3S � Cr 2 S 3 

mhjvb ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy f.tdt,c o'fk,flc| 

Cr + 2HCl � CrCl 2 + H 2� 

Cr + H 2 SO 4 � CrSO 4 + H 2� 

rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ufw[tkt,bcfc ufvjb'jaf 

SO 2 \ 

2Cr + 6H 2 SO 4 � Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 3SO 2� + 6H 2 O 

mhjvbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b 

mhjvb ofhvjmvybc cfv jmcblc| CrO, Cr 2 O 3 lf CrO 3 \ 

mhjvbc (^^) jmcblb _ CrO lf vbcb 'dtkf yfthsb cfrvfjl 

fhfvluhflbf= fldbkfl b;fyut,f ]fthbc ;fyu,flbs lf ufhlfbmvyt,f 

mhjvbc (^^^) yfthst,fl\ vfu\| 

2Cr(OH) 2 + 1/2O 2 + H 2 O � 2Cr(OH) 3 

Cr (II)-bc jmcblb= ]blhjmcblb fv;qfdyt,ty ae.t sdbct,t,c\ 

Cr (II)-bc ]blhjmcblb _ Cr(OH) 2 vbbqt,f itcf,fvbc vfhbkt,pt 

nenbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

CrCl 2 + 2NaOH � Cr(OH) 2 + 2NaCl 

Cr(OH) 2 ehsbthsmvtlt,c v[jkjl v;fdt,sfy| 

Cr(OH) 2 + 2HCl � CrCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

mhjvbc (^^^) jmcblb _ Cr 2 O 3 vodfyt athbc .ytkfl kqj,flb 

a[dybkbf\ cbvfuhbc vb[tldbs f[kjc fhbc rjheylsfy\ vbbqt,f 

Cr-bc uf[eht,bs vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt| 

4Cr + 3O 2 � 2Cr 2 O 3 

kf,jhfnjhbfib Cr 2 O 3 vbbqt,f fvjybevbc lbmhjvfnbc 

uf[eht,bs| 

(NH 4 ) 2 Cr 2 O 7 � Cr 2 O 3 + N 2 + 4H 2 O 

Cr 2 O 3 -c ittcf,fvt,f mhjvbc (^^^) ]blhjmcblb _ Cr(OH) 3 = 

hjvtkbw vbbqt,f Cr (III)-bc vfhbkt,pt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

CrCl 3 + 3NaOH � Cr(OH) 3 + 3NaCl 

Cr 2 O 3 lf Cr(OH) 3 fvajnthekb sdbct,t,bs [fcbfslt,f\ Cr 2 O 3 

o'fkib= v;fdt,cf lf nentt,ib fh b[cyt,f\ vbcb fvajnthekb sdbct,t,b 

v;qfdylt,f nentt,sfy itkqj,bcfc\ fv itvs[dtdfib ofhvjbmvyt,f 

mhjvbnb= vtnfmhjvjdfyb v;fdfc _ HCrO 2 -bc vfhbkt,b| 

Cr 2 O 3 + 2NaOH � 2NaCrO 2 + H 2 O 

Cr(OH) 3 rb b[cyt,f hjujhw v;fdfib= bct nentib| 

2Cr(OH) 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 � Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 6H 2 O 

Cr(OH) 3 + 3NaOH � Na 3 [Cr(OH) 6 ] 

nentt,sfy itkqj,bs Cr(OH) 3 ofhvjmvybc mhjvfnt,c| 

174 175

Cr(OH) 3 + KOH � KCrO 2 + 2H 2 O 

mhjvbc (&^) jmcblb _ CrO 3 , hjvtkibw mhjvb evfqktc 

dfktynj,fc (6) fv;qfdyt,c= ofhvjflutyc v;fdeh jmcblc= fye 

fy]blhblc\ vfc ittcf,fvt,f jhb v;fdf| mhjvv;fdf _ H 2 CrO 4 lf 

,bmhjvv;fdf= fye lbmhjvv;fdf _ H 2 Cr 2 O 7 \ tc v;fdt,b sfdbceafkb 

cf[bs fh fhct,j,c\ 'jdtkb htfmwbbc lhjc= hjvkbc itltuflfw 

eylf ofhvjmvybkb'j sfdbceafkb mhjvv;fdf fy ,bmhjvv;fdf= bcbyb 

bikt,bfy lf ufvjb'jaf mhjvbc fy]blhblb (CrO 3 ) lf o'fkb\ 

K 2 CrO 4 + H 2 SO 4 � CrO 3 + K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O 

mhjvv;fdfc vfhbkt,c mhjvfnt,b tojlt,f= [jkj lbmhjvv;fdfc 

vfhbkt,c lbmhjvfnt,b= fye ,bmhjvfnt,b\ 

mhjvfnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,c 'dbstkb itathbkj,f fmdc= [jkj 

,bmhjvfnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,c _ yfhby/bcathb= hfw ufygbhj,t- 

,ekbf [cyfhib itcf,fvbcfl mhjvfnb (CrO 4 ) _2 lf ,bmhjvfn 

(Cr 2 O 7 ) _2 bjyt,bc fhct,j,bs\ se hjvtkbvt kbsjybc mhjvfnbc 

[cyfhpt dbvjmvtlt,s ujubhlv;fdbs= [cyfhbc 'dbstkb itathbkj,f 

itbwdkt,f yfhby/bcahfl= hfw bvbc vfxdtyt,tkbf= hjv mhjvfnb 

ufhlfbmvyf ,bmhjvfnfl| 

2K 2 CrO 4 + H 2 SO 4 � K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + K 2 SO 4 +H 2 O 

2(CrO 4 ) _2 + 2H + � (Cr 2 O 7 ) _2 + H 2 O 

nent ufhtvjib rb lbmhjvfnb ufhlfbmvyt,f mhjvfnfl= hbc 

itltuflfw yfhby/bcathb itbwdkt,f 'dbstkb itathbkj,bs| 

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 2KOH � 2K 2 CrO 4 + H 2 O 

(Cr 2 O 7 ) _2 + 2OH _ � 2(CrO 4 ) _2 + H 2 O 

mhjvfnt,b lf lbmhjvfnt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf\ vfu\| 

K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 14HCl � 2KCl + 3Cl 2 + 2CrCl 3 + 7H 2 O 

mhjvbc 'dtkf v;fdf lf vfsb vfhbkt,b= fuhtsdt mhjvbc (&^) 

jmcblb vjvofvkfdbf| fpbfyt,ty rfyc= cfceysm upt,c= bodtdc sdfkt,bc 

fyst,fc= fvbnjvfw vfssfy veifj,bc lhjc cfzbhjf cbahs[bkbc 

'dtkf pjvbc lfwdf\ 

ufvj'tyt,f| vfqfkb fynbrjhjpbekb sdbct,t,bc ufvj mhjvc 

b'tyt,ty kbsjyt,bc lfcfafhfl (mhjvbht,f)\ bub ufvjb'tyt,f fuhtsdt 

c[dflfc[df ityflyj,t,bc vbcfqt,fl= vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfyb 

ityflyj,bf athjmhjvb= mhjvjdfyb se/b lf ajkflb= hjvkt,cfw 

mhjvb fybzt,c sthvek vluhflj,fc= cbvfuhtc= v;fdfvtltuj,fc\ 

mhjvc itbwfdc 'dtkf e;fyufdb ajkflb\ 

lblb ufvj'tyt,f ]gjdf mhjvbc yfthst,vfw\ mhjvbc vfhbkt,b= 

t\o\ mhjvfnt,b _ PbCrO , ZnCrO , SrCrO lf c[df= ufvjb'tyt,f 

4 4 4 

cfv[fndhj cfqt,fdt,fl\ 

mhjvbc 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfyb vfhbkbf mhjv-rfkbevbc if,b 

_ KCr(SO ) . 12H2O= hjvtkbw ufvjb'tyt,f n'fdbc vhtodtkj,fib 

4 2 

shbvdkbcfsdbc lf cfatbmhj vhtodtkj,fib mcjdbkbc qt,dbcfc 

athvzthfl\ 

Cr (III) jmcblb lf mhjvbnt,b ufvjb'tyt,f vhfdfkb jhufyekb 

htfmwbbc rfnfkbpfnjhfl\ 

lbmhjvfnt,c _ Na Cr O . 2H2O lf K Cr O tojlt,f mhjv- 

2 2 7 

2 2 7 

gbrt,b\ hjujhw v;fyufdt,b ufvjb'tyt,f n'fdbc (shbvdkf)= kfmcfqt,fdt,bc= 

fcfysbcf lf cfatbmhj vhtodtkj,fib\ 

mhjvbc yfhtdb (rfkbevbc lbmhjvfnbc 3%-bfyb [cyfhb ujubhlv;fdfib) 

ufvjb'tyt,f mbvbeh kf,jhfnjhbt,ib vbybc 

zehzkbc ufcfhtw[fl\ 

&^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabc d-tktvtynt,bf| 

vfyufyevb _ Mn= ntmytwbevbc _ Tc lf htybevb _ Re\ 

fqybiyekb tktvtynt,b itflutyc vfyufyevbc mdt/ueac\ 

vfyufyevbc= ntmytwbevbcf lf htybevbc fnjvt,c ,jkj tktmnhjyek 

ihtpt 2-2 tktmnhjyb fmdc= [jkj ,jkjcobyf ihtpt _ 

13-13 tktmnhjyb\ ,jkjcobyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkb fh fhbc tktmnhjyt,bs 

chekfl itdct,ekb\ vfyufyevbc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b 

176 177

mbvbeh ,vt,c ,jkj ihbc s-tktmnhjyt,bcf lf ,jkjcobyf ihbc 

d-tktmnhjyt,bc [fh/pt ofhvjmvybc\ vfyufyevbc lf;fyuekj,bc 

hbw[db itb.kt,f b'jc +1-lfy +7-vlt= vfuhfv fqcfybiyfdbf= hjv 

vbcsdbc ;fyudbsb hbw[db +1 lf +5 yfrkt,fl lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf\ 

vfyufyevbc fyfkjubehb ;fyudbsb hbw[dt,b f[fcbfst,c htybevcfw\ 

vbcb yfthst,blfy 'dtkfpt vluhflbf bc yfthst,b= hjvkt,ibw 

;fyudbsb hbw[db +7-bc njkbf\ ntmytwbevbcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst- 

,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[dt,b _ +4= +6 lf +7\ 

vfyufyevb lf vbcb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b yfthst,ib= hjvkt,ibw 

fv tktvtynt,bc ;fyudbsb hbw[db lf,fkbf= fv;qfdyt,c kbsjyeh 

sdbct,t,c\ se yfthst,ib fv tktvtynt,bc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b 

vfqfkbf= vfiby v;qfdylt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ 

vfyufyevb 

vfyufyevbc (Mn) tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 4s 2 3d 5 = 

[jkj tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4s jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc 

fctsb cf[bcf| 

� �� 3d�� 

� 4s 

�� 

� � � � � 

�� 

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| sfdbceafkb vfyufyevb ,eyt,fib bidbfsfl 

ud[dlt,f= vfuhfv lblb hfjltyj,bs fhbc ufdhwtkt,ekb yfthst,bc 

cf[bs\ vfyufyevbc .bhbsflb vbythfkt,bf| ]fecvfybnb _ 

Mn 3 O 4 = ,hfeybnb _ Mn 2 O 3 = gbhjkepbnb _ MnO 2 = vfyufybnb 

_ Mn 2 O 3 . H2 O lf c[df\ ufhlf fvbcf= hrbybcf lf sesbbc pjubthsb 

vbythfkb c[dflfc[df hfjltyj,bs itbwfdc vfyufyevc\ hrbybcf lf 

vfyufyevbc itvwdtkb vflyt,b athjvfyufyevbcf lf vfyufyevbc itvwdtkb 

se/bcf lf ajkflbc vbcfqt,fl ufvjb'tyt,f\ 

vbqt,f| kbsjyehb vfyufyevb vbbqt,f Mn 3 O 4 -lfy fkevbyjsthvbbs\ 

sfdfl Mn 3 O 4 vbbqt,f gbhjkepbnbc 1000-1100 0 -pt uf- 

[eht,bs\ 

3MnO 2 �� Mn 3 O 4 + O 2 

3Mn 3 O 4 + 8Al �� 9Mn + 4Al 2 O 3 

fkevbyjsthvbbs vbqt,ekb vfyufyevb itbwfdc 94-96% vfyufyevc 

lf 4-6% Fe, Si, Al vbyfhtdc\ 

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| vfyufyevb stshb dthw[kbct,hb 

kbsjybf\ ]fthpt bafht,f jmcblbc atybs= hjvtkbw 

itvlujvb lf;fyudbcufy bwfdc\ f[fcbfst,c .fkbfy vfqfkb tktmnhekb 

obyfqj,f lf fmdc gfhfvfuybnehb sdbct,t,b\ 

vfyufyevbc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b vybidytkjdyfl fhbc lfvjrblt- 

,ekb vbc cbceasfdtpt= hflufy cek vwbht hfjltyj,bc vbyfhtdbw 

rb fhct,bsfl wdkbc vbc htfmwbbceyfhbfyj,fc\ 

vfyufyevb vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ]fthpt fy ;fyu,flib bodbc 

lf ofhvjmvybc jmcblt,c= hjvtksf itvflutykj,f lfvjrblt,ekbf 

ntvgthfnehfpt\ 

2Mn + O 2 �� 2MnO 

Mn + O 2 �� MnO 2 

4Mn + 3O 2 �� 2Mn 2 O 3 

3Mn + 2O 2 �� Mn 3 O 4 

vfyufyevbc htfmwbfib itcdkbc eyfhb lblbf\ bc sbsmvbc 'dtkf 

fhfkbsjysfy itlbc htfmwbfib\ fldbkfl bthst,c mkjhc= asjhc= 

fpjnbc fhtib 1200 0 -pt ffklt,f= hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f 

ybnhblb (Mn 3 N 2 )\ fctdt fmnbehfl ethslt,f ajcajhc= ujubhlc= 

cbkbwbevc= yf[ibh,flc lf f\i\ 

ceasf= kbsjyehb vfyufyevb jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt fh ikbc 

o'fkc lf .fkbfy ytkf ehsbthsmvtlt,c o'kbc jhsmksfy Mn 

(II) ]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybs lf o'fk,flbc ufvj'jabs| 

Mn + 4H 2 O �� Mn(OH) 4 + 2H 2 

v;fdt,ib vfyufyevb fldbkfl b[cyt,f= hbc itltuflfw vbbqt,f 

Mn (II)-bc vfhbkt,b= vfufkbsfl= 

Mn + 2HCl �� MnCl 2 + H 2 

178 179

Mn + H � 

2 SO 4 MnSO 4 + H 2 

ufyp\ 

rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdf lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt ytkf= 

[jkj ufw[tkt,bcfc cohfafl [cybc vfyufyevc| 

Mn + 2H 2 SO 4 �� MnSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O 

rjywtynhbht,ek fpjnv;fdfc vfyufyevb fqflutyc fpjnbc (^^) 

jmcblfvlt| 

3Mn + 8HNO 3 �� 3Mn(NO 3 ) 2 + 2NO + 4H 2 O 

ufvj'tyt,f| ceasf vfyufyevb h,bkb kbsjybf\ bc .bhbsflfl 

ufvjb'tyt,f ktubht,ekb ajkflbc ofhvjt,fib\ ajkflb= hjvtkbw 

itbwfdc 15% vfyufyevc= [fcbfslt,f cbvfuhbs= cbvnrbwbs lf 

wdtsfvtltuj,bs\ 

vfyufyevb ufvjb'tyt,f ufyv;fyufdfl ajkflbc ufvjlyj,bc 

lhjc= FeO-lfy hrbybc fqcflutyfl\ 

vfyufyevc b'tyt,ty kbsjysf ptlfgbhbc lfcfafhfl= rjhjpbbcufy 

vfsb lfwdbc vbpybs\ 

vfyufyevbc jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b 

vfyufyevb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmvybc itvltu yfthst,c| vfyufyevbc 

(^^) jmcblb _ MnO= vfyufyevbc (^^^) jmcblb _ Mn 2 O 3 = vfyufyevbc 

(^&) jmcblb _ MnO 2 = vfyufyevbc (&^) jmcblb _ MnO 3 = hjvtkbw 

sfdbceafkb cf[bs wyj,bkb fh fhbc+ vfyufyevbc (&^^) jmcblb (fye 

vfyufyevbc fy]blhblb) _ MnO 3 lf Mn 3 O 4 _ iefktlehb jmcblb= 

hjvtkbw sfdbcb itlutybkj,bs itb.kt,f ufydb[bkjs= hjujhw vfyufyjdfyb 

v;fdfc vfhbkb (vfyufyevbc vfyufyfnb) _ [Mn II 

2 (MnVI O 4 )\ 

MnO _ vfyufyevbc (^^) jmcblb vodfyt athbc rhbcnfkehb 

ybdsbtht,ff= ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfk vfyufyjpbnbc cf[bs\ 

vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc rfh,jyfnbc sthvekb lfikbs fy vfyufyevbc 

lbjmcblbc uf[eht,bs o'fk,flbc yfrflib| 

Mn CO 3 �� MnO + CO 2 

MnO 2 + H 2 �� MnO + H 2 O 

MnO-c ittcf,fvt,f vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn(OH) 2 = 

hjvtkbw vbbqt,f Mn (II)-bc vfhbkt,pt nentt,bc vjmvtlt,bs| 

MnSO 4 + 2NaOH �� Mn(OH) 2 + Na 2 SO 4 

vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn(OH) 2 fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,c 

lf itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfy| 

Mn(OH) 2 + 2HCl �� MnCl 2 + 2H 2 O 

vfyufyevbc (^^) ]blhjmcblb stshb athbc yfktmbf= ]fthpt 

fldbkfl b;fyut,f lf ufhlfbmvyt,f vemb athbc yfktmfl| 

2Mn(OH) 2 + O 2 + 2H 2 O �� 2Mn(OH) 4 

Mn 2 O 3 _ vfyufyevbc (^^^) jmcblb vj'fdbcahj-ifdb athbc 

gfhfvfuybnehb ybdsbtht,ff\ ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfk ,hfeybnbc 

cf[bs\ cfvdfktynbfyb vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn 2 O 3 .H 2 O= 

fye vtnf]blhjmcblb _ MnO(OH)= ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfk 

vfyufybnbc cf[bs\ itlbc htfmwbfib ufypfdt,ek v;fdt,sfy| 

2MnO(OH) + 2HNO 3 �� MnO 2 + Mn(NO 3 ) 2 + 2H 2 O 

MnO 2 _ vfyufyevbc (^&) jmcblb ifdb athbc= v'fhb= gfhfvfuybnehb 

ybdsbtht,ff\ vfyufyevbc js[dfktynbfy yfthst,c ijhbc 

'dtkfpt vluhflbf\ ,eyt,fib fhct,j,c vbythfk gbhjkepbnbc 

cf[bs= hjvtkbw vfyufyevbc evybidytkjdfytcb vflfybf\ 

vfyufyevbc lbjmcblb vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc (^^) ybnhfnbc 195- 

300 0 -pt uf[eht,bs| 

Mn(NO 3 ) 2 �� MnO 2 + 2NO 2 

MnO 2 -c f[fcbfst,c fhfvrdtshfl ufvj[fnekb fvajnthekb 

sdbct,t,b\ 

vfyufyevbc (^&) vfhbkt,b fhfvluhflbf\ vfufkbsfl= vfhbkv;fdfcsfy 

ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f vfyufyevbc (^&) mkjhblb= 

hjvtkbw vfibydt bikt,f| 

MnO 2 + 4HCl �� MnCl 4 + 2H 2 O 

180 181

MnCl 4 �� MnCl 2 + Cl 2 

.kbth nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc MnO 2 ofhvjmvybc 

vfyufybnt,c _ jhsjvfyufyjdfyb v;fdfc (H 4 MnO 4 ) fy vtnfvfyufyjdfyb 

v;fdfc (H 2 MnO 3 ) vfhbkt,c| 

MnO 2 + Ca(OH) 2 �� CaMnO 3 + H 2 O 

MnO 2 ntmybrfcf lf kf,jhfnjhbfib ufvjb'tyt,f hjujhw 

v;fyufdb\ ufvjb'tyt,f fuhtsdt rfnfkbpfnjhfl\ 

MnO 3 _ vfyufyevbc (&^) jmcblb fh fhbc vbqt,fkb\ 

Mn 2 O 7 _ vfyufyevbc (&^^) jmcblb vjvodfyj-vj'fdbcahj 

ptsbct,hb v.bvt cbs[tf\ vbbqt,f gthvfyufyfnpt rjywtynhbht- 

,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

2KMnO 4 + H 2 SO 4 �� K 2 SO 4 + Mn 2 O 7 + H 2 O 

Mn 2 O 7 vfyufyevv;fdfc (HMnO 4 ) fy]blhblbf| 

Mn 2 O 7 + H 2 O �� 2HMnO 4 

vfyufyevv;fdf _ HMnO 4 .kbthb v;fdff= vfuhfv fhfvluhflbf 

lf fhct,j,c v[jkjl o'fk[cyfhbc cf[bs\ vbc vfhbkt,c gthvfyufyfnt,b 

tojlt,f\ gthvfyufyfnt,blfy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf 

rfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnb (KMnO 4 )\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb bbcathbf= 

hfcfw gthvfyufyfn bjyb (MnO 4 ) _ ufyfgbhj,t,c\ 

vfyufyevbc (&^^) yfthst,b .kbthb lfv;fyufdt,bf\ ;fyudf-fql- 

_ utybc htfmwbt,ib= ufhtvjcufy lfvjrblt,ekt,bs= MnO bjyb 4 

itb.kt,f fqlutyc Mn +2-vlt= ytbnhfkeh fy nent ufhtvjib _ 

_2 MnO -vlt= [jkj .kbth nent ufhtvjib _ MnO -vlt 

2 4 

cmtvfnehfl tc wdkbkt,t,b itb.kt,f fct ofhjdblubyjs| 

_ MnO 4 

lf;fyudbc ajhvf 

H 2 

H 2 O 

OH _ 

fqlutybkb ajhvf 

Mn 2+ eathj [cyfhb 

MnO 2 , vehf athbc yfktmb 

2- MnO vod fyt athbc [cyfhb 

4 

uf[eht,bcfc gthvfyufyfnb bikt,f| 

2KMnO 4 �� K 2 Mn O 4 + MnO 2 + O 2 

fv htfmwbbs vbbqt,f ;fyu,flb kf,jhfnjhbfib\ 

rfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnb ufvjb'tyt,f vtlbwbyfib\ 

&^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc sfyfeh mdt/ueaib vjsfdct,ekbf 

ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc kbsjyt,b| hrbyf _ Fe= rj,fknb _ 

Co= ybrtkb _ Ni= hestybevb _ Ru= hjlbevb _ Rh= gfkflbevb _ Pd= 

jcvbevb _ Os= bhblbevb _ Jr lf gkfnbyf _ Pt\ tc tktvtynt,b 

ofhvjflutyc d-tktvtynt,c\ xfvjsdkbkb kbsjyt,b cfthsj mbvbehb 

sdbct,t,bc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f lfdf/ueajs hrbybcf lf gkfnbybc 

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,fl\ hrbybc mdt/ueaib itlbc _ Fe, 

Co, Ni= [jkj Pt-bc mdt/ueaib itlbc _ Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Jr, Pt\ 

Fe-bc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrek 

ihtpt fmdc 2 tktmnhjyb= hjvkt,cfw mbvbeh htfmwbfib vjyfobktj,bc 

lhjc fldbkfl ufcwtvty lf ofhvjbmvyt,f yfthst,b= 

cflfw vfsb dfktynj,f 2-bc njkbf\ vfuhfv fv tktvtynt,c ite.kbf 

tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvf ,jkjcobyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkblfy\ fv 

itvs[dtdfib bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty jhpt vtn dfktynj,fc\ 

hrbybc mdt/ueabc tktvtynsf fnjvt,c= gkfnbybc mdt/ueabc 

tktvtynt,bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= fh uffxybf sfdbceafkb d-jh,bnfkt,b= 

hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c hrbybcf lf gkfnbybc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc 

mbvbehb sdbct,t,bc ufyc[dfdt,fc\ 

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,bcsdbc lfvf- 

[fcbfst,tkbf lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[db +2-lfy +8-vlt= sevwf bcbyb 

+4-pt vfqfk lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dc bidbfsfl fdktyty\ vfufkbsfl= 

hrbybc vfmcbvfkehb lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dbf +6, vfuhfv .bhbsflfl 

fv;qfdyt,c +2 lf +3 lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dc\ rj,fknbcsdbc vfmcb- 

182 183

vfkehb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbf +5= [jkj ybrtkbcsdbc _ +4\ fv /ueabc 

tktvtynt,blfy /ueabc yjvhbc njkb ;fyudbsb hbw[db (+8) f[fcbfst,c 

hestybevcf lf jcvbevc\ 

hrbyf 

hrbybc (Fe, Z=26) tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff _ 

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 6 . 

tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4s jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc _ 

� �� 3d�� 

� 4s 

�� 

�� 

hrbyf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabc 

d-tktvtynt,bc ofhvjvflutytkbf\ hrbyf ,eyt,fib fkevbybc itvltu 

'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb kbsjybf\ bc itlbc vhfdfkb vbythfkbc 

itvflutykj,fib= hjvkt,bw hrbybc vflyt,bc cf,fljt,c 

mvybc\ hrbyf sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib v[jkjl vtntjhbnt,ib 

ud[dlt,f\ 

hrbybc vybidytkjdfyb vbythfkt,bf| vfuybnehb hrbyfmdf 

(vfuytnbnb) _ Fe O (ifdb athbc rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,f= [f- 

3 4 

cbfslt,f vfuybnehb sdbct,t,bs)+ obstkb hrbyfmdf - (]tvfnbnb) 

_ Fe O ; vehf hrbyfmdf (kbvjybnb) _ Fe O . H2O (vjifdj- 

2 3 2 3 

'fdbcathb rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,f)+ cblthbnb _ FeSiO (vj'db- 

3 

sfkj-stshb athbc vbythfkb)+ hrbybc vybidytkjdfy hfjltyj,fc 

itbwfdc vbythfkb gbhbnb _ FeS = fye hrbybc fkvflfyb\ 

2 

vbqt,f| hrbyf itb.kt,f vbdbqjs hrbybc (^^^) jmcblbc o'fk,flbs 

fqlutybcfc vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt| 

Fe 2 O 3 + 3H 2 �� 2Fe + 3H 2 O 

fv upbs vbqt,ekb hrbyf mbvbehfl ceasf fh fhbc\ mbvbehfl 

ceasf hrbybc vbqt,f itb.kt,f hrbybc gtynfrfh,jybkbc sthvekb 

lfikbs (130 0 ) e;fyu,flj fhtib| 

Fe(CO) 

130 C 

184 185 

5 

0 

�� 

Fe + 5CO 

hrbyf vbbqt,f fkevbyjsthvbbsfw| 

Fe 2 O 3 + 2Al �� Al 2 O 3 + 2Fe 

3Fe 3 O 4 + 8Al �� 4Al 2 O 3 + 9Fe 

fkevbyjsthvbbs vbqt,ekb hrbyf fh fhbc ceasf\ 

vflyt,blfy hrbybc vbqt,f lfae.yt,ekbf vbcb jmcblt,bc yf[ibh,flbc 

(^^) jmcblbs lf yf[ibhbs (rjmcbs) fqlutyfpt\ fv lhjc 

vbbqt,f fhf ceasf hrbyf= fhfvtl vbcb ityflyj,b yf[ibh,flsfy 

lf c[df vbyfhtdt,sfy (cbkbwbevsfy- vfyufyevsfy= ujubhlsfy= 

ajcajhsfy)\ fv itvs[dtdfib yflyj,c se/b tojlt,f\ se/bc ufvjlyj,f 

vbvlbyfhtj,c ,h.vtlib\ 

]fthbc 

it,thdf 

mibyb 

cfzdhtnb 

,h.vtlbc cmtvf 

cfrth.t 

if[nb 

udbpb 

v[fhekt,b 

qevtkbc 

mdtlb 

oblbc fh[b 

kbsjybc vbvqt,b

,h.vtlb hsekb lfyflufhbf= lff[kjt,bs 80 v cbvfqkbc\ ibuyblfy 

fvjut,ekbf wtw[kufv.kt fuehbs\ ufhtlfy itrhekbf ajkflbc 

cfkntt,bs\ ,h.vtlbc ptlf yf[tdfhc if[nf tojlt,f= ptlf 

yf[dhtnc _ cfrth.t= 'dtkfpt afhsj yfobkc _ ufdbpb= mdtlf 

yfobkc _ mehf\ 

ufvjcfdfkb vfcfkt,bf| hrbybc jmcblehb vflyt,b= vfufkbsfl= 

]tvfnbnb= kbvjybnb fy vfuybnehb hrbyfmdf= rjmcb= akecb (vlyj- 

,b)\ akecfl xdtekt,hbd b'tyt,ty rbhmdfc= hjvtkbw aez mfyt,sfy 

ofhvjmvybc fldbkfl kqj,fl yfthst,c _ oblfc\ bc vtnobkfl 

rfkwbevbcf lf vfuybevbc cbkbrfnt,bcufy itlut,f\ rjmcb b[vfht,f 

cbs,jc o'fhjl= fuhtsdt fqvlutybc= yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblbc vbcfqt,fl\ 

,h.vtlc ndbhsfdty cfrth.tlfy= hjvtkcfw vbvltdhekfl itfmdc 

,h.vtlib rjmcb= vflfyb lf vkqj,b (akecb)\ odf lf fewbkt- 

,tkb ntvgthfnehf vbbqotdf [dhtnbksfy cfrth.tib w[tkb ]fthbc 

it,thdbs\ ,h.vtlbc ofhvflj,f lff[kjt,bs 1=5-/th bphlt,f= 

se ;fyu,flc fy ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,ek ]fthc iteidt,ty\ fv lhjc 

25%-bs vwbhlt,f cfs,j,bc [fh/b\ 

se/bc ofhvjt,fc cfae.dkfl eltdc CO-sb hrbybc fqlutyf\ 

CO rb sfdbc v[hbd vbbqt,f ufdfhdfht,ek rjmcpt ]fthbc vjmvtlt,bs\ 

/th vbbqt,f CO 2 = hjvtkbw itvltu ufdfhdfht,ekb rjmcbc 

yf[ibh,flbc vjmvtlt,bs CO-l ufhlfbmvyt,f| 

C + O 2 ��CO 2 

CO 2 + C ��CO 

yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb sfylfsfy fqflutyc vflfyc _ 450-500 0 - 

pt hrbybc jmcblblfy _ Fe 2 O 3 ofhvjbmvyt,f Fe 3 O 4 | 

3Fe 2 O 3 + CO �� 2Fe 3 O 4 + CO 2 

600 0 -pt Fe 3 O 4 fqlut,f hrbybc (^^) jmcblfvlt| 

Fe 3 O 4 + CO �� 3FeO + CO 2 

700 0 -pt hrbybc (^^) jmcblb fqlut,f sfdbceafk kbsjyfvlt| 

FeO + CO �� Fe + CO 2 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblsfy thsfl hrbybc 

jmcblbc fqlutyfib vjyfobktj,c yf[ibhbw (rjmcb)| 

FeO + C ��Fe + CO 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt yfobkj,hbd fqlut,f cbkbwbevb= vfyufyevb= 

ajcajhb= hjvkt,cfw vflfyb vbyfhtdt,bc cf[bs itbwfdc| 

SiO + C ��Si + CO 2 2 

MnO + C ��Mn + CO 

Ca (PO ) + 5C �� 2P + 3CaO + 5CO 

3 4 2 

ufvjcfdfk vflyt,ib yfthst,bc cf[bs fhct,ekb ujubhlb 

(CaSO , FeS lf c[df ) yfobkj,hbd ufhlfbmvyt,f hrbybc cekablfl 

4 2 

_ FeS= hjvtkbw rfhufl b[cyt,f se/ib\ 

fqlutybkb s[tdflb hrbyf xfvjtlbyt,f mdtdbs lf ufdfhdfht,ek 

rjmcsfy lf yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblsfy it[t,bs ofhvjmvybc 

hrbybc rfh,blc (wtvtynbnc)| 

3Fe + C �� Fe C; 3 

3Fe + 2CO �� Fe C + CO 3 2 

ufvlyfhb hrbyf [cybc yf[ibhc= wtvtynbnc= cbkbwbevc= vfyufyevc= 

ajcajhc= ujubhlc lf ofhvjmvybc s[tdfl se/c\ 

vflfyb 'jdtksdbc itbwfdc rf;vbofcf lf c[df jmcblt,bc itvwdtk 

aez mfyt,c\ aezb mfybc vjcfwbkt,kfl ufvjcfdfk vfcfkfib 

vlyj,bc (akecbc) cf[bs evfnt,ty .bhbsflfl rbhmdfc\ vfqfk 

ntvgthfnehfpt rbhmdf bikt,f| 

CaCO �� CaO + CO 3 2 

ofhvjmvybkb rfkwbevbc jmcblb ehsbthsmvtlt,c aezb mfybc 

itvlutytk ybdsbtht,t,sfy lf ofhvjmvybc fldbkfl kqj,fl yfthst,c 

_ oblfc= hjvtkbw vtnobkfl rfkwbevbcf lf vfuybevbc 

cbkbrfnt,bcufy itlut,f| 

CaO + SiO ��CaSiO ; 

2 3 

MgCO �� MgO + CO ; MgO + SiO �� MgSiO 3 2 2 3 

vfuybevbc= rfkwbevbc lf fkevbybc .ytkkqj,flb lf vluhflb 

jmcblt,b ,h.vtlib fh fqlut,f lf fhw ufkqdt,f\ bcbyb thsvfytssfy 

ofhvjmvybfy fldbkfl kqj,fl fkevbyfnt,c= cbkbrfnt,c lf 

fkevcbkbrfnt,c| CaO . Al O + (CaO)Al O . SiO2 + CaO 2 3 2 3 

. SiO + 2 

(CaO) SiO \ 2 4 

186 187

s[tdflb se/b lf oblf xfvjtlbyt,f mehfib\ fvfcsfy= oblf= 

hjujhw eahj vce,emb= uhjdlt,f se/bc ptvjs\ se/cf lf oblfc 

eidt,ty c[dflfc[df ljytpt ufykfut,ekb yf[dhtnt,blfy\ ufwbdt- 

,bc itvltu oblfc uflffveifdt,ty wtvtynfl\ 

erfyfcrytk [fyt,ib se/bc ofhvjt,fib lfbythuf fhct,bsb 

ufev/j,tct,f= hjvtkbw f[ltyc ,h.vtlbc qevkt,bc ofhvflj,bc 

uflblt,fc lf sdbsqbht,ekt,bc itvwbht,fc\ rth.jl= fv;fvfl 

mfh[yt,ib ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,ek ]fthsfy thsfl f[ltyty ,eyt,hbdb 

cfodfdb fbhbc (vtsfybc) lfvfnt,fc\ vtsfyb bodbc| 

CH 4 + O 2 ��CO 2 + 2H 2 O 

vbqt,ekb CO 2 lf o'kbc jhsmkb rjmcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bc 

itltufl ofhvjmvybc CO-cf lf o'fk,flc= hbc itltuflfw ,h.vtlek 

ghjwtcib vtnb fqvlutyb vbbqt,c vjyfobktj,fc\ tc rb sfdbc 

v[hbd bodtdc ,h.vtlbc qevtkbc ofhvflj,bc phlfc lf= fvfdt lhjc= 

rjmcbc [fh/c 10-20%-bs fvwbht,c\ se/b itbwfdc 99% hrbyfc= 

4=5% yf[ibh,flc lf lfyfhxtyb 2=5% fhbc cbkbwbevb= ajcajhb= 

vfyufyevb lf ujubhlb\ 

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 1=7%-pt vtn yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc= se/b 

tojlt,f\ 

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 1=7%-pt yfrkt, yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc= 

ajkflb tojlt,f\ 

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 0=3%-pt yfrkt, yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc= 

ztlflb hrbyf tojlt,f\ 

se/b v'bat lf vc[dhtdflbf= fh bztlt,f lf fh bukbyt,f\ fhxtdty 

jhb cf[bc se/c| stshc lf yfwhbcathc\ yfwhbcathb se/b 

yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc uhfabnbc cf[bs\ ntmybrfib ufvjb'tyt,f vfymfybc 

v.bvt yfobkt,bc= meht,bc lf f\i\ xfvjcfc[vtkfl\ ntmybrfib 

hrbybc ityflyj,t,c ifd kbsjyt,c eojlt,ty= [jkj vfs ofhvjt,fc 

_ ifd vtnfkehubfc\ 

stshb se/b yf[ibh,flc evsfdhtcfl wtvtynbnbc (Fe 3 C) cf[bs 

itbwfdc\ vstkb stshb se/b b[fh/t,f se/bc ajkflfl uflfveifdt,fpt\ 

se/bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= ajkflb fldbkfl bztlt,f lf bukbyt,f\ 

cohfab ufwbdt,bcfc vbbqt,f vfufhb ajkflb= [jkj ytkb 

ufwbdt,bcfc _ h,bkb\ h,bkb ajkflb fldbkfl veifdlt,f\ 

ajkflb vbbqt,f se/bc uflfveifdt,bs\ fvbcfsdbc cfzbhjf 

se/bcfufy yf[ibh,flbc= cbkbwbevbc= ajcajhbcf lf ujubhlbc 

zfh,b hfjltyj,bc vjwbkt,f\ tc vbbqotdf ;fyudbsb htfmwbt,bs\ 

ufkqj,bk se/ib ;fyu,flbc ufnfht,bc lhjc gbhdtk hbuib b;fyut,f 

hrbybc yfobkb= hjvtkbw ofhvjmvybc FeO-c| 

2Fe + O 2 �� 2FeO 

ofhvjmvybkb hrbybc (^^) jmcblb ufkqj,bk se/ib ;fyufdc 

vfyufyevc= cbkbwbevc= ajcajhc lf yf[ibh,flc| 

Mn + FeO �� MnO + Fe 

Si + 2FeO ��SiO 2 + 2Fe 

2P + 5FeO �� P 2 O 5 + 5Fe 

C + FeO ��CO + Fe 

;fyudbsb htfmwbt,bc lfvsfdht,bc itvltu ufkqj,bkb ityflyj,t,b 

itbwfdc hrbybc (^^) jmcblc= hjvkbc fqlutyf fewbkt,tkbf\ 

ufhlf fvbcf= ajkflbc vbcfqt,fl cfzbhjf yf[ibh,flbc= cbkbwbevbc 

lf vfyufyevbc cfzbhj itvwdtkj,fvlt f'dfyf\ fv vbpybs vfc 

evfnt,ty athjcbkbwbevc= athjvfyufyevc lf fkevbyc\ hrbybc (^^) 

jmcblblfy hrbybc fqlutyf [lt,f vfyufyevbs| 

FeO + Mn �� Fe + MnO 

fv lhjc vbqt,ekb jmcblt,bs ofhvjbmvyt,f oblf= hjvtkbw 

vce,embf lf ufvkqdfkb ajkflbc ptlfgbhpt uhjdlt,f\ 

se/bc ajkflfl uflfveifdt,bc lhjcfw lblb vybidytkj,f 

fmdc ]fthbc ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,fc fy ]fthbc itwdkfc ;fyu,flbs\ 

tc bodtdc vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbbc lf ntvgthfnehbc 

ufphlfc= hbc itltuflfw htfmwbt,b eahj cohfafl vbvlbyfhtj,c\ 

fvfcsfyfdt= ;fyu,flbc ufvj'tyt,bc itvs[dtdfib vbbqt,f 

eahj vfqfkb [fhbc[bc ajkflb= hflufy fv lhjc ajkflib uf[cybkb 

fpjnbc hfjltyj,f vwbhlt,f\ se ajkflib fpjnbc itvwdt- 

188 189

kj,f 0=02% fqotdc= vfiby vfc fhflfvfrvf'jabkt,tkb vtmfybrehb 

sdbct,t,b tmyt,f\ 

sfyfvtlhjdt ntmybrfib ufycfresht,ekb vybidytkj,f tybzt,f 

ktubht,ek ajkflc\ fv cf[bc ajkflb itbwfdc t\o\ vfktubht,tk 

tktvtynt,c _ mhjvc= ybrtkc= vjkb,ltyc= dfyflbevc= djkahfvc= 

vfyufyevc= cgbkty.c= cbkbwbevc lf c[d\ vfktubht,ekb tktvtynt,b 

ajkflc tvfnt,f ufycfpqdhekb sdbct,t,bc vbcfybzt,kfl\ 

vfufkbsfl= mhjv-ybrtkbfyb ajkflb [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb vtmfybrehb 

lf fynbrjhjpbekb sdbct,t,bs= v[ehdfkvtltuj,bs\ fctsb 

ajkflbcufy vpfllt,f vfymfyt,bc vhfdfkb yfobkb= cfj/f[j ybdst,b 

(e;fyufdb rjdpt,b= lfyt,b= xfyukt,b lf c[d\)\ mhjv-dfyflbevbfyb 

lf mhjv-vjkb,ltybfyb ajkflb ufvjbhxtdf cbvfuhbsf lf 

cbvnrbwbs vfqfkb ntvgthfnehbcf lf oytdbc vbvfhs\ fctsb ajkflbcufy 

fvpflt,ty vbkcfltyt,c= sdbsvahbyfdt,bc .hfdt,bcf lf 

rjvghtcjht,bc ltnfkt,c\ mhjv-djkahfvbfyb ajkflb ufvjb'tyt,f 

vzhtkb bycnhevtynt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl lf f\i\ 

sthvekb lfveifdt,bs itb.kt,f ajkflbc itlutybkj,bc itewdktkfl 

vbcb sdbct,t,bc itwdkf\ fctsbf ohsj,f lf vjidt,f\ 

hrbybc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b| hrbyf vjdthw[kbcahj-stshb 

athbc= ,pbydfht kbsjybf (cbvrdhbdt _ 7=87 u$cv 3 = lyj,bc ntvgthfnehf 

_ 1539 0 C\ uffxybf rfhub gkfcnbrehj,f= lfvfuybnt,bcf 

lf ufyvfuybnt,bc rfhub eyfhb= hbc ufvjw ufvjb'tyt,f lbyfvjvfymfyt,bcf 

lf tktmnhj.hfdt,bc uekfht,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ 

hrbybc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| hrbyf vihfk ]fthpt fh b;fyut,f= 

ntybfy ]fthpt rb fldbkfl b;fyut,f\ bafht,f hrbybc ]blhjmcblbc 

afifhb abamt,bs= hjvtkbw dth bwfdc itvlujvb lf;fyudbcufy| 

4Fe + 3O 2 + 6H 2 O �� 4Fe(OH) 3 

]fthpt= vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt hrbybc uf[eht,bcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f 

hrbybc [ty/b (Fe 3 O 4 )| 

3Fe + 2O 2 �� Fe 3 O 4 

700 0 -vlt ufdfhdfht,ekb hrbyf o'kbc jhsmkc ikbc| 

3Fe + 4H 2 O �� Fe 3 O 4 + 4H 2 

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt hrbyf fh itlbc htfmwbfib vihfk 

mkjhsfy= ufw[tkt,bcfc rb tythubekfl vjmvtlt,c vfcsfy| 

2Fe + 3Cl 2 �� 2FeCl 3 

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt hrbyf c[df fhfkbsjyt,sfyfw itlbc 

htfmwbfib\ yf[ibh,flsfy ofhvjmvybc rfh,blt,c= ujubhlsfy _ 

cekablt,c= fpjnsfy _ ybnhblt,c lf f\i\ 

hrbyf htfmwbfib itlbc vfhbkv;fdfcsfy lf ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy= 

hbc itltuflfw itcf,fvbcfl vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^) 

mkjhblb lf hrbybc (^^) cekafnb| 

Fe + 2HCl �� FeCl 2 + H 2 

Fe + H 2 SO 4 �� FeSO 4 + H 2 

ufyp\ 

hrbybc (^^) ybnhfnb ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt ufypfdt,ek 

fpjnv;fdfcsfy hrbybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc| 

4Fe + 10HNO 3 �� 4Fe(NO 3 ) 2 + NH 4 NO 3 + 3H 2 O 

hrbyf ehsbthsvjmvtlt,c w[tk rjywtynhbht,ek fpjnv;fdfcf 

lf ujubhlv;fdfcsfy\ fv lhjc ofhvjbmvyt,f hrbybc (^^^) 

vfhbkt,b| 

Fe + 4HNO 3 �� Fe(NO 3 ) 3 + NO + 2H 2 O 

2Fe + 6H 2 SO 4 �� Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 3SO 2 + 6H 2 O 

hrbyf nentt,ib ghfmnbrekfl fh b[cyt,f\ 

hrbyf f.tdt,c vfcpt yfrkt,fl fmnbeh kbsjyt,c vfsb vfhbkt- 

,bc o'fk[cyfht,blfy| 

Fe + CuSO 4 �� FeSO 4 + Cu 

hrbyf .bhbsflfl ofhvjmvybc jhb hbubc yfthst,c| hrbybc 

(^^) lf hrbybc (^^^) yfthst,c| 

FeO _ hrbybc (^^) jmcblb 

Fe(OH) 2 _ hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb 

FeCl 2 , FeSO 4 lf c[d\_ hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,b 

190 191

Fe 2 O 3 _ hrbybc (^^^) jmcblb 

Fe(OH) 3 _ hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblb 

FeCl 3 , Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 lf c[d\_ hrbybc (^^^) vfhbkt,b 

ufhlf fvbcf= fhct,j,c hrbybc v;fdf (H 2 FeO 4 )= hjvkbc vfhbkt,c 

athfnt,b tojlt,f (hrbybc ;fyudbsb hbw[db +6)\ 

hrbybc lf,fkb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc vmjyt yfthst,b [fcbfslt,f 

ae.t sdbct,t,bs= evfqktcb lf;fyuekj,bc _ v;fdehbs= [jkj 

iefktlehb _ cecnb fvajnthekbs\ 

hrbybc v;fdf (H 2 FeO 4 ) lf vbcb fy]blhblb (FeO 3 ) wyj,bkb fh 

fhbc\ H 2 FeO 4 -bc vfhbkt,b _ athfnt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf\ 

hrbybc (^^) jmcblb ifdb athbc a[dybkbf\ vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^) 

jmcblbc CO-sb fqlutybs 560 0 -pt| 

Fe 2 O 3 + CO �� 2FeO + CO 2 

FeO _ ae.t jmcblbf\ fldbkfl itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfy 

lf ofhvjmvybc hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,c| 

FeO + H 2 SO 4 �� FeSO 4 + H 2 O 

FeO + HCl �� FeCl 2 + H 2 O 

Fe(OH) 2 _ hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb vbbqt,f stshb yfktmbc 

cf[bs hrbybc (^^) vfhbksf [cyfht,pt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs| 

FeSO 4 + 2NaOH �� Fe(OH) 2� + Na 2 SO 4 

hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb ]fthpt fldbkfl b;fyut,f= hbc ufvjw 

bqt,c /th vjvodfyj= itvltu rb vehf-obstk athc hrbybc (^^^) 

]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybc ufvj| 

� 4Fe(OH) 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2 �� 4Fe(OH) 3� 

hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb fh b[cyt,f nentt,ib= cfvfubthjl 

rfhufl b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib| 

Fe(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 �� FeSO 4 + 2H 2 O 

hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,b b;fyut,f c[dflfc[df lfv;fyufdt,bc= vfufkbsfl= 

gthvfyufyfnbc vjmvtlt,bs= lf ufhlfbmvyt,f hrbybc (^^^) 

vfhbkt,fl| 

2KMnO 4 + 10FeSO 4 + 8H 2 SO 4 �� 2MnSO 4 + 5Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 

+K 2 SO 4 + 8H 2 O 

hrbybc (^^^) yfthst,b 

Fe 2 O 3 _ hrbybc (^^^) jmcblb hrbybc yfthst,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt 

vluhflbf\ vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblbc= ybnfhfnbc [Fe(NO 3 ) 3 ] 

fy cekafnbc [Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ] ufvjodbs vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt| 

2Fe(OH) 3 �� Fe 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O 

Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 �� Fe 2 O 3 + 3SO 3 

Fe(OH) 3 _ hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblb vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^) vfhbkt,bc 

o'fk[cyfht,pt nentt,bc vjmvtlt,bs| 

FeCl 3 + 3KOH �� Fe(OH) 3 + 3KCl 

Fe(OH) 3 _ cecnb ae.tf= fmdc cecnfl ufvj[fnekb fvajnthekb 

sdbct,t,b\ bc b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib lf .kbthb nentt,bc 

[cyfht,ib ufs,j,bs| 

2Fe(OH) 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 �� Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 6H 2 O 

Fe(OH) 3 + KOH �� KFeO 2 + 2H 2 O 

Fe(OH) 3 -bc yfobkj,hbdb lt]blhfnfwbbs vbbqt,f vtnfhrbyjdfyb 

v;fdf [HFeO 2 ]= hjvkbc vfhbkt,c athbnt,b tojlt,f\ vfsb 

vbqt,f itb.kt,f vtnfhrbyjdfyb v;fdfc fy Fe 2 O 3 -bc nentt,sfy 

itkqj,bs| 

Fe 2 O 3 + 2KOH �� 2KFeO 2 + H 2 O 

hrbybc (^^^) bjyt,bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf sdbct,bsb htfmwbf 

cbc[kbc 'dbstk vfhbksfy= rfkbevbc athjwbfyblsfy _ 

K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ]\ tc vfhbkb [cyfhib lbcjwbhlt,f ufynjkt,bc vb- 

[tldbs| 

K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] �� 4K + + [Fe(CN) 6 ] _4 

]tmcfwbfyj athfn bjyt,bc _ [Fe(CN) 6 ] _4 ehsbthsmvtlt,bs 

hrbybc (^^^) bjyt,sfy _ Fe +3 ofhvjbmvyt,f vemb keh/b yfktmb _ 

,thkbybc kf;dfhlb| 

4FeCl 3 + 3K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] �� Fe 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 3� + 12KCl 

hrbybc (^^) bjyt,bcsdbc rb lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf sdbct,bsb htfmwbf 

cbc[kbc obstk vfhbksfy _ rfkbevbc athbwbfyblsfy= hjvtkbw 

[cyfhib ofhvjmvybc itvltu bjyt,c| 

K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ] �� 3K + + [Fe(CN) 6 ] _3 

192 193

hrbybc jhve[nbfyb bjyt,bcf lf [Fe(CN) 6 ] _3 bjyt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bc 

itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f o'fkib e[cyflb vemb keh/b 

athbc yfktmb _ nehy,ekbc keh/b\ 

3FeSO 4 + 2K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ] �� Fe 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 2� + 3K 2 SO 4 

cfvdfktynbfyb hrbybc fqvjvxtybf fvjybevbc hjlfyblb 

(NH 4 NCS)\ fv lhjc ofhvjbmvyt,f obstkb athbc hrbybc 

hjlfyblb _ Fe(NCS) 3 . 

FeCl 3 + 3NH 4 NCS �� Fe(NCS) 3� + 3NH 4 Cl 

F 

fdjuflhjc hbw[db 

fdjuflhjc rfyjyb 

fpjnb 

fpjnjdfyb fy]blhblb 

fpjnjdfyb v;fdf 

fpjnbc fy]blhblb 

fpjnbc v;fdf 

fbhb 

utythfnjhbc 

vuhudbyfdb 

fkvfcb 

fkt,fcnhb 

fkevbyb 

jmcblb 

]blhjmcblb 

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,b 

fkjnhjgbf 

fkevbyjsthvbf 

fkevbyjcbkbrfnt,b 

frevekfnjhb 

fvbfrb 

fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b 

fvjybevbc bjyb 

fvjybevbc ]blhjmcblb 

fvjajcb 

fvajnthj,f 

fybjyb 

fyjlb 

fgfnbnb 

fhftktmnhjkbnt,b 

fhfjufyekb yfthst,b 

fnjvb 

fqvlutyb 

v;fyufdb 

vhfdfktktmnhjybfyb 

fut,ekt,f 

CFUYJT

L 

lfybtk-bfrj,cbc 

ufkdfyehb tktvtynb 

ltbnthbevb 

lbfvjajcb 

lbgjkb 

lbcgthcbekb cbcntvt,b 

lbcjwbfwbf 

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b 

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b lf 

vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b95 

rjywtynhfwbf 96 

ufv[cytkbc ,eyt,f 

uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc 

96 

,eyt,f 

96 

ntvgthfnehf 96 

lbmhjvfnb 

176 

lbmhjvv;fdf 

leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc 

176 

fotdf 91 

T 

t,ekbcjcrjgehb velvbdf 

tsbktyb 

tktvtynb 

tktmnhjyb 

tktmnhjkbpb 

e[cyflb fyjlb 

[cyflb fyjlb 

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsf 

vorhbdb 

tktmnhjyekb qhe,tkb 

tktmnhjmbvbf 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f 

tktmnhjkbnt,b 

cecnb 

.kbthb 

tysfkgbf 

tynhjgbf 

tythubf 

109= 110 

118 

154 

63 

87 

94 

95 

91 

135 

4 

42 

112 

113 

114 

107 

51 

107 

54 

94 

96 

95 

79 

80 

ibuf 

fmnbdfwbbc 

/b,cbc 

tythutnbrekb iht 

tmdbdfktynb 

tktvtynbc 

rfyjyb 

D 

dfktynj,f 

dfyn-]jabc rfyjyb 

P 

pjkb 

pehve[nb 

S 

sf,fibhb 

sfkbevb 

sfyfehb mdfynehb hbw[db 

stjhbf 

]b,hblbpfwbbc 

tktmnhjkbnehb 

lbcjwbfwbbc 

ghjnjkbnehb 

sthvjlbyfvbrf 

sb[f 

se/b 

B 

bpjnjgb 

bpj,fhb 

bpjnjyb 

bpjvtnhek-bpjnjgehb 

gjntywbfkb 

bjlb 

bjyb 

bjyehb yfvhfdkb 

bjybpfwbbc tythubf 

78 

81 

81 

66 

9 

9 

10 

7= 68 

83 

87 

127 

131 

133 

46 

67 

94 

98 

78 

139 

188 

43 

44 

44 

81 

162 

99 

99 

54 

R 

rfsjlb 

rfkbevb 

lbmhjvfnb 

rfh,jyfnb 

gthvfyufyfnb 

mhjvfnb 

rfkwbevb 


jmcblb 

]blhjmcblb 

rfh,jyfnb 

cekafnb 

mkjhblb 

jhsjajcafnb 

rfjkbyb 

rfh,blt,b 

rfh,jyfn-bjyb 

rjheylb 

rfhyfkbnb 

rfnfkbpb 

rfnfkbpfnjhb 

rbhmdf 

rbhh.t 

rfdibhb 

/thflj,f 

rjdfktynehb 

ljyjhekfmwtgnjhekb 

vtnfkehb 

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,b 

rktxrjdcrbc otcb 

rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdf 

rjhjpbf 

K 

kf,fhrbc o'fkb 

kfysfyjblt,b 

kbsbevb 

112 

122 

176 

122 

182 

182 

127 

127 

128 

128 

128 

129 

129 

154 

139 

135 

138 

130 

123 

84= 85 

84 

130 

128 

57 

66 

64 

196 197 

64 

74 

108 

49 

92 

115 

167 

17 

123 

kbsjyt,b 

rtsbkij,bkb 

fhfrtsbkij,bkb 

ufhlfvfdfkb 

fqvlutyb sdbct,t,b 

.f,dfsf vorhbdb 

V 

vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db 

vfcf 

fnjvbc 

fnjvehb 

vjktrekbc 

vjkehb 

vfcehb hbw[db 

vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb 

vfyufyevb 

jmcblt,b 

v;fdt,b 

]blhjmcblb 

vfhbkt,b 

vfhbkt,b 

cfiefkj 

v;fdf 

ae.t 

jhvfub 

rjvgktmcehb 

lbcjwbfwbf 

uhfabrekb 

ajhvekt,b 

vfhvfhbkj 

vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb 

cbcntvf 

vbyf 

vjkb 

vjktrekf 

v;fdt,b 

[cyflb 

e[cyflb 

122= 127= 

130= 169 

108 

108 

18 

102 

107 

45 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

8 

178 

180 

182 

181 

182 

33 

34 

39 

39 

33 

33 

97 

41 

127 

16 

141 

7 

3 

25 

26 

27

;fyu,flbfyb 

e;fyu,flj 

lbcjwbfwbf 

vodfdt yfnhb 

Y 

yfhtdt,b 

yf[ibh,flb 


jmcblt,b 

v;fdt,b 

vfhbkt,b 

yfnhbevb 

,eyt,bdb yfthst,b 

jmcblb 

]blhjmcblb 

vfhbkt,b 

ytbnhbyj 

ytbnhfkbpfwbf 

yjhvfkj,f 

28 

28 

97 

124 

5 

133 

133 

136= 137 

138 

138 

122 

123 

124 

124 

125 

42 

38 

90 

J 

jpjyb 

155 

jpjyehb iht 

156 

jktevb 

159 

jh,bnfkb 

44 

fnjvehb 44 

]b,hblekb 70 

s-jh,bnfkb 47 

p-jh,bnfkb 47 

d-jh,bnfkb 49 

jhsjcbkbwbevv;fdf 140 

jhsjajcafnb 153 

jmcblt,b 

20 

vfhbkofvjvmvytkb 20 

vfhbkfhofhvjvmvytkb 20 

fvajnthekb 23 

v;fdf 

23 

ae.t 

22 

jmhj 

169 

G 

gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb 

gthvfyufyfnb 

gthmkjhfnb 

gjkfhekb ,vf 

gjntywbfkb 

bpj,fhekb 

ghbywbgb 

gfekbc 

kt-ifntkbtc 

: 

;fyu,flb 

;fyudbc [fhbcpb 

;fyudf-fqlutyf 

;fyudf fyjlehb 

;fyudf-fqlutybc 

htfmwbt,bc 

51 

182 

168 

63 

81 

50 

89 

155 

70 

102 

112= 115 

rkfcbabrfwbf 104 

H 

htfmwbt,bc cbs,ehb 

tatmnb 

htfmwbt,b 

80 

rkfcbabrfwbf 13 

itthst,bc 13 

lfikbc 13 

xfyfwdkt,bc 13 

vbvjwdkbc 12 

;fyudf-fqlutybc 102 

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc 38 

tupjsthvekb 79 

tyljsthvekb 79 

itmwtdflb 14 

itemwtdflb 15 

htfmwbbc cbxmfht 81 

hrbyf 

184 

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,b184 

jmcblt,b 192 

]blhjmcblt,b 192= 193 

rjvgktmcehb 

vfhbkt,b 

ityflyj,t,b 

hjlfyblt,b 

C 

cb[bcnt 

cfthsj 

lhjt,bsb 

velvbdb 

cbkbwbevbc v;fdf 

cbkbwbevbc jmcblb 

cbkbrfnt,b 

cjlf 

rfkwbybht,ekb 

rfecnbrehb 

rhbcnfkehb 

cfcvtkb 

cgbyb 

cgbkty.b 


jmcblt,b 

]blhjmcblt,b 

[cyflj,f v;fdt,ib 

cekafnt,b 

cekabnt,b 

cegthajcafnb 

N 

nent kbsjyt,b 

nent vbofkbsjyt,b 

A 

afpf 

lbcgthcbekb 

abpbrehb vjdktyt,b 

ajkflb 

ajcafnb 

ajcutyb 

ajcajhb 

198 199 

193 

188 

149 

129 

129 

130 

129 

140 

139 

140 

123 

124 

123 

123 

45 

169 

169 

171 

171= 172 

171 

160 

158 

154 

122 

126 

87 

87 

12 

188 

153 

136 

149 

fkjnhjgbf 

obstkb 

stshb 

ifdb 

jmcblt,b 

v;fdt,b 

vfhbkt,b 

actdlj]fkjutyblt,b 

ae.tt,b 

[cyflb 

e[cyflb 

fvajnthekb 

tktmnhjkbnehb 

lbcjwbfwbf 

M 

mdfynehb hbw[dt,b 

cgbyb 

vsfdfhb 

sfyfehb 

vfuybnehb 

mbvbehb tktvtynb 

mbvbehb ,vt,b 

rjdfktynehb 

gjkfhekb 

fhfgjkfhekb 

bjyehb 

ljyjhekfmwtygnjhekb 

o'fk,flehb 

kbsjyehb 

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f 

mbvbehb ybdsbtht,f 

ceasf 

yfhtsb 

vfhnbdb 

hsekb 

mbvbehb ,vbc gjkfhj,f 

mbvbehb vjdktyt,b 

mkjhb 

150 

150 

150 

150 

151 

151= 152= 153 

154= 155 

148 

29 

30 

30 

31 

94 

44 

45 

45 

46 

46 

4 

54 

58 

59 

61 

73 

64 

76 

74 

85 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

63 

12 

162


jmcblt,b 

v;fdt,b 

vfhbkt,b 

mhjvb 

jmcblt,b 

]blhjmcblt,b 

vfhbkt,b 

mhjvgbrb 

I 

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc 

rfyjyb 9 

ityflyj,t,b 

172= 180 

W 

wtvtynb 

wbfyo'fk,flv;fdf 

wbfyv;fdf 

wbfyblt,b 

wbfyfnt,b 

{ 

[cyfht,b 

rjywtynhbht,ekb 

162 

166 

167 

166= 167 

173 

175= 176 

175 

176= 177 

177 

141 

148 

148 

148 

149 

O 

oytdf 

92 

jcvjcehb 92 

o'fkb 

129 

cb[bcnt 

129 

o'fk,flb 

118 

bpjnjgt,b 118 

rfsbjyb 

120 

fybjyb 

120 

;fyudbc [fhbc[b 120 

gthjmcblb 121 

ufvj'tyt,f 122 

o'fkufpb 

119 

o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb 99 

89 

ufypfdt,ekb 

yf/thb 

e/thb 

vtnyf/thb 

fhftktmnhjkbnt,b 

ztivfhbnb 

vekehj,f 

vjkfkj,f 

yjhvfkj,f 

nbnhb 

[cyflj,bc rjtabwbtynb 

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc 

ntvgthfnehbc fotdf 

? 

/b,cbc tythubf 

} 

]fkjutyt,b 

]tyhbc rfyjyb 

]b,hblbpfwbf 

]blhfnt,b 

]blhjrfh,jyfnt,b 

]blhbl-bjyb 

]blhjkbpb 

]blhjmcblt,b 

[cyflb 

e[cyflb 

]eylbc otcb 

89 

90 

90 

90 

93 

87 

90 

90 

90 

91 

88 

91 

81 

161 

89 

67 

88 

138 

118 

100 

29 

30 

30 

50 

KBNTHFNEHF 

1\ rjrjxfidbkb d\= wbywf.t u\= wtw[kf.t s\= pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb 

mbvbbc rehcb\ ^ yfobkb\ ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb= 1988\ 

2\ rjrjxfidbkb d\= wbywf.t u\= wtw[kf.t s\= pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb 

mbvbbc rehcb\ ^^ yfobkb\ ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb= 1998\ 

3\ obdobdf.t s\ pjuflb mbvbf\ ufyfskt,f\ s,bkbcb= 1992 

4\ udfhfvf.t l\ pjuflb (fhfjhufyekb) mbvbbc cf[tkv.qdfytkj\ 

ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb 1975\ 

5\ rfhfgtnbfyb v\= lhfrbyb c\ pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb mbvbf\ s,bkbcb= 

1981 

6\ Ахметов Н.С. Общая и неорганическая химия. М., 1981. 

7\ Глинка Н.Л. Общая химия. М., 1984. 

8\ Красовицкая Е.И. Электронные структуры атомов и химическая 

связь. Просвещениа, М., 1972. 

9\ Некрасов Б.В. Учебник общей химии. Высшая школа. М., 1984. 

10\ Полинг Л. Общая химия. Мир. 1974. 

11\ Хомченко Г.П., Цитович И.К. Неорганическая химия. Высшая 

школа. М., 1978. 

200 201

CFHXTDB 

sfdb ^ 

mbvbbc .bhbsflb wyt,t,b lf rfyjyt,b ...................................................... 3 

hfc itbcofdkbc mbvbf ...................................................................... 3 

fnjvb lf vjktrekf ........................................................................ 3 

mbvbehb tktvtynb ........................................................................... 4 

fkjnhjgbf ...................................................................................... 4 

yfhtdt,b lf mbvbehb yfthst,b ......................................................... 5 

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb lf vjktrekehb vfcf ..................................... 6 

vjkb _ ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,bc thstekb ..................................... 7 

dfktynj,f ....................................................................................... 7 

ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb ............................................. 8 

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb ................................................... 9 

trdbdfktynb lf trdbdfktynsf rfyjyb ............................................. 9 

fdjuflhjc rfyjyb ............................................................................ 11 

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb vjdktyt,b ................................................... 12 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc .bhbsflb nbgt,b ............................................... 13 

sfdb ^^ 

l\b\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb lf 

tktvtynsf gthbjlekb cbcntvf ............................................................ 16 

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc vybidytkj,f ........................... 18 

sfdb ^^^ 

fhfjhufyek yfthssf .bhbsflb rkfct,b ................................................ 20 

jmcblt,b ......................................................................................... 20 

jmcblt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b ............................................................. 21 

jmcblt,bc vbqt,bc otct,b .............................................................. 22 

v;fdf jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ................................................ 23 

v;fdt,b ............................................................................................ 25 

v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f .................................................................... 25 

v;fdt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b ............................................................... 26 

v;fdt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ............................................................ 27 

v;fdt,bc ae.byj,f........................................................................... 28 

ae.tt,b .......................................................................................... 29 

ae.tt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b.............................................................. 30 

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblt,b ........................................................... 31 

vfhbkt,b ........................................................................................ 32 

vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b ............................................................. 33 

vfhbkt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b ........................................................... 34 

vfhbkt,bc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b ..................................................... 36 

vfhbkt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ........................................................ 36 

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf ............................................................... 38 

v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uflf'dfyf ................................................. 39 

cfiefkj vfhbkt,ib ....................................................................... 39 

sfdb ^& 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f ..................................................................................... 42 

fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ufhct,bc fqyfuj,f ...................................... 44 

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f lf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb ..................................... 51 

bjybpfwbbc tythubf= tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf lf 

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f ................................................................ 54 

sfdb & 

mbvbehb ,vbc nbgt,b .............................................................................. 57 

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc 

ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvb .............................................. 64 

rjdfktynehb ,vbc sdbct,t,b ......................................................... 66 

mbvbehb ,vf lf dfktynj,f .............................................................. 68 

;fyudbc [fhbc[b............................................................................... 70 

bjyehb ,vf ...................................................................................... 73 

kbsjyehb ,vf ................................................................................. 74 

o'fk,flehb ,vf .............................................................................. 76 

sfdb &^ 

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc rfyjypjvbtht,t,b .......................... 78 

bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb\ /b,cbc tythubf ................. 81 

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lf vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b ............... 81 

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f lf vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b ...................... 85 

sfdb &^^ 

lbcgthcbekb cbcntvt,b ........................................................................ 87 

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf\ 

t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf ........................................................... 91 

uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf\ rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdf ............... 92 

jcvjcb lf jcvjcehb oytdf ........................................................... 92 

sfdb &^^^ 

tktmnhjkbnsf [cyfht,b ...................................................................... 94 

v;fdt,bc= ae.tt,bc= vfhbkt,bc tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbf ...... 97 

o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb ............................................................. 99 

vfhbksf ]blhjkbpb .................................................................... 100 

sfdb ^* 

;fyudf-fqlutyf ..................................................................................... 102 

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc ufynjkt,bc itlutyf ........................ 104 

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bc rkfcbabrfwbf ................................ 104 

202 203

sfdb * 

tktmnhjmbvbf...................................................................................... 107 

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsf vorhbdb ............................................... 107 

ufkdfyehb tktvtynb .................................................................... 109 

tktmnhjkbpb ............................................................................. 112 

tktmnhjkbpb [cyflb fyjlbs ...................................................... 114 

tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbf .......................................................... 115 

kbsjyt,bc lfwdf rjhjpbbcfufy ................................................... 116 

fhfjhufyekb mbvbf ............................................................................... 117 

^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b ........................................................................ 118 

o'fk,flb....................................................................................... 118 

nent kbsjyt,b (yfnhbevb).......................................................... 122 

^^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b ....................................................................... 126 

^^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ..................................................................... 130 

^& /ueabc p_tktvtynt,b .................................................................... 133 

yf[ibh,flb .................................................................................... 133 

cbkbwbevb .................................................................................... 139 

& /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ...................................................................... 142 

fpjnb ........................................................................................... 142 

ajcajhb ....................................................................................... 149 

&^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b .................................................................... 154 

;fyu,flb ........................................................................................ 155 

ujubhlb ........................................................................................ 156 

&^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ................................................................... 161 

mkjho'fk,flb lf vfhbkv;fdf...................................................... 164 

mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b .............................................................. 166 

^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b ....................................................................... 169 

cgbkty.b ....................................................................................... 169 

mhjvb ............................................................................................ 173 

mhjvbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b ............................................................... 175 

&^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b ................................................................... 177 

vfyufyevb ....................................................................................... 178 

vfyufyevbc jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b ......................................... 180 

&^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b .................................................................. 183 

hrbyf ............................................................................................. 184 

cfuyjt,tkb ........................................................................... 195 

kbnthfnehf ........................................................................................ 201 

204

ibeWdeba avtorTa mier warmodgenili saxiT 

gadaeca warmoebas 30.01.2009. xelmowerilia dasabeWdad 

18.02.2009. qaRaldis zoma 60X84 1/16. pirobiTi nabeWdi Tabaxi 12,5. 

tiraJi 100 egz. 

sagamomcemlo saxli `teqnikuri universiteti~, Tbilisi, 

kostavas 77 

`basiani~, Tbilisi, marjaniSvilis 5

zogadi da araorganuli qimia

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