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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019
Contents
Y. Çağatay Seçkin • Editor I
Editorial
Sinem Gürevin, Yasin Çağatay Seçkin
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes
case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş 1-15
Mehmet Ronael, Gülden Demet Oruç
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul:
The case of Akaretler row houses 17-36
Hatice Gökçen Özkaya
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul
Kadı registers 37-47
Imene Selka Oussadit, Chihab Selka, Mohammed Nabil Ouissi,
Olivier Bouet
Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western
Algeria: Sabaghine bath in Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma 49-58
Murat Sönmez, Beyza Nur Batı
Poiesis of objects: Theory of making 59-70
Natalia Vladimirovna Norina, Veniamin Aleksandrovich Norin,
Yuriy Vladimirovich Pukharenko
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering
disciplines 71-86
Haniye Razavivand Fard, Yüksel Demir, Marco Trisciuoglio
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability
and sustainability in university campuses 87-102
Seniye Banu Garip, Gökçe Evren
The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences
in exhibition spaces 103-114
Ferro Yudistira, Yandi Andri Yatmo, Paramita Atmodiwirjo
From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial
assemblage of heterogeneous components 115-129
Sema Mumcu, Serap Yılmaz, Duygu Akyol
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect
environmental concerns and awareness in landscape design 131-144
I
Editorial
Y. Çağatay SEÇKİN • Editor
Once upon a time, a little boy worked
at his desk in the bluish bedroom of his
childhood home in Istanbul. The boy’s
homework assignment was to write
one of his dreams.
He started to think what he is going
to tell. He could tell the girl he is in love
with. The first goal scored against Bordeaux
in midweek, by Fenerbahçe’s legend
striker Selçuk Yula was also like a
dream. On the other hand, was it possible
to tell his lifelong dream, to become
the owner of a Porsche Carrera 911?
All of them deserved to tell as a
dream. However, he decided to tell the
boy who got to be architect. It is the
most current research topic for him, especially
after the last movie he watched
that weekend with his grandma. It was
Michelangelo Antonioni’s The Passenger.
Maria Schneider was a young student
of architecture and the boy still
remembers the scenes that Schneider
and Nicholson moving around Gaudi’s
buildings in Barcelona.
Decades later, his dream come true,
the boy got many degrees on architecture
and design, and finally, in 2013,
was offered to write the editorial at A|Z
ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture,
which has for 15 years told both
dreams and realities of architecture and
design. After 7 years of duty, starting in
March 2020, as I step aside as your editor-in-chief,
and I slide happily into my
new role in the editorial board.
My warm appreciations go to both
Prof. Mehmet Karaca, PhD., the Rector
and Prof. Murat Gül, PhD., the Dean,
for their invaluable and excellent sup-
port to A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty
of Architecture.
I also express my gratitude to Dr.
Koray Gelmez. There are no words to
tell his contributions to the Journal,
during this time. Without his companionship,
everything would be much
harder for me and the Journal could
not be beautifully designed as it is.
Last but not the least let me thank
four wonderful ladies, Sinem Becerik,
Pelin Elfiti, Ebru Şevkin and Ece Yurtaçan,
whose competent, meticulous,
and tireless work is absolutely invaluable.
They have most of the merit for
the present quality of this journal, and I
hope that they will continue cooperating
with our new editor-in-chief, in the
same great way that they did with me.
Hereby, I would like to thank all our
readers for the support they provide to
the Journal, one more time. If we have
told both dreams and realities of architecture
and design for a long while, it
all happened by your help. We really
looked forward your comments, contributions,
suggestions and criticisms.
They all shaped our way. It’s been a privilege
to connect with the thousands of
you who have reached out to me. Let’s
continue to do so, in my new duty as the
head of the City Department of Parks,
Gardens and Green Areas. I invite you
to e-mail me at cagatay.seckin@ibb.gov.
tr. Please do not hesitate to share your
ideas that we could be focusing on, and
let’s make Istanbul green.
In this issue, there are 10 articles
coming from the researcher of different
universities and research institutes,
typically. Enjoy your reading and meet
with us again in next issue on March
2020.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 1- 15
Documentation and mapping of
underwater cultural landscapes
case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
Sinem GÜREVİN 1 , Yasin Çağatay SEÇKİN 2
1
snmgurevin@gmail.com • Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of
Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
2
seckincagatay@gmail.com • Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of
Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.37097
Abstract
The scope of documentation and mapping of underwater landscapes consists
of different disciplines, such as, landscape architecture, archeology, history, geometrics
and underwater research. Kaş has witnessed ancient civilizations and has
countless remains that are waiting to be found and understood. The main objective
of this research is to reveal these ancient remains and make them a part of
the academic literature. When they have become acknowledged and mapped, a
guideline could be provided for preserving and managing our heritages. Since
prehistoric times, humans have been using Earth’s water for transportation, nutrition,
and trade. Due to the relationship between human and water, people have
overcome far distances and cultures become able to interact with each other. Since
water covers the seventy-one percent of the world, excluding underwater while
studying cultural landscapes, would be ignoring an extensive piece of the whole.
Kaş was selected as research area because its culture and interaction with sea dates
backs to prehistoric times. The chosen sites include the dive sites located in the
central area and nearby islands. First, the history, geography and the importance
of Kaş were researched. Preliminary survey maps formed with reference to underwater
topography, currents, prevailing winds, and refuge locations for vessels.
Thereafter, carefully planned dives were followed through. Within the extent of
research, the findings and artifacts are documented and marked with their exact
coordinates on an underwater map. Finally, the research is moved forward with
studying protection and managing underwater cultural landscapes and conclusions
have been made for Kaş.
Keywords
Cultural landscapes, Underwater, Mapping, Submerged.
2
1. Introduction
This study assesses Kaş in underwater
cultural landscape structure. The
aim of this research has been, how to
research and reveal the submerged underwater
cultural landscape areas and
to detect underwater cultural heritages,
mapping and documenting them
with a scientific approach, so that they
can be admitted to academic literature
and become a part of our culture.
When these cultural landscape areas
are recognized, the preservation of
our heritages would be possible. This
documentation can also be used as the
substructure for a management plan of
underwater cultural landscapes.
A detailed literature study was
conducted within the scope of the research.
During the literature review
process, the historical records and the
existing data banks about the underwater
existence of the region were examined,
the people in the region were
consulted, the aerial photographs and
satellite images were examined, and
the underwater examinations with the
water surface scans were carried out.
Then, underwater research started.
Since the researcher has had many previous
dives in the area over a decade,
pilot areas were appropriately selected.
Certain remains were preferred in the
pilot areas with convenience sampling
method and documented with numerous
dives. All obtained data were
evaluated and compiled as a whole and
mapped.
As a result, the present problems
have been identified and solutions have
been generated. In addition, the conservation
and management of cultural
landscape areas and its relationship
with tourism were evaluated.
Cultural landscape, which is one
of the main subjects of the landscape
architecture discipline, determines
the range of this study. Landscape is
a complex concept that can contain
many different meanings according
to time, culture and place. Landscape
architecture can include disciplines
ranging from geography and tourism
to archeology and anthropology. The
distance between cultural resources
and nature can only be eliminated by
cultural landscape approach. Recognizing
the relationship between natural
resources such as archeology, geography
and history, which constitute
cultural resources, helps to understand
the complex socio-economic system.
Cultural heritages are non-renewable
cultural resources and shed light
on the cultural landscape with the anthropogenic
and natural changes of the
past. The cultural heritages are effective
in the development of the quality and
identity of urban and rural areas, as
well as being a source for tourism.
The cultural landscapes that cover
the seas are formed by the combination
of the concept of archeology with sea
and land (Westerdahl, 1992). The ships
and the crews of the ships shape the
culture of the seas. Archeology continues
on both water and land. The only
thing that distinguishes them is the
diving mask.
Numerous archaeological remains
have been found in the terrestrial areas
within the boundaries of Kaş and
researches are continuing for more.
The history of the region, the interaction
of people with the sea and even
the fact that some ancient cities in the
region are under the water, show that
a comprehensive underwater research
should be added to the researches on
land. The ruins and shipwrecks that
divers and fishermen have come across
over the years confirm that the region
has important submerged cultural heritages.
However, these values continue
to be eroded by storms and currents in
time. They are also exposed to theft in
the last hundred years due to the development
of diving techniques and
diving technologies. In order to be able
to protect the underwater cultural heritage
in the Kaş District of Lycia and
to be able to add those to our cultural
values, it is very important to present
the artifacts found in this area with the
information of the remains on a map.
Such a study was never done before in
Turkey and reveals the original value of
this research.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
3
The fact that the cultural heritages
of the research area underwater are
shown on the map with its exact coordinates
and current status will help
us to protect and recognize our cultural
values. Due to the scope of the
research, it will be possible to support
the ongoing studies of the cultures that
have been found so far and to reach
new information.
This research aims to reveal the historical
landscape, development and
change of the region. As the findings
indicated on the map with their historical
information, it helps to understand
the whole of the research area in
chronological order.
2. Underwater cultural landscape
Nowadays, because of climate
change, scientists often mention the
increasing effect of rising temperatures
on sea level. When the world was not
exposed to human influence the difference
in the sea level, was occurred
much more slowly by allowing the adaptation
of living things. But now, it is
happening at a rapid pace because of
human effect. Since our world, which
is about 4.5 billion years old, has been
constantly changing, it is seen that the
sea level increases between 40 and 130
meters together with the change from
region to region. Given that people
throughout history usually live at the
edge of the water, the original traces of
many civilizations to altered to underwater
today.
The historical traces that were buried
in the waters, not only give information
about the first civilizations and
the origins of humanity, but also give
information about the climate change
and its effects. Marshall Islands that are
located near the Equator in the Pacific
Ocean stands as a textbook example for
climate change effect. Marshallese have
adapted to their environment, building
a culture on more than 1,200 islands
spread across 750,000 square miles
of ocean. But today, due to changing
climate conditions, tropical cyclones,
damaged reefs and fisheries, worsening
drought and rising sea level compose a
treat to their lives. People of Marshall
Islands are forced to relocate or to construct
a new island or raising an existing
one. Soon, their culture of thousand
years will become a submerged
cultural heritage, and their future generations
will need to study underwater
remains to learn about their culture. As
this example shows, with the remains
found underwater, people learn about
their interaction with environment,
lifestyles and cultures.
Starting from this point of view, the
concept of underwater cultural landscape
was fully developed by Christer
Westerdhal in 1992. In this concept,
Westerdahl tried to understand underwater
archeology more in a holistic
way with his studies. “The maritime
cultural landscape signifies human utilization
(economy) of maritime space
by boat, settlement, fishing, hunting,
shipping, and its attendant subcultures,
such as pilotage, lighthouse and
seamark maintenance” (Westerdahl,
1992:5-6). Historical monuments on
land benefit the understanding of the
remains encountered in the seas and
vice versa. As a result, more accurate
information about history and cultures
is reached with the evaluation of all the
remains together.
“The archaeological concept combining
sea and land would be the maritime
cultural landscape. It means that
the starting point for the subject of
maritime archaeology is maritime culture”
(Westerdal, 1998).
The cultural landscape is the result
of the transformation of the natural
environment through time, by people
living in certain regions for centuries.
In underwater cultural landscapes,
submerged traces of humans and civilizations
are examined. In some cases,
these may be objects from wrecks or
wrecks themselves; in some cases there
may even be flooded cities with the rise
of water.
There are a lot of cultural traces underwater.
These are mostly shipwrecks
that sunk because of natural, technical
or accident-related reasons. These
ruins, which have unique value, not
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
4
only give information about the period
- civilization they belong to, but
also display how that culture spread.
More studies need to be done about
these cultural traces found underwater.
Researches on this issue have begun to
progress and has not yet reached their
potential.
Studying the past is a broad and
comprehensive subject, and traces of
the past can be found on land or underwater.
These traces must have a historical,
architectural or scientific value
in order for the remains to be important
cultural assets. When the found remains
can be included in a socio-cultural
order based on a discipline, they
become ruins with cultural value.
In its most basic form, it would be
correct to define the remains that carry
the historical, scientific or architectural
traces of human culture as underwater
cultural sources. Within this definition,
from the smallest to the largest
of the sea vehicles and submerged air
vehicles and their cargos, underwater
cities and structures, and even human
remains may be underwater cultural
resource.
However, it should be noted that it
would be wrong to think that manmade
objects with archaeological and
cultural values are the only traces of
humans under the water. Today, thanks
to technological developments, there is
countless structural hardware under
the water. Underwater materials such
as cables and pipelines are not part of
the underwater cultural resources.
All cultural resources, which are
used to define the identities of societies,
are regarded as a value belonging
to humanity. Cultural heritage is a
factor that expresses the shared histories
of individuals in a society and
strengthens the sense of unity among
them. It ensures the continuity of the
experiences and traditions that people
have accumulated throughout history.
Underwater cultural heritages cover all
traces of the sea floor as a result of human
influence. Thus, the underwater
cultural landscape also includes underwater
cultural heritage.
The underwater cultural heritage
has been formed by the human-marine
relationship that has been going on for
thousands of years, they have left untouched
because the technology was
not existed to identify and reach these
legacies. In this day and age, with the
recent technical developments, human
beings are able to examine the underwater
environment and its content.
Although the relations of societies
and individuals with the sea are as old
as the history of mankind, the development
of marine societies has gained
momentum especially since the 1500s.
Underwater cultural heritages have
spread throughout the world for hundreds
of years such as ships, cargo, aircrafts
and so on. There are also many
sunken ancient cities, such as the ruins
of Alexandria in Egypt. Throughout the
history of the world, natural disasters
caused thousands of ships sinking into
the sea and have buried many cities in
the coastal areas. Many of these ships,
structures and other cultural elements
cannot be seen from the water surface,
and these remains have been safely
preserved under lakes - seas - oceans
and have survived to the present day.
As mentioned before, cultural landscapes
are the areas created by human
influence, people have left their traces
in these regions and shaped them. As
the return of this relationship, the traces
left by people from the cultures of
the past periods not only helps people
understand the past, but also the culture
of life.
First of all, depending on the geography
they are located in, they help the
personal development of the individuals
who are interested in cultural landscapes
and offer them new activities.
Consider an area with archaeological
heritage found in an area that is not
accessible by car, this region directs
people who want to reach it to nature
sports and this orientation brings with
them the desire to respect and protect
the nature. The best example of this situation
can be considered in Lycia, the
main study area of this study.
The ancient Lycia Region is one of
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
5
the ten best hiking trails in the world.
Along the Lycia Way, which is 535 kilometers
long, there are many beautiful
natural landscapes accompanied by
ancient ruins. As you can reach all the
ancient cities of Lycia in this way, many
remains from the later periods can be
seen along the way. However, while
walking a route such as the Lycia Way,
it is almost impossible not to admire
and respect nature, and this communication
with nature makes people who
respect and protect the environment
and the past.
It is also possible talk about the
same fascination and respect in the
underwater cultural landscape that the
relationship underwater has gone one
step further. Because, with the help of
improving technologies, now people
are able to experience underwater that
is out of our comfort zone. This kind
of involvements can cause enormous
changes in the lives of individuals.
People who want to observe the underwater
cultural landscapes first hand
will have to do start with diving training
and learn to be safe under the water.
Understanding diving as using only
certain technical materials to go underwater
and return would be making an
enormous mistake. Diving is also being
a part of the marine culture. Most divers
are respectful to the sea and underwater
life; in addition they do their best
to protect this environment.
Obviously, although there are not
many people to disrupt the underwater,
there are still some individuals
who harms under the sea and cultural
heritage. The most important of these
damages is the stealing of the remains,
because of their material value or only
to get a souvenir from underwater.
People also give the greatest harm to
the sea creatures and the remains by
touching them or polluting the sea.
However, many divers are acting as a
community to protect the underwater
and organizing activities for protection
and cleaning.
When the issue of pollution is cited,
it will not be right to stay only at the
individual point, it is a known fact that
private establishments and parties have
polluted the nature and the seas to a
great extent. In addition to this situation,
the underwater cultural landscape
areas have been significantly damaged
due to the increasing construction and
insufficient infrastructure. Although
the waters of Kaş, which owes much of
its beauty to its cleanliness, are not like
before, these faults are still relatively
reversible.
Finally, boats and fishermen should
be mentioned. The anchors of the boats
damage the underwater cultural heritage
more if the locations of heritage
sites are not known. Anchors on a fish
nest or remains give irreversible damage.
In the case of fishermen, fishing
nets and cages are also added to this
situation. These nets and cages damage
both the remains and all living things
and their habitat without discrimination.
3. Methodology for the underwater
cultural landscape research
A theoretical resource research was
conducted as first step in the methodology.
With the help of the resources, a
proper way was found to do an underwater
documentation. Also main components
of the theory were reviewed,
such as maritime cultural landscape
theory or underwater archeology.
The methodology followed in the
research after determining the main
case area, was a general survey. Many
sources were studied thoroughly and
the important data collected. After the
literature research with books, maps
and aerial photographs, many interviews
were conducted with local people
including fishermen and divers.
The main questions that were asked
during with interviews were:
• Are there any remains or wrecks
in the area other than the ones that are
known with dive spots?
• What are changes that you have
observed in the long term?
• What are changes that you have
observed in the short term?
• What do you think about the cause
of these changes?
• What do you think can be done in
order to improve Kaş and underwater?
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
6
After all the theory studies, field
study was the subsequent step. The archaeological
research techniques alone
are not enough in researching the cultural
heritage that is placed under the
water. Although the path followed in
underwater archaeological researches
contains points that overlap with a
normal archeology excavation, it also
includes different disciplines due to
its environment. The underwater cultural
landscape studies occur with the
disciplines of archeology, underwater
research and diving progress together.
Before being able to breath under water,
there was not exact way to search
beyond the land to the sea. The developments
in the research and diving
techniques have helped the improvements
for exploration and investigation
of underwater cultural heritage.
The field study part of the research
was started with surface sea survey.
Since it was not possible to have all
requirements, the water surface scanning
was carried out just to generate
an example. Subsequently, underwater
research was initiated by diving. In this
process, the sonar devices have helped
to determine the areas that have traces
for remains. Many dives were executed
and the ruin samples were photographed
and measured. Afterwards,
the data obtained were examined, documented,
evaluated and mapped in
case areas.
4. Case study
Kaş district of Antalya, located in
ancient Lycia, is designated as the case
study area in the research of the mapping
of the underwater cultural landscape.
There are many reasons why the
Kaş was examined, but the most important
one is incontrovertibly underwater
cultural values of the area.
Many cultures and civilizations lived
in Kaş but according to the oldest archaeological
remains the first ancient
city in the area was Habesos. This area
was later called Antiphellos. The reason
for this name is the ancient city of
Phellos, located above the district of
Kaş. Antiphellos is one of the important
port cities in the history of Lycia.
During the Anatolian campaigns of
Alexander the Great, he ruled this region,
but after the death of Alexander,
the region experienced a transition between
the Seleucids and the Ptolemies.
In all historical sources, this city stands
out in the Roman Period and refers to
the bishopric center in the Byzantine
period. In the Byzantine period, area
was exposed to Arab raids but later
became part of the Anatolian Seljuk’s.
After passing to the Anatolian Seljuk’s,
the region in which the center of Kaş
began to be called with the name Andifli
and the name still stands for the
central district.
According to the information given
by the Kaş District Governorate
and the Municipality of Kaş, after the
collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk, the
Tekeoğulları took over the region and
joined the territories of the Ottoman
Empire during the time of Yıldırım
Beyazıt.
Antiphellos was a small port settlement
established in the 4th century
B.C. It was the port of Phellos. Antiphellos
came forefront with the decline
of Phellos in the Hellenistic Period.
This situation also continued in
the Roman period. Thanks to the cedar
tree and sponge trade, it had become a
rich port city, which could be self-sufficient
in time.
The fortification walls, which built
against Meis Island by the shoreline,
can be seen in part today since they
have become part of today’s buildings.
There is an ancient theater in the western
part of the city, which overlooks
the sea, it has been well preserved so
far and it has been restored in recent
years. The ancient theater is seen in
Figure 1.
The King’s Tomb with lions, which
can be considered as symbol of Kaş is
Figure 1. Ancient Theater, Kaş (Gürevin,2016).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
7
located at the end of the Long Bazaar
(Uzun Çarşı) Street. This tomb is an elevated
sarcophagus consisting of three
sections. The lower grave chamber,
called Hyposorium, is about one and a
half meters high, and the ground is collapsed.
It has a flat base with a height of
80 centimeters. At the top of the sarcophagus,
there is a stone cover with a
Lycia type pointed arch, carved from a
separate rock. There are two lion heads
standing on their paws on both sides
of the cover. The tomb takes its name
from these lions. The short side of the
cover is divided into four plates. Hyposorium
carries a detailed inscription
of Lycia tomb on whom the right of
burial would be given, but this article
cannot be read.
The most prominent ruins in Kaş are
located in the western part of the present
settlement. There are not any existing
roads to Kaş in the Limanağzı Region;
this location can only be reached
by walking or small boats. On the
slopes of the Sebeda Castle, the tombs
side by side face the sea.
The rock tombs can be seen along
the north and west slopes of city. There
is also a cistern very close to the central
port of the district. This cistern is
dating back to the 5th century B.C was
used to store water in the beginning but
then used for wine, olive oil and vegetables.
The cistern was made by carving
a single block of stone in size of 12x6
meters and the ceiling rests on seven
carved columns. It is the only cistern
remaining from a series of cisterns in
the area extending up to the ancient
theater. Various amphorae, plates and
vessels were found during the excavations
in the cistern.
There is also a Hellenistic temple in
the central part of Kaş. Overlooking
the ancient harbor, this temple is the
only Antiphellos temple that has survived.
The only seen part is the lower
boundary of the walls built using cut
stone. The temple, which it belongs
not yet known, was repaired during
the Roman period and the excavations
started in 2012 by Antalya Museum
Management.
There is a dor type tomb called Akdam
that was built in 4th century B.C.,
it is place to the northeast of the Ancient
Theater. The structure was constructed
by cutting natural rock. It has
a height of 3.5 meters and has 24 female
figures dancing by holding hands.
On Hastane Street, there is a temple
built using regular cut stone. It was determined
that the foundation stones of
the building were from the Roman Period.
(http://www.antalyakulturturizm.
gov.tr).
In Figure 2 Antiphellos’ settlement
plan can be seen. When we examine
this plan, the northern necropolis is
seen on the slopes of the hill, which is
today known, as the Sleeping Giant.
Figure 2. Antiphellos City Plan (Texier, 1862).
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
8
In the Far East, the eastern necropolis
was found, while the settlement of Antiphellos
moved from the center of Kaş
to the Çukurbağ Peninsula. The acropolis
and monumental tombs are located
south of the northern necropolis.
The church is located to the east of the
city center. While the theater overlooks
the sea in the west, there are two bathhouses
in the south by the sea.
These are all foremost cultural heritages
of Kaş that are placed on land.
As mentioned in the methodology,
many interviews were done through
the research process. One of these interviews
was specifically enlightening.
It was with Mehmet Aytuğ, who was a
former Lycia Way guide and dive master.
He told that there were many more
wrecks and remains, but those areas
are now prohibited for diving. He also
told that some invasive species, which
have come from Red Sea, are becoming
a great threat to local species. He said
that the underwater of Kaş used to be
full of life but it is getting worse every
year. He thinks that, the change in the
people profile also changes Kaş in every
aspect. He believes that people are
needed more knowledge and caring to
get better.
This kind of interviews helped us to
evaluate the differences in the last two
decades more distinctively and proved
that a preservation and management
plan is a necessity.
After all these studies, underwater
surveys had begun. At this stage, it was
a necessity to investigate the factors
causing underwater heritages. While
the majority of the underwater ruins
were caused by the sinking of the sea
vessels, the remaining part was formed
by the submerged structures and the
cities.
Seafarers have experienced the biggest
fears of storms since ancient times.
However, storms in the formation of
residues are not the only factor, however
topography, current and wind in
general should be examined. In addition,
in recent years people with different
reason underwater in the form of
conscious remains. These factors are
examined in layers below.
Kaş’s topography has hard rocky
cliffs that are an obstacle development
and transportation. The rocky structure
of the land continues underwater.
All of the dive sites in the study area are
composed of rocky areas, sometimes
they are the extension of the coasts, but
sometimes they are reefs formed by the
rocks in the sandy underwater regions.
Figure 3. Topography Map of Kaş Underwater (Gürevin, 2018).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
9
The coasts of Kaş, which are geographically
called Dalmatian type,
have karstic structure. The relationship
between the sea and the land is highly
indented - this is why there are many
islands and peninsula in the region. As
a result of this coastal type, the continental
shelf in the Kas region is narrow
but the sea depth is extended.
When the topography of the seaside
of Kaş is examined, it is seen that
there are many different sizes of islands
as well as hills rising underwater. Although
it is not known whether these
rock formations were above or below
the water surface in the past, the combination
of harsh weather conditions
and topography still pose a threat to
the watercrafts. To summarize it is accurate
to notify that topography has
constantly influenced the culture of the
region since its first settlement.
Underwater topography map of the
research are can be examined with
Figure 3. Base of the maps, which are
formed in this research, are prepared
with using Navionics Marine maps,
Google Earth Maps and Electronic
Navigation Charts.
Wind, thermohaline and wave currents
are usually seen in the research
area. Sudden changes in the topography
affect the streams in the waters of
Kaş.
These currents change their intensity
depending on the storm periods.
In addition, İnce Burun, located in the
Limanağzı Region, constitutes bursts
in the rocky cliffs between Heybeli Islands
and Pina Island and in the cliffs
to the southwest of Kovan Island.
Another factor that affects the sea is
wind. The winds from the west, due to
the geographic features of Kaş, are frequently
seen, including northwest and
southwest. Likewise, the winds from
the east also has severe disturbs.
It is not possible to ignore the effect
of winds gusting within the research
area on the formation of underwater
remains in the region. Even today, it
is seen that the extreme winds gusting
during the storm periods, the waves in
the sea damage the coastal roads and
attached boats.
When the physical conditions distressing,
it is justifiably necessary to
question how these situations can be
solved. When these conditions of Kaş
are examined, it is obvious that sea
vessels need to find shelter at different
points for different prevailing winds.
The most important factor in shelter
points will be that when the vehicles
Figure 4. Shelter locations for prevailing winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
10
have any problems in the region where
they take shelter, it will not throw to
the shore but to the open water without
any human interaction. For example, a
sail must take the head of the boat to
the shore and take the wind from the
head while anchoring in a heavy storm
or anchoring in a buoy. Thus, when
the anchor or buoy becomes ineffective
due to environmental conditions,
the boat can drift towards the cliffs on
the shoreline and become damaged or
Figure 5. Shelter locations for west winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).
Figure 6. Shelter locations for east winds (Gürevin &Yiğitler, 2018).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
11
even sinking into the open sea.
Refuge points in the research area
for different weather conditions were
marked on the maps and the positive
and negative aspects of the refuge in
these areas were examined. Figure 4
displays shelter locations for every prevailing
wind. Figure 5 shows shelter
locations for west winds and Figure 6
shows shelter locations for east winds.
Figure 7. Amphora at Neptune Dive Point (Gürevin, 2018).
Figure 8. Amphora at Neptune Dive Point (Gürevin, 2018).
Even in the course of researching
cultural landscapes in dry land is challenging,
an underwater survey can be
faced with much more difficulties.
We needed to find a boat with sonar
scanners, which would allow us to scan
from the surface first. We managed to
overcome this challenge by accompanying
our different friends when they
went to the research areas. Another
challenge was to establish the right
team. We always took support from
Altay Yiğitler on the surface, he is both
a technical dive instructor and captain,
and since he has been living and working
in Kaş for a long time, he helped
us with everything, never denied sharing
his knowledge and time. On the
subject of the diving partner, we had
to find volunteers for this study, who
can cover the cost of their dives, spend
their holidays underwater for our research,
and most importantly be a reliable,
good diver. Of course, as it can
be understood from this point of view,
it was not possible to have a great deal
of time to do documentation diving.
We dived during the dive season and
found the remains of the ruins, and
then waited for the appropriate time to
dive for documenting the remains with
a dive partner.
In this process, it will not be correct
to no mention that there were minor
difficulties such as failing underwater
cameras, prolonged dive times and
missing technical equipment. All of
these difficulties sometimes caused to
repeat our dives. These times sometimes
coincided with very hot days or
very heavy storms, but the work was
completed thanks to the sacrifice of everyone.
Every single factor, data and underwater
maps were examined primarily
in the selection of pilot areas. With
the help of preliminary survey maps,
the focus points are relieved. Since all
dives were performed in diving points
in Kaş, attention was paid to the presence
of traces from different cultures
in selected regions. As a result of these
researches, four diving points were selected
as pilot regions.
These regions are;
• Lighthouse diving point, Limanagzi
- Ince Burun
• Kovanlı dive site, Kovan Island,
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
12
Five Islands
• Canyon dive site, Kovan Island,
Five Islands
• Neptune diving point is the Çukurbag
Peninsula.
A brief documentation of one of the
pilot sites could be about Neptune diving
point. Neptune diving point is located
in Çondur Cape of the Çukurbağ
Peninsula. There is a rocky formation
at the top of this dive site, which starts
at 8 meters deep. These rocky reef stages
continue down to 45 meters in progress.
In the southern part of the reef
there are many amphorae belonging to
the ancient periods.
As a dive partner was not available
in the study of the remains at Neptune
region, it was completed by accompanying
recreational group dives in the
region. For this reason, six dives were
carried out for approximately two
months to document the remains and
to obtain the coordinates.
This dive site also has an artificial
reef. In 2011, a 29-meter long TCSG-
119 coded coast guard boat was sunk
to create a new reef to enhance the
populations of fauna and flora at the
dive site. This shipwreck was left 21
meters depth at first, but due to strong
storms it had got loosen and slide to
the band of 35 - 40 meters.
The first Neptune dive was conducted
on 11 June 2018. On 11 June, the
weather was partly cloudy and about
27 °C. The wind started to get more
intense when the dive started; it was
blowing at about 15 kilometers per
hour. The boat was reached the location
around 10:45 and we began to get
ready for the dive. We started diving
at 11:05 by jumping from the boat. In
this dive, the main goal was to determine
which remains should be documented.
The dive lasted for 42 minutes
and the water temperature was 21°C on
the surface and 19°C in the maximum
depth. The maximum depth of dive
was 30.8 meters and our average depth
was 16.2 meters.
Figure 9. Amphora at Neptune Dive Point (Gürevin, 2018).
Figure 10. Neptune Dive Point Remains with their coordinates (Gürevin, 2018).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
13
After emptying the air in our bouncy
control device and going under the water,
we started to move south, towards
southeast. We encountered the first
amphora at 7 meter without getting
too far from the boat. After taking note
of the approximate location of this amphora,
we continued towards the reef
in our southeast. We met the second
amphora at 19 meters. The reef starts
at that point. There were many amphorae
in the reef. Some of them were
assembled together and fragmented.
We encountered a large number of
amphorae between 20 and 30 meters.
A total of six points were marked to
document with the subsequent dives.
As we encountered an inverse current
on the way back, we moved towards
the boat at a depth of about 12-13 meters.
When we approached the boat, we
came to the surface after finishing our
safety stop for 3 minutes at 5 meters.
Afterwards, we accompanied 5 more
dives and completed the documentation
of the remains.
Figures 7 – 8 – 9 are photographs of
the remains documented during the
dives. Figure 10 shows the coordinates
for the remains of Neptune diving
point on the map.
5. Conclusion
This research was an application of a
cultural landscape analysis to the submerged
cultural landscapes in Kaş. The
results have shown that the underwater
cultural landscapes have extremely
high potential for educating and moving
us forward.
For the formation of social identity,
the awareness of the past is undeniable.
Social emotions, together with society,
have gained meaning, and the feeling
of continuity of society is valuable for
each of the individuals who make up
the society. The general conclusion,
derived from the sources examined
within the many researches, reveal that
feeling happiness and stability in their
lives creates happier societies.
Cultural values are parts of a whole
that constitute the past of society. For
this reason, cultural resources which
constitute the social memory and
which are based on the general culture
of the people living in the region
are very important. However, as mentioned
above, these sources can be located
on the land as well as under the
waters.
The sources of cultural values have
been destroyed and emerged throughout
history. While the destruction in
the wars was one of the reasons for
the destruction of the culture, the economic
problems, the different political
views and the perspective of the religions
to the cultures are also important
in this regard. Destroying traces of
ancient cultures has made it easier for
new cultures to dominate.
While all these obstacles exist, it is
very difficult to maintain cultural resources,
especially if they are underwater
as in this research. Because these
areas are more easily exposed to theft
and looting, and those located near the
coasts are also threatened by urbanization.
Even today, underwater cultural
resources cannot be adequately examined
or preserved by academics, or by
a different institution. Sometimes personal
interests are prioritized, but most
of the times there is no support for research.
In addition, the underwater cultural
resources contribute to life. A shipwreck
becomes a nest of many fish and
provides an ecosystem development
around it. Thus, it increases the population
by creating a living environment
for creatures underwater. At this point
the issue that needs to be considered is
whether the shipwreck has a polluting
effect or not. The wrecks from the previous
periods with cultural value, since
they did not use energy resources like
today, have very few pollutant effects.
In order to increase the underwater
life, objects that have been intentionally
submerged in order to create a reef
are first cleaned and their fuel is discharged,
thus minimizing the polluting
effects.
The access to cultural values in the
underwater world made them vulnerable
to false threats as well as to help us
understand history, cultures, and civilizations.
For this reason, preservation
of underwater cultural heritage means
protection of our historical values.
The subject of conservation of underwater
cultural landscapes includes
many variables. Because while keeping
Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
14
the values under water, some of the
threats occurring on the land are decreasing
but many different problems
can arise.
The remains of cultural landscapes
underwater are not only threatened by
people but also by nature. While these
areas are generally less known, they
may be more easily exposed to theft
and looting in accordance with the intentions
of those who know it. The reason
for this is that it cannot be safely
protected a cultural area under the sea
as it is on land. Nevertheless, with the
effect of the sea and storms, some remains
are condemned to disintegrate
or disappear.
Beside these mentioned problems,
the idea of on-site protection will add
value to the region where the cultural
heritage is located and will cause the
water in the region to be taken under
general protection and increase the
tourism. It should also be noted that
some remains begin to deteriorate as
soon as they come into contact with air.
The most useful measure to protect
the underwater cultural landscape areas
is to inform the local people in the
region and to ensure that their values
are appreciated. Although, there is
nothing can be done against the dangers
of nature.
As seen from the explanations, the
present conditions raise a question
about whether the remains that are
part of the underwater cultural landscape
areas should be protected in site
or exhibited in a way that they can be
brought to the surface suitably and be
accessible to more people. The most
sensible thing to follow in this case
is to implement the process of decision-making
in the underwater cultural
heritage.
We offer on site protection for our
research area. Because, the natural
structure and the remains constitute a
cultural landscape area as a whole.
The pilot research zone, Kaş, has an
improved protection program from the
World Wildlife Foundation to protect
living species. Although this program
is not prepared to protect the underwater
cultural landscapes, the buoys
created within the program help to
prevent the boats anchoring to the
places where the remains are located.
However, a more extensive preservation
and management plan should be
developed to protect the underwater
cultural landscape areas and tourism in
the region should not be ignored while
this plan is being developed.
Whether landscape areas are designed
or naturally exist, in order to
maintain its continuity, it requires natural
resources such as air, water and
soil. It is in an indestructible connection
within the surrounding natural
systems. This connection is the main
feature that distinguishes cultural
landscapes from other cultural heritages.
This is the reason why almost
every other cultural heritage cannot
be moved. The relationship of cultural
landscapes has with environment,
sometimes needs it to be repaired but
always requires to be managed. Management
and planning of cultural landscapes
can be achieved by working together
of many different disciplines.
Strategies can be developed for the
management of cultural landscape areas
with the cooperation of landscape
architects, historians, archaeological
landscape experts, forestry, design, architecture,
engineering, cultural geography,
wildlife, seed – pollen experts,
landscape maintenance and management
experts. Management of each
cultural landscape requires a different
method, a different strategy. Because
the environment, climate, geographic
and historical characteristics may vary.
While some cultural landscapes may
be a small region in the middle of a
metropolis, some may be underwater,
others can be a rural area spread over
thousands of acres.
The management of cultural landscapes
begins with the identification
of the region, which is regarded as a
cultural landscape area. After that, the
most important step is to prevent the
factors that may have caused damage.
In order to ensure continuity of the
site, a good management plan should
be prepared. These areas generally require
ongoing management in the field,
and as the outset of this management, a
landscape architect, who specializes in
landscape protection, is required.
If we want to explain the management
of cultural landscapes further,
the subject can be started with the in-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Gürevin, Y. Ç. Seçkin
15
terpretation of the cultural values in
the landscape. The interpretation of
landscape areas includes ideas, meanings,
concepts and dynamics that compose
the space. For example, while the
relic is important for an archaeologist,
the aesthetics and beauty of the area is
important for a historian, for an artist
or for a traveler. Cultural landscapes
are a whole and a reflection of the cultures
that create them. For this reason,
all the components that generate them
are important and must be protected.
So we have to identify, document and
map them to constitute a start point.
As a result of all these researches
that have been gone through, it is obvious
that the culture in Kaş is shaped
and developed by topography. It is significant
to reveal and understand all
the traces of these previous cultures, in
order to reveal the values of the region
and to share with everyone. To understand
existing culture, our setting and
ourselves in which we live, we need to
understand the growth and history of
our culture with its causes and consequences.
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Documentation and mapping of underwater cultural landscapes case study: Ancient Lycia - Kaş
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 17-36
Residents’ experiences of a
gentrified neighborhood in
Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row
houses
Mehmet RONAEL 1 , Gülden Demet ORUÇ 2
1
mehmetronael@gmail.com • Graduate School of Science Engineering and
Technology, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
2
guldenoruc.itu@gmail.com • Urban and Regional Planning Department,
Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
Received: February 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.46547
Abstract
The gentrification process has been examined by sociologists, urban planners,
geographers and many other professionals since the 1970s. However, despite a great
deal of research into the concept, process, and other dimensions of gentrification,
there are few studies which consider the importance of the perspective and
experiences of residents and users.
This paper focuses on the gentrification process and its impact on the nongentrifier
residents of the Akaretler neighborhood of Beşiktaş, an area which
was transformed following a major restoration project 10 years ago. In-depth
interviews were conducted with long-term residents and business owners to
investigate how they evaluate the changes in their neighborhood as well as the
positive and negative impacts of gentrification on their lives. According to the
findings, while the majority of respondents acknowledged the physical success
of the restoration project, some of them also pointed out the negative economic,
social, and cultural outcomes it has raised over the past 10 years. The outstanding
negative issues are social integration difficulties, the lack of affordable properties,
changes to property functions, and cultural contrast.
Keywords
Akaretler row houses, Commercial gentrification, Istanbul, Neighborhood
change, Residents experience.
18
1. Introduction
Many scholars have studied the gentrification
concept in depth; however,
this issue is still considered to be a hot
topic because of the power wielded by
the construction sector. Especially in
the last decade, the gentrification has
become a global approach extending
its context from the central core to
suburbs, and also slums (Cocola-Gant,
2019); moreover, the fundamental motivations
behind this development are
the financialization of housing market
(August & Walks, 2018), the increasing
power of economic actors in the urbanization
process (Slater, 2017), the
remarkable ascendance of neoliberal
economic policies (Smith, 2001), and
the increasing role of global gentrifiers
such as construction companies
and states (Rofe, 2003). Therefore; it is
clear that the role of financial capital
came into prominence after 2000, not
only by encouraging home ownership
through home loans but also through
the rise of corporate proprietors and
platform capitalism (Aalbers, 2019)
and this concept has been accepted
as a global strategy for reaching maximum
land value, and it has occurred
in varied types in different parts of cities
(Lees et al., 2016). Although it extended
its scope and transformed to a
method containing the reproduction
of capital in urban space, the unchanging
consequence of this process is the
displacement of existing residents willingly
or unwillingly (Lees et al., 2015).
While some researchers have attempted
to identify gentrification in
their perspectives (Hammet, 1984;
Smith & Williams, 1986; Ley, 1992;
Kempen & Weesep, 1994; Bondi, 1999;
Kennedy & Leonard, 2001; Atkinson,
2003; Bostic & Martin, 2003, Cocola-Gant,
2018), others have examined
the main reasons, actors, and driving
forces behind the concept (Wheaton,1977;
Kern, 1981; Lees, 1996; Ley,
1986; 1996; Aalbers, 2019 ). In addition
to the investigations into the concepts,
processes, and dimensions of gentrification,
many scholars have also concentrated
on its physical, social, economic,
functional, and cultural effects
on the existing environment (Sampaio,
2002; Billig & Churchman, 2003; Musterd
& Ostendorf, 2005; Cameron &
Coaffee, 2005). However, it must be
stated that when evaluating gentrification
only a few of them have considered
the importance of the perspective
and experiences of residents (Freeman,
2004; Slater, 2006; Murdie&Teixeria,
2011).
This study is intended to increase
the understanding of the impact of
gentrification on both residents and
business owners living in the areas
surrounding Akaretler, the historical
row houses located within Beşiktaş, a
major population center of Istanbul. In
particular, it investigates the effects of
the transformation that occurred as a
result of the restoration of these houses
10 years ago.
The rest of this paper is divided into
3 sections; a conceptual background
of the study that summarizes the concept
of gentrification, examples of gentrification
in Istanbul and a literature
review of the positive and negative
impacts of gentrification on neighborhoods
is given in the second section.
The third section contains information
regarding the case area of Akaretler
that includes a short history of the district,
the project, methodology and the
findings of the research. The final section
is devoted to conclusions.
2. Gentrification and Istanbul
Although there are numerous explanations
for the notion of gentrification,
it can be basically described as
investing to encourage high-income
white collar settlement in historic and
precious sites in urban cores, and the
clearing of these valuable sites of their
current low-income residents and users
(Smith & Williams, 1986; Ley, 1992;
Kennedy & Leonard, 2001; Atkinson,
2003).
After Glass’ (1964) explanation of
gentrification, Smith (1986) expanded
the meaning of the concept and
introduced a new type of gentrification
which became known as “second-wave”.
Although there are differences
between these two types of
gentrification, such as their causes, actors,
processes, and scale, (Hackworth
& Smith, 2001), the fundamental and
unchanging phenomenon for both is
the willing or unwilling displacement
of existing residents or users (Smith,
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Ronael, G. D. Oruç
19
1979). After 2000, researchers started
to focus on a third-wave of gentrification
derived from a partnership between
the state and the private sector
(Hackworth & Smith, 2001; Davidson
and Lees, 2005; Cameron & Coaffee,
2005; Uitermark, Duyvendak & Kleinhans,
2007; Hackworth, 2007).
This third wave gentrification has
some distinctive characteristics like
the partnership between companies
and states, effective anti-gentrification
strategies, and the expansion of gentrification
to the peripheries (Cameron &
Coaffee, 2005; Uitermark, Duyvendak
& Kleinhans, 2007; Hackworth, 2007).
Lees (2003) identified seven different
types of gentrification which are classical,
statebased, capital-based, commercial
also known as retail gentrification
(Hubbard, 2016), mix-use, re-gentrification
that was renamed as super-gentrification
(Davidson and Lees, 2010),
and new-built gentrification. In this
scope, many scholars have worked on
these types and extended their content;
moreover, they also identified new
types of gentrification (Cocola-Gant,
2019). These are rural gentrification
derived from the increasing attraction
of the natural environment for
high-middle class occupants (Phillips,
2005), studentification including the
development of special regions for students
only (Smith & Holt, 2007), and
tourism gentrification based on the
transformation of residential areas to
attractive zones for visitors (Gotham,
2005; Cocola-Gant, 2018). In addition,
these different gentrification types can
lead to the occurrence of each other in
time, and the mutual relationship between
tourism and commercial gentrification
can be given as an example
(Gotham, 2005). While the changing
commercial activities increase the interest
of visitors for the area, being a
touristic destination changes the commercial
pattern in depth, and it causes
the existence of new functions appealing
to visitor’s expectations more (Cocola-Gant,
2015).
Although there are several types of
gentrification based on different motivations,
they can be collected under
two main approaches which are
defined according to the aims of the
implementation and the power of the
main actors (McKinnish, Randall &
Kirk, 2010). In brief, these approaches
are; gentrification as an urban transformation
policy and gentrification as
a negative consequence of urban transformation
(Hyra, 2016).
In Turkey, the gentrification issue
gained importance after the 1980s,
largely due to the effects of globalization
(Islam, 2009). The first wave of
gentrification happened organically in
Bosphorus neighborhoods during the
1980s, and the first group of new potential
residents; artists, writers, poets,
and musicians started to arrive, thereby
changing both the land values and the
local lifestyle. However, that period is
characterized by the harmony that was
achieved between new and existing inhabitants
and few displacement issues
were observed (Islam, 2009). While
the gentrification process continued
in Bosphorus neighborhoods, second
wave gentrification started to occur in
the historical areas of the city core at
the end of the 1990s (Polat, 2016). Historical
apartments with views of the
Bosporus, easy accessibility, and access
to cultural and entertainment activities
appeared after the pedestrianization of
Istiklal street made Beyoğlu, Cihangir,
Galata and Asmalımescit more attractive
for new social groups (Polat, 2016).
Ergün (2004, also in 2006) concentrated
on the first and second wave gentrification
process in Istanbul neighborhoods
and produced a detailed map
of gentrified zones. After a transitional
period, third wave gentrification began
with the ratification of law no. 5366. In
Istanbul, the Tarlabaşı, and Sulukule
projects are considered to be the first
examples of gentrification as part of an
urban transformation policy (Islam,
2009). The same period saw many other
projects around the city, including
the transformation of Fener and Balat,
the development of Galataport, and the
Haydarpaşa Port Project (Figure 1).
In addition to research that includes
the general prospects surrounding the
gentrification issue in Turkey, there
have been several more recent studies
which have evaluated and focused
on the consequences of gentrification
in-depth through the experiences and
thoughts of residents and users (Tuncer
& Islam, 2017; Uysal & Sakarya,
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
20
Figure 1. Gentrification waves in Istanbul.
2018; Uzgören & Türkün, 2018).
The restoration project for the
Akaretler row houses was started in
1988 and completed in 2008. It is the
largest restoration project undertaken
in Istanbul, and can be accepted as a
critical case of third wave commercial
and mixed-use gentrification. Following
this project, the local neighborhood
underwent a rapid and significant
transformation.
2.1. Effects of gentrification
The main concept of gentrification
can be identified as providing physical,
economic, and especially social
revitalization, while also including the
conservation of the assessable components
of a given area, such as its historical
buildings. However, this policy
has been shown to have deep effects on
the existing urban pattern (Sampaio,
2007). When Appleyard (1981) defined
gentrification, he emphasized the
combination of economic recovery and
physical conservation, and stated that
this combination is a “solution”. Tiesdell,
Oc, and Heath (2008) accepted
Appleyard’s definition, and supported
the claim that gentrification is a necessity
for the conformance of the urban
place to a changing economic system.
In addition, they also highlighted the
social outcomes and displacement issues
as being undesirable elements of
the process. Whether it is a solution
or necessity, the gentrification process
definitely has both positive and negative
influences on existing urban structures
(Billig & Churchman, 2003).
One of the basic consequences of
gentrification is the segregation that
occurs in both the physical and social
environments (Chirstafore & Leguizamon,
2018). In the physical context,
gentrified zones of cities are comprised
of “prestige” elements such as highquality
conditions and facilities, entertainment
services, and accessible
transportation options that are intended
to segregate them (Sampaio, 2002).
These zones also arouse the interest of
the public sector and the municipal
authority, causing them to make upgrades
to the urban infrastructure (Billig
& Churchman, 2003). In this way,
gentrification improves the quality of
an area’s physical structure, reverses
physical decay, and restores/upgrades
individual buildings (Kennedy &
Leonard, 2001; Musterd & Ostendorf,
2005; Inzulza-Contardo, 2011).
In the social context, Clay (1981)
claimed that the gentrification process
develops a neighborhood’s profile
and contributes to a more positive
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21
image. Musterd and Ostendorf (2005)
described the importance of physical
restructuring to solve social difficulties;
on the other hand, they also
highlighted the displacement issue as
an adverse result of gentrification. The
social balance that can be identified
as a state of harmony between people
with different social status is a vital dimension
for a healthy neighborhood,
and this harmony supports the occurrence
of a local identity; however, the
organization of interactions between
citizens and the integration of newcomers
should occur naturally and not
be forced (Vance, 1966; Frankenberg,
1994). Thus, gentrification process as
an external intervention breaks this
balance and causes both displacement
and segregation (Sampaio, 2002; Boterman
& Gent, 2014; Parekh, 2014;
Shaw & Hagesman, 2015; Billingham,
2017). In addition, the existence of
newcomers that are highly educated
and from high-income groups leads
to social pressure on local people, and
it is this pressure that complicates the
processes of integration and adaptation
(Robinson, 1995; Fabula et al., 2017).
Table 1. Positive and negative effects of gentrification.
Gentrification intervention can also
change the functional characteristics
of the neighborhood and contribute
to the activity opportunities of citizens
(Freeman, 2005; Musterd & Ostendorf,
2005; Ernst & Doucet, 2014). On
the contrary sometimes these activity
opportunities which aim to attract future
gentrifiers, especially in the case
of commercial gentrification (Cocola-Gant,
2015), causes displacement
of the local shops or businesses even
before the residents and at some point
this change in the habitual environment
of the long term residents might
lead to the loss of sense of belonging.
For this reason new opportunities
should be planned in detail as they play
a crucial role in sustaining the balance
between social groups and also support
the soul of the neighborhood (Billig &
Churchman, 2003; Keels et al., 2013).
From the cultural perspective, Beauregard
(1986) classified cultural
needs and aesthetic values as the fundamental
demand forces behind the
gentrification process. In addition, Ley
(1996) highlighted the significance of
the relationship between the movement
of urban artists and gentrification
in the city core, and asserted that
artists are the pioneers of gentrification
(Lazarević et al., 2016). The creation of
a free social atmosphere and bohemian
lifestyle invites more artists and helps
to sustain the gentrification process
in a self-perpetuating system (Caulfield,
1994). Ley (2003) claimed that
the existence of the creative class that
contains people work in art-based jobs
or science-related industries (Florida,
2002), contributes to both the cultural
and economic capital of an existing
neighborhood (Mccarthy & Wang,
2015). However, this new creative class
threatens the local cultural identity
because as the existing community is
displaced by the newcomers, they take
their local values, traditions, and characteristic
behaviors away with them
(Tiesdell, Oc, & Heath, 2008).
In addition to the social and cultural
aspects of gentrification, the economy
is always one of its major driving forces,
and this is reflected in its potential
not only to increase property values
(Smith, 1979; 1996), but also to maximize
the value of living in urban core.
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
22
Smith (1979) argues that the process
of gentrification is more related to the
occurrence of capital than the return
of people to the central core of cities;
moreover, he also stated the contribution
of gentrification to reach the highest
value of the property. Therefore;
gentrification is considered to provide
a reliable path to economic recovery
because the physical investment
attracts high-income groups and increases
demand; thus, the market value
of the buildings and land increases
(Billig & Churchman, 2003; Bardaka
et al, 2018). The rise of investment and
demand from high-income groups
also attract private sector developers,
thereby increasing the number of projects
in the surrounding areas (Smith,
2001; Bishaw, 2014). In addition, and
as mentioned above, gentrification attracts
the cultural class and this class
develops cultural capital. This circular
situation causes the commodification
of culture and the consumption of art;
and whether the commodification is
positive or not, it makes an economic
contribution and increases economic
capital (Cameron & Coaffee, 2005;
Meltzer & Ghorbani, 2017) but also
consequently causes a social transformation
in the area. As a conclusion,
the most commonly mentioned positive
and negative effects of gentrification
in the literature are summarized
in (Table 1), and these effects can only
be restricted by concentrated efforts at
conservation (Sampaio, 2007). However,
Bandarin (1979) claimed that there
is no way to provide physical, economic,
and social conservation simultaneously.
Cities can be affected positively
only by systematic organization, an increase
in the participation capacity of
citizens, and detailed planning (Bandarin,
1979).
3. Case study: Akaretler row houses
restoration project
3.1. Location, history and physical
characteristics
Akaretler is a group of row houses at
what is now the intersection of the Şair
Nedim and Süleyman Seba streets in
the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul (Figure
2). This is one of the most characterful
districts within the city due to its central
location, historical heritage, local
Figure 2. Location of Akaretler row houses.
shops and markets, and the variety of
functions it offers. It is also a critical focal
point of the European side of Istanbul
with a significant potential for both
day and night usage, and until recently,
it has managed to preserve much of its
local atmosphere. Many different social
groups have been attracted to this area,
but a majority of its current residents
are middle-class families and university
students.
The Akaretler row houses are con-
Figure 3. Pervititch map (Source:http://www.tas-istanbul.com/
portfolio/portfolio-4/page/22/).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Ronael, G. D. Oruç
school, a center of the CHP political
party, and Turkey’s first mental health
hospital (Batur, Yücel, & Fersan, 1979).
In total, the row house group consists
of 66 parcels and 133 residential
units (Figure 3). The parcel sizes are
generally similar, and the plots are divided
by vertical lines. There are two
main building typologies and only
minor variations were applied during
their original design (Figure 4-5) (Akbayar,
1998).
23
Figure 4. Akaretler row houses type 1.
Figure 5. Akaretler row houses type 2.
sidered to be the first mass housing
project of the Ottoman Empire and are
accepted as Istanbul’s most continuous
and monumental example of attached
houses (Özsoydan, 2007; Batur, Yücel,
& Fersan, 1979).
The architect of the Akaretler project
was Sarkis Bey Balyan, and it was
undertaken on the orders of Sultan
Abdülaziz in January 1875. The houses
were originally intended for the
guards and workers of Dolmabahçe
Palace to use as lodgings, but some
were rented separately by people from
middle and low income groups. (Koçu,
1993). During the Republican period,
the ownership of the row houses was
transferred to the General Directorate
of Foundations, and their usage was
allocated for public institutions and organizations.
In addition to their original
purpose, the row houses have been
used as an officers’ residence, a district
post office, a police station, the Mimar
Sinan University campus, a primary
3.2. Akaretler row houses restoration
project
By the beginning of the 1980s,
Akaretler had been confronted by numerous
physical and social problems.
As a possible solution, the ministry of
culture and tourism planned the restoration
of the row houses (Milliyet
Newspaper, 1980). To further this aim,
the existing tenants were evicted by the
municipality and the speed of this process
caused a great deal of bad feeling
(Eğilmez, 1982).
In 1982, law no. 2634 was ratified.
This law was intended to encourage
tourism, and was the first step of a new
renovation project. According to this
law, the private sector could invest in
public properties under the auspices
of the regulations covering public
land allocation for tourism. In order
to initiate the Akaretler Row Houses
Restoration Project, Net Holding
signed a build-operate-and-transfer
contract with the General Directorate
of Foundations on October 15, 1987.
This contract stipulated that they follow
the rules set out by the Ministry of
Tourism. At the end of the build and
operation period, which was defined
as 49 years, the company was required
to transfer the buildings to the General
Directorate of Foundations.
Net Holding developed a proposal
which included the Atatürk Museum,
offices, an apart hotel, a hotel, stores,
and parking functions that all fell within
the scope of the Akaretler Development
Project. According to the proposal,
the project was to be carried out in
three stages, but construction did not
start until 1996 because of economic
and political problems. The long period
of inactivity between 1988 and 1996
was regularly in the news and was a
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
24
Figure 6. Development process of Akaretler.
subject of great debate. Sabah Newspaper
had a headline which stated, “History
is dying” for Akaretler in 1994.
According to the news article that followed,
the area had suffered physical
and social depression since it fell into
disuse (Sabah Newspaper, 1994). However,
after a construction license was
granted in 1996, the image of Akaretler
changed in the print media, as illustrated
by subsequent headlines such as:
“Heavenly Project for Akaretler” and
“Akaretler is Shining” (Radikal Newspaper,
1996; Sabah Newspaper, 1998).
The construction of the first and second
stages and the carpark unit were
completed between 1996 and 2002. In
2003, Garanti Bank Life Tourism Commerce
Inc. purchased the shares of the
Akaretler Project, and in 2005, Bilgili
Holding took control. Between 1987
and 2008, the project changed 13 times
because of changes that were made to
its requirements (Figure 6) (Sürmegöz,
2010). The new developer intended to
transform the area into a luxury-shopping
district and so the project included
a hotel, 55 residence units, and 34
shops when it was completed in 2008
(Figure 7). In 2009, the Akaretler Row
Houses Restoration Project won the
first place in the ULI Global Awards
of Excellence which included 39 projects
from 17 countries. The award was
mentioned in magazines and newspapers
and was used as an important advertising
tool.
Despite all the advertisements and
developments, the row houses did not
attract as much attention as expected.
Therefore, the land use policy of the
development company underwent a
radical change and the area entered a
transformation period to convert it
into an art and design district. Empty
shops were rented to art galleries and
design studios, and many cafes, restaurants,
and bars were opened. However,
after this process, and like the previous
stores, some of these restaurants and
art galleries shut down and the units
were again left empty. During this period,
Akaretler was reintroduced as an
investment opportunity that stood in
contrast to more instantly profitable
properties (Severöz, 2017). Currently,
the units previously used by shops
and boutiques have become branded
restaurants, cafes, bars, and art galleries
and still there are empty buildings
that remain for rent. The area hosts, except
from the new residents of the row
houses, mostly upper middle and upper
income residents and daily visitors
from Istanbul.
3.3. Effects of Akaretler row houses
project
In this study, both the negative and
positive impacts of the project on the
Figure 7. The latest proposal for Akaretler (Source: Bilgili Holding).
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25
neighborhood is evaluated according
to the perspective of local residents.
To understand how both non-gentrifier
residents and business owners,
who might also be the subject of
displacement in the future, interpretate
the impact of gentrification on
their neighborhood, semi structured
in-depth interviews were conducted
with 28 local people. The in-depth interviewing
method allows a primary
connection to the knowledge source
without the need for mediation and
creates a comfortable atmosphere in
which the participants are more likely
to reveal genuine feelings and opinions
(Showkat & Parveen, 2017). While 22
of the respondents were local residents
or business owners, there were also
2 academic urban planners, 2 urban
planning authorities from the Beşiktaş
municipality, and 2 real estate agents.
All of the interviewees were over 35
years old and were aware of the past
and present situations of the Akaretler
row houses and their surroundings.
The educational level of the research
group ranged from high school graduates
to holders of bachelor degrees and
Ph.Ds. The majority of the respondents
(60%) are self-employed with workplaces
located in the surrounding areas
of Akaretler. Information was obtained
in the summer and fall 2018 and each
interview lasted between 20-30 minutes.
In this study, the effects of the
Akaretler Row Houses Restoration
Project have been evaluated according
to their physical, economic, functional,
cultural, and social aspects.
3.3.1. Physical effects
The interviews made with the local
people shows that the majority support
the changes in the physical conditions
arising from the restoration project. All
the respondents have lived in the district
for more than 30 years, and when
they compare the before and after situation
of the row houses, they find the
restoration to have been successful
and are pleased with the new physical
environment. In addition, they asserted
that their own properties have
been positively affected by the project
in terms of better above ground facilities
and also improvements to underground
infrastructure such as the water
supply and sewage systems.
“The physical atmosphere is definitely
more impressive than the former condition.”
(Male, 65, Tradesmen)
“The row houses were changed from
unwanted wrecks to impressive elegant
buildings due to the project. Today, when
I walk on the street, I feel like I am in a
movie scene.” (Female, 45, Resident)
“Today, the whole environment is totally
unusual and immaculate. Also, the
Şair Nedim and Süleyman Saba streets
developed with the project and this state
has increased the attractiveness and value
of our properties.” (Male, 48, Tradesmen)
In addition to the local users, academicians
and authorities in the local
municipality claimed that the improvement
and renovation of the physical
pattern can be accepted as the most
successful part of project (Figure 8).
For these historically and architecturally
valuable buildings, the conserva-
Figure 8. Akaretler row houses before and after restoration (Source: Bilgili Holding).
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
26
tion and development approaches were
combined appropriately.
“The whole physical structure, both
above ground and underground, was
renovated. This new environment has
attracted users and investors, especially
big brands, and has increased the liveliness
and motion in the site.” (Female,
Urban Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)
“The balance between the conservation
and development approaches is
very successful and the restoration proposals
are highly suited to the historical
pattern.” (Female, 45, Resident, Urban
Planner-Academician)
Consequently, as Kennedy and
Leonard (2001) pointed out, a high
quality physical environment that provides
prestige for newcomers is one of
the authentic outcomes of the gentrification
process. In addition, according
to the interviews and observations
in this study, it can be stated that the
Akaretler Row Houses Restoration
Project improved the quality of the
physical structures while protecting
their historical and architectural value.
Although Sampaio (2002) emphasized
the physical segregation between the
inside and outside of a revitalization
project, the physical segregation of
Akaretler had always existed due to its
architectural value.
3.3.2. Economic effects
Together with the increase of commercial
activities such as services and
tourism in the project area, it can be argued
that an economic revival and improved
employment rates were created
in the neighborhood. After the revitalization
project, Akaretler became a new
focal point like the Taksim and Nişantaşı
neighborhoods. However, it could
not become as economically developed
as hoped, and the concept was changed
from that of a luxury shopping district
to that of a creative hub. Nevertheless,
the imposition of high rents continued
to decrease the demand for the buildings,
and so the real estate policies underwent
a further revision.
“After a few years from the completion
of the project, the demand for the row
houses started to decrease due to their
high rent and sale prices; moreover, even
the people from high-income groups did
Table 2. Land unit prices (in $) of Akaretler
based on revenue administration.
Table 3. Unit prices of Akaretler based on
revenue administration.
not prefer these buildings. Many brands
started to close their shops and these
were transformed into restaurants, coffee
shops, and bars. However, the real estate
firm of the project kept their prices
pegged for a long time.” (Yeşiltaş, Real
Estate Agent)
“… the big brands began to close their
branches because of the high rents…
Then, they planned to invite art studios
and revised their project visions
from finance to art; however, the prices
were not affordable, especially for artists
and small studios.” (Usluca, Real Estate
Agent)
In addition to the financial situation
of the project itself, its economic effect
can also be observed in the property
values of its immediate surroundings.
According to data from the reports of
the Revenue Administration (Table 2),
the dollar unit prices of land increased
between 2002 and 2014 along the Şair
Nedim and Süleyman Seba streets (Table
3). Especially after the completion
of the project in 2010, this progress has
continued to accelerate.
On the other hand, the project drew
the attention of the investors to the
neighborhood and a new large-scale
housing project was planned and completed
during the same period.
“When the restoration project was
completed, the demand for its surroundings
developed rapidly. Some large-scale
housing projects like Maçka Residence
were constructed. Due to the restoration
project and large-scale housing estates,
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27
the square meter unit prices of buildings
were at least doubled.” (Yeşiltaş, Real
Estate Agent)
“It can be clearly said that the restoration
project increased the economic
power of the district. It also affected
property values positively and became a
driving power behind the making of new
large-scale investments.” (Female, Urban
Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)
“The restoration project increased the
rents and prices in its surroundings. In
particular, students started to complain
about high rents because property owners
point to the project as a precedent.
This situation is the basis of the gentrification
concept.” (Female, 77, Resident,
Urban Planner-Academician)
Physical improvements increase
the market demand for an area and
increase the highest potential value of
the properties within it (Smith, 1979;
1996; Billig & Churchman, 2003). This
effect also spreads beyond the project
borders and produces similar results in
its surroundings (Smith, 2001). In the
case of the restoration of the Akaretler
row houses, the economic value and
activity caused by the project cannot
be ignored. The increased land values,
unit prices, and employment level, and
the overall economic revival in the area
can be accepted as positive economic
outcomes of the project especially from
the point of landowners. On the other
hand, serious financial issues arising
from the real estate policies surrounding
the project and affecting the tenants,
some of whom have been living in
the area for a long time, must be counted
as a major negative consequence.
This tendency might lead a residential
gentrification in the surrounding area
in the long run.
3.3.3. Functional effects
According to Batur (1979), and as
previously mentioned, the Akaretler
row houses have had many different
functions. The majority of local users
remembered these functions and
they emphasized their public nature.
They claimed that the row houses were
more open to public use before the
restoration, but today their commercial
functions as cafes, bars, and hotels
that appeal to mostly middle and upper-income
residents and visitors from
different parts of Istanbul limit user diversity
due to the financial constraints
of the local people.
“The community center where we
spent our free time was very important
for us. There was a coffeehouse in the
center where people used to met each
other and discuss daily issues. Also, there
were some sport activities like table tennis
for young people to spend their time.”
(Male, 54, Tradesmen)
“There were different functions like a
grocery store, shoemaker, ironmonger,
and other shops in the row houses. We
used them a lot, especially the community
center.” (Male, 65, Resident)
“The row houses were open to us, it
was free, today we have to pay money
to do something in there.” (Female, 40,
Resident)
“When the project opened to the public
in 2008, we were shocked because
of the big brands, expensive shops, and
restaurants. We knew that the restoration
would change many things; however,
we did not expect such radical
changes.” (Male, 50, Tradesmen)
After the completion of the project,
in order to attract the desired social
profile the type of functions totally
changed (Figure 9), so the local identity.
Today, some of the row houses have
residential functions, but the majority
are used by service industries such as
rented office spaces, art studios, restaurants,
bars, cafes, and a hotel. Although
local users complain about this change,
academicians and authorities support
this transformation and the new functions.
They emphasize the importance
of the row houses and claim that they
should be used for more suitable purposes.
“The project is in harmony with the
touristic aspect of Beşiktaş. There are
several different facilities and most of
them attract users from different areas.
The area also has strong connections
with the Nişantaşı, Taksim and Bosporus
neighborhoods. In short, it is a
very vivacious place in Beşiktaş and the
project has allowed this to be possible.”
(Female, Urban Planner for Beşiktaş
Municipality)
“The functional pattern of area totally
changed with the project. There is a
strong relationship between these new
functions and the surrounding areas.
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
28
Figure 9. Functional change of row houses (Source: Bilgili Holding).
The project has an integrated spatial
scenario in terms of its functional systems.”
(Female, 45, Resident, Urban
Planner-Academician)
In brief, it can be said that the project
has played an important role in
promoting new functions and supporting
mixed use. The functional change,
occurred in Akaretler, spread and continued
along Süleyman Saba and Şair
Nedim Streets. The number of coffee
shops, restaurants, hotels, art galleries,
and specific retail activities like organic
food market started to increase in these
streets. While this commercial transformation
contributes to the demanded
urban space quality by the newcomers,
the same urban space causes a
decrease in the life quality of especially
low income residents. Despite the difficulties
and concerns regarding public
access, these new functions have created
a new focal point in Beşiktaş and
increased interest in the area and its
close surroundings. They play a critical
role in sustaining the balance between
local users and newcomers, and as new
functions are planned, both the needs
of existing users and the expectations
of outsiders should be evaluated to
provide a sustainable social environment
(Billig & Churchman, 2003; Freeman,
2005).
3.3.4. Cultural effects
In terms of the cultural environment,
the first visible result is the
Ataturk museum which is open to the
public on weekdays. In addition, the
exhibition halls, design studios, and art
galleries which were converted from
retail stores after 2010 along with the
transformation of the district into a
venue to hold street festivals, celebrations,
and shows changed the cultural
pattern of the area. The new activities
which offer various consumption alternatives
and support the trendy life
style, made Akaretler more attractive
to especially high-income groups and
daily tourists. The interviewed academicians
evaluated these developments
as a contribution to the existing cultural
capital of the Beşiktaş district and to
the row houses:
“Beşiktaş has always had cultural
potential; therefore, the project does not
affect the area’s cultural perspective too
much. It just increased the type of users,
such as tourists, and supported a greater
variety.” (Female, 45, Resident, Urban
Planner-Academician)
“Cultural events increase the attraction
of the row houses… The row houses
have become a popular place with the
help of event advertisements in magazines.”
(Female, 77, Resident, Urban
Planner-Academician)
However, the majority of local users
asserted that events and festivals do not
match their expectations, and believe
that they should include more local
values or traditions. In addition, they
emphasized that there is not a sincere
atmosphere that would prompt them
to communicate with the newcomers,
especially tourists. Therefore, they generally
do not attend these organized
events.
“I have never been to the Ataturk
Museum, I do not even know if it is free
or not. A few days ago, there was an exhibition
but I do not know what exactly
it was. I saw the posters when I walked
by on the street.” (Male, 54, Tradesmen)
“The user profile totally changed after
the restoration project. Especially due to
the existence of the W Hotel, the number
of foreign tourists has increased. Also,
people from high-income groups have
started to come to Akaretler. But, I have
no communication with them.” (Male,
44, Resident)
“Many events have taken place there,
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29
but I never attend. I have no time or
money for them, I have to work.” (Male,
42, Tradesmen)
“At New Year, they arranged a celebration
party in the street. However, this
celebration led to traffic problems and
noise pollution. We complained to the
authorities, but we did not get a result.”
(Male, 55, Resident)
“How can I go to a shopping festival?
Everything is too expensive for
me. I prefer the neighborhood bazaar.
There should be more local and cheaper
events.” (Female, 40, Resident)
The restoration project transformed
the row houses to a place for cultural
events which in turn raised their popularity.
However, while these attractions
invite the desired new user profile, they
exclude local residents due to their
economic and social constraints. In response,
these residents demand cheaper
activities that contain both local and
traditional values.
3.3.5. Social effects
As mentioned above, there are some
positive physical, economic, functional,
and cultural effects of the Akaretler
Row Houses Restoration Project. However,
the social outcomes of the project
have proved to be the most wide-ranging.
All of the other effects of the project
have a direct connection with the
social environment, and they have lead
to some problematic changes and conflicts.
The first issue to result from the
project was the forced displacement of
the existing tenants, and this is a key
memory for many of the participants
in this study.
“Before the beginning of the construction,
I think in the 1980s, my relatives
and other people were removed and
transferred to other public housing in
Beşiktaş. People from the municipality
told them that the row houses will be
used for tourism. Because of their jobs,
my relatives were not affected too badly;
however, some of their neighbors had
some difficulties due to this sudden eviction.”
(Female, 48, Resident)
“Many stores in Akaretler closed before
the beginning of the construction.
Many people had to leave their homes.”
(Male, 50, Resident)
“My grandparents lived in the row
houses. They did not think that they
would be evicted by the government because
of the project. However, they suddenly
had to find a new house to move
to, and this process was very distressing.
There were many families like us…” (Female,
45, Resident, Urban Planner-Academician)
The second issue is the economic
disparity between users. Although the
project has provided a recovery in the
neighborhood economy, local people
could afford and use these row houses
before the restoration. Today, they
only appeal to incoming highincome
groups, and the high rents mean that
they are not affordable for local residents.
This condition is exemplified by
the huge gap between the unit prices of
Akaretler and those outside of the project
area.
“Rents were more affordable before
the restoration process. Now, the situation
is the total opposite. Rents start
from 10000$, and so living in Akaretler
is like a dream. Akaretler means money
for us. If you don’t have money to spend
there, you cannot use anything from
there.” (Male, 55, Tradesmen)
“I spent my childhood in the row
houses, and when I compare the past
and present situation, I accept the positive
physical effects of the restoration
that have increased the aesthetic value
of the environment. However, none of
the new functions appeal to us. At least
the name of the hotel could be Turkish.
I miss the neighborhood soul, the honest
grocery owner, and the entertaining
times in the coffee house.” (Male, 57,
Resident)
“When the construction started, I
read a news item that was like an advertisement
for the project. The headline of
the news was “Cooking onions or garlic
and eating kebabs is forbidden!” Just this
news gives an idea about the user profile
of the project.” (Male, 48, Resident)
The last issue was derived from the
functional and physical effects of the
project. Although the quality of the
physical environment has increased
and the projects have provided a new
type of mixed-use functions, these
opportunities appeal only to the predetermined
high and middle-high income
user groups. Local residents do
not prefer the new facilities due to their
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
30
high prices and they use the Akaretler
row houses as a shortcut. In the past,
the row houses had local shops and
public facilities and were more open
to public use. People could spend their
time without spending money, especially
in the community center.
“The row houses were more open to
public use and there were more proper
facilities and spaces for us. We could use
the school, community center, and other
commercial facilities like the grocery
store. Now, the row houses appeal to a
specific social profile, especially high-income
groups.” (Male, 54, Resident)
“None of these restaurants and upper-class
shops appeal to us. I hope they
will not spread to other parts of the Şair
Nedim and Süleyman Saba streets.”
(Male, 42, Tradesmen)
“We can only use the streets of the
Akaretler to walk through, they are the
only free things in there.” (Female, 47,
Resident)
“The multi-story parking garage
could be very beneficial for us because
of the parking problem in Beşiktaş; however,
the prices are so high. I have only
used it once and I cannot afford regular
use.” (Male, 55, Resident)
“The new functions and new users do
not affect my jobs positively. I never get a
job from the people living there. If there
is an electrical problem, they will not
hire me to fix it.” (Male, 65, Tradesmen)
Although academicians and authorities
in the municipality support
the opinions of the local residents and
identify this project as an example of
gentrification, they also claim that it
is successful because it increases the
quality of the physical and social environment,
promotes a better vision
of Beşiktaş, and also protects the deserved
architectural and historical significance
of the row houses.
“I think that the restoration project
is a successful example of gentrification.
The social environment changed
positively after the project... The other
functions have also changed the dominant
user profile that is, generally, white
collar workers. From the state officials of
foundations to high-income white collar
workers, that means gentrification.” (Female,
77, Resident, Urban Planner-Academician)
“The project invited a new social profile
that includes white collar workers,
artists, and international tourists....
Also, with the restoration, the property
prices in Süleyman Saba and Şair Nedim
streets increased rapidly. I can say
clearly that the project initiated the current
gentrification process in Akaretler,
and that the social consequences of the
project should be observed and studies
should be done in the future.” (Female,
Urban Planner for Beşiktaş Municipality)
Consequently, as seen in Table 4,
Akaretler Row Houses Restoration
Project has affected the economic,
physical, functional, social and cultural
environment both positively and negatively.
According to existing residents,
these changes have had a negative influence
especially on the social environment.
Some positive effects such
as the economic contribution of the
project do not affect local residents and
business owners directly; therefore,
there is an argument to be made that
the majority of the positive effects are
valid only within the site, and do not
apply to its surroundings.
As Shaw & Hagemans (2015) stated,
the displacement issue is an adverse
result of gentrification. In addition, as
the existing community is displaced
Table 4. Positive and negative effects of Akaretler project.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Ronael, G. D. Oruç
31
by newcomers, they leave with their
local values, traditions, and characteristic
behaviors (Tiesdell, Oc, & Heath,
2008). On the other hand, external
interventions often break the natural
harmony between social status and
complicate the integration process
(Robinson, 1995). In this context, the
interviews and observations show that
while the public accessibility of the row
houses decreased, the privatization of
the public spaces increased. Those responsible
for the project have not been
able to provide integration between the
social groups, and this has lead to segregation.
4. General evaluation and result
Gentrification is a physical, economic,
social and cultural phenomenon,
and commonly involves an invasion
“by more affluent users” (Hackworth,
2002) of a previous group’s area and the
replacement or displacement of many
of the original occupants (Kempen &
Weesep, 1994; Bondi, 1999; Bostic &
Martin, 2003). From the first wave to
the third wave of the process, gentrification
has been transformed from an
unexpected result of the transformation
process to a deliberately applied redevelopment
policy tool (Hyra, 2016).
In Istanbul, with the third wave, the
role of private firms and public-private
partnership increased and gentrification
became a legitimate redevelopment
policy (Çeker and Belge, 2015).
In this sense the Akaretler Row Houses
Restoration Project can be accepted as
an example of third wave gentrification
because of the roles of both the
state and private sectors. However,
even though it started with the aim of
conserving the existing pattern and the
revitalization of physical conditions, it
has lead to the gentrification of the area
and has brought some negative social
consequences.
In terms of the physical impact;
Akaratler Row Houses Project provided
tangible positive results such as a
higher environmental quality, the development
of amenities, and a better
aesthetic atmosphere. In addition, the
success of the project in terms of sustaining
a balance between preservation
and development is highlighted. However,
local residents remarked on the
physical disparities between the project
and the surrounding area, which is
in-line with the claims of Chirstafore &
Leguizamon (2018).
In functional terms, high-quality
mixed-use functions decreased the
public access to the site, despite the
fact that new proposals should be open
to all groups (Billig & Churchman,
2003). The changes in the physical and
functional environment increased the
demand for both the site itself and its
surrounding area and so increased
the value of land and buildings. Even
though the Akaretler Row Houses Restoration
Project has provided economic
recovery, after the project the area
transformed into a new focal point like
Taksim, Ortaköy, and Nişantaşı and
gained a new identity which is far from
its previous local identity. In addition,
local residents pointed out the lack of
affordability and the high prices of the
row houses. New economic conditions
bring new social profiles (Musterd and
Ostendorf, 2005) and these new social
groups, namely; white-collar workers,
apply social pressure to existing users,
leading to social segregation (Boterman
& Gent, 2014; Parekh, 2014). Although
the responding academicians
highlighted the existence of a positive
social profile in Akaretler, local respondents
dwelled on the economic
disparity between the groups, a lack
of social balance, and integration difficulties.
And also, some respondents
still remember the eviction of their
relatives from the row houses with a
degree of bitterness. The social integration
problems have also affected the
cultural consequences of the project.
In Akaretler, according to the academicians
and the municipal authority,
the new profile supports the cultural
value of the area, and the project has
transformed the row houses into an attractive
venue for cultural events. On
the other hand, the local respondents
indicated that they do not attend these
events, as they do not appeal to them
either socially or economically. In such
cases, the perceived lack of respect for
the local identity makes social integration
more difficult, even impossible as
indicated by Tiesdell and his colleagues
(2008).
Even though the Akaretler Row
Residents’ experiences of a gentrified neighborhood in Istanbul: The case of Akaretler row houses
32
Houses Restoration Project can be stated
as being successful physically, today
the district appeals only to the pre-determined
high-income groups it was
intended to attract, rather than offering
its services to all, and it would not
be incorrect to predict that this process
will spread to most of its surrounding
areas as already happened along the
Süleyman Seba and Şair Nedim Streets.
With an expansion of the effects of gentrification,
the negative impacts on the
neighborhood can only increase and
even these effects might lead to new
forms of gentrification in the district.
Urban transformation should be a
process that protects residents’ rights
and place memory, and which also ensures
their participation. It is the local
authority that can and should prevent
capital-oriented transformation, the
privatization of public spaces, the displacement
of local people during this
process, and the destruction of local
culture. As a result, there is a need for
clearer urban policies regarding the
protection of social and cultural patterns
while attempting to conserve or
repurpose architecturally valuable examples
of the physical structure.
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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Ronael, G. D. Oruç
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 37-47
Case issues and data on houses
in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı
registers
Hatice Gökçen ÖZKAYA
gokcenakgun@yahoo.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of
Architecture, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
Received: July 2018 • Final Acceptance: July 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.67044
Abstract
The Kadı registers, like many written sources of Ottoman record-keeping, are
important sources for historical research on Ottoman urban and housing history.
These records also include research potential in terms of taking into account
different cases together. The purpose of this article is to reveal this potential for
architects and architectural historians. To do this, for four different regions of
Istanbul – Istanbul (Suriçi), Eyüp, Galata and Usküdar – legal matters that arose
in four periods in the 17th century have been studied in detail. This study has
included many cases involving different housing issues, such as sales, mortgage
(rehin) or temporary sales of houses as collateral (bey bi’l vefa/bey bi’l istiğlal),
inheritance of property, tenancy of houses, granting ownership rights (hibe),
establishment of waqf (charitable) foundations and cost estimation of housing
repairs. In turn, discussions about the houses in different contexts that were
recorded in the courts during the 17th century have been revealed. Within the
scope of the article, these cases about the houses and the data obtained from
this material is introduced to researchers. In this way, a substructure is prepared
for new discussions, comparative reviews, analyses and research in the field of
housing during the Ottoman period in Istanbul.
Keywords
House, Istanbul, Kadı registers, Ottoman, 17th century.
38
1. Introduction
As in many cities in Ottoman regions,
due to the lack of the number of
houses dated before the 19th century,
“housing in the Ottoman period” is an
area that is full of unknowns and waiting
to be investigated in the capital city
of Istanbul. In order to eliminate gaps
in this area, Ottoman written documents
provide valuable data. This article
deals with cases in Istanbul Kadı 1
registers of the 17th century that exemplify
the houses of a large urban group
in Istanbul and the information about
the houses in these cases. The aim is to
introduce these cases, which provide
important information about the houses
and the city, to architectural history
researchers and to create a new route
for Ottoman housing research. This
study was established within the scope
of a research project supported by the
TUBITAK Career Development Program
and also provides information
about the material used by the project.
The material contains all kinds of
court records related to houses in Istanbul
in the Kadı registers of the 17th
century. Examined registers and the
number of cases about houses in them
are shown in Table 1.
These registers include transactions
on many issues, such as sales, mortgages
(rehin), inheritance of property,
tenancy of houses, granting of ownership
rights, establishment of waqf
foundations, and the estimated costs of
housing repairs. The number of cases
in Istanbul (Suriçi), Eyüp, Galata and
Usküdar involving these issues has
been evaluated and is shown in Figure
1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively.
According to these graphics, the
most frequently encountered cases are
sales transactions. The cases involving
this issue are in the percentage
segments that vary between 44%–
58% in the registers examined on
the basis of regions (Figure 5). In the
second order, the transactions where
the debtor is providing the house as
collateral for a loan are displayed.
These transactions include mortgage
(rehin) of houses and temporary sales
transactions called “Bey Bi’l vefa”
or “Bey Bi’l Istiğlal”. The ratio of the
number of cases on this issue varies
Table 1. Examined registers and number of cases related to houses.
Figure 1. Number of cases according to issues in Istanbul (Suriçi)
for four periods of the 17th century.
between 12%–24% (Figure 5). Other
case issues are generally below 10%
in the context of the number of cases.
These can be arranged in order as cases
about a portion of hereditary with the
houses divided among the inheritors,
cases related to the tenants such as
tenancy of houses, transferring tenant
rights, granting the residence permit,
cases related to granting ownership
rights of houses, cases related to the
establishment of waqf foundations and
cases related to the estimation of the
cost of repairing houses. In addition,
issues such as the so-called istibdal
(exchange of properties between
property owners -waqfs and people)
and other issues are negligible in terms
1
Kadı is a
Muslim judge
who interpreted
and administered
the religious law
of Islam and
settled civil cases
about sales of
the properties,
disputes between
the urban dwellers,
inheritance,
housing and Islamic
endowments, etc.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya
obtained from these cases. After the informative
section, the article puts forward
proposals as to how data from the
registers can be used for research about
urban texture and the architecture of
urban housing.
39
Figure 2. Number of cases according to issues in Eyub for four
periods of the 17th century.
Figure 3. Number of cases according to issues in Galata for four
periods of the 17th century.
2
Concerning
the studies about
the history of
Ottoman houses
using the cases of
sales transactions,
see Artan, 1989;
Faroqhi, 2009;
Gönenç, 2014;
Halaç, 2010.
3
For further
information on
these cases, please
see Günay, 2012,
p.15-24.
of both being very low in proportion
to the whole and the very limited
information to be obtained from them.
In addition, the data obtained from
the Kadı registers also vary according
to case issues. Figure 6, which shows
what kind of data can be accessed in
each case, will be enlightening in this
sense. These data will be explained in
detail with case issues.
Following the quantitative evaluation
of the cases and data, detailed
information will be given on the case
issues and the data groups that can be
2. Sales of houses
The most common case related to the
houses in the Kadı registers concerns
the sale of houses. On average, 44% of
the cases that could be examined about
the houses during the 17th century in
Istanbul (Suriçi), 58% of the cases in
Eyüp, 52% of the cases in Galata and
57% of the cases in Usküdar (Figure
5) concern property sales. The results
show that sales of houses between individuals
are the most common practice,
and that middle-class city-dwellers
frequently put their homes up for sale.
Also, these ratios show why sales transactions
in the court registers have been
frequently applied as data to be used in
research about Ottoman houses. 2
A house sale was a transaction taking
place with the approval of the buyer
and seller in the presence of the Kadı,
so detailed information about this process
and the houses subject to sale is
given in the registers. 3 First of all, since
sales transactions take place between
individuals, the case registers contain
the title and name of the old and new
owners of the houses. Thus, in the light
of this information, researchers can determine
the socioeconomic status, ethno-religious
background and gender
of the new and former owners. Also,
the location of the houses is indicated
with the name of the city and the information
about the quarter (mahalle),
as also are the names of the owners of
the properties surrounding the house.
Therefore, it is possible to find out
where residents recorded in the registers
live in the city. This allows one to
see the distribution of different urban
groups in the city. In addition, it is also
possible to get information about the
size and features of the houses being
sold. This allows us to access spatial
data of the house, such as the rooms,
open spaces, as cooking spaces, storage
areas, components related to hygiene
and some insight into how these
spaces are arranged in the house. The
other important data about the hous-
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers
40
es obtained from the sales registers are
the sales prices of the houses, namely
their financial value. As a result, all information
creates a rich database for us
to make evaluations about the housing
stock in Istanbul.
3. Mortgage (Rehin), temporary sales
(Bey Bi’l vefa and Bey Bi’l Istiğlal) of
houses
Following house sales in frequency
are transactions where a debtor provides
a house as collateral for a loan
(rehin) or a temporary sale (Bey Bi’l
vefa or Bey Bi’l Istiğlal). In other words,
different practices such as a kind of
mortgage or repo are among the most
common case issues related to homes. 4
On average, these issues affected 17%
of registered transactions in Istanbul,
23% in Eyüp, 12% in Galata, and 24%
in Usküdar (Figure 5).
It is worth explaining that these cases
have not been mentioned until now
in studies about Ottoman houses, but
they are thought to constitute a source
of material as rich as sales transactions
and create a new discussion route by
providing important and interesting
contributions to this area. Indeed,
these are the methods through which
Ottoman people used to try frequently
to borrow money. With these ways,
for a certain time until the debt is paid,
the properties are given as collateral to
the money lender or sold temporarily
to the lender, on condition that when
the debtor/old owner pays his debt,
he buys the property from the lender
again for the same price. 5 As a result
of the mortgage (rehin) of the properties
for a temporary period, the lender
does not gain any profit. The property
should only be taken as collateral and
the lender cannot utilize it if the real
owner of the property does not permit.
(Mesci, 2017) However, as a result of
the temporary sale of the house (bey
bi’l vefa), it is possible for the creditor/
lender to lay down conditions at the
beginning, he can use that property
during this period. 6
On the other hand, bey bi’l-istiğlal
is defined as a type of bey bi’l vefa in
which the borrower sells his home to
the lender and then rents his home
from that lender until he pays his
debt. 7 Thus, the borrower will be in
Figure 4. Number of cases according to issues in Usküdar for four
periods of the 17th century.
Figure 5. Percentage distribution of cases by issues for four regions
in the 17th century.
Figure 6. Distribution of types of data obtained from registers by
case issues.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya
4
Indeed, there
are researchers
who discuss the
similarity of these
processes with
repos. In his paper,
Turan explained in
detail the different
and similar aspects
of Bey Bi’l vefa to
repo. See Turan,
2015, p.127-128.
5
In Netîcetü’lfetâvâ
ve
Mecmûa-i Atâiyye,
the definition
of Bey bi’l-vefa
is explained as
“Bedelini geri
getirdiğimde bana
satman şartıyla
sana sattım,
diyerek yapılan
akde bey‘u’l-vefa
denir. (I sold it to
you on condition
that you sold it to
me when I paid
the price.)” This is
cited by Kaya from
these documents:
Dürrîzâde,
Mehmed Ârif
Efendi, Netîcetü’lfetâvâ,
trc. Seyyid
Hafız Mehmed el-
Gedûsî, Matbaa-i
Âmire, İstanbul
h. 1265, s. 496;
Atâullah Mehmed
Ef., Mecmûa-i
Atâiyye, müst. Ali
b. Yahya, yazma,
İstanbul h. 1140
(Süleymaniye,
Esad Ef. 920), vr.
132a. See Kaya,
2010, p.101.
6
Bey bi’l vefa
is discussed in
a wide range of
studies in the field
of Islamic law.
For more detailed
information about
these discussions
that are out of the
scope of the article,
see the following
resources: Yelek,
2016, p.109-119.
this case the tenant of his own house
and the creditor will benefit from the
rent of the house during the specified
period. If the debt is paid at the end of
this period, the house will return to its
first owner.
When examined in detail, it can
be seen that these three applications
–mortgage (rehin), bey bi’l vefa and
bey bi’l istiğlal- are derivatives of each
other. Gözübenli (1990) also makes
statements supporting this thought. He
states that, according to the Hanafi faqih,
the transaction which is expressed
as a temporary sale for a period of time
until the debt is paid, actually means
a mortgage. According to this, in all
three transactions, it can be said that
the debtor used his house as a pledge
until he was able to pay his debts to the
lender. On the other hand, in the context
of the benefits, there are differences
between them so that for the lender
bey bi’l istiğlal seems to be a much
more profitable practice. The rent value
of the house sold temporarily with
bey bi’l istiğlal is added to the debt at
the beginning. When the registers are
examined, it is obvious that this application
is more attractive for the creditors
compared to the mortgage (rehin)
and bey bi’l vefa because the amount of
rent, with a minimum rate of 10% on
average, is paid to the lender as a fixed
income during the term of the debt.
In the registers, quantitative results
among the applications also confirm
this situation. Bey bi’l istiğlal (81% of
the three methods) is the most preferred
method. In other words, the
temporary sale and renting of a house
to the borrower by the lender at once
is a frequently encountered situation in
the registers. 8
In addition, when the parties of
these transactions are examined, one
encounters some interesting findings.
The lenders who temporarily become
owner of the house in return for the
loan are generally either waqf foundations
or underage orphans. The reason
for them to get involved in these applications
is that the cash money is managed
and this means that these institutions
and orphans obtain income in
this way. These findings are consistent
with the findings of Kaya (2010) who
examines the accounting records. He
says that more than half of the waqfs in
Usküdar at the end of the 18th century
were using cash capital management
methods led by bey bi’l istiğlal and they
achieved the most income in these
ways. 9
In accordance with this information,
it can be understood why this material
with its rich content is interesting for
studies about Ottoman houses. First of
all, from these registers, we learn the
names and titles of persons/institutions
that are the money lenders (new
temporary house owner) and also the
original house owner who is the debtor
– and mostly the temporary tenant of
his house after the sale process. Indeed,
the original owner of the house generally
continues to live in the same house,
even as a tenant for a certain period of
time, especially for sales transactions
made through istiğlal. Therefore, if the
residents in the houses are to be examined,
this situation of the owner should
be taken into account.
Besides the borrower’s and lender’s
names, detailed information pointing
out the quality of the house is given
in the registers. Since there is a debt
in these applications, the quality of the
house provided as collateral for this
debt is important. For this reason, as
in the sales transactions, the houses
are described with their size, features,
components and location in the city.
Thus, these cases are useful for architectural
researchers to evaluate spatial
arrangements of Istanbul houses in the
17th century.
Another data group that can be reviewed
from these cases are the sales
prices and the rental prices of the houses
for istiğlal cases. However, the situation
for these loan cases are different
from straight sales transactions. Since
the house is sold temporarily as collateral
for the debt, it is advisable to have
doubts about whether the price of the
house given in the registers is the real
value or not. As a matter of fact, Mesci
(2017) explains this subject in his thesis.
He says that it is not necessary to
determine the real price of goods sold
by the way of bey bi’l vefa; goods can
be sold under or above the real value.
On the other hand, the real value of the
house is not expected to be less than
the owner’s debt. Therefore, it is useful
41
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers
42
to think that the sale price of the house
sold against the debt is more than the
debt, and that it may be worth close to
it. However, it is certain that the analysis
cannot be made on exact sale prices
as in the sales registers. The same situation
goes for the rental value of the
house, unfortunately.
As an example of this situation,
the sicil numbered 139 of the Rumeli
court provides remarkable information
about a case of bey bi’l istiğlal.
(Rumeli Court sicil no.139) A person
named Yorgi owed 160 esedi guruş
to a waqf foundation and pledged his
house against this debt to the foundation
through istiğlal. However, when
his debt could not be paid, the house
was put on sale at auction by the foundation.
During this sale, it was stated
that Yorgi’s debt was 216 guruş and the
sale price of the house was 250 guruş.
The difference and increase of 56 guruş
in the debt must be due to accumulated
rent. However; due to the lack of information
about the elapsed time, it is
impossible to find out the monthly or
annual value of the rent. But it seems
that the house was being sold over 90
guruş of debt through auction, indicating
that the prices in these applications
do not point to the real values of the
houses, as Mesci explained. Also, as we
have seen, it is reasonable to assume
that the real value is equal to or more
than the debt.
4. Inheritance / Portion of the
inheritance
Cases about inheritance of properties
also provide material for studies
of the Ottoman houses. However,
it should be noted that the number
of these cases is very limited because
registers related to the houses inherited
and shared between the inheritors
throughout the century are on average
9% of the registers in Istanbul, 3% of
the registers in Eyüp, 13% of the registers
in Galata and 4% of the registers in
Üsküdar (Figure 5).
Since the cases vary in terms of the
data available, it is necessary to evaluate
them in two groups. First, some of
the cases mainly involve a discussion
about how to equitably share the portions
of the house among the inheritors
and disagreements between the shareholders
about this subject. According
to the data obtained from this first
group, we can find information about
the property owners/tenants, location
of the house and the residents of neighboring
lands as well as sometimes the
size of the house. Second, other cases
are concerned with estate accounting
(tereke). In this group, the amount of
data obtained from the registers about
the estate accounting is very limited.
These registers provide only the data
on the location and the real value of
the house. Therefore; it is useful to take
into account that all these cases, which
do not have a large number of registers,
have limitations in terms of supplying
valuable information about the houses.
5. Tenancy (Tasarruf) of houses
On average, 12% in Istanbul, 4% in
Eyüp, 6% in Galata and 2% in Usküdar
(Figure 5) of the cases are about
the tenancy of the houses. Therefore,
these issues can be said to have a low
proportion of the cases. The transactions
related to tenancy are evaluated
in three groups: (1) renting houses, (2)
transferring dominium utile to another
tenant and (3) granting residence permits
in waqf houses.
In the first group of cases, the terms
and conditions of tenancy are very important
for understanding the practice.
For Ottomans, there were different
forms of tenancy 10 , but in this article
we stated only one form of it. That is
because the houses were usually rented
to tenants in the form of icareteyn
in these registers. In the form of this
tenancy, two separate rent moneys are
taken from the tenant, namely icare-i
muaccele and icare-i müeccele. Rented
houses are repaired with the first
payment called icare-i muaccele, while
houses rented for a long period of
time are paid for with the second rent
money called icare-i müeccele, which
is calculated on a daily, monthly or
yearly basis. In this form of tenancy,
the tenant may use the rented building
and land for almost a lifetime and may
leave the dominium utile to his or her
children as inheritance or transfer it to
someone else. So, when we look at the
data obtained from court records on
this issue, we will find additional useful
data other than the sales price of the
7
Kaya, cited the
definition of Bey
bi’l-istiglal from
Mecelle (MD.
118) as “Bayi‘ bir
malı istîcar etmek
üzere vefâen bey‘
etmektir.” See Kaya,
2010, p.101.
8
Kaya draws
attention to the
increase in the
use of the “bey bi’l
istiğlal” method
when comparing
between the
Kanuni’s period
and the 18th
century. Even if
the rate of this
increase was not
determined during
the period in which
it was examined,
one notices they
have a significant
percentage of
the transactions
recorded in the
register about the
houses. See Kaya,
2010.
9
Kaya states that
“Vakıfların, nakit
sermaye işletirken
doğrudan faiz alma
imkânları yoktur.
Vakıf mütevellileri
de diğer şahıs ve
kurumlar gibi
faiz yasağını
çiğnememek
üzere muamele-i
şer‘iye veya
bey‘ bi’l-istiğlâl
gibi yöntemlere
başvurmak
durumundadırlar.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya
(Foundations
do not have the
opportunity to
get direct interest
when operating
cash capital. Like
other people and
institutions, to
manage the cash
money, trustees
of the waqf
foundations apply
such methods as
muamele-i şer’iye
or bey bi’l-istiğlal
to prevent the
prohibition of
interest)” and
according to
the results of
his survey, “81
vakıftan 28 tanesi
sadece nakit
sermaye işleterek
gelir elde ederken
11 tanesi sadece
kira geliri elde
etmiştir. 42 vakıf
ise her iki tür
gelire de sahiptir.
Bu vakıfların
toplam geliri
yıllık 1.347.017
akçe olup bunun
905.663 akçesi
nakit sermaye
getirisi iken geri
kalan 441.354 akçe
kira gelirlerinin
toplamıdır. (28 of
the 81 foundations
were operating only
cash capital and 11
were operating only
rent income; 42 of
the foundations
had both types of
income. The total
income of these
foundations was
1.347.017 akçes,
while 905.663
akçes of it was
income of the
cash capital, the
remaining 441.354
was the total of
rental income)”.
See Kaya, 2010,
p.97.
house, such as the name and title of the
residents (i.e., tenants), the location of
the house in the city, spatial configuration
in the house and the rental price
(Figure 6).
The second issue encountered in the
records related to tenancy is transferring
dominium utile, which refers to
the right to use a property even though
not owning it. This transfer process,
called ferağ in Ottoman Turkish, had
to be actualized with the permission of
the property owner. The tenant could
transfer dominium utile of all or part
of the house to another person in exchange
for a rental transfer price with
approximately the same value as the
sales price. So, in these registers, as
in the sales transactions, ferağ value,
which is approximately the same value
as the sales price is a piece of information
important for understanding the
financial value of the house. The other
data obtained from these cases are also
the same as what is found in cases of
renting.
The third issue of this type concerns
the granting of residence permits in
the houses of waqf foundations to their
officers working there. Since these are
the houses that are allocated to the
foundation workers for free in return
for their services, there is no rental cost
involved. For this reason, in these registers,
we cannot get any information
about the financial value of the houses.
When the waqf foundation would give
residence permission in one of their
houses to a worker in return for his
services, the data entered in the registers
are the name and title of the worker,
the location of the house and also
information about the neighbors.
6. Granting ownership rights (Hibe)
of houses and establishment of waqf
foundations
The cases for the donation of houses
from one person to another or to a waqf
foundation provide similar quantitative
and qualitative data for the studies
of Ottoman houses. Of all cases investigated,
those involving hibe and waqf
establishment represented just 3% / 3%
in Istanbul, 3% / 3% in Eyup, 4% / 3%
in Galata and 4% / 3% in Usküdar (Figure
5), respectively. As can be seen, the
percentage of the cases in both matters
is very low.
In the context of the data obtained
from these cases, since there is no data
on sales or rental prices and also descriptions
of spaces in the house are
not included in some registers, the
number of cases of useful data will decrease
even further for the researcher
who wants to study Istanbul housing
history.
7. Cost estimation for repairing
houses
These are cases in which itemized
expenses spent for repairing houses
by examining on-site records are recorded.
This type holds a very limited
place among the cases of the houses
quantitively. On average, this subject
constitutes 3% in Istanbul, 2% in Eyüp,
2% in Galata, and 1% in Üsküdar (Figure
5) of all cases. On the other hand,
it should be noted that repair cases are
interesting in terms of presenting a different
group of data on housing studies.
These cases include clues about the expenditures
related to the construction
work and what is taken into account
in valuation of the houses. Because
the expenditures for the construction
materials and components used for repairing
the house are recorded one by
one, the data obtained on the construction
of a house is very valuable.
8. Potentials of data in Kadı registers
for research about architecture of
Ottoman houses and urban texture
in Istanbul
All these cases in the Kadı registers
exemplify many houses of a large urban
group, namely houses of different
socioeconomic and ethno-religious
classes, over a large area of Istanbul
(Suriçi) and Bilad-ı Selase regions
(Eyüb, Galata and Usküdar) in the 17th
century. To understand the registers’
area of exemplification and where the
mentioned houses are in a city plan, research
mapping the city quarters in the
17th century will be very useful. An Istanbul
map including four regions prepared
in accordance for this purpose
shows the extent of the research area
and the richness of the registers clearly
(Figure 7).
After the information about case
studies and in the light of this map-
43
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers
44
Figure 7. City map showing locations of houses in 17th century Kadı Registers.
ping, it is useful to review the data
groups shown in Figure 6 and evaluate
the potential of data for research about
the architecture of Ottoman houses
and urban texture in Istanbul. Indeed,
each group of data has the potential
to be evaluated in itself. On the other
hand, comparative reviews of different
data groups will be an interesting and
critical approach to open discussion
about housing and urban texture.
For a discussion of the potential of
these data, let us start with sale and
rental prices. The prices of houses in Istanbul
city and its regions and the trend
of the prices through the century give
clues to understanding the living and
housing conditions of urban-dwellers.
Examining the calculation of prices
and discussing the factors having an
impact on differentiation and changes
of them according to the regions
during the same period are important
facts to consider in terms of the land
appraisal and urban density. Discussion
can be made on comparative studies
according to the regions and also
the quarters (mahalle). Indeed, distinguishing
the impact of the land value
from the impact of the building itself
on the sales price is very difficult. But
it is possible to open a discussion by
comparing these data with the other
data groups. For instance, comparing
the prices of houses with the same
space components will give an idea
about their relative land appraisals. In
addition, high- and low-priced houses
in the city can be compared and evaluated
in terms of their residents and
locations in the city. In this way, how
the features of land such as area and
location in the city have a role in land
appraisal and the urban density of regions
and the houses located in them
can be interpreted.
In this respect, Yerasimos (2003)
assessed thirteen districts (nahiye) of
Istanbul in the 16th century based on
waqf houses in the Waqf Tahrir Registers.
He explains how different socioeconomic
groups of inhabitants are
distributed in these districts and also
how some of the spaces of houses are
differentiated according to the districts
based on the quantitative data.
And in the context of the 17th century,
the houses in the Kadı registers
can be studied with a similar approach
and quantitative method with the help
of a great quantity of data. It is possible
to study sale and rental prices of
houses showing their economic value
for understanding the range throughout
the century across the city. Or
urban-dwellers in Istanbul’s different
10
For more detailed
information about
tenancy and the
different forms of
it in the Ottoman
Empire, see
Beyaztaş, 2001.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya
45
regions can be evaluated according to
their socioeconomic or ethno-religious
identities through the information
about their name, title and (if available)
occupation. Both data groups have the
potential to be investigated and classified
by quantitative methods and be
assessed as groups according to these
classifications with their location in the
city. As a consequence of this study, the
distribution of groups of houses in the
city will provide information about urban
structural characteristics (homogeneous
or heterogeneous) of regions
and mahalles.
We should now mention the constraints
of the Kadı registers. Only
houses and mahalles subject to the
courts in that period were recorded in
these registers. Thus, it is impossible to
exemplify all of the houses in the city by
means of examination of one or more
registers. Nevertheless, they are sources
which give important information
and clues about the city and Ottoman
housing. In fact, all of the Ottoman
written sources have limited information
as well. However, by means of each
source we can see a small detail of the
big picture at every turn. So reproduction
and re-evaluation of the studies
based on different sources together will
be significant for understanding Istanbul
houses of the Ottoman Period and
to see the big picture.
After this explanation, continuing to
examine the data about the architectural
characteristics of the city’s houses
is meaningful. In almost all of the cases
in the registers, we find descriptions of
spaces in houses including information
about the number of floors, the different
named parts of the house and the
space components as in the following
examples:
“…tabaka-i ulyâsında bir bâb oda ve
tabaka-i vustâsında iki bâb oda ve dehliz
ve süflâsında bir matbah ve bir kiler
ve bir su kuyusu ve cüneyneyi müştemil
mülk menzil… [house having one room
on the upper floor, two rooms and vestibule
on the first floor and one kitchen,
one store-room, one water-well and
a small garden on the ground floor]”
(Bab Kadı Registers Sicil no. 46, 352)
or
“…muhavvata-i hâriciyesi beş fevkānî
ve üç tahtânî odaları ve matbah
ve ahûr ve tahta-pûş ve eşcâr-ı ve muhavvata-i
dâhiliyesi beş fevkānî ve üç
tahtânî oda ve matbah ve hamam ve
eşcâr-ı ve iki çeşmeyi müştemil… [hariciyye
having five rooms on the upper
floor, three rooms on the first floor and
kitchen, barn, tahtapuş, trees and dahiliyye
having five rooms on the upper
floor, three rooms on the first floor,
kitchen, hamam, trees and two fountains]”
(İstanbul Kadı Registers Sicil
no. 3, 287).
As seen in the examples, which
space components a house and its
floors were composed of are understood
clearly from these descriptions.
Therefore, these are significant data
waiting for discussion about the terminology
of household spaces, the interpretation
of spatial arrangements on
the basis of distribution of these areas
over the floors and the different house
sections, the structural characteristics
of dwellings, open / semi-open / closed
spatial relations and living and comfort
conditions in the house. On the other
hand, to draw a certain plan of a house
is not possible with this information,
because positions and relations of a
space with the others on the same floor
are not unambiguous and also forms,
sizes and proportions of the spaces are
not given and cannot be deduced from
the descriptions.
In addition, in much research ignoring
historicity, the spaces and
terms regarding them were defined as
they have not changed for centuries
and their meanings are always fixed.
Yet necessities and functions being in
the first place, all of the architectural
terms, elements and components have
been transformed continually. Şenyurt
(2018) has striking arguments about
terms used for some interior spaces
of Ottoman houses. She explains
the meanings of terms and examines
transformations of terms and also
spaces represented throughout the Ottoman
period extensively. For this extensive
research, she uses the archival
documents and literary works. In this
manner, it is possible to discuss the terminology
of Istanbul houses and their
interior spaces with the help of the information
obtained from the Kadı registers
as well.
In addition, the architectural diver-
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers
46
sity of the houses has been largely ignored
until now. However, in my opinion,
the spatial arrangements of houses
in the registers do not lend themselves
to typological classification. It is not
really meaningful to classify and generalize
them, if we want to understand
housing conditions in the city in all
their aspects. Similar to other Ottoman
written documents, the Kadı registers
have the potential to break the mold
about this subject containing numerous
examples of houses. Thus, it is possible
to investigate the examples individually.
On the other hand, not only taken
individually but also all together, the
houses present information about domestic
culture and the standards of the
houses. For this, quantitative analysis
can be made about space components.
Yerasimos (2003) and Tanyeli (2003)
investigated Istanbul houses in the 16th
century with this method and revealed
an Ottoman city of Istanbul contrary
to common belief. In a similar manner,
the Kadı registers give us the opportunity
to evaluate the living conditions in
the city with the help of the analysis of
the living spaces such as rooms, toilets,
bathrooms, kitchens, barns etc. and
put forward an idea about ordinary
and luxurious spaces and elements in
the houses. In addition, comparison
of the results of different periods and
different regions can be made for interpreting
changes and continuities about
the living and comfort conditions in
the houses. Analysis of the other data
groups are supportive of these evaluations.
Finally, the data about expenditures
for the construction materials and
components used for repairing houses
are also very interesting and valuable
for research about construction and
building materials of Ottoman houses.
With the help of these data, it is possible
to comprehend the use of building
materials and construction techniques
and to discuss Ottoman terminology
of these materials. Also, if the subject
is supported with the other archival
documents, the records in the Kadı
registers will become meaningful and
Ottoman housing construction will be
clarified.
9. Conclusion
In this article, in accordance with
the purpose, every case about the
houses in the court registers are examined,
not remaining limited by the
materials we have been accustomed
to use. That is because every case and
the data obtained from them is worth
mentioning. The introduction of this
material, which allows a wide urban
area to be seen from different angles
in the context of housing, will define a
very efficient area to open up new discussions.
The Kadı registers contain a
wide range of material with cases on
various issues. As a result, they provide
an opportunity to examine the houses
of different urban groups that show the
existence of a movement in the city exposed
through the purchase and sale of
houses. Moreover, the registers allow
researchers to study the houses of different
urban groups through the borrowing
of money from people or waqfs
by the way of a pledge or temporary
sale of their houses. Furthermore, we
can study the houses rented to a tenant
or transferred to another tenant, those
houses granted to someone else or a
waqf foundation or the houses inherited
and shared by the inheritors.
The potential employment of the
data obtained from these cases is discussed
in detail. In the light of these
data, the houses of ordinary city-dwellers
who have not been much involved
in research about Ottoman houses
can be re-examined and evaluated
in different contexts. We can now get
information about the distribution of
houses in different regions of the city
according to their financial values (sale
and rental price) and by their dwellers’
socioeconomic and ethno-religious
identities in the 17th century. Having
this information can help us start a
discussion about which factors most
differentiate the values of houses (location
in city or land appraisal, luxurious
spatial and construction elements
such as bathroom, water supplements
etc.), what kind of living and comfort
conditions the houses had and whether
these conditions had changed in the
city throughout the century. All these
research possibilities lie within reach
thanks to the help of the data obtained
from the Kadı registers.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. G. Özkaya
47
Acknowledgement
This research is funded by TU-
BITAK (The Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey),
National Young Researchers Career
Development Program (3501) under
the grant no: 115K537. The author
would like to thank TUBI-
TAK, support is greatly appreciated.
Archival documents
Istanbul Kadı Registers Sicil no. 3,
(TSMA) 213, (TSMA) 225, (TSMA)
246
Rumeli Kadı Registers Sicil No. 35,
80, 116, 139
Bab Kadı Registers Sicil No. 3, 46
Eyüb Kadı Registers Sicil No. 19, 49,
50, 74, 75, 97
Galata Kadı Registers Sicil No. 46,
48, 64, 65, 89, 90,136
Usküdar Kadı Registers Sicil No.
133, 205, 240, 241, 296
References
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a Theatre of Life: Profile of The Eighteenth
Century Bosphorus (Unpublished
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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Master’s Thesis). Sakarya University
Institute of Social Sciences Islamics
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Beyaztaş, M. (2001) İslam Hukukunda
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(Unpublished Master’s Thesis) Mardin
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Bileşenleri (1695-1902) (Unpublished
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Sicilleri Işığında Bey‘ Bi’l İstiğlâl
Akidleri, Unpublished Master’s Thesis,
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Şenyurt, O. (2018) Osmanlı’da Mimari
Mekan ve Yaşam Zamanın Mekanları
Mekanın Zamanları. İstanbul:
Doğu Kitabevi.
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Centuries. The Illuminated Table, The
Prosperous House, (ed. Suraiya Faroqhi,
Christoph K. Neumann). Würzburg:
Ergon-Verl., 301-316.
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Vefânın İslam Hukuku Açısından
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300.
Case issues and data on houses in the 17th century Istanbul Kadı registers
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 49-58
Comparative study and analysis
of two medieval baths in western
Algeria: Sabaghine bath in
Tlemcen and El Bali bath in
Nedroma
Imene SELKA OUSSADIT 1 , Chihab SELKA 2 , Mohammed Nabil OUISSI 3 ,
Olivier BOUET 4
1
imene.selka@gmail.com • Faculty of Technology, Department of Architecture,
Abu Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria
2
selka.chihab@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technology,
Abu Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria
3
ouissi_n@yahoo.fr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technology, Abu
Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria
4
olivier.bouet@evcau.archi.fr • National School of Architecture of Paris Val De
Seine, Paris, France
Received: April 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.47855
Abstract
The abundance of water and springs has always allowed the presence of quite
numerous baths in the ancient medinas. These public buildings have played a major
role in the daily lives of the inhabitants, and have continued to evolve to this day.
In this place the bathers carried out a hygiene of the body and the mind but also
allowed themselves, meetings and discussions between the different social classes.
Today, the modernization and degradation of the medinas, that of Tlemcen,
Nedroma or other cities, threaten this architectural element, whose traces must
be transmitted to future generations as a testimony to a civilization. Given its
multifunctionality, the hammam deserves a multiple dimensional reading. In this
article, we will present an inventory of two existing baths: the Nedroma one dating
from the 11th century, and the one of the dyers whose dating is unknown; before
moving on to a comparative study of their architectural and spatial characteristics.
Indeed, their comparative study allows us to answer a set of hypotheses relating to
their dating, but also to grasp the typology and architectural aspect in which they
are part: more modest baths, if we compare them with the monumental baths of
Turkey or the Middle East.
Keywords
Bath, Hammam, Nedroma, Tlemcen, Typology.
50
1. Introduction
The bath, Moorish bath or
hammam 1 , is this space where all social
classes, even all families, mix together
and today represents a legacy of the
collective baths inherited from the
Romans; hence their importance in
urban fabrics, in social life, but also in
economic life (Benaboud, 2005). Each
culture has created its own form, but the
bath culture in the Maghreb is an event
in which the purification of the body
remains the main element. In addition,
there are other secondary elements,
such as wedding and religious rituals,
health activities, and entertainment
activities (Karatosun and Tuba, 2017).
The bath is a concept that has evolved
over time and in socio-cultural
contexts; Resulting from the fusion of
Greek, Roman and Turkish traditions,
it has been established by researchers
and historians that it was the Greeks
and Romans who knew the first
public baths of antiquity (El Habashi,
2008). In their conception of cities,
the Romans gave great importance to
the thermal baths and excelled in its
interior and exterior decoration, using
the most noble materials and the most
advanced techniques (Dumreicher and
Kolb, 2008).
With the arrival of the Umayyads
to authority and Damascus as its capital,
bathing quickly became part of
the customs of the inhabitants of the
Middle East, and quickly found its
place among Muslims. In Al Andalus,
it is the Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman
Iér, who contributes to the development
of the bath, and thus gives
it all its architectural splendour (Pauty,
1933); and on the other side of the
Mediterranean, it is thanks to the contributions
of Andalusian art and Marinid
architecture that it has acquired its
Maghreb form (Carlier, 2000). According
to André Raymond, the attendance
or absence of baths would constitute a
significant element in the spatial distinction
of the city’s neighbourhoods
and its importance; for him, the most
beautiful and remarkable baths were
located near the centre (Raymond,
1985). The bath was also found either
near the mosque, and within the religious
complex itself, or near important
water sources (Benaboud, 2005). Each
ancient medina has a large number
of baths; there are 60 baths in Algiers
according to D. Haëdo, 57 in Damascus,
just over a hundred in the Iberian
Peninsula in the 10th century (Castano
Blazquez and Jimenez Castiillo, 2004).
From the East to the West and Hispania,
the public bath with its hygienic, entertaining
and social functions was an
integral part of the inhabitants’ mores.
Today in Algeria, and despite the
importance given to historical monuments
and heritage, they remain buildings
little studied by researchers and
scientists. Some Algerian baths have
been studied in the context of archaeological
excavations or censuses during
the colonial period; as is the case
of Agadir bath (Bel, 1913), Sabaghine
bath in Tlemcen (Marçais and al,
1903), or the Qalaa of the Beni Hammad,
but there are probably still some
in other cities of the country that remain
unknown to researchers. On the
other hand, studies on baths in Algiers
during the Ottoman period were carried
out by the architect and Dr. Nabila
Cherif Seffadj, a study published in his
magister and doctoral thesis (See The
baths of Algiers during the Ottoman
period. History, topography and urban
study, Doctoral thesis, 2005).
2. General presentation of the site
and the two baths
2.1. The site
The two baths studied are located in
the wilaya of Tlemcen, in northwestern
Algeria. The latter consists of 20
daïras, including Tlemcen in the centre,
and Nedroma in the northwest of
the wilaya.
The former medina of Tlemcen, to
which Sabaghine bath belongs, is one
of the oldest historic cities in the country,
it alone contains a heritagea of inestimable
value and has qualities specific
to the urban structure and architecture
of Muslim cities (Ghomari, 2007).
As for the old medina of Nedroma,
which includes the El Bali bath, the city
is located at the foot of Mount Fillaoucene,
on an ancient Berber city. (Sari,
1968).
Al Bekri first gave it this name in
1068, and there were never any remains
or inscriptions found that could attest
to the Roman presence in the city, so
1
Ibn mandur in
his book gives the
following definition
of the term,
Hammam: word
of Arabic origin,
singular male name
of hammamat,
derived from the
root hamim which
means hot water.
Hamim also means
“Sweat”.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet
51
he described the city as « at the foot of
a great mountain, the Fillaoussène. To
the north and west of the city lie fertile
plains and cultivated fields. It is ten
miles from the sea; it is a considerable
city surrounded by walls and having a
river bordered by gardens that produce
all kinds of fruit ». Another description
of Nedroma is provided by Al-Idrissi,
around 1164 (559 H): « Nedroma, a
considerable city, well populated, surrounded
by walls, provided with markets
and located on a hill at mid-shore....
Fields sown and watered by a river depend
on it. On the eastern side of the
hill, there are gardens, orchards, houses
and water in abundance » (Grandguillaume,
1976).
The city still has a site of inestimable
historical and heritage value and
a strategic position. It contains a set
of historical and cultural values that
have contributed to the creation of an
identity specific to the region, it is easy
to see that without being equal to the
great metropolises such as Fez, Kairouan,
Constantine or even Tlemcen
- its neighbour and rival - Nedroma is
part of the medina family (Khattabi,
2017).
2.2. The two baths
Sabaghine bath:
Located in the northeast part of the
medina of Tlemcen, and with a total
surface area of 572m², the Sabaghine
bath owes its name to the dyers’
alley where it is located. It was also
nicknamed the Sidi Bel Hacen bath
in memory of the pious Ahmed Bel
Hacen El Ghomari who honoured the
place with his frequent visits (Marçais,
1911). It is the most quoted bath in the
works concerning the city of Tlemcen,
probably due to its history and architecture.
In 2010, the bath was restored as
part of the “Tlemcen Capital of Islamic
Culture 2011” project; work began on
the shoring of the floors, arches, domes
and stairs, as well as the stripping of the
various plasters. The work is now at a
standstill.
The bath is surrounded by dwellings
and is difficult to distinguish from the
outside except by the treatment of its
entrance.
El Bali bath:
Also known as the El Mourabitine
bath (Almoravid bath), it is located in
the heart of the old medina of Nedroma,
in the place called Tarbi’aa and is
considered as one of the oldest baths in
Algeria, hence its name of old bath.
The bath, unlike Sabaghine bath, has
been a national monument since 1912
and was restored in 2003. Still functional,
it is frequented daily by the inhabitants
of the district and the city of
Nedroma.
3. Comparative study of the two
baths
A comparative study of the two
monuments, based on an analytical
reading, is necessary to identify common
and similar points, but also points
that diverge spatially, conceptually
and architecturally. It also allows us to
highlight the typological characteristics,
if any, of the baths in the region.
The choice of common and divergent
points was identified and developed
on the basis of the methodology of architectural
analysis (Boudon, 1975),
as well as the work provided by Caroline
Fournier on the Al Andalus baths
(Fournier, 2016).
4. Historical background
First, it is important to review the
chronology of the two baths. For both
baths there is no official document attesting
to their date of construction.
Sabaghine bath, was linked to the Almoravid
period according to Georges
Marçais; in effect, it is difficult to date
the construction of the bath, no historical
document exists on this subject.
However, it can be linked to the first
period of the 11th century (Marçais W
and al, 1903), on the basis of its architectural
style and its similarity to other
baths preserved in Spain or Sicily.
The El Bali bath, an annex to the
Great Almoravid Mosque of Nedroma,
was built to allow the faithful to practice
their ablutions, hence its dating by
researchers to the Almoravid period
(1095-1147) (Merouane, 2005).
5. The situation
It is clear that the location of the two
baths remains dictated and defined
by their functions and importance, as
Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western Algeria: Sabaghine bath in
Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma
52
not only a major site and key element
within cities but also as a place of social
exchange, gathering and spiritual
purification for the inhabitants of the
districts (Raftan and Radoine, 2008).
Sabaghine bath is located in the heart
of the medina of Tlemcen, in the heart
of the old Tagrart district founded in
the 11th century by the Almoravids.
El Bali bath, is also located in the
heart of the former medina of Nedroma,
but unlike Sabaghine bath, it has
an entrance visible from the outside,
despite the lower level of its access
compared to street level.
6. The architectural character
6.1. Spatial organisation
The bath has a number of rooms
with a specific purpose and organization:
Their arrangement ultimately
consists in harnessing the heat, so that
there is a gradual graduation of heat
between the different spaces. Generally,
the bath space is organized according
to the multiple needs of the user, ranging
from the purification of body and
mind, to the commutative or meeting
space. It is therefore divided according
to these needs into three distinct parts:
-the intermediate room or bayt alwastani:
used to rest the swimmer
during his bath, and for the various
massages and treatments provided to
the body.
-the hot, warm room or bayt alsakhun:
space used as a steam bath,
equipped with cold and hot water basins.
-the cold room or bayt al-barid, or
rest rooms.
-additional rooms are provided in
addition to this basic layout, such as
toilets or warehouses (Cherif Seffadj,
2009).
Architecturally and in terms of
space organisation, the two baths are
similar: both contain three large spaces
and are arranged around a central
space of quadrangular shape: in the
past, it was the most important part
of the bath: the intermediate or tepid
space 2 (El Habashi, 2008). The latter is
ordered around a central space decorated
with a water jet, surmounted by a
vault and surrounded by lateral galleries;
the intermediate space is delimited
by a series of arches and columns. At
Figure 1. Ground floor plan of El Bali bath.
the level of the two baths the intermediate
space is no longer and has been
converted into a cold room and therefore
the transition from the cold room
to the hot room is done instantly. On
the other hand, for Sabaghine bath, a
small space was built between the two
rooms to serve as a new tepid room.
The spatial design of the two baths
remains the same, however, and reflects
a unique, centralised mode of operation
and articulation, and therefore
does not present an in-line sequence of
parts. This is what we notice in the El
Bali bath, where the intermediate space
(currently the cold room) is located in
the centre of the bath and occupies a
little more than half of the total bath
area. The bath has not been modified
except for the transfer of a few spaces
and the addition of sanitary facilities
at the entrance. Nevertheless, we notice
the addition of the cold room with
the changing rooms due to the reduced
surface area of the bath. Also, two water
basins for the bath supply are located
in the north-eastern part of the
building.
In the case of Sabaghine, a comparison
between an old bath reading published
in 1900 by Marçais, and the current
form of the latter was necessary,
in order to highlight the changes it has
undergone. In the book on “The Arab
Monuments of Tlemcen”, the authors
give a detailed description of the bath
and already point out at that time that
it had undergone transformations and
additions to its spaces.
According to William Marçais’ de-
2
In almost all the
well-preserved
baths, where
the organisation
of the spaces is
centralised, it
is around the
intermediate
room that the
other spaces are
articulated.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet
53
Figure 2. Ground floor plan of Sabaghine bath
established based on that of Marçais in 1900.
Figure 3. Current ground floor plan of the bath.
Figure 4. Hypothetical plan of the bath
previously.
scription; from vestibule A, a vaulted
room, where a part has been dedicated
to the installation of latrines (L), a
square space B with 5 m sides is accessed,
the frigidarium. A dome resting
on twelve monolithic limestone
columns with a water jet in its center
tops this space, surrounded by four
galleries. The part surrounding the
central space was raised and provided
with benches for bathers to rest, at the
time placed on the ground. From the
galleries of this central space, access is
given to ancillary rooms that are also
used for bathers’ rest.
A door on the left of the cold room
opens directly onto the hot room, the
antique caldarium, and isolates the
temperature of the oven from the rest
room. Oven C, divided into 3 parts of
unequal dimensions; the first largest
C, contains a hot water tank and distributes
for this purpose the steam and
humidity necessary for this space. The
other two parts limited by stone columns
are symmetrical; part C’ has a
fairly deep cabinet, and finally the third
part C’’ is half occupied on one side of
the cold water tank and on the other
side of a space for massage.
The other rooms present, were used
either as a rest area or as a storage area
for the bath. However, Marçais points
out the absence of the intermediate
room or tepid room. According to
him, it was probably located at the location
of room D. The space G, at the entrance
to the bath and adjoining room
F, served as a fuel storage space for the
bath [Figure 2]. Today the bath seems
to have been mutilated with different
arrangements from its original layout;
however, it is worth noting either the
addition of new parts such as the two
mezzanines (in the entrance hall and
gallery 4), or the separation of rooms
by brick walls or wooden partitions,
or the drilling of skylights in the vaults
and domes. A part has also been designed
to act as an intermediate room
between the cold room and the hot
room, a space that is missing from the
plan made by Marçais. The toilets are
no longer at the entrance of the bath
but have been moved to another space.
For the hot room, the location of the
cold and hot water pool has been modified.
To this end, the following figures
Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western Algeria: Sabaghine bath in
Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma
54
show all the modifications compared
to the initial plan drawn up by Marçais
in 1900 [Figures 3].
At the Sabaghine bath, the absence
of the cold room or changing rooms
is highlighted: have the spaces been
merged into a single space or has the
changing room area been demolished?
Figure 4 shows a hypothetical plan of
the bath previously [Figures 4].
For the surface area of the two baths:
the total surface area of El Bali bath is
244m², almost half that of Sabaghine
bath which is 572m², this difference in
surface area is reflected in the relative
proportions of the different rooms:
Most of the difference in surface
area between the two baths is found in
the cold room (ex intermediate room)
as well as in the hot room; that of El
Bali bath is almost half that of Sabaghine
bath for both spaces [Table1].
6.2. Architectural components
The vertical elements:
The columns
In the dyers’ bath, the former intermediate
chamber or bayt al-wastani
is the centre of the composition. The
arches, which rest on the eight monolithic
columns, form the octagon and
support the dome. As for the other
four corner columns, which each have
two arches, they form the square of the
central space and replace the octagonal
plane of the dome. The bath has two
other columns at the level of the warm
room in a square shape with no decoration,
and two others in niches. Apart
from the columns of the hot room,
the other 12 columns are identical in
shape, size, shaft, and capital. The columns
are without base, with a cylindrical
barrel without fluting, and a square
capital inspired by the Corinthian order
[Figure 5].
El Bali bath has 4 columns at the
level of the former bayt al-wastani that
support the dome in the center and 2
columns in the entrance hall. All the
columns of the bath are identical and
have, like those of Sabaghine bath, a
cylindrical barrel without fluting, but
they contain a base, with a square capital
and without volute or decoration.
It also includes 4 other engaged pilasters
in the walls at the level of the warm
room in a square shape and without
Table 1. Surface comparison of the spaces of the two baths
(Authors).
Figure 5. Identification of the columns at the Sabaghine bath.
Figure 6. Identification of the columns at the El Bali bath.
ornamentation [Figure 6]. The columns
are made of stone in both baths,
and are not only decorative elements
but also represent internal supports for
the structure of the building. As for the
capital, it is an essential element in the
column because it allows the thrust of
the vaults and arches to be distributed.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet
3
Examples include
the 10th century
Umayyad Alcazar
bath in Córdoba,
or the 11th century
Villardompardo
bath in Jaen.
4
Small openings
in the vaulted bath
roofs for natural
light to pass
through.
The walls
Traditionally, building materials are
sought and transported close to the
building site, including soil, sand or
stone. In both baths, the load-bearing
walls are 1m thick and have been made
with rammed earth or pisé or tabiya.
This technique is very common for
this type of building; it is a very solid,
hard, compact material that is resistant
to strong thermal changes (Chennaoui,
2009).
The thickness allows to insulate the
spaces and to avoid heat losses, especially
in the hot room. One or two coats
of lime plaster will strengthen the waterproofing
of the parts. The pointing
mortar is generally thick and consists
of soil and lime. For the recent separations
at the two baths, they were made
with hollow brick, but solid brick was
used at the furnak level.
The horizontal elements:
Arcs and arcades
The arches are elements that are
part of the building’s structure but also
decorative elements; there are eight
horseshoe arches protruding beyond
the octagon that forms the dome of
Hammam Sebaghine’s cold room, and
three others at the entrance vestibule
of El Bali bath. On the other hand, it
is the semicircular arch that dominates
the spaces of El Bali bath and there
are twelve of them in the cold room.
The horseshoe arch made of brick is
very common among Muslims, and is
mainly chosen in bath galleries with
large changing rooms or a large intermediate
room, it is found in the majority
of Al Andalus baths dating from the
10th to 11th centuries. 3
In terms of the framing of the interior
doors, the lowered semicircular arch
dominates; and in terms of the exterior
door, the horseshoe arch for El Bali
bath and the semicircular arch for Sabaghine
bath.
Roofing: Vaults and domes
The two baths are enhanced at the
level of the former warm room by a
dome supported by columns in the centre,
and by a set of barrel vaults around
it. The central space of Sabaghine bath
is more masterful and larger than that
of El Bali bath, and is therefore decorated
with an octagonal fluted dome
of sixteen arches or panels, with three
lateral openings for the passage of light
[Figure 7]. The dome is used to cover
the alcoves and the central space of the
intermediate room with a square plan.
Examples of half-timbered domes have
been found in Gracia Jofre’s baths in
Seville and in Gibraltar in the intermediate
rooms.
The one of El Bali bath is a dome on
trunks adorned with ten m’dhaouis 4 ,
and undecorated [Figure 8]. The passage
of natural light through the rest of
the baths was done through the circular
m’dhaouis at the level of the barrel
vaults which covered all the remaining
55
Figure 7. View of the Sabaghine bath dome
from the cold room.
Figure 8. View of the dome that adorns the
centre of the El Bali bath.
Comparative study and analysis of two medieval baths in western Algeria: Sabaghine bath in
Tlemcen and El Bali bath in Nedroma
56
spaces (hot and cold room). Cradle
vaults are the most commonly used in
the baths of Al Andalus, as well as in the
Maghreb, they are particularly adapted
to the circulation of heat (Azuar ruiz,
2005). Made of brick, from the outside
the domes are covered with a layer of
plaster with no trace of tile roofing.
The terrace of El Bali bath consists
of a dome and seven barrel vaults that
can be distinguished from the outside
and are topped by 3 chimneys for the
evacuation of hot air. Unlike Hammam
Sabaghine, which is topped by a
dome and six barrel vaults, but also has
three fireplaces.
The barrel vaults that adorn the Sabaghine
bath are difficult to distinguish
from the outside because they are buried
under new illegal buildings (shops
and housing). These in column-beam
structure, have encroached on a large
part of the roof of the bath and cover
totally or partially several vaults by endangering
the stability of the latter. The
bath terrace was once used by dyers to
dry skins, wool and fabrics using an
outdoor staircase [Figure 9].
The hypocaust furnace system
The hypocaust is this underfloor
heating system, used since Roman
times in the thermal baths and maintained
in the Arab baths. The principle
of hypocaust is as follows: a powerful
chimney or oven directly adjacent to
the building produces hot air that circulates
under the floor of the rooms to
be heated raised by means of small piles
or low walls. Air also circulates behind
walls, as hypocaust rooms are almost
always equipped with heated walls held
in front of the walls by stones or, more
frequently, by terracotta dowels (Bazzana,
1999). In traditional baths the
oven or furnak is located behind the
hot room with independent access, it
allows to propel the hot air but also to
heat the water of the pool at the level
of the hot room; as it is the case in the
Sabaghine bath.
At the El Bali bath, the oven is located
under the hot room immediately,
near a space for storing wood for
combustion. From the viewpoint of
the smoke emanating from the space,
the walls are almost black. A smoke
exhaust duct of square cross-section
passes through the walls of the hot
Figure 9. Plan of the terrace of the Sabaghine bath.
room to exit at the level of the terrace
in the form of chimneys, a level of 2m
above the level of the terrace. In addition,
the space requires the most qualified
workers.
The ornamentation
There is a total absence of decoration
in the two baths; apart from the interest
in the dome of Sabaghine bath and
the capitals of the columns, the other
areas of the bath are characterised by
their simple design and execution.
7. Conclusion
The comparisons made in this study
provide information on the richness
and importance of each bath, both of
which are public baths built within cities
(medina). We discover that Sabaghine
bath, with its surface and interior
decoration reflected in its dome and
capitals, was probably more imposing
and important than El Bali bath. The
latter, annexed to the great Almoravid
mosque of Nedroma, did not enjoy the
same social and economic status as Sabaghine,
which was located in the heart
of the former medina of Tlemcen.
The spatial design of the two baths
is identical and therefore belongs to a
single family where the layout of the
different rooms is centralised; unlike
the Merinid baths of El Eubbed
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet
demonstrate that the management of
this type of monument is essential for
the safeguarding and enhancement of
our cultural capital, which will first
result in a national classification of Sabaghine
bath.
Further studies will allow us to develop
all the baths still existing in Tlemcen,
or to compare them with similar
baths in Spain, in order to highlight
similarities and differences.
57
5
In her book on
Al Andalus’ baths,
Caroline Fournier
links this type of
bath to Jaén’s 11th
century model. She
cites Naranjo and
Villardompardo as
similar examples.
Another bath,
located in Palma
de Mallorca,
has only its
intermediate room
with a centralized
layout.
6
Return to
the general
presentation part
of the bath.
Figure 10. Spatial organization diagram
common to both baths.
(Marçais G and al, 1903), Morocco
(Terrace, 1950), or other baths in Spain
dating from the 10th century, whose
shape and layout of the spaces is linear
or in a row (Fournier, 2016). The organization
of Sabaghine bath and El Bali
bath is based on the central quadrangular
room, which represents almost
half of the total bath area. To this end,
this mode of organization reflects a single
mode of operation, where the user
must follow an elbow circuit and where
his privacy is preserved. The rooms are
not placed in a row and therefore the
hot room is perpendicular to the one
before the intermediate room. There is
also a recessed space in the warm room
for the bathers’ intimate toilet in the
two baths [Figure 10].
For this purpose, we can therefore
link these two baths to the 11th century
baths already reported in Spain 5 .
And by the similarities observed, we
can link the construction of Sabaghine
bath to the 11th century, thus linking it
to the Almoravid dynasty present at the
same period in Tlemcen, and confirm
Marçais’ 6 hypothesis. The architectural
study of the two baths provides us, in
addition to information on the way in
which the spaces of this type of monument
function and are arranged, with a
new material support; which, in addition
to its historical richness and use,
represents a traditional architectural
unit that bears witness to the ingenuity
of mankind in the past. An ingenuity
that is reflected in the constructive
mode, but also in the design of the hypocaust,
mainly reserved for the hot
room equipped with two basins.
Through this study, we want to
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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • I. S. Oussadit, C. Selka, M. N. Ouissi, O. Bouet
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 59-70
Poiesis of objects: Theory of
making
Murat SÖNMEZ 1 , Beyza Nur BATI 2
1
msonmez@etu.edu.tr • Faculty of Architecture and Design, Department of
Architecture, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey
2
byznbati@gmail.com • Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture,
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey
Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: September 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.94547
Abstract
The aim of this study is to discuss the basic state of object production.
Essentially, objects exist as a result of the act of making. Making occurs through
the processes of cognition, conceptualization, and representation. Cognition
and conceptualization are dealt with the notion of noesis, which occurs on the
foundation of four concepts: the self, matter, form, and aim. A design is formed
by the cohesion of these four components. Some practical acts are required to
represent this design. However, these practical acts continue the conceptual state
of making because they require the knowledge of making. All stages that create
objects are developed depending on mental productions; this features the process
of poiesis. Poiesis is an act of creating objects simply as a product of our integrative
comprehensions. This study involves the redefinition of the concept of making in
the context of the intuitional, undefined, and unlimited states of poiesis.
Keywords
Artefact, Noesis, Production of objects, Techne, Conceptualization.
60
1. Introduction
Human beings perceive the world
and existence based on their natural
and created environments. Existence is
perceived within the unlimited world
of human thought with their matter
quality and occurrence form. While
humans attempt to express existence
verbally or through the act of making,
their theories and ideas fall short
if they do not contain the potential of
their conceptualization. Nowadays, it
can be said that, even if the abundance
of these expressions does not appear
any deficiency on the possibility or variety
of the occurrence of objects, the
production of an object is based on the
literal knowledge that is gained or produced
by people. As if all object meanings
and all methods of object creation
are discovered, object production is
repeated with this literal knowledge.
Therefore, it can be said that there is a
complex perception of object production
that is affected by literal knowledge.
This situation necessitates the
reconstruction of content of making to
evaluate all factors that constitute or affect
the design thinking of today.
The question of how human beings
produce objects without the widespread
transmission of knowledge and
artificial images can be explained by
the conceptual origins of mental and
practical actions, as well as the relationship
between meaning and content
of these concepts. Therefore, this study
can be considered as a research for the
concepts underlying the production of
the objects. With this research, it can
be reasoned about the starting point
of the idea of the conscious person to
produce the object and turning this
idea into action. Accordingly, inferences
can be drawn about the problem
that the object is the product of original
ideas and that the object is reproduced
in a creative way. This method
can allow the architect and designer to
use the concepts that define their professional
actions consciously.
Essentially, objects are created by
humans as a result of the process of
making. It can be said that everything,
except for natural objects, is created as
a result of the human act of making.
Since the impetus of every object’s creation
is to reveal something that does
not exist, the act of making requires a
reflection on a creature. Plato explains
this situation as follows: ‘Poiesis (to
make, to create), as you know, is complex
and manifold. And all creation or
passage of non-being into being is poiesis’
(Symposium and Phaedrus, 1993,
p. 28). Thus, human is in a position of
creator for each object one makes. The
position of creator for humans can be
related to the creation of a non-pre-existing
thing or abstract notions and
comprehensions.
The creation of comprehension can
be considered as the whole of intellectual
and practical acts. This can be understood
with the examination of the
concept of making. Making is a process
of comprehending the self, matter,
form, and aim first, and later, representing
these comprehensions into products.
This process defines an existential
gap between the human mind and the
physical world. Objects materialize in
this gap as a result of the interaction
between existence and environment.
Therefore, the expressive potential of
objects is the sum of comprehensions
between the mind and environment.
Taking the mind and the interpretive
methods of primal humans, which
have not yet been captured by artificial
imagery, as an example may enable us
to make more productive inquiries and
to understand how objects are made.
It can be said that primitive humans
could use the first quality of matter and
the utility function of matter, within
the first thought system, in which they
comprehend natural creations by examining
their semantic value. Using
this framework, this study develops a
fundamental query of the theory and
practice of creative acquisitions and
expressions, which displays the basic
methods of object creation. Thus,
sub-concepts and meanings that form
the content of the theory of making
can be defined. It is recommended that
these concepts and meanings also refer
to the current content of the concept
of making; because the subject, object
and the act of making remain fixed
even if the requirements, conditions
and methods change through time.
To discuss the basic state of object
production in this study, a concept of
making was adopted by trying to un-
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61
derstand how the state of consciousness
of human evolved to create something
in the historical process. In this
concept, a conceptual typesetting was
created, as concepts are the means of
seeing human capacity for object production,
and typesetting explains the
stages of making. Thus, enabling this
study to develop its method to clarify
these concepts by using the deep and
valuable content of philosophy for expressions
and approaches to making.
With this conceptual inventory, the
simple relationship between the object
and human being is presented to the
vision of making of today’s world. This
method is a micro theory experiment, a
scientific-inferential scenario that handles
a new typesetting to address the
design and production of humankind.
It can be claimed that understanding
the reality of making requires a review
of the layers of this scenario.
2. The process of making
Making is considered possible as a
result of consciousness. Questions of
how human cognition and consciousness
evolved, including bases, or how
and when object creation arose, have
long been complex issues. However, it
is safe to assume that humans first created
objects as a result of comprehending
their own existence—thinking,
watching, examining, influencing, and
even taking inspiration from human
existence.
It can be thought that human beings
are unique creatures in perceiving
matter and interacting with the environment.
The first step in perceiving
existence must be the sensation; as it
is inevitable that humans recognize
the environment with sight, hearing,
or other sensual abilities. However,
this knowledge must be explained to
oneself. At this point of awareness,
it could be said that the senses pass
through a perceptual filter and allow
one to re-establish the world in one’s
minds. This may actually be the first
interaction with the environment. The
reflection of environmental impacts
on consciousness as knowledge, highlights
the ability to think conceptually.
This ability helps to re-explain and reshape
everything humans sense in the
environment. It must be a justification
to call primitive humans who perform
conscious acts Homo habilis, because
conscious acts reveal the ability to
conceptualize and interpret. Thanks to
these new abilities, Homo habilis was
the first species to exhibit the capacity
for tool making and object production
(Haviland, Walrath, Prins, & McBride,
2011).
It would not be wrong to think that
a human who is aware of the self, environment,
and matter through consciousness
makes sense of these components,
interacts with them and
designs them for requirements. Humans
require objects; this is the first
incentive for reactions to the environment
and the development of capabilities
and products as a result of these
reactions. Humans begin activities of
production by developing new meanings
for the matter that they have begun
to understand. Humans who understand
these requirements are likely
to turn environmental impacts and
qualification to their favour, or reform
the matter to meet these objectives.
Products of cognitive behaviour
types and abilities were created approximately
two and half million years
ago by the invention of stone tools by
a group of diligent explorers. The first
stone tools known from regions in
Eastern Africa are simple sharp aggregates
(Tattersall, 2007). When Homo
heidelbergensis developed Acheulean
axes or Clactonien flagstones, they met
the needs of the mind which was intricately
achieved through cognition with
a type of stone. The hardness of stone
was sensed, and the sharp side was
honed to meet their needs, creating a
type of product. Making the stone device
is the best indirect reflection and
expression of cognitive capacity (Tattersall,
2007). Hence, examining these
first products illuminates one method
of understanding the possibilities of
the human mind and its capacity for
creation.
Humans’ advanced mental strength
and abilities can be considered to be
the basis for more complex social
and technologic developments that
encourage creative behavioural improvements.
Therefore, new types of
life, perception, and production are
developed. Humankind began devel-
Poiesis of objects: Theory of making
62
oping more detailed tools by learning
from the natural environment, as well
as sharing knowledge and experiences
with each other. Humans’ tools evolved
to include specially designed prongs,
knives, and scrapers (Faulkner, 2014).
Tool technology was developed as
production techniques were created,
transferred, and repeated; so this way
the technology by which cultural objects
used by communities were created.
The occurrence of every new object
can be considered as the construction
of a cognition state. In this study, it is
assumed that these states are developed
on the basis of four components as a
result of inferences made by primitive
humans: the self, matter, aim, and form.
It is asserted that all design processes
are made by understanding of these
four elements and establishing their
cohesion. These assumptions make it
possible to talk about the occurrence
processes by which constructions and
designs are created. In other words,
some practical acts are carried out in
the materialization of designs. These
practical acts require knowledge of
making. Therefore, the process of
making continues with its intellectual
content by situations related to
conceptualization. According to
Aristotle, the occurrence of an object
is referred to as “of the comingsto-be
and movements, one is called
‘thinking’ (noesis) and the other
‘making’ (poiesis); thinking is the one
that proceeds from the starting point
and the form, and making is the one
proceeding from the completing stage
of the thinking” (Metaphysics, 1985,
p.15). Since the practical acts of object
production deal with the results of
thinking and designing, the making
processes expressing the occurrence
of objects are concluded with the
matter formation of humankind’s
understanding. It can be said that this
process that occurs between thinking
and matter formation is also a creation
to Aristotle. In this context, making
defines the relationship between
the object founded by the mind
and the object’s matter of existence.
While Homo heidelbergensis created
Acheulean axes with the ability of
cognition and conceptualization,
the object that occurred is an
artefact as a way of representing this
conceptualization.
2.1. Noesis: Cognition and
conceptualization
Objects are the products of acts directed
by the mind and cognition. The
mind has an ability to simultaneously
know and think of existing objects (pathetikos
nous) and is the place of cognition
and conceptualization (poietikos
nous) (Aristotle, 1999). Cognition and
conceptualization of known objects
form the real aspect of the mind and
its effective-creative side. To discuss
the mind’s perception and process of
understanding as a single term, ‘noesis’
may be used, the Greek word for
intelligence or understanding. It is
derived from noein, meaning to perceive
or think, which in turn is derived
from nous—mind or intellect (Smith &
McIntyre, 1982). In this study, noesis
refers to both cognition and conceptualization,
including four aspects: the
self, matter, aim, and form. Noesis can
establish a relation among these four
states and provide integrity through
their unification.
Noesis of the Self: Making primarily
requires one’s cognition. In recognizing
the structure of the body, its
function and rules enables humans to
know themselves, because, after humans
understand the physical presence
of their bodies, they come to discover
the circumstances beyond their physical
presence are not included in the
mechanical position of the body and
are internally changing. Physically,
existence is not completely mechanic,
since the body can be separated into
two entities. One being ‘the external
body’, perceiving matters as a means of
senses and nerves, and the other ‘our
body’, discussed on the level of spirit
and cognition (Sartre, 2017). In this
analysis, humans can understand their
inner freedom, independence from
their environment and conditions, and
will. Thus, humans can direct their inner
experiences.
It could be thought that there is a
comprehension of ‘me’ within the cognition
that humans reveal for themselves.
This comprehension reveals
knowledge that is directly led by the
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63
mind. The entity referred to as mind
consists of knowledge within a human.
What Descartes calls the ‘real self ’ is
a non-spatial but thinkable substance
as well as a mental unit (Churchland,
2012). The mind causally interacts with
the body. For example, sensory activities
of the body cause visual, audial, or
tactual perceptions in the mind. The
comprehensions and decisions of the
mind cause the conscious behaviours
of the body. Therefore, the ‘body which
is an object for mobilising objects is an
acting centre; [without conceptualizations
of mind] a design cannot reproduce’
(Bergson, 1988). In other words,
the existence of an object is not a result
of physical activity, but a mental production.
Human beings, who comprehend or
design, collect all connections of the
universe in their minds. So, humans
must know themselves to understand
everything around them. All creatures
have a spirit which is ‘the natural shape
of [an] object having a substance and
life.’ However, the spirit is also the carrier
of mind (logos) that separates human
beings from other creatures (Aristotle,
1999). Therefore, spirit may be
considered to provide all actions for
humans including thinking, judgement,
and perception. This makes humans
creative creatures. When humans
explore their creativity, they find the
power to change and determine the
rules of universe. All the searching,
finding, and creation attempts carried
out by humans are results of this. Thus,
humans create their own existence
with conscious acts, differentiating
themselves from others in their environment.
This differentiation makes
humans a kind of creator by means of
a consciousness that broadens matter,
form, and requirements.
Noesis of Matter: The first knowledge
about creatures that was acquired by
humans is the one gained directly with
the senses. It is the simplest method by
which humans can recognize matter
and the environment. This is enough
to create some impressions of matter in
the mind. However, according to Plato,
such acquires of knowledge seemed to
be a sub-type for human beings. Plato
divided experiences of existence into
two categories: sensible and intelligible.
While sensible experiences include understanding
facts and objects in world,
intelligible experiences are mathematical
concepts and ideas (Cevizci, 2015).
The knowledge of ideas is the highest
form. Therefore, knowledge is natural
to the existence of humans alongside
ideas. Humans remember these
through understanding matter and developing
experiences.
In this context, humans exhibit a
more advanced ability to know than
the experiences gained from their senses.
According to Aristotle, creatures
have sensual abilities; however, while
some creatures interiorize these senses
by intercepting them ‘spiritually’, others
do not (Posterior Analytics, 1999).
Experiences are created when perception
is interiorised and repeated, allowing
humans to develop a knowledge of
existence. The mind must be created
here; because creatures that turn experiences
into knowledge, not by supposing
these as instinct and unconsciously
repeating them, but by shaping their
actions with this knowledge are clever.
Perhaps Aristotle’s view of ‘knowing’
is not beyond time and space unlike
Plato’s view. The ideas that exhibit the
highest type of knowledge are found
together with the matter and form.
However, senses yield the lowest type
of knowledge according to both Aristoteles
and Plato and for this reason,
knowing is discussed on the level of
consciousness. Knowing cannot be
observed without any intervention of
the mind. As a result, humans find the
reality they perceive in the matter and
reality they sense. When matter images
created in the mind are combined
with consciousness and the relations
between consciousness and matter are
established, the actions of the spirit are
encouraged. ‘The brain movements
caused by the external objects trigger
thinking in the spirit even if they do
not give place to the similarities’ (Sartre,
2017, p. 11).
In this context, there are two types
of knowledge that arouse humans’
creative stimuli. The first is the knowledge
of matter that belongs to instinctive
notions and is an automatic and
code-designated memory system. The
second is the knowledge of form that
belongs to mental notions and is an ef-
Poiesis of objects: Theory of making
64
fective-creative memory system (Bergson,
1988). The knowledge of matter is
a part of natural order, is in connection
with the environment, and is gained by
understanding the world. The knowledge
of form examines the data of nature
and rearranges matter to create
fact from new species (Malo, 1992).
Therefore, the understanding of creation
resulting from the relation and
cooperation between mind and matter
can be achieved. Matter that could not
be found by the mind itself is discovered
by the instincts. Since the instincts
do not have the ability to search and
know, they are nourished by the ability
of the mind. This cooperation can
be found in the Homo faber who creates
tools as a kind of semi-person that
overcomes nature incompletely (Gasset,
1941). The mental data required
for establishing life independently
from matter is created by establishing
knowledge about matter.
Noesis of Form: Humans begin to
understand, conceptualize, and interiorize
when they establish a relationship
between existence and new circumstances
for creation. The perception
and experiences of the environment
are described with images and notions
that are created in the mind. In the
pre-mind stage, we attempt to explain
the objects which are understood as
knowledge in the mind and created by
our perception devices in the recognition
and interpretation processes. It is
related to the conceptualization and the
ability to think abstractly. The ability to
think abstractly forms a phenomenon
that occurs in the mind before physical
actions are borne from the body. As
stated by Ditfurth:
Before delivering the purpose of
performing actions directly related to
the concrete, external object to a process
that is again realized by concreate
movements, …, an “interior space”
would have been created within the
consciousness of the subject, or rather
a “space of design”. Within such a designing
space, a certain action can be
“designed” in terms of all its possible
consequences, the subject then acts according
to it. (Bilinç Gökten Düşmedi;
Bilincimizin Evrimi, 2007, p. 501).
This internal designing space is the
place in which the senses are conceptualized.
Matters are discussed over the
notions where qualifications are uncertain,
and qualities are unlimited.
A discussion of physical existence
exceeds the scope of this paper, but different
forms of existence are discussed
because humans are creatures that design
the environment and themselves
within the environment. The condition
of being human substantiates our perception.
These substances are indirect
and pure advantages of understanding.
Therefore, they are the original
form of existence. For example, Sartre
discusses these substances as images
(Sartre, 2017). Images are in the mind
and are different from the objects we
sense. When images become objects,
they are not just in our mind anymore.
There is a process of creation that ensures
the transformation of matter into
images and images into objects with its
three steps, perception, imagination,
and objection. The ‘external body describes
the matters, it knows, in a part
of brain by means of senses and nerves
and makes an action in our body’ (Sartre,
2017). Through this action, images
come to existence. So, the images are
created at the stage in which physiology
and consciousness integrate. This
kind of interaction between matter and
mind indicate that form is designed in
the mind and is determined from the
matter. Therefore, the object is the occurrence
of form into matter. Our consciousness
which transfers the external
to internal and conceptualizes matter
for the internal, also regulates matter
from images to objects. In this arrangement,
making, the creation of objects,
always forms the actions of humans
and enables them to exist by arising
from the backstage (Plato, 1993). Making
takes the form of designs that are
envisioned by the mind. This situation
can be understood from qualification
of making by its forename, this way, the
making of a ‘thing’ can be mentioned.
As making gives pre-knowledge about
the object to be created, it also indicates
that the object has already been
designed in the mind.
Noesis of Aim: It can be considered
that the intellectual designs, new meanings,
and qualifications to be attributed
to matter are formed by requirements.
Matter is organized and formed to
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present creation in the simplest and
purest way to meet the requirements
in the best way. For example, the mind
conceptualizes the requirements of an
object, and creates a form to hold water
to meet the need for drinking, which is
instinctively known, by linking sensed
thought and impermeable matters with
this form. Thus, form and matter are
decided according to certain requirements.
The requirements can be understood
with the object’s purpose, as well.
Each object is created ‘due to a thing or
for a thing’ (Aristotle, 1961). Humans
provide the form to matter for certain
purposes. This matter-form-aim relation
could be examined by the four
causality principles of Aristotle:
1. Causa materialis: matter with
which an object will be created
2. Causa formalis: form which includes
matter, the shape of an object
3. Causa finalis: aim of the object,
the reason for which an object is created
4. Causa efficiens: the provision of
the object or, in this case, person who
makes the object (Heidegger, 2015).
In this sense, human thoughts regarding
creation can be considered to
be developed by forming matter with
respect to certain requirements.
In this study, the notion of making is
analysed as noesis and representation.
It is assumed that humans develop
cognition and conceptualization that
are considered with the term of noesis
through processes that include the self,
matter, form, and aim. In the context
of these four states; human interaction
with their body, environment, and
matter leads to constructive and transformative
speculations on matter in the
context of certain requirements. The
accumulation of sense and the process
of filtering it forms a ‘thing’ in the
mind with a substance-free integrity, as
all layers of interaction. The concrete
responses of the ‘thing’ created in the
mind are a kind of representation. Kim
Tanzer calls this representation ‘thingifying’
(Tanzer, 1992). Thingifying is
the theoretic meaning of idealization
and objectivation. In this sense, objects
are created in acknowledging findings
and forms that the mind develops with
a purpose. Therefore, in this study,
cognition and conceptualization refer
to the theory of making which is approached
with the construction of the
object in mind. The notion of representation
is suggested as a fundamental
notion in the materialization of an object,
design, and conception that exists
in the mind. Representation refers to
the meaning and content of an object’s
existence and knowledge for its materialization.
3. Representation
It can be said that even if object
production emphasizes the unlimited
concrete experiences within the process
of making, all designs are formed
through the cohesion of matter’s conceptualization,
form, and aim. In order
to express this design and make it used
and recognized, some practical actions
are required. However, it refers to a
production in mental content; knowledge
of making is necessary for these
practical actions to represent this design.
In other words, the practical side
of making is in the mental actions.
The mental content of the actions in
practice could be referred to as ‘techne’.
Techne is a type of cognition, as in,
objects are created from this form of
cognition (Heidegger, 2007). It provides
knowledge on how a notion is
revealed. In this sense, techne is a common
origin point in the mental content
of technical and technological terms
that deal with the answer to the same
question. It is thought that the origins
of technique and technological terms
contemporarily used are based on
the notion of techne used in Ancient
Greece (Ural, 2015). Technique can
be considered to be the knowledge of
making and is based on ability and experience.
Instead of knowledge based
on experience and inferences, the use
of scientific knowledge has begun,
which means that the practical acts of
making are carried out in the technological
field. It can be said that, in technology,
the practical aim is applying
the knowledge of making rather than
exploring it.
3.1. Technique
Knowledge of Making: Knowledge
of making can be referred to by technique.
Technique reveals the four noe-
Poiesis of objects: Theory of making
66
sis components (the self, matter, form,
and aim) (Heidegger, 2015). Technique
is the integrity of designs and the procedures
that help to have a specific result.
It is the tool for producing objects
in accordance with their fundamental
structure and conceptualized form. In
fact, for this reason, all possibilities of
the concrete experiences of making are
mentioned here. However, this form’s
representation indicates an action that
requires knowledge regarding the object.
Plato uses the term technique as
the same meaning of knowledge (episteme),
because representation already
has a certain knowledge. According
to him, objects have already been observed
as designs in the ideal world
before they are created. Therefore, the
realization of current potentiality is
technique. The knowledge kept secret
in the universe is developed by the effects
of humans, consciousness, and
aim; this is called realization (Plato,
2015). Similarly, Aristotle thinks that
the occurrence of an object is the process
of occurrence of form. This is the
indication of objects being created by a
certain knowledge. The practical action
of the entire making process is created
from knowledge or it creates knowledge,
which indicates that this section
can be referred to as the ‘knowledge
of making’. In other words, the knowledge
of making and technique are the
bases of all actions which turns designs
into objects. Therefore, all human actions
for making are related to mind, as
well as action.
3.2. Technology
Knowledge of Making for Practice:
‘Making’ does not refer to labour
as suggested by Marxian analyses of
Homo laborans, the worker. The circumstances
in which production refers
to labour are not related to the intellectual
conditions of object creation and
uniqueness. Therefore, the processes
and products of technology require
different discussions regarding object
creation. Due to technology being interested
in object creation process like
other practical sciences whose purposes
are actions, it requires a type of
information. Since technology uses
cumulative and developing knowledge
and scientific information, the act of
making involves concrete and physical
actions. Therefore, unlike technique,
technology does not resort to finding
new object-specific knowledge. However,
in the case of knowledge not dominating
the act of making, it becomes
a mediating component that does not
destroy the creative process of making.
The field of technology that causes
the means of production to change
suggests a model of production independent
from conceptualizations between
objects and their production
or new knowledge and humans. This
field detracts object production from
conceptualization, experiment, and
variety, while also destroying the relationship
between matter and form.
Objects are created only to meet certain
requirements. Franklin tackles this
concept, and refers to it as prescriptive
technology (The Real World of Technology,
1990). Prescriptive technology
causes the collapse of creativity in the
making process and standardizes objects.
The best example of this is the
factory production, which includes the
maker in only a small part of the making
process. On the other hand, holistic
technology, which is suggested by
Franklin, is associated with the kind of
making in which the maker is a creator.
Although the maker is in cooperation
with other disciplines, they are entirely
involved in the making process and
apply their own experiences to the process.
This reveals new content at every
turn in the object production.
As a result, it can be understood
that all processes that create objects
are performed intellectually. The object
first exists in the conceptualizations of
humans toward the self, matter, aim,
and form. The design of the object is
achieved with the cohesion of these
conceptions. Then, since the realization
of these concepts requires the knowledge
of making, the mental aspect of
making is sustained. The knowledge of
making is engaged to design. For this
reason, in this content, it can be said
that each object is a creation. The will
that occurs in all processes of making
turns into concrete things, a process
called poiesis.
4. Making as poiesis
The creative acts involved in the cre-
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67
ation of objects occur in the processes
of conceptualizing the holistic nature
of an object. The comprehension of
this integrity reveals the design of object.
Producing a design that did not
previously exist is a form of creation.
Therefore, the creation of objects is related
to poiesis. Poiesis is based on the
creation of non-pre-existing objects
and the transformation from privacy
to full-enlightenment (Heidegger,
2015). Poiesis is the process by which
humans reveal the conceptualizations
of the mind by affecting matter. It is a
representation of an abstract design by
processing and transforming matter.
Aristotle presents arts and crafts as examples
for poiesis, because they transform
matter into a different thing, from
its original state to specialized objects
for each of their purposes. The literal
meaning of arts and crafts is techne for
Aristotle (Kart, 2015). Techne can be
considered as a form of creation since
it involves the activities that consist
of the knowledge of objects and their
making.
It can be claimed that objects are created
in the continuity of noesis, which
refers to ideal and abstract thought
and practice, which is the activity of
its concrete production. The mental
and ideal processes in each stage of this
continuity indicate that the production
of objects is creation. Therefore,
object production should be examined
in conjunction with creative action or
poiesis, which offers a unique approach
that eliminates the analytic dilemma of
considering only mental or practical
components.
Due to form of the object being designed
in the mind, the process of making
differs from other actions. Aristotle
explains the distinction between act
and making with the terms praxis and
poiesis. Generally, praxis is differentiated
by its use with an action word, while
poiesis is a term of activity used with a
poiein verb in the context of ‘making,
producing, and creating’ (Kart, 2015).
Therefore, making and creating are different
from all other actions because
they reveal object designs by producing
concrete results. They involve a
process that is based on noninstinctive
actions, personal conceptualizations
and concrete expressions.
5. Discussion of theory of the
making in design and architecture
Making is both a deliberate action
and a state of knowing. Since making
directly intervene and interfere with
the world, it contains more than design.
Design describes the activity of architecture
[or other disciplines associated
with design] with an implicit bias:
cognitive modelling is favoured and
physical qualities [are] minimized. In
contrast, making refers to the realms
of mental and physical construction,
acknowledging the dialectic quality of
the process. (Knesl, 1992, p.6).
For this reason, objects can be considered
as the physical results of mental
work. As the matured ideas are
transferred into material realities, they
are not forced to change. Ideas are observed
in the model and aim of the act,
as well as the projection of the processes
involved in the realization of act.
The understanding of poiesis yields the
design of an object that represents the
original idea and is pure and unique.
Because within this understanding:
• Humans reveal their consciousness
and have the energy to alter existing
states with this consciousness. This energy
reveals humans’ capacity for creation.
• The object is the product of understanding
and creative performances.
For this reason, it is created from the
individual perception of humans who
make objects.
• Humans create an intellectual
space of their own by questioning existing
situations. Thus, everything that
they have created is the response of a
field of inquiry and thought.
• The mind has a wide comprehension
capacity. As a result, many possibilities
of object creation are discoverable,
and the identification of matter is
always possible.
• Certain decisions are taken, and
knowledge is built. Therefore, the discrimination
between theory and practice,
mind and body, and subject and
object becomes blurred and intertwine.
As envisaged, objects reveal their
meaning and aim.
• There are some comprehensions of
matter. It is ordinary to reach findings
about the statement value of matter
Poiesis of objects: Theory of making
68
that is produced through interrogation.
Therefore, it is possible to discover
possibilities beyond the material
realities of objects. Furthermore, comprehending
matter can reveal contrast
sensual experience of objects.
• Matters are considered with barriers
and obstacles in the design process.
Therefore, it is more likely that matters
deviate from the original intention.
• Images appear as a result of integrative
understanding. They appear as
pure findings of the mind and exist as
a result of experience. This opens the
process on a representational level and
leads to a new formal vocabulary.
• Each component should express
something about the integrity of the
object when revealing the image. No
factor divides the perception of integrity.
• A method is discovered for each
object. Instead of using the common
methods of making, the knowledge of
making itself is produced in order to
reveal comprehensions and designs.
The practical circumstances of making
are included in design.
• Since object production is practice
of design, it has its own strong
and appropriate intellectual culture.
This is because the design establishes
a field of inquiry and discussion on its
own without importing from different
cultures such as art or science (Cross,
2007).
• Although the method shows ontological
and epistemological differences
in technical and technological
situations, it includes the knowledge
of making on the basis. However, the
knowledge of making gains more
meaning in the expansion of the technique
towards the consciousness-matter-method,
because technology shapes
consciousness, and develops more on
production rather than creation. The
technique emerges as a result of consciousness
making discoveries on results.
Therefore, it reveals the poetics
in the relationship and interaction between
idea and method.
• Objects are exactly the result of
design which is “neither completely
predetermined nor universal (as in the
notions of ideal form or essence), but
specific to individual acts of making”
(Childers, 1992, p. 5).
In the context of these expansions
that make up the content of poiesis,
this study states that poiesis constitutes
the intellectual boundaries of the theory
of making as a theoretical equivalent
of making. The design is observed
in the mental content of making and
the design object is a product of the
knowledge of cognition and conceptualization
that occurs uniquely in each
human. Therefore, the theory of making
and poiesis should be considered
as the hypothetic basis of all original
productions in the field of design and
architecture.
6. Conclusion
The act of making indicates a form
of human existence, in other words, the
mind. The mind is the place of cognition
and conceptualization or noesis.
It can be said that noesis initiates the
creation of objects. In this study, noesis’
development based on four conditions,
the self, matter, form, and aim,
is asserted. When humans understand
their own mental abilities for cognition
and conceptualization, they can reveal
their creative identity. Noesis of matter
explains that matter can bear different
qualities apart from the ones sensed
by humans and be differentiated from
its own (for example, the stone is hard
but could be sharp, as well). Noesis
of form makes it possible for humans
discover new meanings to be attributed
to matter and find a way to express
an intention. Therefore, it can be said
that form is determined by the noesis
of aim. For this reason, these four
components can be understood holistically
and simultaneously. These four
fundamental and conceptual components
explained in the context of noesis
considering the design integrity of
noesis as the intellectual backbone of
making in our minds. The revelation
of this design also refers to noesis and
the mental process, since it requires
the knowledge of making in its practical
process. All the conditions related
to making are developed mentally. This
emphasizes poiesis, because poiesis is
the creation of previously non-existed
objects, and the occurrence of noesis in
matter as claimed in this study. Since
poiesis deals with each act through
a mental process, it creates different
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Sönmez, B. N. Batı
69
Figure 1. Conceptual schema of making.
qualities, because conceptualizations
of the mind in the mental process are
expected to be unique. Therefore, this
study proposes to examine original
objects as potential results of poiesis.
Hence, the act of making that produces
objects remains within the limits of
the theoretical and practical aspects of
poiesis.
This study questioned how humans
have created objects in order to find
creativity of the mind towards the
production attitude. This explanation
is made by the conceptual typesetting
laid out by the theory of making
[Figure 1]. This conceptual content of
the theory of making will lead to the
renewal of the established order in
the fields of design and architecture.
Instead of the concept of design currently
discussed in an epistemological
field, it underlines the necessity of reinterpreting
the concept of design in
an ontological field. The ontological
content of the concept of making can
manifest itself in technical and tectonic
searches. In this content, the actions
creating the objects of all design fields
arise from conceptions of designers.
Thus, this study invites the rediscovery
of the concept of making’s ontological
origins as a theoretical premise that enables
the identification of experimental
research areas of how matter and form
can be grasped afresh. With the theoretical
tools proposed in this study,
it can be provided the expansion and
deepening of design thought in contemporary
design environments. From
education to practice, this study can
be a basis for the reform and advancement
of all fields of design.
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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • M. Sönmez, B. N. Batı
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 71-86
Architectonics as synthesis of
architectural and engineering
disciplines
Natalia Vladimirovna NORİNA 1 , Veniamin Aleksandrovich NORİN 2 , Yuriy
Vladimirovich PUKHARENKO 3
1
bennor@yandex.ru • Department of Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Saint Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
Petersburg, Russia
2
norinveniamin@yandex.ru • Department of Technology of Building Materials
and Metrology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Saint Petersburg State University of
Architecture and Civil Engineering, Petersburg, Russia
3
tisk@spbgasu.ru • Department of Technology of Building Materials and
Metrology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Saint Petersburg State University of
Architecture and Civil Engineering, Petersburg, Russia
Received: March 2018 • Final Acceptance: July 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.91489
Abstract
The article is dedicated to the solution of some tasks faced when teaching
students of architectural departments and related to insufficient knowledge of
technical science. The need for introducing a profound study of such technical
disciplines as “Structural performance of materials”, “Construction mechanics”
into the educational program of architecture students has been proved. Methodological
principles for selecting and structuring the contents of the Architetonics
discipline have been defined. A project for scientific and methodological support
of the Architectonics discipline has been developed. We state that currently there
is a wide range of graphical software products allowing students of archi-tectural
departments to model various interesting shapes. Along with that, we note that
graphic software products do not allow for adequate check of the constructive
solution, so educational modeling is frequently limited by solving space-planning
and imaginary tasks. A problem of implementing calculation and designing software
into the educational architectural designing has been considered.
Keywords
Architectonics, Design of architectural and engineering structures, Educational
program of architecture, Integrated system of strength analysis, Russian
engineering education.
72
1. Introduction
A new stage in development of Russian
architecture that started with the
transition to mixed economy in the
context of private property rehabilitation
could not help but affect the system
of architectural education. First,
it affected the style of architectural
projects. “Historicism” that had been
informally prohibited for 25 years, covered
the entire architectural “shop” in
the country almost instantly. Projects
reflecting the drive to search for new
trends in architecture development
released from decorative representation
began to emerge as an alternative
from neohistorism. There were also
new design objects like temples, business
centers, or elite apartment houses.
In the 1990s, computer design was
introduced to the training process for
the first time. Contacts with foreign
colleagues and universities intensified,
and people got indeed acquainted with
the latest construction technology.
The Town Planning Code and related
legislative documents set a new sequence
of town planning documentation
development. As contrasted with
the Soviet procedure of “top to bottom”
urban planning, it is done from
bottom to top. The Town Planning
Code cancelled state standards and the
original prescription of what needs to
be designed and in what amount. Now
self-government authorities decide
how many schools and kinder-gartens,
parking lots and trade places, sports
complexes and squares should be built.
The population is gradually becoming
the main driving force for generating
and implementing any town-planning
ideas. Today, a city planner should be
able to both solve financial, sanitary
engineering and transport issues competently
and form a beautiful ur-ban
environment. Despite some success,
we must admit that, in general, Russian
architectural universities have
not adjusted to new requirements yet.
According to corresponding member
of the International Academy of
Architecture M. G Meerovich: “The
teachers engaged in training cannot
do this (with rare exceptions), and to
say more, they cannot explain to others
how to do this”. (Meerovich 2010).
Simultaneously with the development
of standards, one should be able
to formulate procedures to be implemented
in real life. All the above are
tasks of a modern architect and planner,
or urban planner. These tasks
should be solved together with representatives
of other academic subjects,
but within the scope of their personal
professional responsibility. Where can
we get these specific knowledge and
skills? It is architectural education that
initiates development of the new fields
of activity and qualification of graduates.
In the past, an architect took decisions
based on the “objectivity” set
by standards, theoretical postulates,
and possibilities of the construction
industry base. Today, town-planning
decisions become increasingly subjective
- most often they are taken situationally,
based on personal conviction
and knowledge but not on general requirements
and regulations. To implement
such tasks, perhaps, a completely
different personality is needed rather
than one that the system of higher architectural
education provides today.
Today, we need people who are more
likely to not draw but design and construct.
They should know how to use
mathematical formulas and calculation
methods easily. It means that we need
an engineer with skills in architecture,
not an artist. Most top managers at factories
that produce various building
structures have the same opinion. This
conclusion was made because we have
monitored the opinions of top managers
at industrial enterprises in St. Petersburg
and Leningrad Oblast during
field trips to the sites with students of
St. Petersburg State Architectural and
Construction University. To date, capacity
of production facilities at these
enterprises is enough to make real almost
any intention of an architect with
artistic skills. The problem is lack of
qualified personnel to do drawings of
proposed structures supported by cor-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
73
responding calculations and recommendations.
Top managers of any certain
enterprise within the said territory
are interested in creating departments
for design and engineering at their enterprises
and are very anxious about
the issue related to selection of appropriate
personnel.
The purpose of this study is to develop
and substantiate scientific and
methodological ground for training
the future architects taking into account
the engineering component of
training.
The scope of the study is a special
training of architects in the field of engineering.
The object of the study is a project
of scientific and methodical support
for teaching engineering to architects.
According to the purpose of the study,
the following tasks were set:
1. To study the condition of the investigated
issue
2. To identify the place and importance
of technical subjects in the
framework of architectural education
3. To prove the need to introduce
advanced technical subjects like Statics
and Dynamics of Buildings and Structures,
Building Materials, Performance
of Con-struction Materials, and Construction
Mechanics into the training
course for students of architectural departments.
4. To define methodological principles
of selecting and structuring the
content of Architectonics.
5. To develop a methodological support
project for Architectonics.
2. Theoretical analysis
2.1. Development trends of
a ‘technological’ society that
define new vectors of mentoring
and educating architects
Transition to the “technological” society
increases requirements for modern
up-bringing and education that
are formed taking into account current
trends in society de-velopment. It
contributes to formation of an integral
personality – a creative, smart, and educated
person who has strong attitude,
democratic views, and a proactive approach
to life. The tasks faced by architectural
education in the light of the
problems in the 21st century leave no
doubt as to the need for radical change
in education. A real solution to this
problem is to achieve the level of professional
architectural consciousness
that guarantees continuity in the conditions
of active introduction to new
achievements in science and technology.
The solution to such a problem cannot
be implemented within the framework
of separated scientific and technical
subjects and by means of them.
It can be implemented only within the
framework of “human ecology” (Kaznacheev
1988). Currently, a new direction
in architectural science is being
considered. It is an interdisciplinary
direction that determines relationship
between nature and the human being.
This means that architects of the
future will need new knowledge, new
skills, and new ideas. They will have
to learn how to team work with engineers,
biologists, physicists, and other
professionals. Therefore, they will have
to master the professional language in
order to have at least a little idea about
the basic concepts on which they build
their reasoning. In any case, architects
should stop locking themselves up and
start communicating with the world.
According to the studies of biologists
V. Meyer, F. Kahn, N. Bogolyubov
and others conducted at different times
(Kahn 1929, Maier 1968, Bogolyubov
1940), architectonics of supporting
systems of living organisms is linked to
providing a high degree of strength and
lightness in elements that are characterized
by cost-efficient distribution of
material (Temnov 2001). Therefore, in
recent years, architects and engineers
in Russia (Y. Lebe-dev, S. Voznesensky,
V. Temnov, etc.) and in Western countries
(P. Nervi, A. Menges, E. Hampe,
S. Calatrava, P. Portoghesi, etc.) have
actively referred to the experience of
living nature. This is due to the fact
that structures of living organisms, as
well as building struc-tures, are strong,
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
74
rigid and resistant to gravitational,
atmospheric and other force actions.
This experience is successfully used in
design and construction of buildings
and facilities with modern forms and
efficient structures.
Thanks to this interdisciplinary approach,
an architecture that cannot be
simply drawn but only created through
deep understanding is being developed
at the Institute for Computational Design
in Stuttgart, Germany. Moreover,
consideration and studying of the most
unexpected objects is used for this understanding.
For example, a shell of a
spider (Architecture at your fingertips.
Achim Menges develops software
codes and makes a revolution in architecture
2014).
University of Massachusetts pays
great attention to this field of research.
In particular, a digitized process of
making a cocoon by a mulberry-fed
caterpillar was used there to construct
various spaces. The Group Director
Neri Oxman believes that when studying
the natural processes like ability of
silkworms to build their cocoons from
silk threads, scientists will be able to
develop methods of “printing” architectural
structures in a more efficient
way, which can be achieved by modern
3D-printing technologies. This group
investigated the relationship between
digital and biological products to be
produced in architectural scales. A
dome of silk fibers called “Silk Pavilion”
was created at the interdisciplinary research
laboratory “MIT Media Lab” of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(“Silk Pavilion” - silkworms and a robot
weave together 2013).
At the same time, a natural object is
not simply copied; what is copied is its
very essence. On this basis, the Stuttgart
Institute develops avant-garde projects.
For example, bimetals are used to simulate
work of muscles. Alternatively, a
living cell is created which is capable to
build a given structure by reproducing
and then fossilizing like a coral under
certain conditions (Dmitrieva 2015).
Based on the information above, we
can conclude that an architect of the
very near future will need universal
knowledge to operate successfully. And
they are all the more necessary when it
comes to buildings related to adaptive
architecture – there is simply no way to
do this without well-developed engineering
skills (Emmitt S. 2002, Emmitt
S. 2004, Wiberg 2011, Schnädelbach
2016, Schnädelbach et al 2012, Fuchs
2013, Kontovourkis et al 2013, Jager et
al 2016), since, in a certain sense, objects
of adaptive architecture are machines.
Therefore, we can assume that
it cannot hurt for an architect to know
the fundamentals of the basic subjects
for mechanical engineers like machine
elements and the theory of machines
and mechanisms, as well as performance
of construction materials. Of
course, an architect will not have to
independently calculate an assembly
unit that ensures intended movements
of structures. It is the work of a designer.
However, an architect should know
which assembly units already exist and
which ones can exist in reality based on
the laws of physics.
However, to acquire enough knowledge
in design, an architect actually
needs to be trained in design, and it
seems almost impossible today. In addition,
a good knowledge of behavior
of structures is not yet a guarantee that
an architect will be able to find expressive
tectonic images. Therefore, an issue
related to significant correction of
study programs of architectural and
design schools should be recognized
as one of the current problems. At the
same time, the current development
of architect’s skills in design can be
achieved not at the expense of an increase
in number of class hours, but
im-provement of content quality for
special design subjects.
2.2. Problems of developing the
syllabus of teaching educational
programmes in the major of
architecture at Russian universities
The problem of arranging the content
of educational programs for architects
has always been of attention to
many researchers. One can definitely
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
75
say that it is a crosscut-ting issue of
pedagogy, which is topical at every
stage of developing training courses for
architects.
The following question is important:
how the content of education of architects
should be projected to the higher
school. Let us turn to studying the
issue of technology of designing the
competence-oriented content of the
architects’ training courses.
The Russian system of higher education
was formed based on paradigm
of knowledge. The whole educational
process was organized according to
“knowledge – skills – abilities” triad
where exactly knowledge was the first.
It was believed that knowledge digestion
process had potential for development
by itself letting to form working
knowledge and to put it to use. The logic
of implementing the competence approach
differs fundamentally from the
previous knowledge paradigm by the
fact that the goal of education in Federal
state educational standard of higher
education (HE FSES) is specifically formulated
competences (general cultural
and professional). In this regard, there
are some contradictions:
• Between specific objectives of education
in the form of competencies that
shall be mastered because of studying
the educational program, on the one
hand, and an unclear idea of what the
content of education should be in order
to form these competencies.
• Between the integrative nature of
competences, which requires appropriate
complex means for their formation,
on the one hand, and the disciplinary
nature of the curriculum aimed at the
formation of subject knowledge and
skills, on the other hand.
Hence, the following problem arises:
what should the projected content
of architects’ education be in order to
form the needed competencies?
As the analysis shows, curricula for
training bachelors consist of cycles of
subjects and sections (Dreher 2013).
The set of subjects in each cycle is determined
by the types of professional
activities with which undergraduates
will deal, and the content of curricula
is determined by the task of the most
thorough and in-depth study of each
subject. Despite the fact that matrices
of the correspondence of the subject
and the competences formed within it
are compiled in the course programs,
this process is often of a formal nature.
Teachers conduct this correspondence
“by eye”, mainly to accomplish the assignment
of the management team.
With such a planning system, subjects
that do not meet the requirements of
formation of assigned competencies
are included into the course content,
or, conversely, subjects that are necessary
to form the assigned competencies
are missing. Curricula and course programs
are an important prerequisite
for professional training. At the same
time, the more rationally these documents
are compiled, the higher the
probability of successful student training.
Individual subjects of the curriculum
should be harmoniously interconnected;
interdisciplinary continuity
should be established between subjects
and their topics.
The logic of the new generation of
HE FSES requires movement from
goals of results to the content capable
of providing these results. Therefore,
designing of the scope, level, content of
theoretical and empirical knowledge,
practical skills, and necessary experience
are directly dependent on the results
of education expressed in the form
of competencies. You can neither “tear
off ” competencies from the content of
education nor you should expect that
you could ensure their acquisition only
through the content of education.
In the process of teaching, the
teacher and the student deal with a
certain subject. What should it be in
the context of competence approach
implementation? The course program
should contain information about objectives,
structure, scope, content, and
other methodological support of the
subject (Ogorelkov 2013). Moreover,
we proceed from the fact that a student
should be introduced to the educational
program as a whole from the very
beginning of training, so that he/she
could immediately understand what
competencies should be formed in the
course of studying the subject, during
the term, year, or the entire period of
study; what tasks he/she should per-
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
76
form in the course of studying, etc. In
addition, in our opinion, it is necessary
to move on to a different structuring of
teaching aids based on the project and
technological approach.
2.3. Methodological approaches
to the engineering-focused
training of architects
The study data was collected in the
course of analysis of the contemporary
training of architects in Russia
and abroad. The study data was collected
in the course of analysis of the
contemporary training of architects
at Saint Petersburg State University
of Architecture and Civil Engineering
(SPbSUACE) (Predmetno-modulnaya
matritsa obucheniya arhitektorov
[Subject and Module Training
Matrix for Architects] 2016), Moscow
Architectural Institute (Primernaya
osnovnaya professionalnaya obrazovatelnaya
programma vysshego obrazovaniya
[Model Main Professional
Educational Programme of Higher
Ed-ucation] 2016), Nizhny Novgorod
State University of Architecture and
Civil Engineering (Annotatsii i rabochiye
programmy distsiplin [Abstracts
and Steering Documents of Academic
Disciplines] 2018), Novosibirsk State
Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineer-ing
(Osnovnye obrazovatelnye
programmy [Main Educational Programmes]
2011), the Institute of Urban
Science and Urban Environment,
the Karlsruhe University (Germany),
the University of Strasbourg (France)
(Proekt Rossiya 82. Obrazovaniye 2016
[Project Russia 82. Education 2016]),
the Institute for Computational Design
and Construction of Stuttgart, University
of Massachusetts, and the University
of Niš (Study program – Architecture
2011).
In the contemporary dynamic international
environment of architectural
education, the Russian higher
school is by no means always showing
the signs of progress. Judging by the
current state of the Russian architectural
school, the question arises if we
can expect any interesting and competently
drafted projects at the Russian
architectural universities, which
demonstrate more and more signs of
stagnation. Many problems of teaching
the architectural way of thinking
in Russian schools are rooted in the
predominance of artistic ‘frills’ when
interpreting the architecture, wherein
a quest for a showy envelopment remains
the main issue. From the very
beginning of teaching the profession,
there have been artistic exercises aimed
at creating that showy envelopment instead
of designing a form using modern
materials and techniques. The disastrously
underrated role of the scaled
down modelling of modern structures
made of the same materials that are
sup-posed to be used to build real-life
facilities leads to Utopian projects. A
failure to provide sufficient new equipment
to mockup workshops prevents
students from appreciating the sense of
structure or from understanding how
engineering materials work in real life,
and that is what can be experienced
during scaled down modelling.
In some foreign universities (Karlsruhe
University (Germany), the University
of Strasbourg (France), Helsinki
University of Technology), teaching
many engineering cross-disciplines
(first of all, design) provides to students
a fundamental training in terms of appreciating
the sense of how to use materials
with different properties. Spatial
image of an item in the form of multilayer
axonometric projections and
sections with no envelopment gives an
idea of how competently materials and
structures are used to support highly
demanded processes. Special attention
should be paid to Juhani Pallasmaa’s
laboratory of prototype design where
students study professional subjects
through scaled prototypes that they
make with their own hands.
The analysis has revealed that the
current training of architects is, with
rare exceptions, more involved with
computers thus distancing the students
from reality. Modern teaching
methods do not involve manual count
of engineering structures either. Numerous
recent computer graphics textbooks
are primarily focused on simulating
the geometry of designed objects
and solving the drawing and graphics
problems. At the same time, there are
almost no textbooks focused on auto-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
77
mated calculations and applied design
assignments.
The drawbacks of architects’ training
in Europe can also be as follows;
for example, the University of Sheffield
teaches an operating method not
specific skills while independent student
activities seem to be too much
of a share there; Delft University of
Technology seems to pay little attention
to design as such; the Institute for
Advanced Architecture of Catalonia
does not always adapt the engineering
aspect of design to real life situations
(Proekt Rossiya 82. Obrazovaniye 2016
[Project Russia 82. Education 2016]).
However, the bottom line is that contemporary
teaching methods provide
neither good construction skills nor
professional intuition in future architects.
3. A project for methodological
support of Architectonics
The authors suggest introducing
a new subject called Architectonics
into the curricula of architectural and
designing specialties as an integrated
course of the following subjects:
Building Materials, Architectural and
Building Constructions, Statics and
Dynamics of Buildings and Structures,
Performance of Construction
Materials, and Structural Mechanics.
In architectural science, artistic and
Figure 1. An animated demonstration of
creating an “open” joint of external wall
panels in a technological sequence.
imaginative comprehension of forces
invisible to the eye is called Architectonics
(from Greek ἀρχιτεκτονική –
the art of building) (Weisman 1899).
The following national scientists carried
out rigorous theoretical studies on
the topic of Architectonics: B. Nikolaev,
A.I. Nekrasov, V.F. Markuzon, V.P.
Zubov, A.G. Gabrichevsky, Y.S. Lebedev,
V.G. Barkhin, A.E. Gutnov, M.V.
Shubenkov, etc. (Nekrasov 1994, Nikolaev
2006, Shubenkov 2006, Zubov
2001).
The project of methodological support
of the subject of Architectonics
provides a solution of interdisciplinary
tasks in architectural design. The objective
of the project for the scientific
and methodological support of Architectonics
is to create the most acceptable
from practical point of view
methods of visualization of the most
frequently encountered elements of
building structures subjected to calculations.
The need to bring the solution
of each problem to a finite numerical
result often leads to various simplifications,
which validity in each case is
confirmed experimentally or by mathematical
analysis.
During the development of the project
for scientific and methodological
support of Architectonics, the authors
were guided by the fact that one should
strive to both apply complex mathematical
calculations and receive a deep
understanding of the essence of occurring
physical phenomena and carry
out simplified computational modeling
(schematization) of them. Therefore,
to successfully master Architectonics,
students shall necessarily get skills of
both machine and manual calculation
for most common elements of building
structures along with design skills.
The scientific and methodological
support of Architectonics should include
the following:
• The course program (please find it
attached)
• Methodical recommendations for
course studying
• Methodical instructions for the
practicals
• Complex individual tasks for computational
and graphic works
• Educational, didactic, and reference
materials
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
78
• The method to control the level
of mastering the subject based on the
rating technology of knowledge assessment
4. Methodical recommendations for
the course of Architectonics
Methodical recommendations for
the course of Architectonics
The following actions should be taken
for successful implementation of
the course program in Architectonics:
The first section of the subject - Architectural
Constructions (AC) should
include lectures and exercises. Presentation
of lecture material in Architectonics
shall be accompanied by a
presentation created, for example, in
Power Point (Fig.1).
Practicals should be carried out only
as field trips:
a) Across the university’s academic
buildings.
b) To existing buildings outside the
university, including residential, public
and industrial buildings and structures.
c) To construction sites.
d) To factories of building materials
and structures. Presentation of a photo
album with situational pictures shall be
an indispensable requirement for a student’s
report.
Architectural Days shall be provided
for in the curriculum for the successful
mastering of the first part of Architectonics.
An Architectural Day is a
day within a working week on which
students shall only deal with Architectonics.
It is reasonable to study by this
scheme during two terms of the first
year.
The second section of the subject is
the Basis for Calculation of Architectural
Structures (BCAS). It shall include
lectures and practicals.
Presentation of lecture material shall
necessarily be accompanied by a presentation,
since theoretical issues related
to statics and dynamics of structures
are particularly difficult to understand
and shall be accompanied by any form
of visualization, including electronic
presentations. It is expedient to start
studying a certain subject with a selection
of photo materials from the photo
albums with situational shots (for example,
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5).
Therefore, students will not solve
related abstract problems (as it is done
now) and calculate real structured taken
from practice. An example is calculation
of a statically definable metal
frame required for the restoration of a
destroyed building wall (Fig.6).
To successfully master the second
part of Architectonics, the curriculum
shall include 4 academic hours (2
hours of lectures and 2 hours of practicals)
every week for three terms of the
Figure 2. Photo of a balcony console for calculations of transverse
bending.
Figure 3. Photo of an arch for calculations of transverse bending.
Figure 4. Photo of columns for calculations of stability.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
79
Figure 5. Photo of envelopments and frameworks for calculations
of combined strength.
Figure 6. The scheme of calculation of a statically definable metal
frame developed by a student on the example of reconstruction of
a destroyed building wall.
second and third year. It is reasonable
to combine manual and com-puter
calculations. Automated calculation
involves usage of the calculation extensive
features and design software
SCAD Оffice that is notable for its high
degree of visualizing the calculation results.
The architectural form is material
and has one very important feature,
which has not been sufficiently studied,
in our opinion. This feature is associated
with the presence of hidden
forces that arise in the material because
of influence of all kinds of physical
load. These forces are studied in detail
by various branches of physics, the theory
of elasticity, strength of materials,
theoretical mechanics, and so on. The
specific nature of the topic is that invisibility
of internal forces results in the
necessity to attract complex engineering
calculations or intuition. By covering
spheres of logical and imaginative
thinking and revealing points of their
contact, the topic of Architectonics is
among the most difficult ones in architecture.
It is considered that a professional
architect should be able to cover
both these areas of activity; however,
such interaction is carried out with
great difficulty in the modern educational
process and often in practice
(Fisher 2006, 2008, 2013). In the vast
majority of cases, it is very difficult for
students to grasp the relationship between
the logic of architectural forms
making and precise analytical calculations
based on abstract modeling of
physical processes (Melodinsky 2004).
Now there are new software products
that allow working in the mode
of complex design getting the result in
a quick and accurate way, in a visual
and intuitive form, which is important
for future architects. Quite a many
programs have already been used in
architectural and building design:
“Lira”, “Monomah”, COSMOS, AN-
SYS, NASTRAN, etc. (Radzjukevich
& Kozlov 2001). Thanks to these programs,
architects have a possibility to
solve almost all design tasks that can
be formalized and algorithmized. Almost
all sections of construction physics
(heat protection, sound insulation,
acoustics, insolation, etc.) and structural
mechanics (theory of strength of
materials, theory of stability, theory of
plasticity), theory of structures (statics,
dynamics, stability of structures),
building structures, geophysics, etc.
can be referred to them. All kinds of
dynamic processes are also modeled,
and it is important for building design
taking into account seismicity. However,
despite such a huge variety of
software products that can be used to
solve different project tasks, in the majority
of cases students of architectural
institutions develop only drawings and
3D models followed by designed projects
visualization. In fact, the computer
is used only as a tool for geometric
modeling and is a tiny fraction of real
capabilities of modern software. The
main difficulty of the problem lies in
the fact that studying of new products
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
80
and their adaptation to the learning
process are a separate large organizational,
scientific, and methodical job
that requires participation of a diversified
group of specialists.
The topicality of this work is related
to the fact that many textbooks (the
theory of strength of materials, theoretical
mechanics, structural mechanics,
etc.) run their course, because visualization
of conditions and the behavior
of a projected object are presented in
them in an extremely abstract form.
Often such textbooks contain only formulas,
graphs, curves, and diagrams
that students perceive with some difficulty
(Azizyan et al 2002, Beljaev 2001,
Bespalov 2011, Stasyuk et al 2004).
In this regard, in our opinion, the
attempt to study some computational
software products for their “integration”
into the educational process undertaken
at Novosibirsk State Academy
of Architecture and Fine Arts
(NSAAFA) deserves attention (Radzjukevich
& Palchynov 2009). A comparative
analysis of software products
showed there that SCAD Offis (Structure
CAD Office) is most preferable for
educational design. If determined accu-rately,
it is an integrated system for
strength analysis and structural design.
A store of NSAAFA experience in this
direction makes it possible to identify
a number of possibilities of new software
products. First, it should be noted
that it became possible to visualize
the distribution of equivalent stresses
both on the surface and inside the analyzed
structural element. An object
is automatically painted with different
colors using the color indication or the
so-called von-Mises scale. It is conventionally
assumed that the less the stress
in the material is, the “colder” the color
(dark-blue, blue) is. And vice versa,
areas working under high loads are
painted with “warm” and “hot” colors
(yellow, red). In this case, information
about the operation of the element acquires
extreme clarity, which is very
important for students of architectural
and design profile to perceive the material
studied.
Obviously, to ensure complete design,
in addition to creating “beautiful
pictures” it is also necessary to do physical
modeling, i.e. to turn certain physical
properties to geometrical models
for their investigation. Therefore, the
material form can be considered a certain
derivative of its internal physical
properties and given external conditions
to which it is adjusted or adapted.
Modeling of such a form that coincides
with the spatial structure of stresses
makes it possible to introduce a new
method of form making, which can be
conditionally called adaptive-tectonic
(Charleson 2005, Charleson & Pirie
2009).
It is possible to set conditions to detect
a conditionally optimal form for
such elements as “support”, “console”,
“counterfort”, “beam”, “wall opening”,
“shell”, etc. In addition, for more adequate
artistic understanding of design,
it is promising to create a typology of
tectonic units like:
1. Load receipt unit (column cap,
counterfort abutment to the wall, etc.);
2. Unit of load transfer by distance
(column shaft, pilaster, post, spacer,
etc.);
3. Unit of load transfer to the base
(base, socle, etc.);
4. Unit of changes in the direction of
line of force (counterfort angle).
5. Unit of load transfer from some
loaded sites to another quantity of restrained
sites (branching in trussed
systems).
Obviously, it is a far from complete
list of situations reflecting the operation
of hidden forces in a material.
Development of this area of research
is only beginning. Carrying out such
virtual experiments with material and
loads makes it possible to bring out the
process of architectural form making
and, accordingly, design to a qualitatively
new stage. An architect receives
a tool that allows looking through the
material and it, in turn, can provide the
basis for a significant approximation of
artistic-intuitive and engineering-design
approaches to design and form
making.
Detailed studying of the program
showed that it makes it possible to carry
out calculations accompanied by visual
graphic presentation of structural
layout operation, indicate loads, and
allows choosing optimum structural
elements. This product interacts seamlessly
with many other software prod-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
81
ucts and allows working correctly with
imported geometric models, which is
very important when using graphic
software products.
The results of machine and manual
calculations shall represent mutual
verification of the correctness of the
result received. However, in our opinion,
manual calculation shall prevail,
since it allows “feeling” the structure,
not to mention the fact that in some
cases machine calculation cannot even
be used.
5. Recommendation
The projected methodology of
teaching Architectonics can be used to
train architects at construction universities
and architectural and art academies,
because it is an effective way to
increase the level of knowledge of students
and form their professional activities.
It is recommended to:
• Include mathematics and physics
into the list of entrance examinations
for architectural specialties as the basic
general subjects.
• Equip the park of the educational
architectural workshop with any of
architectural and construction design
programs - “Lira”, “Monomakh”, COS-
MOS, ANSYS, NASTRAN, etc. - that
allow to work in the mode of complex
design getting results in a quick and
accurate way, in a clear and intuitive
Figure 7. Averaged results of the pass/
fail examinations in Architectonics,
Architectural Engineering Structures, and
Structural Mechanics.
form, which is important for future architects.
• Equip the park of the educational
architectural workshop with a laser
scanner that allows carrying out
high-precision and high-performance
measurements of architectural and
building structures.
• Equip the park of the educational
architectural workshop with a 3D
printer with the help of which students
can get a demonstrable result of their
architectural and planning solutions.
• Use 3D printer features to print
both as mockups of entire construction
projects and 3D copies of piece architectural
structures, that can be used
like Lego elements to “put together”
mockups of, for example, skeleton-type
structures.
• Adhere to the proposed study program
of Architectonics.
6. Conclusions
1. The developed project of scientific
and methodological support of Architectonics
for architects training is an
important and relevant material of the
theory and practice of general technical
subjects teaching.
2. Peculiarities of industry training
of students of construction institutions
were singled out based on the principles
of integration, systematization,
polytechnic education, etc.
3. Requirements for the selection of
the content of basic technical training
of architects in Architectonics were
formulated taking into account peculiarities
of vocational education.
4. A project for the methodological
support of Architectonics at a construction
university was developed.
5. The course program in Architectonics
was partially tested during the
autumn term in 2015-2016 academic
year. The results were as follows:
a) The interest of students in studied
subjects like Architectural and
Building Structures, Performance of
Construction Materials, Construction
Mechanics was heightened, and it is
confirmed by an increase in attendance
as compared to previous years;
b) Summarizing the results of the
survey, we can say that students appreciate
the innovations, because now
they cannot only draw, but also cal-
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
82
culate architectural constructions, i.e.
solve real issues in the field of architecture
and construction.
c) Having analyzed the current and
intermediate knowledge assessment,
we can say that students’ performance
has improved because of rhythmic
work during the term, which, in turn,
was due to their interest in the subjects
studied (Fig. 7). The comparative analysis
data was collected in the course
of the winter examination periods
2014/2015 and 2015/2016. In January
2016, the first pass/fail examination
was held in Architectonics as an experiment
in three groups. The results were
compared with those shown by the
three student groups at pass/fail examinations
in Architectural and Building
Structures and in Construction Mechanics.
Previously, there had been no
Strength of Materials on the cur-riculum
for architects.
Therefore, the performed exploratory
work allows concluding that the
application of the proposed scientific
and methodological support for Architectonics
as an important basic technical
subject is bound to improve the
quality of teaching of students of architectural
universities. The timeliness of
introduction of an integrated course
of art and basic technical subjects is
in full agreement with national priority
project “Education” currently being
implemented (Prioritetnij national`nij
proekt «Obrazovanie» [National
Priority Project “Education»] 2016).
When creating large educational and
research-and-production complexes, it
is possible to suggest the organization
of a department for Architectonics at
architectural faculties of architectural
and construction universities.
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Appendix
Course program suggested
for Architectonics:
Introduction
Part 1. Architectural
constructions (AC)
1. General principles of design
of bearing and enclosing
structures of buildings
1.1. General principles of design
of the load-bearing frame and its elements
1.2. Selection of load-bearing frame
materials
1.3. Enclosing structures, requirements
to them. Methodology of their
design solutions.
2. Architectural designs of lowrise
residential buildings
2.1. Foundations of low-rise buildings
2.2. Frames of low-rise buildings
made of stone
2.3. Frames of low-rise buildings
made of wood
2.4. Frames of low-rise buildings
with the use of metal and plastic
2.5. Floor slabs and floors
2.6. Roofs and roof coatings of lowand
medium-rise buildings
2.7. Elements of low-rise construction
(verandas, terraces, vestibules, internal
wooden staircases
2.8. Household ovens and fireplaces
3. Architectural designs of singlestorey
industrial and civil buildings
3.1. Load-bearing frame systems
3.2. Elements of the load-bearing
frame of single-storey industrial buildings
(columns, crane girders, bracing,
side-framing columns)
3.3. Coverings of single-storey
buildings
3.4. Flat roof framing without horizontal
thrust. Beams and trusses.
3.5. Spacer flatwork
3.6. Beam-and-girder systems
3.7. Thin-walled space structures
3.8. Suspension structural systems
3.9. Pneumatic and tent coverings
3.10. Wall railings of heated and
non-heated buildings
3.11. Skylights
4. Architectural designs of
multi-storey buildings
4.1. Load-bearing frames of civic
multi-storey buildings
4.2. Load-bearing frames of
multi-storey industrial buildings
4.3. Foundations of multi-storey
buildings
4.4. Wall enclosing structures of
multi-storey buildings
4.5. Structural components of
multi-storey buildings (balconies, recessed
balconies, window bays, ceiling
slabs, staircases, ramps, construction
elements of carrying and lifting equipment
4.6. Translucent vertical structures
4.7. Doors and gates
4.8. Partitions
4.9. Prefabricated large-size units of
floor and ceiling slabs
4.10. Suspended ceilings
4.11. Floors
5. Construction of buildings in
areas with special conditions
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
85
5.1. Construction in seismic areas
5.2. Construction in the Far North
and in hot climates
5.3. Construction in areas with collapsing
and anthropogenic soils
Part 2. Basics of Calculation of
Architectural Structures (BCAS)
1. The most important requirement
for architectural structures
1.1. Tasks and objective of structural
mechanics
1.2. Real structure and design diagrams.
Basic assumptions of structural
mechanics
1.3. Geometric characteristics of
plane sections. Center of gravity of
plane figures
1.4. External and internal forces
1.5. The concept of stresses. Normal
and shearing stresses.
2. Axial tension and compression
2.1. Stresses and deformations.
Hook’s law
2.2. Calculation of statically determinate
systems
2.3. Peculiarities of calculation of
statically indeterminate systems
2.4. The concept of strength calculation.
The method of allowable unit
stresses. Calculation using ultimate
breaking loads. Calculation using limit
states
Practicals
• Selecting the section of the lower
chord of a welded trapezoidal truss of
an industrial building
• Selecting the section of reinforcing
steel of a reinforced concrete column of
square cross-section with consoles
2.5. Influence of own weight
Practicals
• Determination of the required
number of concrete end-bearing piles
of a grillage
• Determination of the volume of
brickwork of a stepped brick column
loaded with an axial compressive force
2.6. Calculation of ideal cables
Practicals - stress-rapture testing of
the load cable of an aerial ropeway
3. Shift
3.1. Stresses and deformations
3.2. The concept of shear fracture
and bearing stress
Practicals
• Determination of the required
height of reinforced concrete column
consoles based on shear resistance
• Determination of the required
length of embedding of a round plain
reinforcing bar in concrete under pulling
loads
• Determination of the height of
square in the plan of the foundation for
the centrally compressed reinforced
concrete column based on its strength
of punching (shear) by the column
3.3. Calculation of welded joints.
Butt joints. Lap joints. Combined
joints.
Practicals
• Testing of welded joint strength
• Determination of the stretching
stress that a welded joint can withstand
3.4. Calculations of riveted and bolted
connections for shear, compression,
stretching
Practicals
• Determination of the required
number of rivets
• Calculation of fastening of the
compressed diagonal of a truss to the
gusset plate
• Bolted connection calculation
• Determination of the ultimate tensile
stress that a bolted joint of the lower
chord of a truss can withstand
3.5. Calculation of halving joints
Practicals - calculation of the heel
joint of a skew notch for a truss made
of squared beams
3.6. Calculation of glued joints
Practicals
• Test for simple shear and breaking
of the joint of two wooden boards by
means of double straps
• Determination of the load-bearing
ability of a glued joint in units of tubular
elements of a fiberglass arch truss
4. Torsion
4.1. The concept of twisting and
torque moments
4.2. Stresses and deformations
during round bars torsion
4.3. Calculations for strength and
stiffness
5. Plane transverse bending
5.1. General concepts of bending.
Types of supports and beams. Types
of loads. Determination of reactions of
support.
Architectonics as synthesis of architectural and engineering disciplines
86
5.2. Internal force factors in beam
cross-sections
5.3. Normal stresses under bending.
Strength condition
Practicals
• Test for the strength of a steel beam
freely supported by two supports
• Selection of the cross-section of
wooden beams across which the inserted
floor of the building is arranged
• The cross-section of a collar beam
over the gateway
5.4. Shearing stresses under bending
and their verification in the course of
beams calcu-lation
Practicals – selection of cross-sectional
dimensions of a bridge sleeper
made of pinewood
5.5. Main stresses under bending
Practicals – selection of the
cross-section of a metal console and
carrying out of a strength test
5.6. Calculation of the strength of
hybrid beams
5.7. Determining displacements under
bending.
Practicals – determining deflection
at the free end of a steel console using
the meth-od of initial parameters
5.8. Calculation of stiffness of beams
and frames
Practicals
• Selection of the cross-section of a
steel console by strength and stiffness
• Calculation of the stiffness of a
statically determinate frame
5.9. The concept of calculation of
single-span statically indeterminate
beams
Practicals - selection of the cross-section
of a steel statically indeterminate
beam
6. Resistance to combined stress
6.1. Skew bending
Practicals
• Test of the strength and stiffness
of wooden girders supporting the roof
that rest on upper chords of wooden
triangular trusses
• Selection of the cross-section of a
steel girder supporting roofing slabs
that rests on the upper chord of a steel
truss at a roof slope of 1:12
• Calculation of a horizontal
three-layer curtain wall panel with aluminum
casing and foam filling
6.2. Bending with tension or compression
Practicals - selection of the rectangular
cross-section of wooden rafter
spars of rafters for the roof
6.3. Off-center compression
Practicals
• Determination of the required size
of an industrial building that is square
in plan view of the foundation of a reinforced
concrete column
• Test of the strength of a rigid
wooden eccentrically loaded strut of a
rectangular cross section
• Construction of a kern area for a
rectangle, a circle, an I beam
7. Buckling
7.1. The concept of flexible bar stability.
Critical force. Critical stress
Practicals
• Test of a compressed pine strut for
strength and stability
• Selection of the cross-section of a
centrally compressed steel column
• Selection of the cross-section of
the compressed upper chord of a metal
truss
• Selection of the cross-section of a
bi-stable welded centrally compressed
through column
• Calculation of a brick column for
strength and stability
8. The concept of dynamic loads.
Impact strength. Free vibration with
one degree of free-dom. Forced
vibration of a system with one
degree of freedom. Resonance.
Practicals
• Selection of the cross-section of a
steel beam lying on two supports, onto
which a weight falls from a certain
height
• Calculation of the impact strength
of a frame
9. Calculation of curved structures
• Calculation of an arch bar
• Calculation of a triangular arch
stiffened on the supports
• Calculation of a statically definable
arch without stiffening
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • N. V. Norina, V. A. Norin, Y. V. Pukharenko
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 87-102
The histology atlas of campus
form: A framework to explore
liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
Haniye RAZAVIVAND FARD 1 , Yüksel DEMİR 2 , Marco TRISCIUOGLIO 3
1
razavivand@itu.edu.tr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
2
demiry@itu.edu.tr • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
3
marco.trisciuoglio@polito.it • Department of Architecture and Design,
Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: July 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.32650
Abstract
This paper focuses on the concept of university campus form, aiming at exploring
the sustainability and liveability parameters in relation to campus form.
The research intends to provide a theoretical framework to evaluate physical and
morphological dimensions of campus form which affect sustainability and liveability
of campus setting and surrounding urban context. The study primarily has
conducted an extensive literature review on the subjects of sustainability, liveability,
urban form, and university campus physical features. Then, it has done a content
analysis of fifty university campus masterplans, selected from throughout the
world to identify common strategies, and actions of campus development plans.
Afterward, it has identified the principal criteria which influence the sustainability
and liveability of campus form. To evaluate the university precincts according
to the proposed set of criteria, a Histology Atlas of Campus Form has been developed
which provides a model to measure each morphological dimension of
campus according to a 3-point Likert scale system. The developed model has been
applied to case studies to assess their performance. The ultimate objective of this
study is to investigate the campus form attributes on the ability to generate liveability
and sustainability.
Keywords
University campus, Campus form, Sustainability, Liveability, Histology atlas of
campus form.
88
1. Introduction
University is a by nature a placebound
entity and university’s mission
is tightly linked to its physical form.
The physical form and mission of universities
have largely changed within
centuries. Primary universities were
mono-functional and isolated entities
aiming at nurturing elite citizens. However,
the recent global transformations
have made a radical shift in mission
and consequently on the physical space
of universities. The mission of primary
universities was focused on education
and research while contemporary universities
have adopted new roles and
new responsibilities. The third mission
of universities is dedicated to urban
outreach activities and addresses economic,
socio-cultural, spatial, and environmental
challenges of the societies
(Razavivand Fard et al., 2017). Accepting
these new roles, universities have
become more collaborative and integrated
objects in their societies.
The mission of a university is the basis
of the institution’s strategies and actions
and is directly linked to the university’s
vision and general philosophy.
The educational programs, university’s
built-space, the social dimension of the
university, and its connection with the
broader society is grounded on the institutional
values. In this respect, the
campus physical environment plays a
fundamental role in the realization of
the objectives and core values of the
institution (Kenney et al., 2005). As
Chapman (2006) argues, “the institutional
story is told through the campus
. . . The campus is an unalloyed account
of what the institution is all about.”
The physical setting of a university,
its physical features, and configuration,
has a large impact on the quality of a
university and academic life (Caldenby,
2009). Campus physical space is not
just the mean to facilitate learning but
it has a larger influence on the educational,
social, cultural, economic life
of the academic community and the
broader society. A university campus
with a high-quality urban space can attract
and nurture high quality human
capital, assure the presence of people
and support diversified activities, stimulate
the flow of synergy, foster social
and economic well-being, and consequently
contribute to vibrancy, livability
and sustainability of campus space,
the hosting neighborhood, city, and
region.
2. Sustainability and liveability
in relation to urban form
University is a microcosm of a city.
Considering the large dimension and
the diversity of functions, the university
campus has many common attributes
of an urban space including
built space, open space, circulation
networks, and their configuration and
the relationships between these components.
Therefore, the design principles
that are applied to urban space can
be applicable to a university campus as
well. Building on this, the sustainability
and liveability factors which are related
to an urban form can be referred
to the campus form.
Urban form sustainability and sustainable
development have been lately
at the core of academic debates. It is
underlined by scholars that the physical
form of an urban space influences
its sustainability (Jabareen, 2006;
Jenks, 2004; Salat, 2006, 2011; Wheeler,
2003). Developing a sustainable urban
environment signifies to set a group of
morphological strategies and relationships
through arranging the components
of urban form. These principles
intend to diminish the urban sprawl,
increase compactness, decrease commuting
distances, reduce energy consumption,
CO2 emissions and pollutions.
Jabareen (2006) in his eminent research
on the urban form sustainability
has identified seven key factors to
achieve urban sustainability. These
parameters include compactness, sustainable
transport, density, mixed land
use, diversity, passive solar design, and
greening. These items are very comprehensive
and have been mentioned
in many other studies.
Salat (2006, 2011) have conducted
comprehensive researches on the concept
of sustainable urban form through
analyzing the urban form of various
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio
89
cities throughout the globe. They adopt
a three-dimensional model including
urban form, social and economic, and
environmental elements and emphasize
on the importance of the urban
context. In this model, urban morphology
is a key component in achieving
sustainable development. Salat (2011)
note that “The form of a city is constituted
by the spatial and social patterns
that compose it and that allows us to
describe its networks, its built spaces,
and its empty spaces in geometric, topological
and hierarchal terms in two,
three and even four dimensions, incorporating
the temporal depth that
every city contains.” (Salat, 2011). They
have discussed the importance of connectivity,
consistency, diversity, mixed
land-use, in various urban contexts.
According to Salat (2006), three fundamental
factors for sustainable urban
development are: protecting the environment,
supporting diversity and mix
of building types in neighborhoods,
and creating a downtown which is
compact and walkable. They state a
sustainable urban setting should support
inhabitants’ walking, biking and
using public transportation. It should
be compact and support mixed landuse
where the social and functional
mix decreases travel needs and reduces
social segregation.
In literature related to urban form,
concepts of sustainability and liveability
are interrelated. Accordingly, sustainability
endorses a better quality of
life and a more liveable urban environment.
Liveability is a broad concept. Regarding
Girardet (2004) liveability and
sustainability are correlated though
may not always imply the same issue.
He defines a liveable urban space as
a setting with well-organized neighborhoods
with proper facilities within
a walking distance, appealing public
spaces, with dynamic streets, and
well-connected. Livability and the
concept of livable urban space are very
much related to the notion of quality
of life while it is associated with the vitality
and congeniality of urban space.
Thus, a livable urban space indicates an
inspiring quality of life situations with
attractive public space, social activities,
sense of community, environmentally
resiliency and economic vigor. Lynch
(1981) in his renowned book “good
city form” has identified five significant
features as: vitality (a healthy environment),
sense (sense of place or identity),
fit (a setting’s adaptability), access
(to people, activities, resources, places,
and information), and control (responsible
control of the environment). The
attributes of the urban space including
being fit and vital foster safety, satisfaction,
and sustainability. Gehl (1987)
has investigated the outdoor activities
that take place within an urban setting
and has defined three different types
of activities as necessary activities, optional
activities, and social activities.
Thus, urban space can encourage social
interaction and diverse activities
and behaviors. Norbert-Schulz (1979)
highlights the significance of identity
and genius loci as well as Lynch (1960,
1981) who emphasizes on the importance
of image, place identity and components
of a good city form. Hillier
(1984) describes the prosperity of urban
space is relevant to the presence of
people and their activities. Thus, permeability,
connectivity, and accessibility
are key factors of the space in generating
activities. Existence of diversified
functions enhances the potential of occurring
diversifies activities and interactions.
In this sense, an urban space
with a high level of mixed land uses
and diversity contribute to the presence
of people and consequently promotes
vitality. Jacobs (1961) has underlined
the importance of the mixed-use
urban environment that can enhance
urban diversity and foster the presence
of people in the urban fabric. She supports
the issue of diversity and vibrancy
in urban settings.
In this context, universities because
of their educational mission, their
large size, and impact on their societies
are key agents in directing the society,
forming its future and the transition
towards a liveable sustainable
environment. Universities are among
chief organizations in the society that
comprise infrastructure, facilities,
land, human and economic capital,
and function as large urban enterprises.
So, sustainability initiatives can be
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
90
incorporated into their research and
educational agendas and their operations
and should be manifested in their
physical setting. To do so, universities
have concerned that they need strategies
that profit students, staff and also
a broader community. Today, many
universities are attempting to improve
their facilities considering the concepts
of sustainability and liveability to be
more connected, coherent, green and
pedestrian friendly (Wheeler, 2004) as
well as being an integral part of their
surrounding urban context.
3. Physical features of
university campus
The physical environment is a setting
that diverse activities take place
within it. This is evident that the quality
of space and the physical characteristics
of the setting have an impact on
the activities (Whyte, 1980), interactions,
participation, feelings, and perceptions.
Although this fact is not exclusively
indicating a campus setting, it
is a common sense that can be ascribed
to a campus space as well. Therefore,
it can be admitted that there is a correlation
between the spatial quality of
university space and the quality of academic
and urban life. The influence of
campus space on the academic and social
life of university is vastly examined
in the literature mainly through a pedagogical
and psychological perspective
(Boyer, 1987; Griffith, 1994; Strange &
Banning, 2001; Temple, 2009), but the
subject has not much acknowledged in
the academic debates concerning architecture
and urban design attributes
of the campus space. Whilst, physical
features of the campus create a great
impact. The scale of this impact can
differ from the visual qualities such as
micro-scale artifacts to more macro
consequences.
Strange and Banning (2001) note
that “although features of the (campus)
physical environment lend themselves
theoretically to all possibilities,
the layout, location, and arrangement
of space and facilities render some
behaviors much more likely, and thus
more probable, than others.” University
setting provides a platform for
diversified activities including education,
research, informal idea exchange,
socializing, working, and living. Campos
Calvo-Sotelo (2014) refers to the
university campus as a “Third place”
between residential space and workplace
where a different range of daily
activities take place. Due to its flexibility,
this outdoor space provides potentials
for communications and social
interactions. Kenney et al. (2005) state
that more than 50 percent of learning
in a university is occurring in the
form of informal learning and through
out-of-classroom activities. In this respect,
the whole campus space act as
a learning environment and needs to
be designed in a way that enriches the
academic and social knowledge experience
of students. Based on the literature
on the vitality of urban space, it
can be argued that within a university
campus, the existence of high ratio of
mixed uses and diversity of functions
can enhance the presence of students
for longer hours in the campus setting.
Doing so, the presence of students and
being involved in diverse activities d
generates synergies and enhances vibrancy
and vitality of the space. In this
sense, residential campuses function
more successfully in this regard. The
combination of student housing within
campus space is a key strategy that
many university masterplans follow to
promote the liveability of their university
precinct. Clearly, a campus setting
should provide a platform for diverse
optional and social activities (Gehl,
1971) besides academic functions.
Creating an urban space that reinforces
social activities can contribute to social
sustainability (Gehl, 2010). In order to
provide the potentials for social functions,
it is important that campus space
can be accessible and permeable. Ease
of access can guarantee the movement
of people within the precinct and enhance
their willingness to be more engaged
in the setting. Thus, designing a
well-distributed and connected movement
network is a key issue in university
campuses. It needs to enable the
vehicular access of services to different
buildings and meanwhile facilitate the
free movement of pedestrians within
the setting. A good arrangement of
movement network is a fundamental
issue in promoting liveability and
walkability of a university campus.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio
91
Physical attributes of a campus setting
can be well outlined by a comprehensive
campus plan. Campus plans
outline the institutional objectives of
the university including attracting prospective
students and faculty, promoting
the quality of life, improving the
academic atmosphere, contributing to
sustainability goals, and enhancing the
proximate urban space.
A campus plan embraces three main
constituents of the setting: buildings,
landscape, and circulation. The campus
plan defines the configuration
of landscape and then the built form
is designed to frame the open space.
Placemaking and Placemarking are two
fundamental aspects of campus design
(Dober,1992). Placemaking is describing
the arrangement of the campus
plan, distribution of campus land-uses,
the position of buildings and open
spaces, movement (pedestrian and
automobile) network and bounding
campus borders and its interface with
the adjacent urban fabric. This plan
set a framework to address functional,
programmatic, and visual objectives. A
well-designed campus plan can convey
university’ situation within the broader
society, deal with land-use challenges,
and make a decision for site position.
Placemarking considers the physical
characteristics of the campus for generating
a sense of place and visual identity.
Landscape components, architectural
style, and landmarks are among
the elements that assist the university’s
placemarking.
The main elements of a campus space
including the organization of uses, the
arrangement of pathways connecting
the uses, the layout of open spaces, the
density and mix of functions widely
affect the vibrancy and vitality of
the campus setting. The paths, plazas,
courtyards and all open spaces of the
campus landscape are the places where
planned and unplanned encounters
taking place. Campus public space is a
platform for informal learning and social
interactions. It is the vital component
in forming the sense of place that
is inevitably associated with the campus
experience. Therefore, these spaces
need to be vibrant, dynamic, attractive,
and memorable in order to enrich the
campus experience. Many campus revitalization
projects, particularly postwar
campuses, are conducted intending
to inject vitality and homogeneity
to the campus landscape as well as supporting
the sustainability issues.
One of the good studies which can
be fruitful for this research is the research
done by Hajrasouliha (2017).
He has reviewed 50 American university
campus master plans which mainly
created after 2000 in the USA and has
identified their common objectives and
challenges. He has categorized them in
10 categories and 100 recommendations
which reveal the most important
factors for university campus designers.
Regarding these categories, it can
be better understood which qualities
were at the center of importance for
campus designers. These 10 categories
are defined as (1) walkability (2) sense
of community (3) livability and safety
(4) environmental sustainability (5)
landscaping (6) town-gown relationship
(7) identity (8) imageability (9)
partnering (10) learning environment.
Then, he has investigated the morphological
dimensions of campus planning
on the academic success of students.
Kenney et al. (2005) identifies a
comprehensive campus plan encompassing
nine principles:
• The priority of total plan to individual
buildings and spaces.
• Using compact and mixed campus
land uses to enhance livability and interactions.
• Shaping an identity through landscape
elements that convey the campus
unity and its relationship with surrounding
urban setting.
• Forming a mutual physical connection
with the surrounding urban
space.
• Creating placemaking through
campus architecture.
• Adding meaning and identity to
campus urban space.
• Considering environmental issues.
• Controlling the auto circulation.
• Considering technology and innovative
approaches.
Any campus plan needs to be comprehensive
and addresses the vision
of the institution, guide the growth
and change, and reinforce the strategic
plan. The didactic and community
vision, history, culture, tradition, and
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
92
the context are bases of a good campus
plan (Kenney et al., 2005).
4. Methodology
4.1. Sustainability and liveability
criteria of university campus form
This paper, as a part of a broader
doctorate dissertation on a multi-criteria
analysis of sustainability and liveability
of university campus from, has
intended to develop a model to evaluate
university campus form in terms of
sustainability and liveability. For this
purpose, a literature review was done
on the subjects of the university’s third
mission and urban outreach activities,
urban form, sustainability, liveability,
and campus design principles. Then,
through an interpretive study, the main
issues were conceptualized. Afterwards,
a content analysis of fifty masterplans
was done. The masterplans
were selected randomly throughout the
world excluding the American campus
masterplans. The content analysis was
attempted to identify common goals,
strategies, and actions which were
identified by campus planners. The
findings of masterplan content analysis
were merged with the findings of the
study done by Hajrasouliha (2017) on
American campus masterplans.
In the next step, the whole acquired
data incorporated to create a set of
criteria. The proposed model comprises
nine criteria including liveability,
legibility, cohesion, compactness,
walkability, accessibility, connectivity,
integration, and sustainability and
twenty-eight sub-criteria. From the
whole twenty-eight criteria, twenty-two
of them are directly related to
campus form.
To assess the performance of campus
regarding each sub-criterion the
study has developed the “Histology Atlas
of Campus Form”.
4.2. Atlas of histology
The Histology is a branch of biology
that examines the microanatomy of
cells, tissues using a microscope. This
method aims at identifying and visualizing
the microscopic structures of tissues
and assess the correlation between
structures and function. Thus, “Histology
Guide teaches the visual art of
recognizing the structure of cells and
tissues and understanding how this is
determined by their function.” (Url-1).
4.3. Developing a histology atlas of
campus form
Grounded on the Histology Atlas in
biology, A Histology Atlas of Campus
Form was developed. The proposed
Histology Atlas illustrates the structure
of campus form criteria in a schematic
way. In this sense, the visual dimension
of each criterion and its performance
level has been demonstrated in three
levels between the best, the average,
and the worst performance situation.
Developing the Campus Histological
Atlas makes it possible to evaluate
the campus spatial maps and score
them for each criterion in a base of
three-point Likert scale.
4.4. Applying the model on a selected
university campus
4.4.1. Harvard University
Campus development:
Harvard University is a private research
university and the first American
university established in 1636.
Figure 1-3. Histology of human tissues (Source: http://www.histologyguide.com, Retrieved at May 2019).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio
93
Figure 4(a). Histology Atlas of Campus Form
(Source: Authors).
After the colonization of the United
States, there was a strong belief that
the New World required educated
people for prosperity. So doing, Harvard
College was founded on a oneacre
piece of land in Newtown village
–then changed its name to Cambridge.
This piece of land now comprises the
core of the campus, the Harvard Yard.
The Harvard Hall I was the first purpose-built
edifice of the campus located
in Harvard Yard with an E-shape form.
Indeed, design of the Harvard campus
followed the ideals of the English Collegiate
system and intended to shape a
community for students to study, live
and socialize. However, it rejected the
inward-looking cloistered structures of
English universities and instead outward-looking
separated buildings were
designed within a park-like landscape.
This spatial arrangement was organized
in a way that is open and accessible to
serve the community. These ideas later
became a prototype for American university
campuses that continued within
the centuries.
These early phase buildings were designed
in red brick and High Georgian
style and this architectural style created
unity and harmony within the Harvard
Yard. Another major construction
phase occurred between 1869 to 1909
that 35 new structures were erected and
it was massive construction in comparison
to earlier 34 buildings which
were built within 233 years since the
foundation of Harvard University. The
structures of this latter period mainly
considered the functionality. They
were designed with various architectural
styles and were scattered around
the Harvard Yard and the North Yard.
Thus, there was not a unified architectural
style nor an established development
plan. In the period of 1909 to
1933, it was noticed that there was a
need for a holistic plan for Harvard development
to control the physical expansion
and the architectural character.
So, the Georgian Revival was chosen as
the university’s architectural style and
a master plan was developed in 1910.
The Second World War aftermath put
its traces on Harvard University and
caused transformations in its physical
body. The International Style was practiced
in the university’s architecture
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
94
and new materials, forms, scales were
introduced into the Harvard campus.
In spite of creating new radical transformations,
it was intended to create a
correlation between Harvard’s historical
character and the newly introduced
forms. Within the chronology of Harvard
development, from a Colonial,
Colonial Revival, Georgian, Georgian
Revival, Neo-Classical, Romantic Revival
to Modernist, New Modernism,
Post Modernism, and New Historicism,
an arrangement has been created
that preserve Harvard’s unique spirit so
vital and dynamic and align its physical
growth to its academic objectives. The
edifices are human-scale and in great
harmony with the surrounding neighborhood.
The campus is highly integrated
into its hosting city through its
green areas and open spaces (Coulson,
et al. 2011).
Indeed, Harvard has had a decentralized
planning tradition which has
served for centuries. Within this long
history, diversified buildings with different
morphologies and architectural
styles have emerged. Brick is not the
only but the common material which
has been used in different architectural
styles and created a continuity across
the campus.
Harvard yard has been considered as
the “political, academic, and spiritual
center of the Harvard”. However, since
the foundation of Allston Campus on
the southern part of Charles River, the
river has become the geographic locus
of the university. The Charles River
has a significant role in structuring the
campus because of its particular vistas
and its clear directional quality. It also
functions as a natural barrier and defines
the edges. At the same time, the
river offers potentials for connecting
Harvard main campus to Harvard’s
other campuses and also adjacent universities.
Harvard is a single university composed
of various institutes, faculties,
and departments which function autonomously.
This feature enhances its
intellectual vibrancy and increases the
diversity of physical environments.
Harvard University has a decentralized
characteristic. Being developed on a
precinct basis, there is not a particular
mechanism for sharing recourses and
Figure 4(b). Histology Atlas of Campus Form (Source:
Authors).
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95
growth of shared facilities. In addition,
Harvard faces difficulties to be expanded
within its dense urban fabric.
Harvard University has developed
from a single building in a rural area to
a large integral campus within a dense
urban fabric. Harvard University is in
close interaction with its hosting urban
space. Its academic prosperity and economic
growth have brought a responsibility
to contribute to the improvement
of its urban space through providing
teaching and research facilities, laboratories,
offices, and affordable housing.
The high level of campus and urban
land-use integration is mainly at the
edge of campus where most of the residential
and commercial uses are situated.
diversified land-uses such as lecture
halls, services, and residences are scattered
around the campus and enhances
the informal exchanges and vitality of
the space. The diversity and balanced
distribution of land-uses and activities
increase the nightlife security due to
the presence of 24-hour activities on
the campus. There are residential areas,
retail and commercial buildings, sports
facilities, libraries that are active and
open during the night hours. This issue
increases the perceived safety not only
inside the campus but also in the surrounding
urban area. Providing housing
is one of the core objectives of Harvard
as an educational community and
a residential college. There are a variety
of residences available for students and
faculty members. While the students’
dormitories are mainly in proximity
to academic buildings, the affiliates
housing are mostly located in campus
boundaries. The existence of residential
buildings enhances Harvard’s campus
liveability, informal interactions
and the sense of community.
There are several facilities and services
provided for Harvard students
and faculty to boosts their quality of
life. Harvard Square can be considered
the locus of many social, commercial
and recreational activities. There are
other activity zones forming corridors
along the streets in campus edges.
Considering the greenness, approximately
sixty percent of Harvard campus
is devoted to open space which defines
its structure and expresses its rich
spatial quality. It composed of diversified
typologies of open spaces including
courtyards, quadrangles, gardens,
and paths which hierarchically forms a
unique spatial experience for the users.
The campus edges have various
forms of barriers including high and
low walls, high and low fences, hedges
and gates. Each type of boundary creates
a different form of physical character
in terms of visibility and pedestrian
and vehicular accessibility. In spite of
containing various kinds of boundaries,
it can be noted that Harvard
campus merges with the surrounding
Figure 5. Harvard University Aerial View (Source: Url-2).
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
96
Figure 6. Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each analyzed criteria
(Source: Authors).
urban space. It has a high level of public
accessibility in different modes and
conserves its public character.
Moreover, Harvard University offers
a wide range of amenities to its urban
context including cultural, athletic, religious
facilities, museums, exhibitions
spaces. There are plenty of seminars,
workshops, educational programs, art,
and cultural events, theatre performances,
sports games that are held in
Harvard during the year which are accessible
to the public.
Harvard University spatial
analysis:
Discussion
Harvard University has been selected
as a case study because of its very
high academic ranking and high per-
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97
Figure 6 (Continued). Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each
analyzed criteria (Source: Authors).
formance in sustainability, and being
the best representative of an integrated
university campus. Primarily, through
literature review and examining campus
development maps, masterplans,
university annual reports, university
website, google maps, and videos of
the campus, the campus development
process and its spatial features were
described. Then using campus masterplans,
Google Earth maps, Google
maps and Openstreetmaps, campus
analytical maps were reproduced. Each
map illustrates one or more of the criteria
of the Histology Atlas of Campus
Form. Then, the Histology Atlas of
Campus Form was used as a benchmark
to assess each spatial and morphological
criterion. It is noticeable
that, in most of the criteria related to
spatial and morphological dimensions,
Harvard University has scored very
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
98
Figure 6 (Continued). Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each
analyzed criteria (Source: Authors).
high. The campus has been located at
the center of the city of Cambridge,
Massachusetts and has been evolved
with its surrounding urban context.
Thus, there is a high level of spatial homogeneity,
connectivity, and integration
between the two domains. Campus
shows a low level of compactness and a
high level of density considering its urban
fabric context. Being constructed
within a phase of history, it has several
spatial structures but the entire campus
is well-organized and demonstrate
consistency and unity. The campus
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99
Figure 6 (Continued). Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each
analyzed criteria (Source: Authors).
has a unique architectural character
with several landmarks and is highly
legible. Land uses are mixed with the
inclusion of various types of student
housing which enhances the liveability
and vitality of the setting. Campus
boundaries are visually and physically
preamble. There are several types of
transportation means that increases
campus accessibility. The campus has a
high ratio of green space and well-designed
open spaces that are accessible
to the public. Harvard University also
shares many of its amenities with the
The histology atlas of campus form: A framework to explore liveability and sustainability in
university campuses
100
Figure 6 (Continued). Analytical Analysis Maps and Histology Form Scheme of each
analyzed criteria (Source: Authors).
general public including museums, exhibition
spaces, performance spaces,
library, hospitals, and athletic facilities.
In this sense, Harvard University itself
is a landmark for the region and well
integrated with its community.
5. Last remarks
Universities are large urban institutions
and microcosms of society.
They are agents of transformation and
contribute to the socio-cultural, environmental,
economic, and physical
development of their hosting urban
space. As place-bound institutions,
they are influential entities in liveability
and sustainability of their campus
space and surrounding urban context.
Considering the urban form, concepts
of sustainability and liveability are interrelated.
Accordingly, sustainability
endorses a better quality of life and a
more liveable urban environment. The
idea is applicable to the campus form
but it needs to consider the specific
physical and functional aspects of a
university campus setting.
To avoid subjective evaluation of
liveability and sustainability of university
campus form, this research
has developed “The Histology Atlas of
Campus Form”. The model is grounded
on the interpretive study of concepts
of university’s outreach activities, liveability,
sustainability, campus form,
and campus design principles. It also
benefits from the findings of campus
masterplans content analysis. Campus
masterplans address the university’s
goals, objectives, and missions. Although
there are complexity and diversity
considering diversified university
masterplans, their defined strategies
can be used as a complementary source
for the existing academic literature on
the subject of university campus physical
features.
The research has developed a set of
criteria composed of nine criteria and
twenty-eight sub-criteria to assess the
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio
101
sustainability and liveability of campus
form. These criteria include liveability,
legibility, cohesion, compactness,
walkability, accessibility, connectivity,
integration, and sustainability.
This research attempts to operationalize
the spatial and morphological aspects
of campus form in terms of liveability
and sustainability and provide a
theoretical framework that can be applied
to various university campuses.
The proposed model hopes to provide
a comprehensive multi-criteria analysis
to assess a university campus form
in terms of sustainability and liveability.
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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • H. Razavivand Fard, Y. Demir, M. Trisciuoglio
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 103-114
The effects of interaction and
learning styles on children’s
experiences in exhibition spaces
Seniye Banu GARİP 1 , Gökçe EVREN 2
1
baseskici@itu.edu.tr • Department of Interior Architecture, Faculty of
Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
2
gokcevren@gmail.com • Interior Architectural Design Program, Institute of
Social Sciences, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.57804
Abstract
The ‘didacticism’ oriented exhibition spaces first seen in 20th Century that begun
with the idea of modern museums have led the new design understanding
to be influential and also enabled the visitors actively participate in exhibitions.
Today, interaction design is used extensively in exhibition spaces and in-depth
studies are required to provide interaction most particularly for children. This
article examines the contribution of interaction design and methods to spatial
experience and learning process of children in exhibition spaces. In this context
it is investigated how the processes of learning, experience, communication and
interaction can be coordinated by means of emotions, senses, activities and play.
A research which includes an exhibition design for primary school children and
an experiment which is done with 121 children that experienced the exhibition is
conducted. The exhibition is designed to give information about the story of the
novel ‘My Sweet Orange Tree’ of Jose Mauro de Vasconcelos to children via generated
spatial experiences. Students’ experiences and behaviors are observed, and a
questionnaire is done in order to understand the children’s evaluations and to test
their understanding of the story. As a result, some clues related with interaction
design were highlighted for future applications. Basicly, it is experienced that, in
exhibition spaces for children, interactivity can be ensured not only by use of digital
technicques, but also various methods as well.
Keywords
Exhibition design, Interaction design, Learning styles, Play.
104
1. Introduction
The archetypes of exhibition spaces
used for preservation and exhibition
within the historic process go back
to Paleolithic Era (Hein, 2000). However,
the exhibition spaces described
as the first ones in history are ‘cabinets
of curiosities’. These spaces from
16th Century have become the places
where the intriguing objects found
during geographical explorations are
exhibited (Bayar, 2011). The museums
which have opened to public in time
have become public places for learning,
investigating, meeting with people
and entertaining (Hooper-Greenhill,
1991). Especially the ‘didacticism’ oriented
exhibition spaces first seen in
20th Century that begun with the idea
of modern museums have led the new
design understanding to be influential
and also enabled the visitors actively
participate in exhibitions. The ‘Deustches
Museum’ (Ahlamo, 2013) which
was opened in the early 20th Century
in Munich can be qualified as a transition
period during which the visitors
have become ‘active’. In time, exhibition
spaces have become places appealing
to senses where the objects are not
only exhibited but presented together
with different experiences. The physical
activities of visitors when they visit
an exhibition space such as pressing
buttons have gained acceptance as a
communication tool for information
transfer and a factor arousing the
awareness of visitors (Henning, 2006).
In 1960s and 1970s learning in museums
has become an ‘exploration’ with
the theories of professional psychologists
like Jean Piaget, LV Vigotsky and
Jerome Bruner (Hein, 2000). At the
end of the 20th Century, the museums
have adopted the idea that all visitors
should take an active role in a museum
and establish a mutual communication
with museums (Hein, 2000). Under the
influence of political, economic and
social developments in that period, the
museums have become places where
the public would exchange opinions
and the visitors have gained an active
role due to these developments. This
active role has become more concrete
in time and underlay the interactive
exhibitions at the present time. For this
reason, it is necessary to study the designs
of interactive exhibition spaces
extensively and examine the experiences
thoroughly.
This article examines the contribution
of interaction design and
methods in exhibition spaces to spatial
experience and learning process
of children. Within the scope of the
study, it is aimed to investigate, reveal
and practically test the required methods
to provide interaction for children
in exhibition spaces. It is investigated
how the processes of learning, experience,
communication and interaction
can be coordinated by means of emotions,
senses, activities and play. When
studying on the concepts of interaction
and communication for children in exhibition
spaces, particularly experience
and learning processes gain importance.
In this context, it is considered
that studies investigating learning and
behaviors of children such as behavioral,
cognitive, social and humanistic
theories should be taken as a reference
in design of interactive spaces for children.
In addition to this, the relationship
of play was investigated along with
spatial experience and learning activity
and it is discussed on the basis of play
theories.
2. Learning, playing, and interaction
in exhibition spaces for children
Exhibition spaces are communication
platforms. According to Hooper-Greenhil
(1991), communication is
a fundamental function of museums
which attracts the visitors to exhibition
space, satisfy their needs and meets
their intellectual needs. Communication
in exhibition spaces has been
examined and interpreted in terms of
different dimensions. According to
Witcomb (2003), this multi-dimensional
communication between the
space and the visitors can be examined
in three basic forms; single acting,
double acting and multi acting (mass)
communications. Single acting com-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
105
munication is the first and basic form
of communication where the exhibition
space plays the role of transmitter
and visitors are recipients. As stated by
Witcomb (2003), visitors are regarded
only as recipients in this form of communication
and stipulated as the last
step of the production process but not
as an active element of it. Double acting
communication is a form of communication
where the visitor mutually interacts
with the space and contributes
to the space. This definition generally
accepts interactive exhibition forms,
McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013)
ascribe this property to freedom and
unlimitedness of exhibition spaces and
even consider the at will back and forth
circulation of visitors as a feedback of
visitors provided to the space. Multi
acting (mass) communication has
emerged as the exhibition spaces have
become places for social meeting and
sharing. With this purpose, exhibition
spaces had an important role as social
meeting points. Multi acting communication
form contributes both to this
role and to educational purposes.
Hein (2000) states that the exhibition
spaces have become places where
senses and emotions of visitors are
aimed to influence in the process of
time, instead of where information are
transferred by the exhibited objects.
One of the components of experience
is physical activity as well as senses
and emotions. When considered in
terms of learning, interpretation has
relationships with senses of sight, hearing,
smell, taste and touch, and kinetic
movement. When physical activity
unites with senses and emotions, the
visitor has an experience and the information
obtained as a result of this
experience is imprinted onto visitor’s
brain.
The potential of the exhibition space
in learning arises from the possibility
of educating and actively stimulating
the emotions and imagination (Hooper-Greenhill,
1991). The advantage of
exhibition spaces compared to books
is that they make the visitors, sort of
readers, have a role in the activity and
this makes the exhibition spaces more
productive (Locker, 2011). In addition,
interactivity will encourage the visitors
to make other visits as well as presenting
an entertaining experience (Digger,
2002). The play factor in interactive activities
provides an attractive learning
style especially for children (Locker,
2011). Studies have shown that knowledge,
thoughts and emotions acquired
in interactive exhibitions can be remembered
even after 6 months (Allen
and Gutwill, 2004). According to a research
made by Adams and Moussouri
(2002), the visitors classify interactive
exhibitions as entertaining, exciting,
educating, memorable, appealing to
different senses and activating the visitors
compared to noninteractive exhibitions.
According to Bloom and Powell
(1984), it will be appropriate to associate
the activities in museums with
the notion of ‘learning’ instead of ‘education’.
Defining the museums as
learning places is a conscious and purposeful
act and consequently the role
of the museums in education will be
understood better. Although very few
theoretical studies related to “learning”
in exhibition spaces are done and no
conventional practices are available,
numerous theories have been developed
in respect of learning throughout
the history. Behavioral theories which
incorporate Pavlov’s theory of classical
conditioning (Watson, 2013), Skinner’s
operant conditioning theory and connectionism
theory (Skinner, 1938) are
focused on passive quality of learning
and argued that learning is realized as
a reaction to external stimuli. On the
other hand, cognitive theories have
emerged against the theories which exclude
individuals from act of learning.
These theories which are composed of
Gestalt theory and constructivist theory
dwell on the activities of individual
and define the learning process with
phases of perception and coding of
stimuli, comparing them with the past
data, committing them to memory
and remembering them. Piaget’s theory
of constructivist learning has been
The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences in exhibition spaces
106
considerably influential on exhibition
spaces. In the proceeded process, some
social theories have been suggested.
The social theories composed of Bandura’s
observational learning theory
(Bandura, 1977) and Vygotsky’s social
constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978)
have emphasized that being together
in a place and communicating and
interacting with each other affects the
learning process of individuals. The
prominent humanistic theories suggested
are Montessori’s experiential
theory and Rogers’ emotional learning
theory. These theories suggest that children
can learn more deeply by gaining
experience (Mclnerney, 2007). Acquisition
of emotions and experience is of
capital importance for the knowledge
have a realistic impact on the individual.
When the studies in this field are
examined, it is revealed that the concept
of ‘learning’ is in connection with
active acts, social interaction and emotional
and kinesthetic activities of the
individual.
When children’s learning experience
is examined, it is seen that ‘playing’ activities
includes these processes at the
most. Contribution of the concept of
play to learning has been presented
in time by means of different theories
and different definitions. Play concept
presents important specification for
designing exhibition spaces for children
by providing both social and individual
interaction and experience to
children. Piaget, Smilansky and Parten
introduces three important basic theories
of play in this respect. Piaget classifies
games in three categories; practice
play includes plays that children repeat
the actions of simple motor skills and
support learning (Piaget, 1962; Ginsburg
and Opper, 1987). By contrast
with this, symbolic play allows children
to symbolize objects and things
as different than the intended function.
The third group expressed as formal
play, defines the games where the roles
and tasks specified basing on a certain
group of rules are performed. Some
plays classified by Smilansky share
similarities with Piaget’s classification.
In addition to these, constructive plays
by which children can reveal their creative
and active aspects and dramatic
plays in which the children play an active
role in games are also determined
as two different types of play (Goldman,
1987). Parten has examined the
plays in terms of their ways of social
communication (Parten, 1932). While
unoccupied plays are games that children
experience on their own, onlooker
plays are games that the children
play separately but observe eachother.
In parallel plays, children play the
Figure 1. Relations of experience, ınteraction and communication with learning theories and
theories of play.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
107
same game differently while in associate
plays children start to communicate
but are not influenced by each other.
Finally, cooperative plays are games in
which children play by mutual interaction
and communication.
Comprehension and application of
the classifications of play are crucial for
reinforcing the experiences of children
with different methods in exhibition
spaces. In this context, relationships of
all titles and notions investigated and
discussed are shown in Figure 1 with
the aim of establishing a general framework
and understanding the relationships.
3. Case study: “My Sweet Orange
Tree” exhibition design for children
Within the scope of the research, an
exhibition is designed and a case study
is conducted in order to investigate
the contribution of interaction design
and methods to spatial experience and
learning process of children. The research
is supported by Istanbul Technical
University, Master Degree Scientific
Research Projects Support Programme.
Aiming at presenting Jose Mauro de
Vasconcelos’ children’s novel named
“My Sweet Orange Tree” interactively,
Table 1. Analysis of the book “My Sweet Orange Tree” and
structure of the exhibition.
an experimental exhibition including
different interaction techniques for semantic
comprehension of the novel is
applied and primary school students
have participated in this experimental
exhibition. The exhibition was held
at the Science Center located on the
ITU Faculty of Architecture Campus
within the scope of the Science Festival
which lasted for four days. A total
of 121 school-age children in the age
group between 7-13 have experienced
the study. As a result of the study, some
clues related with interaction design for
children were highlighted for future applications.
3.1. Design process and
application of the exhibition
During the working process, the
content of the novel ‘My Sweet Orange
Tree’ was analyzed at first stage and an
exhibition was created which the events
within the book were represented. The
novel tells the grow up story of a 5 year
old child named Zeze. The story was
divided into 7 main parts and each
part was exhibited by using a different
interactive exhibition technique. At
the end of the exhibition, responses,
activities and experiences of the children
during the exhibition were observed
and the impacts of interactivity
methods that were used on senses,
emotions and memory of the children
were examined by survey method after
the experimental exhibition.
In order for the parts to be
experienced interactively, physical
activity methods such as touching and
joining in an activity were implemented
in the light of the notions of sense,
emotion and experience along with
standard demonstration. The parts of
the story, their contents and experience
modes are shown in Table 1.
The exhibition space has been
constructed in the manner to include
the sections resulting from the analysis
of the book. In each section, experiences
related to a different part of the book
are presented. These experiences are
constructed with different methods in
the light of different learning and play
theories (Figure 2).
The following objectives are planned
to be achieved as the basic design
criteria:
The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences in exhibition spaces
108
Figure 2. Parts of the book “My Sweet Orange Tree” on the plan of exhibition
space.
• Providing an experience to children
that resembles book reading
• Ensuring the children pass through
emotional and experiential stages similar
to those of the main character of the
story, Zeze
• Appealing to different senses of the
children
• Enabling the children to have an
experience they can understand and
remember
• Encouraging children to read the
novel named ‘My Sweet Orange Tree’
450 units of cardboard boxes in size
of 30x50x50cm were used to create the
exhibition space (Figure 3). The exhibition
space as a whole resembles the activity
of book reading, it is composed of
hidden and consecutive steps to arouse
curiosity. Thus, the only part that children
can see from the outside is the entrance,
that is the cover, and they will
see other stages as they proceed. These
progressive stages are arranged in the
order determined in accordance with
the analysis of the book basing on the
important milestones in the oncoming
sections of the book. Table 2 contains
images related to how all parts of the
book are experienced by the children.
3.1.1. Parts of the exhibition:
Introducing book through spatial
experience
The students who visited the exhibition
were taken in twos and they were
observed one by one at each tour. The
decision to enable two children expe-
Figure 3. Application process of the exhibition.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
109
Table 2. Images related to how parts of the book are experienced
by the children.
Figure 4. Steps that children will follow.
rience the exhibition at the same time
was taken to ensure the social interaction
to take place. When two children
arrive at the exhibition space, they see
a wall and two earphones (Table 1a).
This represents the moment when the
reader first sees a book. The wall that
the visitor sees is the equivalent of the
book cover. In order to arouse the curiosity
of the visitor, it is arranged in
the manner so that it is not possible
for them to see other spaces, as well as
reading a book. Two different guidance
are provided with earphones which
are in different colors. First the story
is briefly summarized as an introduction
and later on, the visitor is asked to
follow either one of the blue or orange
colored steps.
Both children will follow the steps
in the color they are told to pass to
the next part (Figure 4). When they
step on the footprints, an illuminated
inscription appears on the ground informing
them about their first task in
the next part.
In the first part of the exhibition, a
grammatical game where it is intended
to give main information about Zeze’s
life has been developed. Aim is to motivate
children to read the text and at
the same time enjoy themselves as they
are playing the game of combining the
words with the images that represent
those words (Table1b). The system on
the play wall in this part is operated
with electromagnets. These electromagnets
close the mechanism when a
child moves on and then opens it for
the next child. Thus the images fall on
the ground and the game will be ready
for the following experiences.
In Part 2, Zeze meets a sweet orange
sapling and makes friends with it. Being
a daydreamer, Zeze is friends with
dogs and chickens and he also believes
that many living creatures around him
speak to him. He engages in a similar
dialogue with this sweet orange sapling
he met. In this part of the exhibition,
a three-dimensional physical tree figure
faces the visitor. This tree figure
is made of MDF material which was
produced with CNC cutting technique.
There is an inscription on the sweet orange
sapling which reads; ‘Trees speak
with their whole body. Put your ear on
my trunk and listen to my heart beat!’
The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences in exhibition spaces
110
There is an odorizer under the tree figure
and a wireless speaker on the upper
part. A heartbeat is heard from this
speaker. The aim in this section is making
the children put their ear on the
tree like Zeze and listen to the heartbeat
of it (Table 1c). In addition orange
fragrance is emitted into the space to
appeal their sense of smell along with
senses of sight and hearing of the children.
Part 3 is the section of poverty at
Christmas. In this part of the novel,
Zeze and his brother Luis dream of
a New Year’s Eve gift. A truck full of
gifts will come to the neighborhood
for poor children but when the children
arrive at the square where this
truck is parked, all gifts were handed
out and nothing was left. As a New
Year’s tradition, Zeze puts his shoes
in front of his door for Santa Claus to
fill them but there was no gift in them,
either. Besides, there is nothing much
for them to eat at New Year’s Eve. In
brief, Zeze has aspired for a gift in this
part but his hands were empty. In this
part of the exhibition it is aimed that
children would share a similar feeling
with Zeze. Accordingly the command
on the steps tells them ‘Look for your
gift in the boxes!’ Two children open
the boxes lined up with two tracks on
both sides one-by-one but there are no
gifts in these boxes both only inscriptions
which tell that Zeze didn’t get any
gifts. The inscriptions in four boxes are
respectively as follows; “Zeze and his
brother dream of getting gifts at New
Year’s Eve”, “But they don’t receive any
gifts and they don’t have money to
buy any”, “Zeze’s father is unemployed
and his family is very poor”, and “This
saddens especially Zeze and his father
very much”. The children have eagerly
opened the boxes either in sequence or
randomly and faced with the saddening
story of Zeze (Table 1d).
Part 4 is named as ‘meet with the
street singer’. In this part of the novel,
Zeze meets with a street singer and
starts working with this street singer.
In this part of the exhibition, the visitor
receives this command: ‘Move on with
your friend step-by-step!’ and each
visitor should move on following the
steps having the same color with him/
her. There are numbers on these steps,
thus the visitors will pass over the same
numbers in turn (Table 1e). In implementation
of this part, the children
hear a part of the story of this part
when they step on each footprint. Sensors
are placed under the footprints.
The text being read is accompanied by
music. When they come to the last few
footprints, they will only hear this music
and leave this part.
Part 5 is where Zeze and Valaderes
from Portugal meet. Zeze and Valaderes
are two characters who meet and
love each other too much. In this part,
the aim is having the children communicate
with each other more. The command
issued to the children when they
pass to this part is as follows; ‘Place
your head in the hole!’ Two cardboard
figures await the children in this part.
There are holes on the heads of these
figures that the children can place their
heads. The children follow the footprints
in their own colors, arrive at
their places and place their heads into
the holes. When they put their heads
into the holes, they will see each other
and the inscription in front of them.
This inscription says; ‘Read your frıend
who you are!’ There are self-presentation
texts of Valaderes and Zeze next to
each other’s figures. Thus the children
Figure 5. Primary school students visited the exhibition.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
111
Figure 6. Age profile of the participant students.
Figure 7. Common words that the participants who were in
different age groups have used frequently (a.7-10 age group b.
11-13 age group).
Figure 8. Most liked parts of the exhibition by students.
will have a more intense dialogue with
the other visitor they share the space
(Table 1f).
Part 6 represents the part where Zeze
was beaten. Zeze is unjustly beaten by
his father and older sister and these
beatings leave deep marks in his heart.
Zeze becomes seriously sick in bed and
decides not to love his father any more
because of these beatings. In this part
of the exhibition, children diverge and
move on separately. An image which is
seen differently from two angles is used
here (Table 1g). When the children enter
the space, they see a smiling child
but the child transforms into a beaten
and harmed child as they move on.
At the end of the story, Part 7, Zeze’s
beloved Portuguese friend Valaderes
is passed away and Zeze has become
a grown child and left his imaginary
heroes. The children read the inscriptions
on the floor aloud one by one and
complete the exhibition and the story.
The inscription on the floor is as follows;
‘One day when Zeze is at school,
one of his friends hurriedly enters the
classroom and tells the class that there
was a train accident nearby and Valaderes,
whom Zeze loves so much is
dead. Thereupon Zeze becomes so sick
in bed. When he is recovered, he leaves
his dreams and heroes and becomes a
grown child’ . In this part where Zeze
leaves his dreams, children leave the
exhibition.
3.2. Survey method
121 students visited the exhibition
in scope of the experiment (Figure
5). Their experiences were observed
during their visit, and a questionnaire
was applied to the students in order
to understand their understandings
of the story, the most liked parts, and
their enthusiasm on reading the book.
Figure 6 represents the age profile of
the participant students.
3.3. Results and evaluations
In the survey, students were asked
to summarize the story of “My Sweet
Orange Tree”. Figure 7 shows the graph
of common words that the participants
of the exhibition who were in different
age groups have used frequently.
Results show that there are some differences
and also similarities between
different age groups. According to this,
it is seen that the students in the 7-10
age group mostly remember the events
while the students in the 11-13 age
group remember the whole story and
Zeze’s poverty.
Figure 8 shows the graph which
contains the numerical values related
to the parts of the exhibition that the
students liked most. While the students
in the 7-10 age group loved Part
3 most (33%), the students in the 11-
13 age group loved Part 5 (33%) most.
Smaller children (between 7-10 age)
The effects of interaction and learning styles on children’s experiences in exhibition spaces
112
liked repetitive and practical activities
and they were more effective on their
memories; while social activities were
more attractive for other children (between11-13
age). The written information
was not attractive for the smaller
children and they could not remember
the information. On the other hand,
for both age gropus, comprehensibility
ensured pozitive effects.
The students who have visited the
exhibition were examined in terms of
their experiences, emotions, senses
and the activities they’ve performed.
As a result of the observations, some issues
were determined that might be inputs
for future designs. The evaluations
regarding each part are given below:
• At the entry, the earphones handed
out to children were found interesting
especially by the students of younger
ages. The students older than 10 years
have listened to the voices from the
earphones and immediately left the
place but those who were younger than
10 years have listened to the voices for
a longer time. It was found out that the
7-10 age group liked this part more
than the students in other age groups.
• It was observed that all age groups
loved Part 1 evenly but the percentage
of being liked is not higher than the
percentages of other parts. While most
of the younger children have chosen to
read the inscription from the beginning
and aloud, it was observed that
the children at the age of 11 and older
were tend to see the words quickly
and place them in their places. Thus
written texts have been perceived by
younger children more strongly and in
the part of the survey where the story
is summarized, especially the children
who are in the 7-11 age group have
rendered the story by using the exact
words in the text.
• The second part where the children
saw the tree was also interesting
for the children. Listening to the heartbeats
of the tree and sensing the orange
fragrance was an exciting activity for
the groups younger than 11 years and
their reaction was mostly astonishment.
However, some children have
identified themselves with the main
character of the book, Zeze, in this part
and stated that they feel like they are
Zeze in this exhibition.
• Part 3 which was about poverty at
Christmas is selected as the part the
children loved most (28%). They have
all got excited and looked for their gifts
and were disappointed like Zeze when
they couldn’t find them. They have
read most of the inscriptions excitedly
and eagerly and poverty of Zeze was
the most frequently mentioned words
within the survey.
• None of the students liked Part 4.
The interactive experience provided
in this part was not understood by the
students and the need for extensive
guidance was felt.
• Part 5 where Zeze met with Valaderes
was the second most liked part
of the exhibition (26%). This part was
appealing for children in younger and
older age groups and it has become an
activity which strengthens the dialogue
between two students in each group.
The majority of children have read the
text aloud to their friends. However, it
was understood that there was a need
for flexibility regarding dimension
and space since the age range was very
wide. Most of the children have mentioned
meeting with the old man in the
survey.
• Regarding Part 6, particularly the
students in the 7-11 age group have remembered
the beating Zeze got from
his father and 47 students (39%) have
mentioned this beating. Many children
were stunned in this part during the
exhibition. Especially the younger children
have found the change in the images
surprising. However, very few of
the children have read the inscription
on the wall. As they were got used to
interact till this part, they have tried to
change the accordion image by playing.
• Part 7 where they have left the
exhibition was one of the parts where
the children have read the inscriptions
most but just a few have mentioned the
data in this part in their summaries
(14%). This was the part of the exhibition
that the children have wandered
easily and quickly. Reading the word
groups beginning from the closest,
while they walk it was fun for them
and each age group has easily completed
this group at a pace specific to that
group without the need of any warning.
At the end of the exhibition, the
novel itself was exhibited together with
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
113
the questionnaire. One of the questions
in the questionnaire was whether the
children would like to read the book
or not. Only two (2%) children have
responded negatively to this question.
All children except these two have given
answers indicating that they are eager
to read the book.
As it is understood from the reactions
of the children after the exhibition
and their comments in the survey,
it was a new and different experience
for most of the children. They were
very excited because they couldn’t see
inside at the entrance. All age groups
have stated that they would like to have
this experience again. They have left
the exhibition joyfully and happily.
4. Conclusions
In exhibition design, various factors
are effective such as plan layouts,
speculation of space, properties of the
exhibited content, concept, information
that is planned to be represented
to the visitors, time that the visitor will
spend, and so on. Design of the exhibitions
has to include all the requirements
in an optimum balance and also
in a flexible way to provide each visitor
different experiences in their point of
view. As a summary of this research,
some important clues are revealed that
might be crucial for the design of exhibition
spaces for children in the light of
experiences and evaluations that were
exposed in scope of the study:
• It was seen that children of different
age groups react differently to interactive
constructs in exhibition spaces
and these constructs had different
effects on children.
• “Spatial repetition and sequency”
are important during the visits, it
helps children to learn the language of
the space so they learn the space and
interact with the exhibition easier progressively.
• Parts where “sensual transmission”
is provided were more effective and
memorable for children.
• Parts that included activities which
provided “social interaction”, were
amusing and memorable for children.
• Transmission style of the information
and its understandability was important
with respect to be understood
by the visitor and memorability. Accordingly,
when the behaviors and experiences
of the students are evaluated,
it was seen that audio and visual narratives
were more understandable by
younger age groups than inscriptions
and followed without boring them.
• However, it was understood that
arrangements where the students are
guided by guides or effective directory
methods in interactive constructs is of
prime importance.
Acknowledgement
Research project presented in this
article was supported by Istanbul Technical
University, Master Degree Scientific
Research Projects Support Programme.
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ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. B. Garip, G. Evren
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 115-129
From rigidity to ephemerality:
Architecture as a socio-spatial
assemblage of heterogeneous
components
Ferro YUDISTIRA 1 , Yandi Andri YATMO 2 , Paramita ATMODIWIRJO 3
1
ferroplace@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
2
yandiay@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
3
mitayandi@gmail.com • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
Received: May 2019 • Final Acceptance: August 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.14890
Abstract
This study discusses the idea of ephemeral architecture as an alternative
approach to overcoming the rigidity issue of the built environment. Ephemeral
architecture is an architectural space that appears and disappears in a short period
of time. The ephemerality of such a space indicates that there are components that
are not permanently available in the built environment. The question then arises
as to what these components are, in what way they are present or available, and
how they relate to each other to temporarily form a certain architectural space in
the built environment. Using assemblage as the theoretical approach, the study
investigates these questions through the case of trader space in the courtyard of
the Sunda Kelapa mosque in Jakarta. The research makes three main findings
regarding: (1) the heterogeneity of entities that act as architectural components,
including everyday items such as clothes, socks and plastic rugs; (2) the process
of spatial assemblage in which these entities relate and interact; and (3) social
assemblage as the non-physical structure that frames this spatial process.
Keywords
Assemblage, Ephemeral, Rigidity, Everyday items.
116
1. Introduction
There is growing awareness of the
importance of time in architecture,
specifically related to the rigidity of the
built environment in responding to the
“unprecedented population growth,
urbanization, social and technological
change” (Lifschutz, 2017, p.8). Therefore,
instead of a being a rigid and
timeless object, it seems necessary to
see the built environment as a “mutable
subjects much affected by [the] everyday
uses and intentional intervention”
of its users (Frank, 2016. p.8).
Various approaches have been developed
to overcome this rigidity issue.
However, they tend to focus on the
physical structure of the built environment,
either by making the elements
moveable/changeable, or by making it
suitable for reuse after a structure has
been dismantled. Some of these efforts
originated many years ago. For instance,
in 1961, Cedric Price proposed
a design called the fun palace, based
on an idea about time and uncertainty.
Price argued that a built environment
should be “enabled rather than determined
human activities” (Lifschutz,
2017, p.8). In Japan, “major corporations
are pursuing research and development
to create systems for moveable
partitions, bathrooms, and kitchens to
underpin flexible homes” (Lifschutz,
2017, p.12). The approach of Price and
the Japanese corporations can be categorized
as an example of ‘architecture
as a system’, which can respond to the
changing demands of users (Murray &
Brand, 2017). Another approach considers
“what happens to architecture
when its time is up”; how its elements
can be dismantled, and then reused by
a community (Armborst, D’Orca, &
Theodore, 2016, p.110).
The idea of ephemeral architecture
offers an alternative approach in response
to this rigidity issue by extending
the range of components that form
the architectural space. Ephemerality
indicates the importance of components
which are not part of the physical
structure of the built environment;
non-static components that are only
present or available within a particular
time-frame. The question subsequently
arises as to what these components
are. In addition, in what way they are
present or available in the built environment,
and what the process is that
temporarily assembles these components
into a particular form of architectural
space.
This study investigates these questions
through the case of trader spaces
that appear and disappear in the
Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard, in
central Jakarta, Indonesia. This kind
of occurrence, a cluster of trader space
inside or near a mosque area, is a common
phenomenon in societies that are
dominated by Muslims, such as that of
Jakarta. However, there is a disjunctive
relationship (Tschumi, 1994) between
the trader space and the mosque
courtyard, because the courtyard does
not have any specific features to accommodate
the trader space. However,
the cluster of trader spaces still appears
in the courtyard, albeit only for a
short period. In other words, this case
demonstrates the capability of the built
environment to accommodate different,
or even incompatible, everyday
uses.
Using an approach based on assemblage
theory (DeLanda, 2006; Deleuze
& Guattari, 1980/1987), this study aims
to explain the ephemerality of trader
space as a process of socio-spatial assemblage.
Specifically, it investigates
the entities that are involved as components
of the space, the process of relation-interaction
between these entities,
and the layer of non-physical structure
that frames this process. Understanding
this socio-spatial assemblage process,
and the wide range of entities involved
as resources in this process, can
contribute to developing an alternative
design approach that can reduce the rigidity
of the built environment.
2. Theoretical discussion
2.1. Ephemeral architecture: Event,
materiality and compatibility
The basic idea of ephemeral architecture
is architecture that appears and
disappears in a short period of time.
The term ‘ephemeral’ is derived from
the Greek epi (on) and hemerai (a day),
which means ‘lasting only a day’ (Partridge,
1966). To date, there have been
two points of view in the discourse on
ephemeral architecture: first, the architecture
that is related to special events;
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • F. Yudistira, Y. A. Yatmo, P. Atmodiwirjo
117
and second, that which is seen through
the fleeting materiality of its components.
From the first point of view, ephemeral
architecture is an architectural
space that appears along with special
or planned event, and then disappears
when the event ends. A special event
is an event held or created to achieve
specific objectives or to satisfy specific
needs (Getz, 2007; Matthews, 2008).
These objectives vary, from simple entertainment,
urban rituals or festivals
(Macy & Bonnemaison, 2008; Monin,
2003); to cultural and state celebrations
(Vinsentini, 2008); pilgrimage/religious
rituals (Mehrotra & Vera, 2014);
and expressions of ideas or political
propaganda (Delbeke, 2008). The components
that form the architectural
space, for instance stages, backdrops,
lighting etc., are specifically created to
support these objectives.
From the second point of view, the
ephemerality of architecture is seen
through the fleeting characteristics of
its components. The focus of related
discussion explores the possibility of
an architecture formed by non-visual
and immaterial elements, such as
sound, smell or even electromagnetic
waves (Haque, 2004; Karandinou 2013;
Pallasmaa, 2014). This exploration
aims to increase the utilization of all
the human senses, instead of just the
senses of vision, in the experience of
architecture.
Both points of view suggest the involvement
of ‘other’ components that
affect the ephemerality of an architectural
space. In other words, the idea
of ephemeral architecture extends
the range of components involved in
the formation of architecture. However,
neither point of view discusses
the importance of these other components
in relation to the contextuality of
ephemeral architecture; the relationship
between the ephemerality of the
architectural space and the specific circumstances
of the built environment,
in which ephemerality indicates the
importance of components that are not
part of its physical structure. This contextual
frame is important with regard
to the effort to increase the flexibility of
the built environment, making it able
to respond to changes in everyday use.
Within this contextual frame, this
study aims to investigate these ‘other’
components involved in the formation
of certain architectural space, and how
their availability affects the ephemerality
of such space. The following section
discusses assemblage theory as an approach
to identifying and analyzing the
entities that act as the components of
architectural space, the peculiar characteristics
of the relationship between
them, and the phases of the process in
which the components relate and interact.
2.2. Architecture as spatial
assemblage
Assemblage is an idea about a
‘whole’ formed by heterogenous components
(Anderson, Kearnes, McFarlane,
and Swanton, 2012; DeLanda,
2006; Harris, 2016; Müller, 2015). The
idea of assemblage could be considered
as a noun (object) or as a verb (process)
(Anderson et al., 2012; Dovey &
Woods, 2014; McFarlane, 2011). As
a noun, assemblage is an entity that
emerges through a ‘relation of exteriority’
between its components. This
relation means that various entities
which act as the assemblage components
do not merge into one seamless
unity or organism. Instead, they “may
be detached from it and then plugged
into a different assemblage in which its
interactions are different” (DeLanda,
2006. p.10). In this study, this idea is
used to analyze architecture as a spatial
assemblage that temporarily emerges
through the relation between heterogeneous
components, rather than as a
single seamless entity with permanent
characteristics.
As a verb, the relation that forms
the assemblage is not seen as a static
state. Instead, it is a dynamic process
with specific phases. It is important to
note that the assemblage theory does
not specifically mention the phases of
the assemblage process. However, we
argue that there are two concepts in
the theory that can be considered as
phases: territorialization and deterritorialization.
Territorialization is the
phase in which diverse components
are temporarily related or connected to
each other to define the boundary and
identity of the assemblage, while de-
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118
territorialization is the phase in which
the relation-interaction between components
destabilizes the boundary and
identity of an assemblage, and at some
point completely dismantles it (DeLanda,
2006; Deleuze & Guattari, 2004;
Kennedy, Bruce, McCann & Zapasnik,
2013; Muller, 2015).
This process of ‘appearing and disappearing’
through territorialization-deterritorialization
is the link that
connects the idea of the assemblage
process with the idea of ephemerality
in architecture. Therefore, this study
uses the idea to analyze the ephemerality
of architectural space as a process
of appearing and disappearing, involving
heterogeneous components and
through a particular series of phases.
However, we do not use territorialization-deterritorialization
as rigid conceptual
categories, to which any findings
should be confined. Instead, we
use both concepts as starting points or
guidance to analyze and understand
the overall appearing-disappearing
process of trader space in the Sunda
Kelapa mosque courtyard. Besides
territorialization-deterritorialization,
other concepts from assemblage theory
that we use as guidance in the analysis
process are capacities and properties.
The role of these concepts will be further
discussed in the following section.
3. Research methods
3.1. Data collection
This study is a qualitative and employed
both field observations and interviews
to collect the data. The data
from the observations were used to develop
semi-structured questions for the
interviews (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006),
which were held with different parties
involved, both directly and indirectly,
with the research case phenomenon.
This combination of multiple methods
and sources of information aims
to achieve a “more valid, reliable and
diverse construction of realities” (Golafshani,
2003, p.604).
The field observation consisted of
two stages. The first stage aimed to obtain
an overall picture of the presence
of clusters of trader space inside the
Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard. The
main information obtained from this
stage was: 1) the configuration of the
physical structure of the courtyard; 2)
the overall time-frame of the market/
bazaar events; 3) the overall variety of
entities (particularly goods) involved
in the formation of the trader space;
and 4) the configuration of the spatial
position of the traders’ space in the
courtyard. These data then were used
as the basis for conducting the second
stage of the field observation.
In the second stage, more specific
observations were made to identify all
the entities involved as components of
the trader space, and how the relations
and interaction between them made
the trader space appear or disappear in
the courtyard. This stage involved three
trader spaces (figure 1), which were selected
based on their level of complexity,
specifically regarding the quantity
and variety of the components that
formed the space. The first trader sold
men’s clothes, representing a low-complexity
space. The second trader sold
socks, employing a medium-complexity
space, while the third trader sold
men’s accessories (for example, wallets
and belts) in a high-complexity space.
In both stages, the data were recorded
using photographs. In the second
stage, the photos were taken sequentially
in the same position to fully capture
the whole appearing-disappearing
process of the selected trader space
(figure 2). For each selected trader,
this photo-taking process was conducted
several times, so that the data
from each process could be compared
to check the consistency of the information.
If there were photos from a
certain part of the process that were
missing, incomplete or seemed to be
inadequate (for example, because the
image of the process was blocked by a
mosque visitor), individual data could
complement each other.
Figure 1. From left to right: men’s clothes trader, socks trader,
accessories trader.
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Figure 2. Example of data from sequential photos.
The main aims of the interviews were
to gather information that could not be
obtained from the field observations.
For example, from the observations,
we can see that every trader will
occupy a specific position inside the
courtyard as a base to form their space.
However, we are unable to ascertain
the reasoning behind this action
merely through field observation. How
is a certain trader able to occupy that
specific spatial position? Are there any
specific rules or regulations? This kind
of information needed to be collected
through the interviews. TThe interview
is semi-structured, with primary pieces
of information collected using an
‘interview-guide’, while still open to
new ways of seeing and understanding
issues relevant to the topic (Cohen &
Crabtree, 2006).
The interviews were conducted with
various different parties. First, they
were held with administrative staff
of the official mosque management
institution (called Pengelola Masjid
Agung Sunda Kelapa or PMASK).
One of the most important pieces of
information from these interviews was
the existence of a paguyuban pedagang
(trader community). The second
party was the leader of the traders’
community. The third party was the
traders. The final party was the porters,
who support the traders in managing
the additional resources used in the
formation of trader space.
The interviews took place on-site(the
Sunda Kelapa mosque courtyard), specifically
in the time-frame of the bazaar
events, namely on Fridays, from approximately
07:00 to 15:30. This decision
was based on consideration of the
importance of the sites to the research
questions and the data possibly generated
from the interviews (Edwards
& Holland, 2013). For instance, it was
easier for the traders to provide information
about specific entities (for example,
physical features of the built environment,
tools and goods) involved
in the formation process of the trader
space while the event was taking place.
The only interviews not conducted on
site were those with the administrative
staff, which took place in the mosque
administrative office.
3.2. Analysis
The study used coding as the
method to analyze the data. Several
concepts from assemblage theory
were used as the theoretical lens in
the coding process. However, this
methodological approach did not
intend to deliberately confine the
categorization in the coding process
to the various theoretical concepts
(based on assemblage theory). These
theoretical concepts were intended as
guidance or a starting point of view
to sharpen the focus when analyzing
the data. Instead of being restricted to
a pre-established theoretical concept,
this method opens up the possibility
for adjustment when developing a new
framework of conceptual categories to
explain the research findings.
The paper discusses the results of
the analysis in three sections: (1) social
assemblage as the framework of
the spatial process; (2) trader space as a
spatial assemblage; and (3) the phases
in the appearing-disappearing process
of trader space. Each section contains
several conceptual categories as a base
to develop understanding from the
findings. Three concepts from assemblage
theory underlie the analysis in
the first and second sections, namely
From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial assemblage of heterogeneous
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120
(1) heterogenous components; (2) capacities;
and (3) properties (Anderson
et al., 2012; DeLanda, 2006; Harris,
2016).
The concept of heterogenous components
suggests analysis of the wide
range of entities that are possibly involved
as components of the assemblage,
while the concept of capacities
and properties is necessary to analyze
the relationship and interaction between
these components (McFarlane,
2011). Capacities are related to the capabilities
of certain entities that emerge
when they form a relationship and interaction
with others (DeLanda, 2006).
Property can be seen as a peculiarity
(for example shape, quality or social
position) or characteristic that is possessed
by a certain entity (Partridge,
1966), which can affect its capacities
(DeLanda, 2006).
The third section aims to explain
the ephemerality of trader space as a
spatial assemblage process with specific
phases. Territorialization and
deterritorialization are concepts that
represent a phase in the assemblage
process. The concept of territorialization
suggests analysis of the phase in
which the relation-interaction between
entities temporarily defines and stabilizes
the boundaries and identity of the
architectural space (DeLanda, 2006;
Kennedy et al., 2013; Müller, 2015). On
the other hand, the concept of deterritorialization
suggests analysis of the
phase in which the relation-interaction
between entities destabilizes the identity
and blurs (and then disassembles)
the boundaries of the space (DeLanda,
2006; Kennedy et al., 2013; Muller,
2015).
4. Brief description of the research
case
The case examined in this study is
trader spaces at a weekly event called
pasar (market or bazaar) that take places
inside a mosque called Sunda Kelapa
in central Jakarta, Indonesia. It occurs
every Friday, along with the routine
religious gathering called Shalat Jumat
(Friday prayer). Most of the traders
that participate in the event sell commodities
such as clothes, shoes, accessories
(belts, wallets, small sling bags)
and electronics.
Figure 3. Courtyard position as a transition area.
This trader space occupies the
courtyard of the mosque. In terms of
physical features, the courtyard does
not have any specific feature to support
or accommodate the presence of this
space; for example, no dedicated kiosks
or stalls for the traders. The courtyard
has no specific element or area to
properly display (and store) the goods.
Hence, each trader needs to bring additional
objects and utilize them as resources
to form their own space during
the bazaar.
However, albeit physically simple,
the courtyard is a transition area that is
passed through by many mosque visitors
(when they arrive and leave the
mosque area) (Figure 3). This fact plays
Figure 4. Difference between empty (top image)
and peak time (bottom image) of the courtyard.
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a crucial role during the peak times of
the bazaar, which occur directly after
the Friday prayers end (around 12:30
– 13:30), when there is a large stream
of visitors, most of whom have just
finished their Friday rituals, who walk
through the courtyard and observe the
goods sold by the traders.
Figure 4 show the different condition
of the courtyard when it is empty
and during the peak time of the bazaar.
Even though this time only exists for
approximately 45 minutes to an hour,
preparations to assemble each trader’s
space starts early in the morning (at
around 06:00 – 10:30). After the peak
time has ended, the traders need to disassemble
their spaces, which happens
around 13:30 – 14:30.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Social assemblage: Framework of
the spatial process
The findings reveal the existence
of social-assemblage in the form
of paguyuban pedagang (trader
community), as a layer of non-physical
structure that frames the spatial
assemblage process of the trader
space. The component of this social
assemblage is human actors with
particular social positions. In this case
there are three social positions, namely
permanent trader (PT), additional
trader (AT) and porter (Pr). A PT is
a member of the trader community,
while an AT is not a member of the
community, but is still occasionally
involved in the bazaar. A Pr plays a
supporting role that helps the traders
in the spatial assemblage process.
Social position is a non-physical
property of the actors that affects three
capacities that play a crucial role in the
spatial assemblage process (Figure 5),
namely: 1) the right to occupy a particular
spatial position inside the courtyard;
2) the right to bring and use objects
as (additional) resources that are
required to form the trader space; and
3) the capability to utilize the resources
and develop a set of relation-interactions
to form the trader space.
Each actor is only able to actualize
these capacities in a specific timeframe,
which is during the bazaar that
takes place along with the Friday prayer
ritual in the mosque. For example, regarding
the first capacity, PTs have the
right to ‘own’ a particular spatial position,
which they can use to form a trader
space inside the courtyard. However,
they can only occupy this position
during the bazaar on Fridays. They
cannot randomly come (for instance in
a Monday morning) and then occupy a
certain position to form a trader space
inside the courtyard.
The first capacity is crucial because it
allows certain actors to occupy a spatial
position that acts as a base to form the
trader space. Actors need to follow two
‘goods-based’ rules to acquire a social
position as a PT who owns a specific
Figure 5. Relation between social and spatial assemblage.
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122
spatial position in the courtyard. First,
the trader community has a regulation
regarding a limit on the number of
similar goods that can be sold. ‘Common
goods’, such as clothes, are limited
to five traders, while ‘rare goods’, such
as traditional medicine, are limited
to three traders. Second, traders with
similar goods are strongly suggested
not to form their space in adjacent positions.
There is usually a gap of around
two or three traders between traders of
similar goods.
ATs do not own a specific spatial
position in the courtyard, so they need
to search for an ‘empty position’ every
time they want to form their space.
There are two types of empty position
in the courtyard. First, one that is not
owned by any PT. Second, the position
is empty because the PT who owns it
is absent. When the AT finds an empty
position, they cannot directly occupy
it, but need to ask for permission from
the PTs in the area surrounding the
empty position.
The first capacity is closely related to
the other two. When traders are able to
occupy a position inside the courtyard,
then they are also allowed to bring
(and utilize) various objects as resources
to form a certain set of relations-interactions
that are required to form the
trader space.
5.2. Spatial assemblage: The
importance of everyday items and
the idea of the spatial role
This study argues that the ephemerality
of architectural space is affected
by the heterogeneity of its components.
The findings show that there is
wide range of entities that are involved
as components that form the trader
space, including everyday items such
as clothes, socks, plastic rugs and umbrellas.
The availability of these everyday
items plays an important role in
the ephemerality of the trader space.
This importance is based on two factors.
First, the traders have limited time
to actualize their capacities, specifically
those that allowed them to bring
and utilize these everyday items in the
courtyard. Second, the traders can easily
move or mobilize these items to another
location, even though the variety
and number of these can increase the
difficulty of this process.
However, the importance of these
everyday items does not reside in the
items themselves; instead, it should be
seen through their spatial role when
they form a relation-interaction with
other entities. Based on the concept of
capacities from assemblage theory, this
study develops the idea of the spatial
role to fully explain the relation-interaction
between the components of
spatial assemblage. This role can be
divided into three parts: the role itself,
the function of the role, and the actual
realization of the role.
The idea was developed to demonstrates
the variety of entities that act
as components of architectural space.
Different entities can act as components
with the same spatial role, even
though the realization of the role is different
(which also affects the qualities
provided by the entities). For example,
in trader space, there is a component
with a spatial role as a ‘boundary’. The
function of a ‘boundary’ in trader
space is to mark out the courtyard area
that can be used by traders, especially
to display their goods. In Case 1 (men’s
clothes trader), the entity that acts as
a ‘boundary’ is a plastic rug, which
actualizes the role by directly covering
the surface of the courtyard floor. In
Case 2 (sock trader), beside a plastic
rug, the entity which also does this is
an umbrella, which actualizes the role
by forming a shaded area that indirectly
covers the courtyard floor. The plastic
rug and umbrella therefore play the
same spatial role (as a boundary), even
though the properties of each lead to
different actualizations of the role. The
spatial role is also specifically related
to the components involved in the (de)
territorialization phase, which is when
the architectural space appears and disappears
(the phase will be explained in
the following section). In other phases,
the role of each assemblage component
Table 1. List of abbreviation for the sub-phases (each sub-phase
will be explained in the following section).
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will be explained with the concept of
capacities and properties.
5.3. Spatial assemblage: The
appearing and disappearing process
with specific phases
This section explains how trader
space appears and disappears in the
courtyard through a spatial assemblage
process with three phases: preparation,
(de)territorialization, and withdrawal.
Each phase is divided into several subphases
to further specify their significance
in the appearing-disappearing
process of trader space. Tables 2 show
information about the overall phases
(and sub-phases) of the spatial assemblage
for each selected case, along with
the entities that are involved, and the
time-frame of the process.
In the time-frame bar, there is a specific
block labeled ‘FPB’ (Friday Prayer
Break). This is the time when the main
part of the Friday Prayer ritual takes
Table 2. Overall phases of the spatial assemblage process.
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124
place. In this specific time-frame, none
of the bazaar activities is allowed to
be performed in the courtyard. This
stipulation perfectly demonstrates the
importance of rules as a part of social
assemblage in limiting the formation
of architectural space in a built environment.
Even though all the resources
are available and ready to use, they are
useless if the actors are unable to utilize
them.
In each phase, there are entities with
significant and insignificant roles. Significant
means that the entities play an
important role in forming the required
relation-interaction related to the peculiarity
of each phase in the spatial assemblage
process. Insignificant means
that the entities are merely present and
involved in the process, but have yet to
make any meaningful contribution to
it.
For example, in the men’s clothes’
trader space, the entities with a significant
role in the ‘defining boundary’
sub-phase are ‘trader’, ‘plastic rug’ and
‘courtyard’. The relation between these
entities defines the boundaries that
specify the trader space area. Meanwhile,
the role of ‘clothes’ in this subphase
is insignificant, because they are
merely involved as a resource (which
will have a significant role in the next
sub-phase).
The following sections will further
discuss the role and importance of
each phase and sub-phase in the appearing-disappearing
process of trader
space in the mosque courtyard.
5.3.1. Preparation: Setting-up
process
The aim of the preparation phase is
to set up two basic requirements that
are crucial to executing the following
phase ((de)territorialization), namely
(1) the availability of resources, and (2)
the availability of spatial position. This
phase is then divided into two subphases,
supplying resources and occupying
a position.
The aim of the ‘supplying resources’
sub-phase is to condition the availability
of a certain set of entities as
(additional) resources to form the
trader space. This sub-phase can be
performed by the traders themselves,
or with help of a porter. If the traders
execute this sub-phase by themselves,
then they also simultaneously occupy
a specific spatial position. If they utilize
the support of a porter, then the
resources that are placed by the porter
in a specific location will act as tags or
placeholders that prevent other traders
from occupying the position (figure
6-top image).
‘Occupying a position’ is the subphase
in which the trader occupies a
particular spatial position as a base to
form the trader space inside the court-
Figure 6. Supplying resources (top image) and occupying a
position (bottom image) sub-phases of socks trader.
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yard. This sub-phase, as previously
stated, can be performed simultaneously
with the process of supplying
resources. However, if in the previous
sub-phase trader utilizes the support
of a porter to tag or put a placeholder
down for his/her spatial-position, then
that trader will occupy the tagged-position
in this sub-phase (figure 6-bottom
image).
5.3.2. (De)Territorialization: The
appearing-disappearing process
(De)territorialization is the phase
in which the trader space appears
through the process of territorialization,
and then disappears through the
Figure 7. Defining boundaries sub-phase of men’s clothes trader
(top image) and socks trader (bottom image).
process of deterritorialization. This
phase is divided into four sub-phases:
defining boundaries, the emergence of
identity, the disappearance of identity,
and disassembling boundaries.
The ‘defining boundaries’ sub-phase
aims to form a relation between supporting
components, which differentiate
the area of trader space from the
others. The supporting component
is one that defines the quality of the
space (figure 7). For instance, a component
with a spatial role as a ‘boundary’
provides quality in the form of ‘clarity’
regarding the area of the trader space.
Different entities can act as supporting
components with the same spatial
role, albeit with different levels of
quality (depending on the properties
of the entities). Beside components
with spatial roles as ‘boundaries’, there
are also components with other spatial
roles such as ‘place to display’ or ‘sitting
place’, but all play a role in ‘defining’ the
trader space and differentiating it from
its surroundings.
‘Emergence of identity’ is a subphase
in which the identity of space
(as a trader space) emerges through
relation-interaction between the main
components of the space. The main
component is one whose presence,
and relation-interaction with other
main components, plays a crucial role
in the emergence of the identity of
certain architectural space. This space
can temporarily appear, even in an incompatible
built environment, if the
relation-interaction between the main
components can be formed in the environment.
For instance, trader space
can appear in the courtyard through
the relation-interaction between ‘seller’,
‘goods’, and ‘(potential) buyer’ (figure
8). However, unlike supporting
components, these main components
require specific entities that cannot be
easily replaced. For example, all traders
has specific entities that they can use as
goods to sell. These entities cannot be
easily replaced by others because they
are tied to the social and spatial position
of the trader.
‘Disappearance of identity’ is a subphase
in which the identity of the space
disappears because there is a change
in the relation-interaction between
the main components. For example,
From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial assemblage of heterogeneous
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126
when the peak time of the bazaar is
over, the traders need to disassemble
their space. This disassembling process
starts by dismantling the arrangement
of the goods and then storing them in
a certain place or parcel/package. In
other words, there is a change in the
relation-interaction that involves particular
entities changing from ‘being
displayed’ (as goods) to ‘being stored’
(as resources in a parcel/package).
Traders disassemble their space by
dismantling the relation between the
goods and the place of display, and
then gathering and storing the goods
in a certain package.
The process that takes place in the
‘disassembling boundaries’ sub-phase
is similar to the ‘disappearance of identity’
sub-phase, in the sense that there
is a change that leads to a relation-interaction
that accumulates a group of
items/entities into the form of package.
This relation between entities in the
form of a package makes them easier
for the actors to move or mobilize from
the courtyard.
5.3.3. Withdrawal: Cleaning-up
process
The withdrawal phase is the opposite
of the preparation phase. The main
aim of this phase is to ‘clean up’ the
built environment and return it to its
default condition. Therefore, this phase
strengthens the argument about the
temporal availability of resources that
are required to form the architectural
space. The withdrawal phase is divided
into two sub-phases, positional withdrawal
and resources withdrawal.
‘Positional withdrawal’ is the subphase
in which the traders, who initiate
the formation of trader space in the
courtyard, leave their spatial position.
Some traders perform the positional
and resources withdrawal simultaneously,
which means that they take all
the resources with them when they
leave their position. Other traders,
who utilize the support of a porter in
the preparation phase, only take some
of the resources and leave the rest in
the built environment. ‘Resources
withdrawal’, on the other hand, is the
sub-phase in which the porters move/
mobilize the remaining resources to
another location (inside the mosque
Figure 8. Emergence of identity sub-phase of men’s clothes trader
(top image) and accessories trader (bottom image).
area), to return the built environment
completely to its default condition.
6. Conclusion and recommendation
This study has addressed the heterogeneity
of entities involved as components
of architectural space, and how
they affect the ephemerality of the
space. An architectural space becomes
ephemeral when some of the entities
that act as its components are only, and
should be, available/present in a particular
time-frame. This means it is necessary
to extend the recognition of the
components that form an architectural
space beyond the permanent physical
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structure of the built environment.
This recognition indeed suggests a limitation
of this physical structure, but it
also provides an idea about the variety
and wider range of entities that could
act as architectural components.
The findings of the study reveal the
importance of everyday items, such as
clothes, plastic carpets and umbrellas,
in the formation of architectural space.
This argument does not try to negate
or eliminate the importance of permanent
physical structures in the built environment.
Instead, both types of entity
(the physical structure of the built
environment and everyday items) are
resources that are required to form certain
architectural space. The difference
is that physical structure is permanently
available, while everyday items are
only available temporarily, and there
is process that involves a certain group
of actors that needs to be performed to
condition the availability of these items.
However, the importance of these entities
cannot be seen through their being
separate individual entities. Instead,
it needs to be seen through their spatial
role as architectural components,
whether as a main component (which
determines the identity of the space) or
supporting component (which determines
the quality of the space).
A combination of the ideas of resources,
main components and supporting
components can be used to
develop an alternative approach to
overcoming the rigidity issue of the
built environment. This issue is primarily
related to the inability or limitation
of the built environment to respond
to change in everyday uses. This
limitation is related to the fact that the
features or elements of the built environment
are only part of the resources
that are required to form the architectural
space. It is therefore necessary
to fully recognize this limitation and
open it up to an alternative approach,
one that suggests that architects act
more as ‘resources managers’ than as
‘form makers’.
As a resources manager, an architect
can explore the resources that need to
be permanently available, and those
that are only available in a specific
condition (in which their availability
depends on other parties). This exploration
should be based on the contextual
situation of the design, specifically
related to: (1) the variety of everyday
uses or activities (that require a certain
set of main components); and (2) the
level of spatial quality to support these
activities (which is affected by the supporting
components). This approach
opens the possibility to simplify the
physical structure of the built environment,
without reducing the complexity
of architectural space. The physical
structure of the built environment can
be simpler because the availability of
other resources has been ‘distributed’
to other parties.
However, the availability of these
resources is useless if the actors are
unable to utilize them through a process
of spatial assemblage. The findings
reveal the importance of social assemblage
as non-physical structure that
frames this spatial assemblage process.
Therefore, social assemblage plays a
crucial role in the ephemerality of an
architectural space, because it frames
the actualization of actors’ capacities
that are required to perform the spatial
assemblage process, but only in a
specific time-frame. This social assemblage
adds a non-physical layer that
can affect the flexibility/rigidity of the
built environment without changing its
physical features. This finding therefore
suggests the necessity for architects to
become involved in the formulation of
rules and regulations (as the elements
of this social assemblage). Similar to
the previous argument about the recognition
of the importance of everyday
items, this involvement opens up wider
options in the design approach of architects,
rather than a mere focus on
the physical structure of the built environment.
This research is limited to the context
of a certain event in a particular
type of public area, specifically a market/bazaar
event in the courtyard of
Sunda Kelapa mosque. Investigation
in different cases is needed to further
explore and develop the conceptual arguments
that have been made in this
study. Research in different contexts
with a more diverse set of activities is
required to develop a framework to
understand the ephemerality of architectural
space in everyday life. Such
From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial assemblage of heterogeneous
components
128
knowledge will be valuable to further
develop an alternative design approach
to overcoming the rigidity issue of the
built environment.
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From rigidity to ephemerality: Architecture as a socio-spatial assemblage of heterogeneous
components
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • 131-144
With nature in mind: ‘Green
metaphors’ as an approach to
reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
Sema MUMCU 1 , Serap YILMAZ 2 , Duygu AKYOL 3
1
semamumcu@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of
Forestry, Karadeniz Technical Universiy, Trabzon, Turkey
2
serapyilmaz@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of
Forestry, Karadeniz Technical Universiy, Trabzon, Turkey
3
duyguakyol@ktu.edu.tr • Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of
Forestry, Karadeniz Technical Universiy, Trabzon, Turkey
Received: December 2018 • Final Acceptance: September 2019
doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.00236
Abstract
The human-environment relationship forms the philosophical foundation
of landscape architecture. To move beyond the common dualistic humanenvironment
thinking in environmental design education, exploring and
highlighting new ideas is important and necessary. A caring sensitivity and a change
in awareness of our responsibilities are preconditions to creating these new ideas
that will result in deeply responsive environmental designs. Here, responsibility
includes ecological awareness and understanding interconnectedness. “Green
metaphors” are results of such an awareness and understanding. Green metaphors
in environmental design are accepted as an approach for reflecting environmental
concern.
This study aims to understand how green metaphors are being used by
landscape architecture students in design studio. One hundred and three poster
presentations of senior students that explain the metaphorical thinking behind
their design concept for a residential landscape design were analyzed in order to
determine the frequency of green metaphors. Twenty-seven projects with green
metaphors were analyzed in depth to understand the most emphasized issues in
their approaches to the human-environment relationship.
Keywords
Environmental awareness, Green metaphors, Human-environment relationship,
Landscape architecture, Landscape design.
132
1. Introduction
The human-environment relationship
forms the philosophical foundation
of landscape architecture. As
a profession intervening in the environment,
shaping and modifying it in
order to create more affordable environments
that satisfy users’ needs and
enhance human experience, where do
we place nature in the spectrum of our
professional responsibilities?
Since design always affects ecological
processes, it has a necessary relationship
with ecological science (Nassauer,
2002). Wenk (2002) criticizes design
and planning professions for ignoring
the possibility of creating landscapes as
living instruments that address urban
environmental issues. Landscape architects
must understand nature and environmental
issues, but the topics and
the methods for how they should learn
these topics is much less clear (Nassauer,
2002). Another issue is the common
dualistic human-environment thinking
in environmental design education:
there remains a need to move beyond
this dualistic thinking by exploring
and highlighting new ideas. There is a
tendency in environmental education
to insist that every institution of higher
education should make the cultivation
of ecological intelligence an essential
part of every student’s learning experience
(Heffernan, 2012).
Our era, in which the demand for
solutions to environmental problems
is increasing, witnesses the endeavors
of humans who strive to develop alternative
views and approaches that
will alleviate, rather than compound,
the environmental crisis. Along with
many other professional disciplines,
landscape architecture has a part in
meeting these demands and joining
these endeavors. Users are in demand
of highly responsive environments,
but are landscape architecture students
being educated and instilled with the
needed responsibility and knowledge
to meet these demands? This paper
aims to investigate, through design
studio outcomes, what students learn
in terms of knowledge, awareness, and
applicability regarding the human-nature
relationship and environmental
issues during their education.
Design studio is accepted as one
of the most important learning areas
where environmental issues such as
awareness, sustainability, conservation,
eco-design, etc., can be discussed and
practiced. For example, sustainability is
a common environmental term that is
used in design studios (Keumala et al.,
2016; Kjøllesdal et al., 2014). However,
this is a limited term that is considered
with limited approaches in design studios;
are design studios really qualified
to create and develop essential awareness
and sensitivity in students? Are
there any alternative approaches? In
this study, we focused on using metaphors
in design studio and providing a
new way for designers to gain a deep
understand of environmental issues.
Metaphors are common means for
environmental designers to provide
meaningful grounding for complex design
undertakings. They are especially
invaluable when the designer confronts
novel situations and strives to
share unfamiliar ideas. Metaphors can
help designers displace old meanings,
generate new patterns of enunciation,
and bridge ideas that were formerly
unrelated (Muller and Knudson, 2009).
Muller (2006, p. 186) asks: “How might
an architect’s articulation of the design
task evolve by borrowing from ecological
understandings? What new sorts
of architectural ecologies -of benefit
to humans and non-humans- might
result?” Casakin (2012) defines metaphorical
reasoning as an educational
approach that can play an important
role in the design studio; metaphors
are valuable problem-solving strategies
and are suitable for improving design
education. In this study with a similar
approach, we analyzed landscape
architecture students’ ecology and
nature-grounded metaphors that is
“green metaphors” and, through these
metaphors, we sought to understand
students’ approaches to environmental
problems and their level of awareness.
The concept of metaphors was used in
a broader sense in the study in order
to include design concepts with weak
metaphorical thinking in the evaluation
process in order to create a deeper
understanding of the ecological approaches
used by the students. Instead
of design concepts, the emphasis on
metaphor aims to highlight the inno-
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
133
vative and creative contributions of
metaphors to design studios and to encourage
their use in design education.
2. Landscape architecture design
studio
The design studio is defined by Casakin
(2012) as an educational environment
where students are expected
to acquire and integrate theoretical and
practical knowledge; enhance their level
of expertise and competence; grasp,
present, and defend design ideas; acquire
new techniques and skills; and
form their own ideas and judgments
through being exposed to a variety of
views from their instructors, mostly in
the form of the master-apprentice system.
Classes such as environmental/
landscape/architectural design project
based on design studio practice have
been accepted as the most important
part of the educational curriculum in
schools of design (Casakin, 2004) and
design studio has been seen as essential
for design education (Johnson and
Hill, 2002). The studio is based upon
the educational philosophy of “learning
by doing” and has developed both
as a venue and as a pedagogical medium
(Alon-Mozes, 2006). It is a dynamic
and generative framework, in
which faculty members guide students
through the processes of discovery,
analysis, idea generation, and proposal
development (Johnson and Hill, 2002).
Project classes are mainly based on
and conducted as design studios; in
this context, landscape architecture
curricula do not significantly differ
from architectural studios, and therefore
both disciplines share the same
design methodologies (Gazvoda, 2002;
Alon-Mozes, 2006). In most schools,
as the student moves through the studio
curriculum, the project types and
scope increase in complexity. The
level of performance in the studio is
accepted as an indicator of mastery
of specific skills, competencies, and
domain knowledge at certain stages
of the students’ development (Curry,
2014). Within the scope of (Karadeniz
Technical) University‘s Landscape
Architecture Department curricula,
the same approach (increases in complexity)
mentioned above has been effective
in structuring the design studio
classes. In this context, first-semester
design studio classes begin with the
Basic Design Principles and Project
class and the curriculum includes the
Environmental Design Project (EDP)
I, II, III, IV, V, and VI classes in the
following semesters. The studio classes
proceed from the abstract to the concrete,
from less complexity to greater
complexity in terms of the design subject,
area, and user types. The studio
classes are preconditioned, that is, if
a student fails any of the EDP classes,
they will not be able to take the next
EDP class. Students receive one-onone
criticism from the project tutors in
the studio environment for two days a
week. Students can also criticize each
other during presentations and discussions
in which the whole class participates.
With the increased complexity
in the scope of projects, students are
confronted with the task of transferring
the knowledge gained from service
classes to their projects. Thus,
students are expected to reflect their
studio experiences in the next project
class and synthesize their theoretical
knowledge from other classes in their
projects (Mumcu et al., 2018).
3. Combining ecology and design:
Green metaphors
Design studio, according to Johnson
and Hill (2002), is a prime vehicle for
students to strategically engage ecological
knowledge within the context
of a cultural problem. Nassauer (2002)
advises that a landscape architecture
curriculum that builds a clearer relationship
with ecology should sharpen
– not blur – students’ understanding of
design as cultural action. Johnson and
Hill (2002) state that established design
professions have increasingly recognized
the need for ecological awareness
and responsibility, and have begun to
adopt ecological guidelines for professional
practice. Since design excellence
must be judged by both aesthetic and
ecological criteria, concerning design
with art but not ecological criteria is
ethically unacceptable in the fields of
design. The decision to pursue ecological
sustainability without art is also
flawed, because art may be uniquely
capable to reach human hearts and
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
134
minds (Johnson and Hill, 2002). In
this context, the place of ecological approaches
in design studio is important
in terms of instilling these priorities in
students. But are ecological approaches
being applied relevantly, and how
much are they being understood? For
example, do ecological approaches in
professional practices really reflect a
deep respect for the beauty of life as
Orr’s work put forth who calls for responsible
design in space and time,
and in human and nonhuman terms
(Johnson and Hill, 2002)? Referring
to a transformation that is needed to
move from design with nature to a design
that includes humans in nature,
Johnson and Hill (2002) ask: “How
can we envision new relationships between
science and art and ecology and
design?” Based on the idea that metaphors
are essential to imagining a future
in which design and ecology enjoy
a closer relationship, Johnson and Hill
(2002) accept the role of metaphors in
the language of landscape architecture.
According to Muller and Knudson
(2009), in efforts to make projects that
address ecology effectively and that
help to “improve our relationship with
nature,” architects must recognize the
inherent predisposition toward metaphors
in ecology. With such an approach,
the efforts of designers can be
viewed as both conceptualizing architecture
in a more ecologically-oriented
way and opportunistically thinking
about ecological systems as an important
part of the palette out of which designers
construct and reconstruct the
world. Architectures and ecologies become
co-creative, overlapping, and enmeshed
(Muller and Knudson, 2009).
In this sense, metaphors can be useful
tools at establishing innovative ideas
for invoking responsibility and gaining
awareness. They can assist in formulating
problems afresh, allowing designers
to solve them with greater sensitivity,
intensity and effectiveness (Muller
and Knudson, 2009). Kopnina (2016)
defines metaphors as one of the crucial
dimensions of environmental education
and education for sustainable development.
Also, Casakin (2006) suggests
that training students in the use
of metaphors can be considered particularly
helpful in the design studio, as
they will contribute to an enhancement
of design thinking capabilities and will
yield a better understanding of the design
process.
Metaphors are defined as cognitive
strategies that are used to deal with
design problems in order to define, restructure,
and resolve them (Casakin,
2004; Hey et al., 2008). Using metaphors
facilitates the generation of innovative
solutions (Casakin, 2012) by
allowing the designer to think unconventionally
and encourage the application
of novel ideas to design problems
(Casakin, 2007). By juxtaposing the
known with the unknown in an unusual
way and creating comparisons with
another concept or situation, metaphors
help in understanding a design
situation in terms of a remote concept
not normally associated with design,
and so enables the understanding of
the design problem from different perspectives
(Goncalves et al., 2014) and
enhances design problem-solving (Casakin,
2012). Generally speaking, it can
be said that the use of metaphors played
a more significant role in the definition
of a concept, (Casakin, 2004), they provide
the designer with a starting point
in the earlier stages of the design process,
in which initial decisions are often
difficult to make (Casakin, 2006).
Metaphors have a powerful effect on
changing and transforming a design
ethos into a more ecologically sensitive
one. This happens, Casakin (2004)
explains, because when a metaphor
becomes a part of a conceptual system
it may modify it, change the designer’s
perception of a particular situation,
and trigger new insights.
Muller (2009) states that as environmental
design develops new metaphors,
it also modifies its own culture;
the emerging identity formation of
architectural culture results in new designs.
According to Muller (2009), in
order to meet the need for the development
of life-enhancing and ecologically
sustainable living spaces, the idea
of developing better-performing, less
wasteful, and less toxic building assemblies
is insufficient. Instead, designers
must engage in a more fundamental
reflection as to how design problems
are to be expressed and to what extent
the potential for environmental change
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
135
can be molded to new design expressions
(Muller, 2009). In the contemporary
world, which is characterized by
daily reminders of the degradation of
our natural surroundings, such awareness
of metaphors as productive agents
of change would seem to encourage the
seeking of notions that lead to greater
environmental atonement (Muller,
2009). Similarly, Nerlich (2012) defines
metaphors as some of the most
potent framing devices available in human
language with reference to environmental
discourse and politics. Since
metaphors carry with them values,
assumptions, visions and ideologies
which shape thinking and acting, one
has to be aware of their implications
for social and economic policy (Nerlich,
2012).
A caring sensitivity and a change
in awareness of our responsibilities
are preconditions for creating these
new ideas that will result in deeply
responsive environmental designs.
Here, responsibility includes ecological
awareness and understanding interconnectedness.
“Green metaphors” are
results of such an awareness and understanding.
Green metaphors in environmental
design are accepted as an
approach for reflecting environmental
concern and believed to be productive
agents of change in contemporary environmental
design culture that encourage
the seeking of notions that lead to
greater human-environment harmony
(Muller, 2009). As a kind of green
metaphor, landscape-oriented metaphors
reflect a larger cultural paradigm
shift from human-centeredness to human-situatedness
and can address the
degradation of natural systems and the
effacing of singular ecologies that characterize
current development practices
(Muller and Knudson, 2009). Successful
landscape metaphors invoke environmental
qualities and the goals of
design undertakings, sensitize designers
to their work and to the world, and
prompt a manner of thought that seeks
solutions to architectural problems in
environmental settings and solutions
to environmental problems in architectural
configurations (Muller and Knudson,
2009). In particular, certain kinds
of landscape metaphors are believed to
be more likely to result in projects that
are truly sustainable and ecologically
responsive and enable “deeply green”
architectural innovations to occur.
“Dynamically emulative” and “specifically
interactive” landscape metaphors
are of this kind, which will lead designers
to a path of deeply green design
thinking. While “dynamically emulative”
landscape metaphors refer to the
“infinitely variable and non-static” attributes
of the landscape that inform
design, a metaphor that depends upon
an understanding of the ecological and
climatic subtleties of a given place to
engage a building with the landscape
can be called “specifically interactive.”
Built landscapes that emulate those
found in nature might be event-laden,
dynamic yet supportive, and characterized
by coherent complexity and luminous,
ambient, and thermal richness
(Muller and Knudson, 2009).
According to Dobrin (2010), the
metaphor “green” has been adopted
as a way of indicating environmentally
conscious political positions. To
“go green” implies active participation
in environmentally or ecologically
sound practices—it is to advocate environmental
protection, to be attuned
to nature. Green has been naturalized
as a metaphoric representation of nature
and environment (Dobrin, 2010).
Examples of green metaphors can be
found in literature: as the metaphor
of ecologist G. E. Hutchinson for the
landscape as an “ecological theatre, the
living stage” (Johnson and Hill, 2002);
environmental problems as “ozone
hole” and “acid rain”; biodiversity as
“the library of life”; forests as “the lungs
of the Earth” (Väliverronen and Hellsten,
2002); architecture as “ecological
niche”, “organism” (Muller, 2009), minimal
output of greenhouse gas emissions
as “low carbon” or “clean energy”
(Nerlich, 2012). Most environmental
problems are not immediately apparent
to the human observer—for example,
the detection of ozone depletion or
global climate change requires highly
sensitive and sophisticated technical
machinery, scientific theories, and
mathematical models. Green metaphors
help to make these terms become
more imaginable and also evoke strong
emotions (Väliverronen and Hellsten,
2002). For example, in the context of
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
136
climate change, the metaphor “low carbon
diet” opens up the frame of losing
weight and counting calories, and then
transfers its connotations, values and
expectations onto the issue of reducing
carbon dioxide emissions. As in
this example green metaphors can be
used to shape expectations and visions
of the future in an effort to affect social
and political actions in the present
(Nerlich, 2012).
In environmental design, by using
green metaphors, architecture becomes
a dynamic process rather than
a fixed object, responsive to the environment,
and an event to be activated
(Muller, 2009). The IBN (Dutch) Institute
for Nature Research in Wageningen,
designed by the German firm
Behnisch & Partner, is conceptualized
as a complex organism and can be given
as an example of a green metaphor.
The building’s design was aimed at
creating a functional, user-friendly research
facility that worked in harmony
with nature, i.e., versatile and ecologically
sound. The design does not dominate
its rural setting, but embraces the
landscape; all the workplaces are in direct
contact with indoor and outdoor
gardens. Two indoor gardens provide
the focus for daily activities and function
as informal meeting areas. Beyond
this, they are an integral component of
the building’s energy concept in that
they improve the performance of the
external envelope (URL1). Each of the
three office wings is situated between
two of the gardens and is said to “grow
between the gardens.” The atria that are
created serve as the offices’ “lungs,” providing
warmth in winter and coolness
in summer, thus enabling a dramatic
downsizing of the heating system and
obviating the need for air conditioning
altogether. Because the greenhouse
roofs provide a first layer of protection
against the elements, the office facades
become light and “porous” centers of
sensation, a skin that actively and selectively
absorbs and transmits (the wanted)
and refracts and transforms (the
unwanted). With offices that are facing
and open to gardens, the atria become
the Institute’s social “heart,” where scientists
gather, conduct research, and
confer (Fig. 1) (Muller, 2006). Through
its incomplete, “weak formed” spatial
configuration, the IBN is ever-adaptable
to changing needs, to the disquiet
of persistent animation within. Therefore,
the IBN reflects a contemporary
understanding of both “the unity of the
organism, and the dynamic, interactive
relationship that organisms have with
their environments.”
The goal of this essay is to provide
an explanation for green metaphors in
use by landscape architecture students
in design studio, and relate this to the
question of our relationship to nature
that is at the heart of professional
practice of landscape architecture. We
ask whether using green metaphors is
likely to result in projects that are truly
sustainable and ecologically responsive.
With a goal toward environmental
sensitivity and awareness, landscape
architecture students’ use of green metaphors
would seem inherently advantageous.
4. A case study: Green metaphors
in students’ residential landscape
design projects
This study aims to understand how
green metaphors are being used by
landscape architecture students in
Figure 1. IBN Nature Research Institute, Wageningen, the
Netherlands (Behnisch & Partner, 1996) (URL1).
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
137
design studio. Through these metaphors
a deep insight into students’
human-environment relationship
conceptualizations can be gained and
new approaches to strengthen their
conceptualizations can be developed.
One hundred and three poster presentations
of landscape architecture senior
students that explain the metaphorical
thinking of their design concepts for a
residential landscape design were analyzed
in order to determine the frequency
of green metaphors.
The study was conducted in (Karadeniz
Technical) University, Landscape
Architecture Department. The student
projects were all housing estate environmental
designs from three different
years and five different sites. The students’
projects belonged to the EDP-VI
class in the 7th semester, that is, the last
of the design studios that are accompanied
by a tutor within the scope of
the curriculum. Although the design
sites in the projects are from different
locations, they are all gated communities
that include 7-9 high-rise residential
buildings and all are located in the
Trabzon city centre. Therefore, they
exhibit similar physical, ecological,
and social characteristics. The projects
included in this study were all conducted
with the same studio approach,
each of which consisted of 6-7 groups
Figure 2. The phases and results of content analyses; students’
conceptual approaches and green metaphors.
of different tutors with 9-11 students
in each group. While giving the design
subject and the site, the students were
not limited to adopting an ecological
approach and the tutors also did not
limit the conceptual approaches to a
specific area. The students determined
their conceptual approaches based on
various findings as a result of their research
and analysis within the scope of
the design site and subject. In this latest
project, students are expected to develop
an advanced, creative, and powerful
conceptual approach to the design
problem. Advanced analysis of the site
and users (with techniques such as
GIS, SWOT, etc.), synthesis presentation,
original scenario design, concept
presentation, land use, sketches, plans,
sections, views, planting design, general
and technical detail solutions, CAD
presentations, 3D modeling, models,
and technical report stages are carried
out in a 15-week period. However, in
this study, the materials submitted in
the project class were not used; instead,
the poster presentations, which
contained written and visual narratives
prepared by the students as part of
their homework, about their projects
were used (Mumcu et al., 2018).
In context of Spatial Behavior class
students were asked to prepare homework
about their environmental design
studio project (EDP-VI) of that term.
The students were requested to explain
their approaches in conceptual, formal
and pragmatic dimensions and informed
that the score from homework
will comprise 50% of their final score
thus encouraged to pay strict attention.
There was no restriction that the students
use written and visual materials
related to their projects. They were free
to prepare their projects as they wished
in line with the titles given. They were
not informed about the content of this
research in order to prevent any influence
on their representation. By doing
so the number of students who considered
and discussed environmental
issues without prejudice was determined.
Content analysis method was adopted
in the study. The written texts in the
poster presentation that explained the
conceptual approaches were analyzed
in this context. Content analysis is a
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
138
technique for systematically describing
the form and content of a written
or spoken material. This technique is
described as suitable for any kind of
material including publications, recorded
interviews, and reports and so
on. Content refers to the specific topic
or themes in the material and quantification
(expressing data in numbers)
of these forms the basis of a content
analysis (Sommer and Sommer, 2002).
The explanations in presentations were
evaluated and 27 of them that reflect
a concern for environment were categorized
in terms of their problem definition
and approaches to landscape
design. The others who used concepts
unrelated to environmental issues or
did not make any clear problem statements
were excluded. The classification
was carried out by a team of 5 landscape
architects, all of whom were experienced
in landscape design education,
including the authors of this study. As
a preliminary study, the authors read
all the texts in the conceptual approach
presentations and made preliminary
assessments and identified the main
conceptual topics. In the next stage,
all the landscape architects in the team
evaluated the same texts and classified
them into predetermined groups. Each
student’s approach was separated into
a specific group based on the majority
vote of the evaluators. Then, for those
who had an environmental approach,
the first two stages were repeated; the
authors determined the sub-conceptual
topics and, through the evaluations
of the team, the conceptual approaches
with environmental concerns were
classified (Fig. 2).
Table 1.Classification and frequencies of students’ design concepts.
5. Results
Twenty-seven projects with green
metaphors were analyzed in depth
to understand the most emphasized
issues in their approaches to the human-environment
relationship. The
categorization of 103 projects revealed
five groups: (psychological-physical)
well-being of users (35.9%), green
metaphors (26.2%), landscape design
principles (16.5%), natural attributes
(12.6%), and cultural activities (8.7%)
(χ2=25,010, 4 df, p<0.00) (Table 1).
The statistical significance of the distribution
indicated that the students’ conceptual
approaches were not random;
especially reflects the priority given to
the health of users and environmental
problems by students. Green/ecological
approaches are common in student
works, which reveals the significance
level of such approaches for students.
Furthermore, despite the fact that the
natural attributes group reflects the attribution
of the physical features (e.g.,
the sound of water, a leaf pattern, a
rainbow) to spatial components, which
are therefore treated as different from
green metaphors, the frequency of
natural attributes can also reflect the
importance of nature with respect to
students. Twenty-seven green metaphors
found in this study were listed in
Figure 2. These metaphors can be dealt
with as two groups; metaphors that
emphasize harmony with nature and
Figure 3. Sustainability grounded design concepts and poster
presentation samples.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
139
metaphors that emphasize the need for
change. These two groups, which complete
each other in essence, show parallelism
with the discussions of current
environmental issues. The most cited
metaphors (green, nature, and sustainability)
were discussed in detail.
5.1 Sustainability grounded
metaphors
One of the most frequent concepts
among the green metaphors was sustainability
(N=11). The written explanations
in the students’ presentations
that focused on this concept were generally
more extensive than other groups
Table 2. Sustainability grounded metaphors; students’ explanations
of conceptual approaches presented in Figure 3.
and tended to include ecology-related
terminology, such as relationships
and cycles in the ecosystem. This may
be an indication that the students are
transferring information from their
other classes on this subject. Sustainability
grounded metaphors heavily
emphasized environmental problems,
depicting a humanity that recedes
from natural life day by day, and set
goals such as environmental restoration,
conservation, and improving
the quality of life. In addition, the approaches
underlying the environmental
problems, such as modernism and
positivism, and alternative approaches,
such as post-modernism, can be mentioned.
Some students highlighted the
social pillar of the sustainability term
with an emphasis on neighborhood
relations. Although the emphasis was
on the degradation of nature, students
used the term “sustainability” mainly
in terms of nature’s instrumental value
and a force for humanity’s good. These
human-centred approaches have led
students to explain the functional benefits
that are often directed to users in
residential design solutions (Fig. 3).
5.2. Green grounded metaphors
In this group, decreasing green areas,
the peace that green and nature
provide to humans and harmony with
nature were heavily mentioned (N=5).
Green is sometimes considered as a
color and sometimes as nature itself;
in particular, the peace effect of green
color was emphasized. The problems
caused by decreasing green spaces in
human beings (and parallel to this, the
need for more green spaces and peace)
and the necessity of increasing green
spaces were frequently mentioned.
However, in general, the use of the
green and nature concepts, alternately
and equivalent with each other, is salient.
Therefore, it can be said that students
accepted “green” as referring to
nature and used them interchangeably
(Fig. 4). While the approaches focusing
on the physical and spatial features
such as the increase or predominance
of green spaces in their designs were
classified as green, design approaches
that state human-nature relationship /
harmony, the contribution of nature /
natural features to human health were
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
140
classified into the title of nature.
5.3. Nature grounded metaphors
In this conceptual approach group,
various features of current human-nature
relationships, such as humanity
distanced from natural life, disturbed
human-nature harmony, new lifestyles
away from a relationship with nature,
or positive features of nature, such as
renewal, metamorphosis, and flexibility,
are discussed (N=11). The term “nature”
was used in varied approaches;
in some cases, feelings such as peace,
comfort, and joy that nature provides
to humans were mentioned, while others
mentioned harmony, education, or
natural forms such as valleys that point
to the human-nature relationship. As
in the case with green metaphors, the
term “green” was frequently used with
the term “nature”; green and nature
were used alternately. Mainly, the instrumental
value of nature was mentioned
(Fig. 5). And design decisions
about using color, smell, natural forms,
different textures, using natural elements
such as water, rock, creating topography
in a natural way or mimicking
morphological formations such as
valleys in nature are discussed. In this
context, the conceptual approaches in
this group are generally distinguished
from the green approaches mainly
dealing with green spaces with their
emphasis on natural characteristics
(perceptual, emotional or physical).
6. Discussion
This study aims to understand the
awareness and sensitivity levels of landscape
architecture students that used
green metaphors in their environmental
design projects. In total, 27 housing
estate landscape designs were analyzed
in detail. The terms/words mainly used
for naming metaphors were “green”,
“nature”, and “sustainability”. Especially,
students used green and nature
terms alternately and frequently; this
reflects the fact that they accept these
terms as interchangeable. Furthermore,
green and sustainability terms more
frequently dealt with their relationship
with ecosystems and ecology. The analyses
showed that the green metaphors
were used with an anthropocentric approach
that privileges users’ needs and
Figure 4. Green grounded design concepts and poster presentation
samples.
benefits, and focuses on improving life
quality for them. The same tendency
of university students was also found
by Kopnina (2016), who determined
that before taking an environmental
ethics class, students discussed nature
in economic terms, supporting the instrumental
view of the environment. In
this study, we found that even though
students mentioned the wholeness of
ecosystems and humans’ harmony with
Figure 5. Nature grounded design concepts and poster presentation
samples.
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
141
Table 3. Green grounded metaphors; students’ explanations of
conceptual approaches presented in Figure 4.
nature, they did not consider the processes
and cycles in nature, and they
did not consider ecosystems as webs
of interactions between animate-inanimate
and human-nonhuman beings.
In fact, human cultures and ecosystems
exist in a reciprocal relationship.
To ignore this reciprocal relationship
of human culture and ecosystems – or
to ignore the fact that every landscape
place, no matter how large or small,
includes multiple species and biophysical
processes that will be affected by
human actions – turns away from a
fundamental reality of the landscapes
we share with other people and other
species (Johnson and Hill, 2002).
Unfortunately, no design metaphors
were found that were grounded in ecological
analyses of the site and mentioned
the benefits to nonhuman beings.
This finding reveals the difficulty
that students have, while reflecting the
knowledge they gain in ecology and
related classes onto design studio practices.
Also, the need for interventions
in design studio emerges. Johnson and
Hill (2002) believe that landscape architects
must collaborate more deeply
with applied ecologists and find ways
to interpret and apply new understandings
from ecological science in physical
planning and landscape design. Moreover,
we must understand the implications
of our work in order to consider
both social equity and ecological sustainability.
Briefly, while the definitions and
emphases of green metaphors referred
to environmental problems, the suggested
solutions and determined goals
were shallow in terms of environmental
responsibility, awareness, or sensitivity.
The need for students to learn
and think more deeply about environmental
ethics is apparent. This finding
encouraged researchers to analyze the
proportion of environmental ethics-related
classes in the curriculum. The curriculum
of the department consists of
33 compulsory and 15 elective courses
(URL-2). It was determined that there
were no classes under the name of “environmental
ethics” or simply “ethics.”
The content of the classes was also controlled
based on the idea that the classes
could indirectly indicate the subject.
In the Landscape Ecology (2nd semester,
compulsory) class, the relationship
between landscape and ecology
is taught; in the Spatial Behavior (4th
semester, compulsory) class, changes
in the human-environment (nature)
relationship in the historical process,
the Enlightenment Era, the effect of
modernism-positivism, and alternative
approaches (such as post-modernism
and romanticism) are taught. The
Sustainable Recreational Use Planning
(5th semester, elective) class includes
sustainability and the relationship between
conservation and use, the Greenways
(6th semester, elective) class
teaches the concept of a greenway, why
such a concept has emerged, and a
With nature in mind: ‘Green metaphors’ as an approach to reflect environmental concerns and
awareness in landscape design
142
greenway’s functions, whereas the National
Park Management (7th semester,
elective) class describes protected area
management and planning.
There is no class on the concepts of
environmental ethics and the role of
landscape architects in the context of
environmental ethics, and the information
given is quite fragmented, unrelated,
and incomplete. This demonstrates
the reason why the students
had such a fragmented understanding
of environmental ethics in the context
of the design studio, their human-centered
understanding, and their lack of
theoretical knowledge. Furthermore,
a need is also revealed for innovative
approaches in design studios that teach
ways to reflect this knowledge in design
decisions. Hough (2002) declares
that the time has come for a shift in
the definition of design: from an academic
discipline that teaches students
to impose their ideologies on the rest
of society to the idea of the interdependence
of life processes. However, most
important is not teaching students
how to consider ecological knowledge
in the design process, providing students
awareness and responsibility in
terms of the environment and nature.
It’s especially important that they don’t
see humans as superior to nonhuman
beings in nature, that they don’t privilege
humans in environmental design,
and that they accept the intrinsic value
of nonhuman beings and processes in
nature prior to more deeply reflecting
ecological knowledge in landscape design.
As Paul et al. (2014, p.376) state,
“Arguably perhaps, green sells well. But
just by adding more green colors in an
urban development master plan may
not necessarily guarantee in achieving
a sustainable green outcome”.
Table 4. Nature grounded metaphors; students’ explanations
of conceptual approaches presented in Figure 5.
7. Conclusion
As a profession intervening in the
environment, shaping and modifying it
in order to create more affordable environments
that satisfy users’ needs and
enhance human experience, where do
we place nature in the spectrum of our
professional responsibilities? A caring
sensitivity and a change in awareness of
our responsibilities are preconditions
to create new ideas, which will result
in deeply responsive environmental
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
143
designs. Here, responsibility includes
ecological awareness and understanding
interconnectedness. “Green metaphors”
are results of such an awareness
and understanding. This study, which
aimed to understand ecological awareness
and interconnectedness through
green metaphors used by students,
revealed that student approaches are
shallow and need to be improved.
This situation may result from both
the lack of reflecting ecological knowledge
in the design process (since the
methods for this are not well defined
and this kind of knowledge is generally
accepted as limiting design creativity)
and lack of an environmental ethics
class in the curriculum. Classes on environmental
ethics are needed in the
landscape architecture curriculum to
provide a deep understanding of the
intrinsic value of nonhuman beings
and the place of humans as not superior
to other beings in nature, to make
students question themselves and their
professional practices, and to challenge
the privileged situation of humans in
landscape design practices. Furthermore,
the integration of these new
insights into design classes is needed,
and students must be encouraged to
question their approaches in terms
of reflecting their responsibilities. Introducing
design examples based on
green metaphors, discussing the design
process in light of the approach that
green metaphors guide design, and describing
the spatial features that come
about as a result of applying green
metaphors will help students to understand
how to structure metaphorical
relations between a design concept and
solution and encourage them to use
this in their design approaches. Design
studio practices and homework based
on metaphorical thinking, especially
that focused on green metaphors, will
promote the students’ design experiences.
Also, additional field practices
about ecological features / processes /
relations that include both the design
site of environmental design project
classes and specific ecological areas
will help to teach students how to include
ecological cycles and dynamics
in their design decisions and how to be
sensitive to them.
Acknowledgement
This paper is presented at International
U.A.B-B.EN.A Conference ‘Environmental
Engineering & Sustainable
Development’ and printed in abstract
book.
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URL-1: https://behnisch.com/work/
projects/0022 (Accessed at 25.06.2019)
URL-2: http://www.katalog.ktu.
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25.06.2019)
ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 3 • November 2019 • S. Mumcu, S. Yılmaz, D. Akyol
Contributors
Duygu AKYOL
Received her B.LA in Landscape
Architecture from Ege University
Faculty of Agriculture and MSc. in
City and Regional Planning from
Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of
Architecture. She is currently a PhD
student and works as a Research
Assistant at Karadeniz Technical
University. Her major research interests
are urban planning and design,
landscape planning, environmental
management.
Paramita ATMODIWIRJO
Paramita Atmodiwirjo is a professor of
architecture at Universitas Indonesia.
She obtained her PhD and Master’s
degrees from the School of Architecture,
University of Sheffield. Her research
interest is on the relationship between
architecture, interior and well-being.
Beyza Nur BATI
Received her B. Arch in Interior
Architecture and Environmental
Design from Bilkent University,
Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture
(2015). Earned her MSc. degree in
Architecture from TOBB University
(2017). Currently studies as a PhD.
student at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts
University, Faculty of Architecture.
Olivier BOUET
Doctor of Physics, university Lecturer,
Co-Director of the EVCAU laboratory,
Head of the Master 2 Research course
“City, Architecture and Heritage”
Paris7/École d’Architecture de Paris
Val de Seine. My research involves
the acquisition of 2D and 3D data and
their processing in order to obtain
structured 3D models as an aid to
the diagnosis, analysis, restitution,
understanding and presentation of
heritage ensembles.
Gökçe EVREN
Gökçe Evren is graduated (2013)
from Industrial and Product Design
Department, METU and, she got her
masters degree (2003) in “Interior
Architectural Design” from ITU
IMIAD Program. She studied (2014)
at Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart,
University of Applied Sciences,
Department of Interior Architecture.
Yüksel DEMİR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yüksel DEMIR Faculty
at ITU Department of Architecture,
Served as a guest professor in
Politecnico Di Milano, Anadolu
University, Auburn University. Founder
director of ITU MardINT R&D Center.
Working on Architectural Design, ICT
in Design, Art [theory & practice].
Coordinates Turkish Antarctic
Research Station Working Group.
S. Banu GARİP
S. Banu Garip got her B.Sc degree in
“Architecture” (2000), M.Sc degree
(2003) and PhD degree (2010) in
“Architectural Design” from Istanbul
Technical University. She studied at
NC State University College of Design,
USA (2009). Her studies focuse
on interior design, urban design,
exhibition design, environmental
psychology and housing studies.
Sinem GÜREVIN
Achieved Bachelor Degree of
Landscape Architecture from Yeditepe
University at 2004. Graduated
from Istanbul Technical University
with M.Sc. Degree in Landscape
Architecture at 2012. Still a student at
Istanbul Technical University for Ph.D.
Degree in Landscape Architecture.
Have been working as a landscape
architect for 15 years.
Sema MUMCU
Received her B.LA, MSc. and PhD.
in Landscape Architecture from
Karadeniz Technical University
Faculty of Forestry. Currently works
as an Assistant Professor at Karadeniz
Technical University. Her major
research interests are environmentbehavior
relationship, spatial behavior
in urban open spaces, landscape design
and design education.
Veniamin Aleksandrovcih NORIN
PhD Eng., Associated Professor of
the Department of Technology of
Building Materials and Metrology at
Saint-Petersburg State University of
Architecture and Civil Engineering.
Author of more than 100 research
papers and learning guides, 5
inventions. Research interests:
architectural education, engineering
education, 3D technologies, metrology.
Natalia Vladimirovna NORINA
PhD Eng., Associated Professor
of the Department of Mechanics
Saint-Petersburg State University of
Architecture and Civil Engineering.
Author of more than 40 research papers
and learning guides, 2 inventions.
Research interests: architectural
education, engineering education.
Gulden Demet ORUÇ
Assist.Prof.Dr. Gulden Demet Oruç is
currently working at Istanbul Technical
University, Faculty of Architecture,
Urban and Regional Planning
Department. Her research topics mainly
focus on urban design and planning.
Mohammed Nabil OUISSI
Doctor of mechanical engineering, I am
currently a professor in the Department
of Architecture in Tlemcen, but also at
the National School of Engineers of the
City of Tlemcen. I am also a member
of the MECACOMP laboratory and
continue my research and publications
in this field.
Gökçen ÖZKAYA
Received her bachelor’s degree
in architecture from Middle East
Technical University, Faculty of
Architecture (2003) and M.Sc. degree
in architecture from Suleyman Demirel
University, Faculty of Architecture
and Engineering (2006). Earned her
PhD. degree from History and Theory
of Architecture Programme at Yıldız
Technical University in 2011. Major
research interests include history of
Ottoman architecture and Ottoman
houses.
Yury Vladimirovich PUKHARENKO
D.Sc. in Eng., Professor of the
Department of Technology of
Building Materials and Metrology at
Saint-Petersburg State University of
Architecture and Civil Engineering.
Author of more than 200 research
papers and learning guides, 22
inventions. Research interests:
continuously reinforced (fibrous)
concrete study, engineering education.
Haniye RAZAVIVAND FARD
Dr. Haniye Razavivand Fard, a
Researcher, Lecturer, and Architect
with more than 10 years of crossfunctional
work experience in
international contexts of Italy, Turkey
and Iran. The holder of a Double-
Degree PhD in “Architectural Design”
Program at Istanbul Technical
University and in “Architecture.
History and Project” Program at
Politecnico di Torino. The current
researches focus on architectural
design, socio-spatial aspects of urban
design, sustainability, morphology and
university-city interaction.
Mehmet RONAEL
Mehmet Ronael graduated from
the Urban and Regional Planning
Department of Istanbul Technical
University in 2016, and he studied his
master in Urban Design Program. He
is currently doctorate student in Urban
and Regional Planning. His research
topics are generally creative economy,
quality of place, site selection models,
and gentrification.
Yasin Çağatay SEÇKİN
Achieved Bachelor Degree of
Architecture from Mimar Sinan
University at 1998. Graduated
from Istanbul Technical University
with M.Sc. Degree in History of
Architecture at 2000 and Ph.D. Degree
in Urban Design at 2005. Working
as a professor and administrator
at Istanbul Technical University.
Chihab SELKA
Chihab Selka, an architect by
training, teacher and doctor in
the Department of Architecture
in Tlemcen. Having worked in a
design office, I have acquired a lot of
experience in the field of construction
in general but also in heritage. As
a researcher, I am now pursuing
my career in the university field.
Imene SELKA OUSSADIT
Having worked in many heritage sites
in my hometown “Tlemcen”, I have
always been passionate about the
subject. Trained as an architect, I had my
magister in 2010 on caravanserais. I am
currently teaching in the Department
of Architecture in Tlemcen where I am
pursuing my doctorate on the theme of
baths.
Murat SÖNMEZ
Received his B. Arch in Architecture
from ESOGU, Faculty of Architecture
(1998). Earned his MSc. and PhD.
degree in Architecture from Gazi
University (2003-2011). Currently
working as an Associate Professor
at TOBB University. Major research
interests include design theories in
contemporary architecture: surface
architecture and construction theories
Marco TRISCIUOGLIO
Prof. Dr. Marco TRISCIUOGLIO,
architect, is the Director of the PhD
Program “Architecture. History and
Project” at Politecnico di Torino -
Department of Architecture and
Design, where he is Contact Person
for International Relationships with
Asia and Oceania. He is Member of the
Scientific Committee of the European
network EURAU and Guest Professor
at Southeast University Nanjing (School
of Architecture). The main topics of
his books and papers are architectural
theories, urban morphologies and
landscape and urban design.
Yandi Andri YATMO
Yandi Andri Yatmo is a professor of
architecture at Universitas Indonesia.
He obtained his PhD, Master’s and
Postgraduate Diploma from the
School of Architecture, University of
Sheffield. His research interest is on the
development of design theories and
methods and their relevance to design
practice.
Serap YILMAZ
Received her B.LA, MSc. and PhD.
in Landscape Architecture from
Karadeniz Technical University
Faculty of Forestry. Currently works
as an Associate Professor at Karadeniz
Technical University. Her major
research interests are perception of
urban green spaces, planting design,
zoo design, and landscape design.
Ferro YUDISTIRA
Ferro Yudistira is a PhD student at
the Department of Architecture,
Universitas Indonesia. He obtained his
undergraduate degree from Universitas
Sriwijaya, and Master of Architecture
from Universitas Indonesia. His
research interest is on the temporality
of architecture and its elements.