Caracterização de fungos envolvidos em infecções nosocomiais
Caracterização de fungos envolvidos em infecções nosocomiais
Caracterização de fungos envolvidos em infecções nosocomiais
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MINISTÉRIO DA EDUCAÇÃO E CULTURA<br />
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE GOIÁS<br />
INSTITUTO DE PATOLOGIA TROPICAL E SAÚDE PÚBLICA<br />
XISTO SENA PASSOS<br />
<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />
<strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />
ORIENTADORA: PROFª DRª MARIA DO ROSÁRIO RODRIGUES SILVA<br />
Tese <strong>de</strong> Doutorado<br />
GOIÂNIA – GO, 2007
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE GOIÁS<br />
INSTITUTO DE PATOLOGIA TROPICAL E SAÚDE PÚBLICA<br />
PROGRAMA DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO EM MEDICINA TROPICAL<br />
XISTO SENA PASSOS<br />
<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />
<strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />
ORIENTADORA: PROFª DRª MARIA DO ROSÁRIO RODRIGUES SILVA<br />
Tese <strong>de</strong> Doutorado apresentada ao Curso <strong>de</strong> Pós-<br />
Graduação <strong>em</strong> Medicina Tropical do Instituto <strong>de</strong><br />
Patologia e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong><br />
Goiás como requisito parcial para obtenção <strong>de</strong> Grau <strong>de</strong><br />
Doutor <strong>em</strong> Medicina Tropical. Área <strong>de</strong> concentração:<br />
Microbiologia.<br />
GOIÂNIA – GO, 2007
Dados Internacionais <strong>de</strong> Catalogação-na-Publicação (CIP)<br />
(GPT/BC/UFG)<br />
Passos, Xisto Sena.<br />
P289c <strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />
<strong>nosocomiais</strong> / Xisto Sena Passos . – Goiânia, 2007.<br />
xiv,99f. : il., figs., tabs.<br />
1<br />
Orientadora: Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva.<br />
Tese ( Doutorado ) – Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong><br />
Goiás, Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Públi-<br />
ca, 2007.<br />
2 Bibliografia: f. 61-78.<br />
Inclui lista <strong>de</strong> abreviaturas, símbolos e unida<strong>de</strong>s.<br />
Anexos.<br />
1. Candidíase 2. Candidíase – Mucosa bucal 3.<br />
Candidíase – Mucosa vaginal 4. Fungos (Candida) –<br />
Tratamento I. Silva, Maria do Rosário Rodrigues II.<br />
Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia<br />
Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública III. Título<br />
CDU: 616.98:616.934
“A Deus por s<strong>em</strong>pre me dar forças, iluminar e guiar”.<br />
i
“As tarefas diárias jamais impediram alguém <strong>de</strong> seguir seus sonhos”<br />
Paulo Coelho<br />
ii
À minha esposa Ana Luiza e aos meus filhos, Rodolfo Lucas e Gabriel<br />
Augusto, a essência da magia que é a razão da minha energia,<br />
persistência e luta.<br />
iii
Zaia,<br />
“O amor é a asa que Deus <strong>de</strong>u à alma para que ela pu<strong>de</strong>sse<br />
subir até Ele. Qu<strong>em</strong> é bom t<strong>em</strong> olhos <strong>de</strong> bonda<strong>de</strong> para ver até os erros<br />
dos outros, t<strong>em</strong> coração para perdoar e t<strong>em</strong>, sobretudo, corag<strong>em</strong> para<br />
dividir a sabedoria que possui.”<br />
A você na qualida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> amiga e orientadora sou eternamente<br />
grato, sobretudo, pelo privilégio <strong>de</strong> haver trabalhado e recebido tanto <strong>de</strong><br />
você nesses anos <strong>de</strong> convivência, pois você é a síntese da bonda<strong>de</strong>.<br />
Muito obrigado e que Deus ilumine s<strong>em</strong>pre sua vida.<br />
iv
AGRADECIMENTOS<br />
“Dois homens juntos são mais felizes que um isolado. Se um vier a cair o<br />
outro o levanta. Mas, ai do hom<strong>em</strong> solitário, se ele cair, não há ninguém<br />
para levantá-lo (Ecle 4.1-10)”.<br />
Pelas motivações, somadas à genosida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> vocês conseguimos concluir<br />
este trabalho. Esta foi a maior alegria que experimentei... contar com todos<br />
vocês<br />
Orionalda <strong>de</strong> Fátima Lisboa Fenan<strong>de</strong>s<br />
Lúcia Kioko Hasimoto e Souza<br />
Carolina Rodrigues Costa<br />
Crystiane Rodrigues <strong>de</strong> Araújo<br />
Janine <strong>de</strong> Aquino L<strong>em</strong>os<br />
Ana Cristina Machado <strong>de</strong> Souza<br />
Hil<strong>de</strong>ne Menezes e Silva<br />
Elisa Sales Nascimento<br />
Werther Souza Sales<br />
Patrícia Jackeline Maciel<br />
Denise Milioli Ferreira<br />
Karla Carvalho Miranda<br />
Miranil<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Abreu Batista<br />
José Cl<strong>em</strong>entino <strong>de</strong> Oliveira Neto<br />
Kariny Vieira Soares<br />
Luiz Augusto Pereira<br />
Keili Souza<br />
v
“Aos professores do Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia<br />
Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública, um agra<strong>de</strong>cimento especial, pela<br />
acolhida e pelo muito que me ensinaram ao longo da<br />
minha caminhada”.<br />
vi
À Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás por fornecer<br />
uma excelente estrutura, o que possibilitou a realização<br />
<strong>de</strong>ste trabalho.<br />
vii
À Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista, representada pelos<br />
professores do programa <strong>de</strong> pós-gradução, que<br />
subvenciou recursos para a efetivação <strong>de</strong>sta pesquisa e<br />
pelas valiosas sugestões.<br />
viii
LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS, SÍMBOLOS E UNIDADES.<br />
AIDS Acquired immuno<strong>de</strong>ficiency syndrome<br />
ATCC American type culture colletion<br />
α Alfa<br />
BSI Bloodstream infection<br />
β Beta<br />
°C Grau Celsius<br />
CFU/ml Unida<strong>de</strong> formadora <strong>de</strong> colônia por mililitro<br />
CIM Concentração inibitória minima<br />
CLSI Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute<br />
CVV Candidíase vulvovaginal<br />
DNA Ácido <strong>de</strong>soxirribonucléico<br />
HAART Highly active anti-retroviral therapy<br />
HC Hospital das Clínicas<br />
HIV Human immuno<strong>de</strong>ficiency virus<br />
ICU Intensive care unit<br />
IgA Imunoglobulina A<br />
MIC Minimal inhibitory concentration<br />
ml Mililitro<br />
μg Micrograma<br />
NCCLS National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards<br />
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction<br />
pH Potencial hidrogeniônico<br />
RAPD Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA<br />
RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms<br />
ix
SIDA Síndrome da imuno<strong>de</strong>ficiência adquirida<br />
sp. Espécie<br />
spp. Espécies<br />
SPSS Statistical Programmer for Social Sciences<br />
UFG Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás<br />
USA United State of América<br />
UTI Unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva<br />
x
SUMÁRIO<br />
AGRADECIMENTOS ........................................................................................ v<br />
LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS, SÍMBOLOS E UNIDADES. .............................. ix<br />
RESUMO ........................................................................................................ xiii<br />
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xiv<br />
1 INTRODUÇÃO ............................................................................................... 1<br />
1.1 ASPECTOS GERAIS ...................................................................................... 1<br />
1.2 MECANISMO DE PATOGENICIDADE................................................................ 2<br />
1.2.1 Fatores relacionados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ........................................................ 2<br />
1.2.2 Fatores relacionados ao microrganismo .................................................. 3<br />
1.3 MANIFESTAÇÕES CLÍNICAS .......................................................................... 7<br />
1.3.1 Candidíase superficial .............................................................................. 7<br />
1.3.2 Candidíase sistêmica................................................................................ 9<br />
1.4 INFECÇÕES NOSOCOMAIS POR CANDIDA SPP.............................................. 10<br />
1.5 TRATAMENTO............................................................................................ 12<br />
1.6 SUSCETIBILIDADE ANTIFÚNGICA IN VITRO.................................................... 15<br />
1.6.1 Resistência aos antifúngicos .................................................................. 18<br />
1.7 MÉTODOS MOLECULARES .......................................................................... 20<br />
2 JUSTIFICATIVA .......................................................................................... 24<br />
3 OBJETIVOS................................................................................................. 26<br />
3.1 OBJETIVO GERAL..................................................................................... 26<br />
3.2 OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS.......................................................................... 26<br />
xi
4 PRODUÇÃO CIENTÍFICA ........................................................................... 27<br />
4.1 ARTIGO 1: CANDIDA COLONIZATION IN INTENSIVE CARE UNIT PATIENST’S<br />
URINE ............................................................................................................. 28<br />
4.2 ARTIGO 2: SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AND ANTIFUNGAL SUSCEPTIBILITY<br />
PATTERNS OF CANDIDA SPP. BLOODSTREAM ISOLATES FROM A BRAZILIAN<br />
TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL................................................................................ 33<br />
4.3 ARTIGO 3: MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF BLOODSTREAM OF<br />
CANDIDA ALBICANS ......................................................................................... 41<br />
4.4 ARTIGO 4: NOSOCOMIAL INVASIVE INFECTION CAUSED BY CUNNINGHAMELLA<br />
BERTHOLLETIAE: CASE REPORT........................................................................ 55<br />
5 CONCLUSÕES............................................................................................ 59<br />
6 REFERÊNCIAS RELACIONADAS À INTRODUÇÃO ................................ 60<br />
7 ANEXOS ...................................................................................................... 79<br />
7.1 NORMAS PARA PUBLICAÇÃO NA REVISTA MEDICAL MYCOLOGY –<br />
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS (ARTIGO 3).......................................................... 79<br />
7.2 PROTOCOLO DO CEPMHA/HC/UFG ....................................................... 92<br />
7.3 TERMO DE CONSENTIMENTO LIVRE E ESCLARECIDO................................... 96<br />
xii
RESUMO<br />
Os pacientes da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva apresentam um índice elevado<br />
<strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> do trato urinário e da corrente sanguínea causadas por Candida<br />
spp. As <strong>infecções</strong> por esse microrganismo, na maioria das vezes, estão<br />
relacionadas à fonte endógena. Entretanto, fontes exógenas provenientes do<br />
meio ambiente foram <strong>de</strong>scritas como prováveis fontes <strong>de</strong> candidíase. Neste<br />
trabalho, foram coletadas amostras <strong>de</strong> sangue, urina, cateter <strong>de</strong> pacientes e<br />
da superfície da cama e mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva <strong>de</strong><br />
um hospital terciário, durante o período <strong>de</strong> um ano para pesquisa e<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ntificação <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong>. Os potenciais fatores <strong>de</strong> risco para candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />
candidúria foram analisados e o teste <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica para os<br />
<strong>fungos</strong> isolados da corrente sanguínea foram realizados usando-se o método<br />
<strong>de</strong> microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo. A diversida<strong>de</strong> genética entre isolados <strong>de</strong> C.<br />
albicans foi avaliada na tentativa <strong>de</strong> se verificar possíveis correlações <strong>de</strong><br />
padrões <strong>de</strong> DNA das cepas obtidas <strong>de</strong> amostras clínicas e do meio ambiente<br />
da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva. Dentre as 345 amostras <strong>de</strong> sangue, Candida<br />
foi <strong>de</strong>tectada <strong>em</strong> 33 pacientes, e <strong>em</strong> um paciente foi i<strong>de</strong>nticado a presença <strong>de</strong><br />
um fungo filamentoso, Cuninghamella bertholetiae. Candida não-albicans foi<br />
responsável por 51,5% dos casos <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Das 153 amostras <strong>de</strong> urina<br />
coletadas, candidúria foi verificada <strong>em</strong> 68 pacientes, sendo que Candida não-<br />
albicans foi i<strong>de</strong>ntificada <strong>em</strong> 31,9%. O período <strong>de</strong> internação relacionado com<br />
candi<strong>de</strong>mia e candidúria foi estatisticamente significante. Uso <strong>de</strong> antibióticos e<br />
<strong>de</strong> cateter invasivo foram fatores predominantes nos casos <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />
<strong>de</strong> candidúria. A suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro dos isolados do sangue revelou alta<br />
sensibilida<strong>de</strong> aos antifúngicos estudados. A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD para os 31<br />
isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans do sangue, catheter, urina, superfície <strong>de</strong> cama e mesa<br />
<strong>de</strong> Meyer confirmou que os oligonucleotídios Cnd3 e Cnd4 possu<strong>em</strong> alto valor<br />
discriminatório. Os resultados obtidos permitiram concluir que <strong>em</strong>bora<br />
candi<strong>de</strong>mia estivesse largamente associada à fontes endógenas como<br />
candidúria, a presença <strong>de</strong> Candida nas superfícies do cateter, cama e da<br />
mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer foram consi<strong>de</strong>radas importantes fontes exógenas.<br />
xiii
ABSTRACT<br />
Nosocomial bloodstream and urinary tract infections caused by Candida<br />
spp. are common among the ICU patients. Candida nosocomial infection<br />
has been generally related to the endogenous flora but exogenous infection<br />
originating from the environment has occurred. In this work, we collected<br />
samples of blood, urine, catheter of patients and the surface of bed and<br />
Meyer table from ICU from tertiary hospital during one year period for<br />
research and i<strong>de</strong>ntification of fungus. It was yet verified the potential risk<br />
factors for candi<strong>de</strong>mia and candiduria and the antifungal susceptibility was<br />
performed by broth microdilution method for Candida isolates recovered<br />
from bloodstream. Additionally, we assessed the genetic diversity among C.<br />
albicans isolates in an effort to establish the relationship between DNA<br />
patterns of the strains recovered from clinical and environment samples<br />
from the ICU. Among 345 blood samples, candi<strong>de</strong>mia was recovered in 33<br />
patients caused by different species of Candida while funga<strong>em</strong>ia by<br />
Cunninghamella bertholetiae was i<strong>de</strong>ntified in one patient. Candida non-<br />
albicans was responsible by 51.5% of the cases of candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Among 153<br />
urine samples, candiduria was <strong>de</strong>tected in 68 patients, from which it was<br />
isolated 31.9% of Candida non-albicans. Candida species in the blood and<br />
urine were statiscally associated with long term hospitalization and the most<br />
common risk factors were the use of antibiotics and indwelling urinary<br />
catheter. The majority of Candida isolates from blood were susceptible to<br />
the antifungals tested. The analyses using RAPD among 31 C. albicans<br />
isolates from blood, urine, catheter, surface of bed and Meyer table<br />
confirmed that the Cnd3 and Cnd4 primers have high discriminatory power.<br />
In conclusion, although candi<strong>de</strong>mia was strongly associated to endogenous<br />
sources such as candiduria, it was observed that catheter, surface of bed<br />
and Meyer table were also consi<strong>de</strong>red important exogenous sources of<br />
infection.<br />
xiv
1 INTRODUÇÃO<br />
1.1 Aspectos gerais<br />
Candidíase é uma infecção normalmente secundária aguda ou crônica,<br />
com manifestações clínicas extr<strong>em</strong>amente diversificadas po<strong>de</strong>ndo produzir<br />
lesões que variam <strong>de</strong> uma simples irritação no tecido cutâneo até uma<br />
resposta granulomatosa. As lesões po<strong>de</strong>m ser superficiais com localização<br />
principalmente nas mucosas bucal e vaginal, ou sistêmica, verificando-se <strong>em</strong><br />
alguns casos, septic<strong>em</strong>ia por Candida (Menezes et al. 2005).<br />
As leveduras do gênero Candida inclu<strong>em</strong> aproximadamente 200<br />
espécies, <strong>de</strong>ntre as quais C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. famata, C. glabrata,<br />
C. guilliermondii, C. ha<strong>em</strong>ualaii, C. inconspicua, C. kefyr, C. krusei, C. lambica,<br />
C. lipolytica, C. lusitaniae, C. novergensis, C. parapsilosis, C. pelliculosa, C.<br />
rugosa, C. sake, C. spharice, C. tropicalis e C. zeylanoi<strong>de</strong>s estão associadas<br />
com candidíase no hom<strong>em</strong> e/ou <strong>em</strong> animais (Hajjeh et al 2004; Segal, 2004;<br />
Almirante et al. 2005; Colombo et al. 2006). Candida albicans é a espécie<br />
patogênica <strong>de</strong> maior prevalência na maioria das casuísticas estudadas (Richet<br />
et al. 2002). Espécies não-albicans, entretanto têm aumentado<br />
gradativamente, sendo que C. tropicalis, C. glabrata e C. parapsilosis são<br />
comumente isoladas <strong>em</strong> casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase relatadas por diferentes<br />
pesquisadores (Pfaller et al. 1999; Sota et al. 1999; Cantón et al. 2001; Galván<br />
& Mariscal 2006).
O gênero Candida faz parte da microbiota da pele, das mucosas, do trato<br />
digestivo e geniturinário humano ou <strong>de</strong> animais, encontrando-se também<br />
saprofiticamente <strong>em</strong> plantas, objetos inanimados e no meio ambiente<br />
havendo, portanto fatores ligados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ou ao microrganismo que<br />
influenciam na transformação <strong>de</strong>ssas leveduras <strong>de</strong> saprófitas para parasitas<br />
(Galván & Mariscal, 2006).<br />
1.2 Mecanismo <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong><br />
1.2.1 Fatores relacionados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro<br />
A capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> produção <strong>de</strong> infecção por espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong><br />
mais do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro do que do fungo. A candidíase po<strong>de</strong> ocorrer pelo<br />
rompimento do equilíbrio parasita-hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, que po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>ado<br />
pelas alterações das barreiras teciduais, da microbiota autóctone e da<br />
resposta imune (Drago et al. 2000; Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001).<br />
Alterações na superfície da pele ou mucosas possibilitam a proliferação<br />
ou mudança do sítio anatômico da levedura contribuindo para a instalação <strong>de</strong><br />
Candida no organismo do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro. Esse fator é comum <strong>em</strong> pacientes que<br />
sofr<strong>em</strong> constant<strong>em</strong>ente traumatismo <strong>de</strong>vido a procedimentos invasivos, como<br />
sondas e cateteres, e <strong>em</strong> pacientes com extensas queimaduras (Pulcini et al.<br />
2006).<br />
Espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida, especialmente C. albicans, consi<strong>de</strong>radas como<br />
pertencentes à microbiota autóctone humana, <strong>de</strong> orofaringe, dobras da pele,<br />
secreções brônquicas, vagina, urina e fezes (Odds, 1988; Macphail et al.<br />
2002) po<strong>de</strong>m, <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminadas circunstâncias como uso <strong>de</strong> antibioticoterapia<br />
2
prolongada, proliferar<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>ando infecção. Pacientes <strong>de</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
terapia intensiva, que geralmente receb<strong>em</strong> altas doses <strong>de</strong> antibióticos, tornam-<br />
se mais propensos à produção <strong>de</strong> infecção por estas leveduras (Safdar et al.<br />
2002).<br />
Mecanismos mediados por imunida<strong>de</strong> celular e humoral constitu<strong>em</strong> uma<br />
eficiente proteção contra <strong>infecções</strong> por <strong>fungos</strong> do gênero Candida (Richardson<br />
& Warnock, 1994). O papel da ativida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> neutrófilos contra <strong>infecções</strong><br />
sistêmicas po<strong>de</strong> ser evi<strong>de</strong>nciado pelo aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> diss<strong>em</strong>inadas <strong>em</strong><br />
pacientes submetidos à quimioterapia (Merz, 1990). Neutrófilos e macrófagos<br />
participam na <strong>de</strong>fesa do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro <strong>de</strong>vido à sua ação microbicida<br />
(Greenfield, 1992). Por outro lado, a importância das células T na prevenção<br />
do <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento <strong>de</strong> candidíase mucocutânea t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>monstrada.<br />
Candidíase é freqüente <strong>em</strong> crianças com probl<strong>em</strong>as no timo, principal órgão<br />
formador <strong>de</strong> linfócitos T, e <strong>em</strong> pacientes com a síndrome da imuno<strong>de</strong>ficiência<br />
humana adquirida (AIDS ou SIDA), <strong>em</strong> que se observa uma acentuada<br />
diminuição <strong>de</strong>ssas células (Merz, 1990). A imunida<strong>de</strong> humoral po<strong>de</strong> auxiliar na<br />
<strong>de</strong>fesa do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro através da formação <strong>de</strong> anticorpos, que associados ao<br />
sist<strong>em</strong>a compl<strong>em</strong>ento, atuam como opsonizadores para as células<br />
fagocitárias, ou impe<strong>de</strong>m a a<strong>de</strong>são do microrganismo às células do<br />
hospe<strong>de</strong>iro (IgA secretora) (Odds, 1988; Samaranayake & MacFarlane, 1990).<br />
1.2.2 Fatores relacionados ao microrganismo<br />
Candida albicans e outras espécies do gênero possu<strong>em</strong> características<br />
celulares e moleculares que possibilitam a produção <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong>. Estas<br />
3
características estão relacionadas principalmente à a<strong>de</strong>são, ao dimorfismo<br />
(variação <strong>de</strong> antígenos <strong>de</strong> superfície), à variabilida<strong>de</strong> fenotípica (fenômeno<br />
switching), e à produção <strong>de</strong> toxinas e exoenzimas, como proteases e<br />
fosfolipases produzidas pelos microrganismos (Hellstein et al. 1993; Vargas et<br />
al. 2000; Fotedar & Al-Hedaithy, 2003).<br />
Os mecanismos <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> das espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida variam <strong>de</strong><br />
acordo com o tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção. A invasão da corrente sangüínea e<br />
crescimento nos tecidos po<strong>de</strong>m requerer <strong>de</strong>terminados fatores <strong>de</strong> virulência<br />
que po<strong>de</strong>m ser diferentes daqueles para causar doenças na superfície das<br />
mucosas (De Bernardis et al. 1993; Venkatesan et al. 2005). No<br />
estabelecimento da infecção sistêmica os patógenos oportunistas são<br />
capazes <strong>de</strong> evadir<strong>em</strong> do sist<strong>em</strong>a imune, sobreviver<strong>em</strong> e iniciar<strong>em</strong> o seu<br />
processo <strong>de</strong> divisão, difundindo-se para os órgãos internos do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro<br />
(Casa<strong>de</strong>vall & Piorfski, 2001). O mecanismo <strong>de</strong> produção <strong>de</strong> lesões por<br />
<strong>fungos</strong> do gênero Candida não é totalmente conhecido. Não há evidências se<br />
a invasão da levedura está mais relacionada à falhas no sist<strong>em</strong>a <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fesa do<br />
hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ou a proprieda<strong>de</strong>s específicas da levedura (Venkatesan et al.<br />
2005).<br />
A capacida<strong>de</strong> que o microrganismo t<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> se a<strong>de</strong>rir a superfícies das<br />
células do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro representa o primeiro mecanismo da patogênese<br />
(Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001). As doenças infecciosas, <strong>de</strong> uma maneira geral,<br />
são conhecidas por começar com a fixação do patógeno a um alvo particular<br />
no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, como ocorre com a candidíase. A pare<strong>de</strong> das leveduras do<br />
4
gênero Candida, como C. albicans, não possui apenas a proprieda<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
conferir a forma estrutural à célula, mas também é o local on<strong>de</strong> se inicia a<br />
interação entre esse fungo e o meio ambiente (Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001).<br />
Isso ocorre porque estas leveduras apresentam proteínas <strong>de</strong>nominadas<br />
a<strong>de</strong>sinas que permit<strong>em</strong> a sua a<strong>de</strong>são a el<strong>em</strong>entos extracelulares,<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rados receptores, como fibrinogênio, fibronectina e laminina, presentes<br />
nos tecidos humanos (Vardar-Ünlü, 1998, Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001; Yang,<br />
2003).<br />
Candida albicans po<strong>de</strong> se apresentar sob a forma <strong>de</strong> levedura ou<br />
filamentosa, o que caracteriza o seu dimorfismo (Brown & Gow, 1999; Ernst,<br />
2000). A formação <strong>de</strong> hifas é consi<strong>de</strong>rada importante fator <strong>de</strong> virulência não<br />
apenas por promover a invasão da célula para o interior da mucosa, mas<br />
também por impedir que as células <strong>de</strong> Candida sejam englobadas por<br />
macrófagos e neutrófilos (Yang et al. 2003). A transição <strong>de</strong> leveduras para<br />
hifas po<strong>de</strong> ser influenciada pela t<strong>em</strong>peratura, pH, fontes <strong>de</strong> carbono e<br />
substâncias químicas (Odds, 1988, Lan et al. 2002). Sua capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
mudar <strong>de</strong> fase <strong>de</strong> levedura para filamentosa é importante para uma maior<br />
interação com o hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, facilitando a a<strong>de</strong>são, e aumentando assim a sua<br />
virulência (Cutler, 1991). As células <strong>em</strong> forma <strong>de</strong> leveduras e <strong>de</strong> hifas po<strong>de</strong>m<br />
estar presentes no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro não somente durante o processo <strong>de</strong> infecção,<br />
mas também durante o processo <strong>de</strong> colonização do fungo (Souza et al. 1990;<br />
Bartie et al. 2001).<br />
5
As variações na morfologia <strong>de</strong> colônias <strong>de</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida,<br />
<strong>de</strong>scritas principalmente <strong>em</strong> C. albicans, caracterizadas como fenômeno<br />
switching, parec<strong>em</strong> estar envolvidas no mecanismo <strong>de</strong> virulência <strong>de</strong>ssas<br />
leveduras. Nesse fenômeno, a mudança fenotípica que se expressa pela<br />
morfologia, induz provavelmente alteração na fisiologia e na patogenicida<strong>de</strong><br />
do microrganismo (Lian et al. 2003, Laffey & Butler, 2005). Esse mecanismo<br />
po<strong>de</strong> permitir que um organismo adaptado ao meio ambiente altere, através<br />
da expressão <strong>de</strong> um gene seletivo, a resposta fúngica frente aos agentes<br />
antifúngicos (Lachke et al. 2002; Miller et al. 2006).<br />
A produção <strong>de</strong> proteinase e da fosfolipase t<strong>em</strong> sido relatada como sendo<br />
um importante <strong>de</strong>terminante <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> C. albicans (Cutler, 1991;<br />
Pincus et al. 1999, Menezes et al. 2005). As proteinases têm afinida<strong>de</strong> por<br />
substratos tais como queratina, colágeno <strong>de</strong>snaturado, h<strong>em</strong>oglobinas, matriz<br />
celular e albumina (Rüchel et al. 1982; McDonalds & Odds, 1983; Ghannoun &<br />
Abu-Elteen, 1990; Culter 1991; Odds 1994, Ibrahim et al. 1995, Cal<strong>de</strong>rone &<br />
Fronzi, 2001) envolvidas <strong>em</strong> vários processos bioquímicos. Esses atributos<br />
estão associados a diversos fatores <strong>de</strong> virulência como formação <strong>de</strong><br />
pseudomicélio, a<strong>de</strong>são e fenômeno “switching”, tornando mais complexos os<br />
mecanismos <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> leveduras (Naglik et al. 2003, Naglik et al.<br />
2004). O primeiro relato <strong>de</strong> fosfolipase <strong>em</strong> C. albicans foi publicado <strong>em</strong> 1966<br />
(Werner, 1966). A presença <strong>de</strong> fosfolipases na superfície da levedura e na<br />
extr<strong>em</strong>ida<strong>de</strong> do pseudomicélio propicia a lesão tecidual por alterar os<br />
constituintes lipídicos da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro. Esta enzima t<strong>em</strong><br />
6
sido <strong>de</strong>tectada <strong>em</strong> poucas espécies, como C. albicans e C. glabrata<br />
(Samaranayake et al. 1984; Banno et al. 1985; Hube, 1996; Ghannoum, 1998;<br />
Ghannoum, 2000). Williams et al. (1990) verificaram que 94% <strong>de</strong> C. albicans<br />
isoladas da cavida<strong>de</strong> bucal <strong>de</strong> pacientes com AIDS, foram produtoras <strong>de</strong><br />
fosfolipase. Outras enzimas, como glucoamilase, fosfatase ácida e<br />
metalopeptidase, provavelmente correlacionadas com virulência po<strong>de</strong>m ser<br />
encontradas <strong>em</strong> leveduras do gênero Candida (Naglik et al. 2003).<br />
1.3 Manifestações clínicas<br />
As <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>de</strong>correntes da ação patogênica <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> do gênero<br />
Candida, <strong>de</strong>nominadas candidíases, po<strong>de</strong>m envolver a pele, as mucosas e<br />
órgãos internos atingindo algumas vezes o sist<strong>em</strong>a sanguíneo. De acordo<br />
com o envolvimento do organismo no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, a candidíase po<strong>de</strong> ser<br />
classificada <strong>em</strong> superficial e sistêmica.<br />
1.3.1 Candidíase superficial<br />
A candidíase com envolvimento superficial acomete pele, unhas e<br />
mucosas orofaríngeas e genitais (Ghannoum, 2001).<br />
As <strong>infecções</strong> da pele se localizam principalmente <strong>em</strong> áreas intertriginosas<br />
úmidas, como os espaços interdigitais, os sulcos submamários, axilas e<br />
pregas suprapúbicas. As lesões se caracterizam por se apresentar<strong>em</strong><br />
erit<strong>em</strong>atosas, úmidas, com bordos mal <strong>de</strong>finidos e escamosos formados por<br />
vesículas que se romp<strong>em</strong> precoc<strong>em</strong>ente. Em alguns casos, observa-se a<br />
presença <strong>de</strong> placas secas, escamosas e pústulas (Samanarayake et al. 2002).<br />
7
A onicomicose, <strong>de</strong>finida como infecção fúngica ungueal, representa 20%<br />
das doenças das unhas, sendo uma das mais freqüentes causas <strong>de</strong><br />
onicopatias <strong>em</strong> todo o mundo (Arena & Ruiz-Esmenjaud, 2004). Essa infecção<br />
po<strong>de</strong> manifestar-se como um e<strong>de</strong>ma erit<strong>em</strong>atoso da prega ungueal<br />
(paroníquia), ou como uma separação da placa ungueal do seu leito<br />
(onicólise). Esse tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção, segundo as recomendações da<br />
nomenclatura das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas proposta pela "Socieda<strong>de</strong> Internacional<br />
<strong>de</strong> Micologia Humana e Animal", quando o agente causal se trata <strong>de</strong><br />
leveduras do gênero Candida, <strong>de</strong>ve ser <strong>de</strong>nominada candidoses ungueais<br />
(López-Jodra et al. 1999). Onicomicose por Candida spp afeta<br />
aproximadamente 5% da população mundial, sendo altamente freqüentes na<br />
América Latina (Arenas & Ocego 1997; Murray & Dawber, 2002) e representa<br />
<strong>em</strong> torno <strong>de</strong> 30% <strong>de</strong> todas as <strong>infecções</strong> micóticas superficiais (Migdley et al.<br />
1994).<br />
A candidíase <strong>de</strong> mucosa bucal po<strong>de</strong> se apresentar sob quatro formas<br />
clínicas. A forma erit<strong>em</strong>atosa, a qual é representada por áreas avermelhadas,<br />
localizadas principalmente no palato, língua e mucosa bucal. A<br />
pseudom<strong>em</strong>branosa, on<strong>de</strong> se observa a formação <strong>de</strong> lesões m<strong>em</strong>branosas <strong>de</strong><br />
cor branca à amarelada <strong>em</strong> toda a mucosa, a queilite angular que acomete as<br />
comissuras labiais com aspectos clínicos, que variam <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> os fissurais a<br />
ulcerados e a candidíase hiperplásica que se apresenta sob a forma <strong>de</strong> placas<br />
ou nódulos esbranquiçados, firm<strong>em</strong>ente a<strong>de</strong>ridos às áreas da mucosa,<br />
po<strong>de</strong>ndo ocorrer na língua e ser confundida com a leucoplasia pilosa<br />
8
(Cavassani et al. 2002). Lesões <strong>de</strong> mucosa bucal são frequent<strong>em</strong>ente<br />
relatadas <strong>em</strong> pacientes imunocomprometidos, particularmente <strong>em</strong> AIDS.<br />
Candidíase vulvovaginal (CVV), processo inflamatório que acarreta<br />
corrimentos, pruridos, além <strong>de</strong> incômodos como ardência e dor ao urinar<br />
po<strong>de</strong>m ser <strong>de</strong>correntes <strong>de</strong> diversos fatores, como o abafamento da área<br />
vaginal, higiene pessoal ina<strong>de</strong>quada, mudança <strong>de</strong> pH ou até mesmo o uso <strong>de</strong><br />
contraceptivos (Ferrazza et al. 2005). A freqüência <strong>de</strong> CVV t<strong>em</strong> aumentado<br />
gradativamente, evoluindo <strong>de</strong> 0,5% <strong>em</strong> 1968 para 22,5% <strong>em</strong> 1998, época <strong>em</strong><br />
que se tornou a causa mais comum <strong>de</strong> infecção vaginal (Adad et al. 2001).<br />
Atualmente, CVV está entre os principais probl<strong>em</strong>as ginecológicos que afetam<br />
mulheres <strong>em</strong> ida<strong>de</strong> reprodutiva, atingindo milhares <strong>de</strong> pessoas no mundo<br />
(Costa et al. 2004). Há estimativas <strong>de</strong> que provavelmente 55,7% <strong>de</strong> todas as<br />
mulheres terão pelo menos um episódio <strong>de</strong> vulvovaginite por Candida spp ao<br />
longo <strong>de</strong> suas vidas (Foxman et al. 2000).<br />
1.3.2 Candidíase sistêmica<br />
Esse tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção ocorre quando o fungo se instala <strong>em</strong> diferentes<br />
órgãos do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, com localização mais freqüente nos pulmões e trato<br />
urinário, sendo que <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados indivíduos po<strong>de</strong>m levar a candi<strong>de</strong>mia<br />
(Galván & Mariscal, 2006).<br />
Uma das características mais importantes com relação à candidíase<br />
sistêmica é sua associação à altas taxas <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong>. A taxa média <strong>de</strong><br />
mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> pacientes com essa patologia nos Estados Unidos é <strong>de</strong><br />
aproximadamente 38% (Beck-Sagué & Jarvis 1993), <strong>em</strong> Israel <strong>de</strong> 21,5%<br />
9
(Rennert et al. 2000), na Espanha oscila entre 22 e 33,3% (Sota et al. 1999;<br />
Saballs et al. 2000), enquanto no Brasil é <strong>de</strong> aproximadamente 50% (Colombo<br />
et al. 1999).<br />
Em pacientes hospitalizados a combinação <strong>de</strong> vários fatores constitui<br />
riscos para candidíase invasiva e candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Cantón et al. 2001). O uso <strong>de</strong><br />
cateter, <strong>de</strong> antibióticos, nutrição parenteral, freqüent<strong>em</strong>entes utilizados <strong>em</strong><br />
pacientes internados contribu<strong>em</strong> para uma maior capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> invasão por<br />
leveduras do gênero Candida (Frazer et al. 1992; Franklin & Metry 1992;<br />
Fridkin & Jarvis, 1996).<br />
A incidência das <strong>infecções</strong> sistêmicas por Candida t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrita<br />
principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos hospitalizados, particularmente <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
terapia intensiva (Vincent et al. 1998), verificando-se um gran<strong>de</strong> aumento nas<br />
últimas décadas. Segundo Schwesinger et al. (2005), <strong>em</strong> um hospital terciário<br />
al<strong>em</strong>ão, <strong>de</strong> necropsias realizadas no período <strong>de</strong> 1994 – 1998, verificou-se<br />
uma incidência <strong>de</strong> 3% <strong>de</strong> candidíases invasivas e no período compreendido<br />
entre 1999 – 2003, a mesma passou a ser <strong>de</strong> 10%.<br />
1.4 Infecções nosocomais por Candida spp.<br />
Infecções invasivas são consi<strong>de</strong>radas importantes causas <strong>de</strong> morbida<strong>de</strong><br />
e mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> hospitais (Saleh & Al-Hedaithy, 2003, Boo et al. 2005). A<br />
tecnologia disponível na área médica e laboratorial, para diagnóstico e<br />
tratamento, além do aprimoramento das medidas <strong>de</strong> suporte <strong>de</strong> vida a<br />
pacientes críticos, particularmente os <strong>de</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva,<br />
possibilitaram uma maior sobrevida <strong>de</strong> portadores <strong>de</strong> doenças <strong>de</strong>generativas<br />
10
e neoplásicas, pós-cirúrgicos e <strong>de</strong> crianças pr<strong>em</strong>aturas, aumentando o risco à<br />
aquisição <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> (Araújo, 1998, Antunes et al. 2005). Alterações na<br />
resposta imune do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, rompimento <strong>de</strong> barreiras e exposição a vários<br />
antibióticos, ren<strong>de</strong>m aos pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI altamente suscetíveis, <strong>infecções</strong> da<br />
corrente sangüínea, do trato respiratório e urinário (Arantes et al. 2003). Um<br />
estudo realizado por Appelgren et al. 2001, <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva,<br />
mostrou que 35% dos pacientes tiveram infecção nosocomial, sendo que 17%<br />
eram <strong>infecções</strong> da corrente sanguínea.<br />
Espécies <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> pertencentes aos gêneros Candida e Aspergillus e a<br />
classe dos Zygomycetos são os responsáveis pela maioria <strong>de</strong>ssas <strong>infecções</strong><br />
(Anaisse et al. 1989; Wingard et al. 1991). É <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> interesse a elevada<br />
freqüência <strong>de</strong> candidíase <strong>de</strong>tectada nos gran<strong>de</strong>s hospitais. Diversos fatores<br />
concorr<strong>em</strong> para o aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong> por Candida. Colombo &<br />
Guimarães (2003) i<strong>de</strong>ntificaram azot<strong>em</strong>ia, uso <strong>de</strong> cateter venoso central, uso<br />
<strong>de</strong> esterói<strong>de</strong>s, cirurgia <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> porte, colonização por Candida spp. e<br />
h<strong>em</strong>odiálise, como fatores <strong>de</strong> risco associados <strong>em</strong> pacientes hospitalizados.<br />
Segundo esses autores, consi<strong>de</strong>rando os fatores <strong>de</strong> riscos mencionados, é<br />
possível enten<strong>de</strong>r porque a maior freqüência <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia t<strong>em</strong> sido<br />
documentada <strong>em</strong> indivíduos críticos admitidos <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia<br />
intensiva.<br />
C. albicans é a principal espécie capaz <strong>de</strong> produzir candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Colombo<br />
& Guimarães, 2003), mas outras espécies não-albicans, como C. parapsilosis,<br />
C. glabrata, C. krusei e C. tropicalis estão implicadas como agentes <strong>de</strong>ssa<br />
11
infecção (Colombo et al. 1999; Ellis et al. 2003; Marchetti et al. 2004, Medrano<br />
et al. 2006). O aumento <strong>de</strong> espécies não-albicans como agentes importantes<br />
<strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia está ligado ao uso profilático, ou <strong>em</strong>pírico, <strong>de</strong> agentes<br />
antifúngicos, com menor suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> a esses (Rodriguez & Moreira, 1999;<br />
Lewis & Klepser, 1999; Pfaller, 2000).<br />
As espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida po<strong>de</strong>m causar o mesmo tipo <strong>de</strong> enfermida<strong>de</strong>, no<br />
entanto, a gravida<strong>de</strong> e as opções terapêuticas difer<strong>em</strong> entre as distintas<br />
espécies e <strong>de</strong>ntro da mesma espécie (Sandven, 2000; Cantón, 2001),<br />
justificando o uso dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro para uma terapia<br />
a<strong>de</strong>quada.<br />
1.5 Tratamento<br />
Anfotericina B é consi<strong>de</strong>rada o padrão ouro da terapia antifúngica. Esse<br />
fármaco é um antibiótico macroli<strong>de</strong>o com ativida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica frente a<br />
numerosas espécies <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> como Candida, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma<br />
capsulatum, Paracoccidioi<strong>de</strong>s brasiliensis e Aspergillus. É um antifúngico<br />
altamente lipofílico, sendo administrado <strong>em</strong> associação à <strong>de</strong>soxicolato. A sua<br />
principal limitação no <strong>em</strong>prego clínico é <strong>de</strong>corrente <strong>de</strong> seus efeitos<br />
secundários, dos quais um dos mais graves é a nefrotoxicida<strong>de</strong> (López-<br />
Medrado et al. 2005).<br />
O tratamento das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas t<strong>em</strong> sido também realizado com<br />
<strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos, como fluconazol, itraconazol, voriconazol, ou ainda com<br />
cancidas, como caspofungina, equinocandina e micafungina, os quais<br />
apresentam maior facilida<strong>de</strong> na sua administração, e menores efeitos<br />
12
colaterais do que os observados para anfotericina B (Ayeni et al. 1999;<br />
Berrouane et al. 1999; Sheehan et al. 1999). A pouca toxicida<strong>de</strong>, fácil<br />
administração e eficácia no tratamento têm resultado no uso abusivo <strong>de</strong><br />
fluconazol, o que provavelmente possibilitou o <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento da resistência<br />
<strong>de</strong>sse antifúngico <strong>em</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida (Rex et al. 1995; Rex & Pfaller<br />
2002). As <strong>infecções</strong> invasivas por C. glabrata, principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos<br />
transplantados, têm ocorrido com altos índices <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>vido ao uso<br />
<strong>de</strong> fluconazol como profilático. Candida krusei é consi<strong>de</strong>rada intrinsecamente<br />
resistente a este <strong>de</strong>rivado azólico (Abi-Said et al. 1997; Bo<strong>de</strong>y et al. 2002). Em<br />
casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase que não respon<strong>de</strong>m ao tratamento com fluconazol e<br />
itraconazol, t<strong>em</strong> sido instituído o uso <strong>de</strong> voriconazol com boa eficácia (Lozano-<br />
Chiu et al. 1999; Pfaller et al. 2002).<br />
Voriconazol é um agente antifúngico triazólico <strong>de</strong> segunda geração, com<br />
amplo espectro, sendo <strong>de</strong>rivado sintético do fluconazol. As modificações<br />
introduzidas na molécula <strong>de</strong> voriconazol resultaram <strong>em</strong> uma maior afinida<strong>de</strong> à<br />
enzima 14-α-lanosterol <strong>de</strong>metilase e no aumento do espectro <strong>de</strong> ação.<br />
Voriconazol exibe um amplo e potente espectro <strong>de</strong> ação contra os <strong>fungos</strong>: C.<br />
albicans, Aspergillus sp, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum,<br />
Coccidioi<strong>de</strong>s immitis, Scedosporium spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium<br />
marneffei, Trichosporon spp. e Saccharomyces cerevisae (Sabo & Ab<strong>de</strong>l-<br />
Rahmanl, 2000; Bizarro & Dinis, 2003, Gimeno & Martinez, 2007), po<strong>de</strong>ndo<br />
apresentar ativida<strong>de</strong> contra isolados que são resistentes ao fluconazol,<br />
itraconazol e anfotericina B.<br />
13
As equinocandinas, pertencente ao grupo das candinas, possu<strong>em</strong> três<br />
agentes antifúngicos, caspofungina, micafungina e anidulafungina, sendo<br />
fármacos que inib<strong>em</strong> a síntese da β-1,3-D glucana, componente da pare<strong>de</strong><br />
celular <strong>de</strong> muitos <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos e <strong>de</strong> leveduras (Bergold & Georgiadis<br />
2004). A sua ação na pare<strong>de</strong> faz com que esses agentes antifúngicos tenham<br />
maior facilida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> ação sobre os <strong>fungos</strong> s<strong>em</strong> haver interferência no<br />
hospe<strong>de</strong>iro e <strong>de</strong>ssa forma são menos tóxicos para o paciente (Gimeno &<br />
Martinez, 2007).<br />
A caspofungina, licenciada para uso clínico, é um <strong>de</strong>rivado s<strong>em</strong>i-sintético<br />
da pneumonocandina B, única equinocandina aprovada nos Estados Unidos,<br />
indicada no tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, on<strong>de</strong> as espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida<br />
respon<strong>de</strong>m a este antifúngico, inclusive as resistentes ao fluconazol<br />
(Deresinski & Stevens, 2003). Resultados <strong>de</strong> estudos <strong>de</strong> caspofungina na<br />
candidíase invasiva e na candi<strong>de</strong>mia suger<strong>em</strong> equivalente eficácia à<br />
anfotericina B, mas com menos efeitos tóxicos (Abuhammour & Habte-Gaber,<br />
2004).<br />
Em um estudo realizado por Odio et al. (2004) foi avaliado o tratamento<br />
com caspofungina <strong>em</strong> 10 recém-nascidos, com candidíase invasiva, causada<br />
por C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis e C. glabrata. Embora tivesse<br />
sido registrada resistência ao fluconazol nas espécies não-albicans e <strong>em</strong> dois<br />
casos <strong>de</strong> C. albicans, b<strong>em</strong> como resistência a anfotericina por C. glabrata, a<br />
caspofungina mostrou-se com elevada eficácia, no tratamento da candidíase<br />
<strong>de</strong>stas crianças.<br />
14
Embora haja boa resposta às terapias com diferentes agentes<br />
antifúngicos no tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, para pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI há uma<br />
enorme dificulda<strong>de</strong> na eficácia, pois além da sintomatologia das <strong>infecções</strong><br />
fúngicas ser totalmente inespecífica nesses pacientes dificultando o<br />
diagnóstico, a <strong>de</strong>bilida<strong>de</strong> do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro leva a uma diminuição na resposta ao<br />
agente antifúngico (Muñoz et al. 2000). Nesses pacientes, a utilização <strong>de</strong><br />
antifúngicos se t<strong>em</strong> restringido àqueles com <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas documentadas<br />
ou com um alto risco <strong>de</strong> apresentar <strong>infecções</strong> por esses <strong>fungos</strong> (Wa<strong>de</strong>, 1993;<br />
Pizzo, 2000), para evitar o <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento <strong>de</strong> resistência aos antifúngicos.<br />
Com a crescente incidência das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas sistêmicas, o<br />
aumento do número <strong>de</strong> agentes antifúngicos além do aparecimento <strong>de</strong><br />
isolados resistentes, torna-se necessário à seleção a<strong>de</strong>quada do antifúngico,<br />
o que po<strong>de</strong> ser realizado através dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>.<br />
1.6 Suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica in vitro<br />
A utilização dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica in vitro para que seja<br />
realizado um tratamento rápido, a<strong>de</strong>quado e eficaz, tornou-se necessária<br />
<strong>de</strong>vido às constantes resistências <strong>de</strong>tectadas <strong>em</strong> diferentes <strong>fungos</strong> (Colombo,<br />
1994; Zardo & Mezzan, 2004; Yang et al. 2005; Magill et al. 2006)<br />
Na última década, foram padronizados vários métodos para provas <strong>de</strong><br />
sensibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro a antifúngicos e alguns <strong>de</strong>les são atualmente indicados<br />
como referência, servindo para validar outras provas, incluindo àquelas<br />
comerciais.<br />
15
Alguns testes preconizados para <strong>de</strong>tectar resistência a antifúngicos, têm<br />
mostrado boa reprodutibilida<strong>de</strong> intra e interlaboratorial, além <strong>de</strong> correlação<br />
com a evolução clínica dos pacientes. O National Committee for Clinical<br />
Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), atual Clinical and Laboratory Standards<br />
Institute (CLSI), publicou o documento M27-A2, para provas <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong><br />
a antifúngicos <strong>em</strong> leveduras como método <strong>de</strong> referência (NCCLS/CLSI, 2002).<br />
Esse documento contém técnicas <strong>de</strong> macro e microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo para<br />
<strong>de</strong>terminar a concentração inibitória mínima (CIM). Elas foram <strong>de</strong>senvolvidas<br />
para testes com leveduras dos gêneros Candida e Cryptococcus, frente à<br />
anfotericina B, 5-fluorocitosina e azólicos, incluindo cetoconazol, fluconazol,<br />
itraconazol, posaconazol, ravuconazol e voriconazol. Os possíveis fatores<br />
como meio <strong>de</strong> cultura, pH, t<strong>em</strong>peratura <strong>de</strong> incubação e leitura do teste, que<br />
po<strong>de</strong>m causar erros na <strong>de</strong>terminação da CIM são padronizados neste método<br />
(NCCLS/CLSI, 2002).<br />
Um outro método do CLSI foi <strong>de</strong>scrito no documento M44-A que<br />
<strong>de</strong>screve uma prova sensível e prática, validada para testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong><br />
<strong>em</strong> Candida spp., utilizando discos impregnados com fluconazol ou com<br />
voriconazol. O documento inclui critério <strong>de</strong> interpretação para os diâmetros <strong>de</strong><br />
halos obtidos com discos <strong>de</strong> fluconazol e valores esperados para cepas-<br />
padrão permitindo verificar a concentração inibitória mínima (NCCLS/CLSI,<br />
2004).<br />
Testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro aos antifúngicos são realizados por<br />
vários sist<strong>em</strong>as comerciais, incluindo, <strong>de</strong>ntre outros, ASTY (Kyokyuto Pharma-<br />
16
Centical, Japão), ATB Fungus 2 (Api-bioMérieux, França), Candifast<br />
(International Microbio, Itália), Etest (AB-Biodisck, Suécia), Fungitest (Bio-Rad,<br />
Farança), Integral Syst<strong>em</strong>s Yeast (Liofilchen Diagnostics, Itália), Mycostandard<br />
(Institut Pasteur, França), Mycototal (Behring Diagnostic, França) e Sensititre<br />
® YeastOne (Trek Diagnostic Syst<strong>em</strong>, EUA) (Arikan & Akova, 1997; Morace et<br />
al. 2002; Bae et al. 2004; Durussel et al. 2004; Lombardi et al. 2004; Carrillo-<br />
Muñoz et al. 2006).<br />
Dentre os sist<strong>em</strong>as comerciais estudados, apenas alguns <strong>de</strong>monstraram<br />
potencial suficiente para se constituir <strong>em</strong> uma alternativa para os laboratórios<br />
assistenciais, como o Sensititre ® YeastOne e o Etest, os quais mostraram boa<br />
reprodutibilida<strong>de</strong> e indiscutível capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>tectar a resistência in vitro<br />
aos azóis, sobretudo ao fluconazol, quando comparados aos métodos <strong>de</strong><br />
macro e microdiluição para leveduras (Lombardi et al. 2004; Carrillo-Muñoz et<br />
al. 2006).<br />
Sensititre ® YeastOne é um método <strong>de</strong> microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo baseado<br />
no documento M27-A2, que consiste <strong>de</strong> uma placa <strong>de</strong> microtitulação<br />
<strong>de</strong>scartável, que contém diluições seriadas <strong>de</strong>sidratadas <strong>de</strong> seis agentes<br />
antifúngicos, incluindo anfotericina B, fluconazol, itraconazol, cetoconazol,<br />
voriconazol e 5-fluorocitosina, <strong>em</strong> cavida<strong>de</strong>s individuais. As cavida<strong>de</strong>s contêm<br />
azul <strong>de</strong> Alamar como indicador colorimétrico, o qual melhora a leitura do ponto<br />
<strong>de</strong> corte mediante mudança <strong>de</strong> cor azul para rosa. Os resultados são<br />
expressos <strong>em</strong> CIM e estudos comparativos com os métodos NCCLS/CLSI<br />
mostraram-se concordantes (Chaturvedi et al. 2004).<br />
17
O Etest, método <strong>de</strong> difusão <strong>em</strong> ágar, utiliza uma tira contendo um<br />
gradiente <strong>de</strong> concentração do agente antimicrobiano <strong>em</strong> estudo permitindo a<br />
<strong>de</strong>terminação <strong>de</strong> CIM. Este método é disponível para <strong>de</strong>tectar a CIM <strong>de</strong><br />
anfotericina B, 5-fluorocitosina, cetoconazol, itraconazol, voriconazol,<br />
fluconazol e caspofungina para leveduras dos gêneros Candida e<br />
Cryptococcus e para alguns <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos (Denning et al. 1997; Clancy<br />
& Nguyen, 1999; Fernan<strong>de</strong>s et al. 2003; Costa et al. 2004). Trabalhos<br />
experimentais têm <strong>de</strong>monstrado concordância <strong>de</strong> Etest com os resultados<br />
encontrados pelo NCCLS/CLSI (Hazen et al., 2003; Pfaller et al., 2003).<br />
1.6.1 Resistência aos antifúngicos<br />
Os <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos, como fluconazol e itraconazol, largamente<br />
utilizados para o tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, atuam inibindo a C14α–<br />
<strong>de</strong>metilase, uma citocromo P-450 acarretando o acúmulo <strong>de</strong> esterói<strong>de</strong>s<br />
metilados e diminuição da síntese do ergosterol. Essa enzima inibe a<br />
produção <strong>de</strong> ergosterol, que é o principal constituinte da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular do<br />
fungo, com conseqüente inibição do crescimento celular (Hitchocock et al.<br />
1993; Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche, 1997; Manavathu et al. 1999, Nenoff et al. 1999;<br />
Burgess et al. 2000; Bizarro & Dinis, 2003). Alguns isolados <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> po<strong>de</strong>m<br />
apresentar resistência aos <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos. São conhecidos três<br />
mecanismos <strong>de</strong> resistência aos azólicos. 1- Redução do acúmulo intracelular<br />
do fármaco resultante da utilização reduzida <strong>de</strong>ste agente antifúngico ou do<br />
aumento da efluxo do fármaco <strong>de</strong>vido à ação <strong>de</strong> produtos <strong>de</strong> genes <strong>de</strong><br />
resistência aos antifúngicos, 2- Alteração estrutural da enzima C14α-<br />
18
<strong>de</strong>metilase, resultando <strong>em</strong> uma diminuição na sua ligação aos azólicos, 3-<br />
Aumento da produção <strong>de</strong> 14α-<strong>de</strong>metilase, superando o efeito inibidor dos<br />
azólicos (Nenoff et al. 1999; Gao et al. 2003).<br />
A resistência aos <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos po<strong>de</strong> ser influenciada pela<br />
imunossupressão dos pacientes e uso prolongado do agente antifúngico<br />
(Yang et al. 2003). O uso freqüente <strong>de</strong> terapia antifúngica <strong>em</strong> pacientes<br />
imunocomprometidos, <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>corrência <strong>de</strong> constantes recidivas <strong>de</strong> candidíase,<br />
é o fator que provavelmente tenha maior influencia na ocorrência <strong>de</strong><br />
resistência a diferentes fármacos e selecionando espécies. Espécies <strong>de</strong><br />
Candida como C. glabrata e C. krusei, têm se mostrado resistentes ao<br />
fluconazol <strong>de</strong>vido ao uso prolongado <strong>de</strong>sse agente antifúngico (Abbas et al.<br />
2000; Kauffman et al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2000; Colombo et al. 2002; Trick et al.<br />
2002). Segundo Barchiesi et al. (2002), pacientes infectados pelo HIV que<br />
faz<strong>em</strong> uso <strong>de</strong> terapia antiretroviral altamente ativa (HAART) freqüent<strong>em</strong>ente<br />
apresentam leveduras na cavida<strong>de</strong> bucal resistentes ao fluconazol.<br />
Há poucos relatos <strong>de</strong> resistência <strong>de</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida frente ao<br />
voriconazol. Takakura et al. (2004) relataram que 100% dos isolados <strong>de</strong> C.<br />
krusei e 60% <strong>de</strong> outras espécies não-albicans, com baixa suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> ao<br />
fluconazol, foram suscetíveis ao voriconazol.<br />
A anfotericina B pertence à ampla família dos macrolí<strong>de</strong>os poliênicos e<br />
atua ligando-se ao ergosterol da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular fúngica, alterando sua<br />
permeabilida<strong>de</strong> o que acarreta <strong>de</strong>sequilíbrio osmótico, pela perda <strong>de</strong> íons<br />
intracelulares e conseqüent<strong>em</strong>ente lise e morte das células (Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche,<br />
19
1997). A resistência <strong>de</strong> leveduras à anfotericina B é raramente <strong>de</strong>tectada. A<br />
resistência a anfotericina B por isolados <strong>de</strong> C. lusitaniae e C. tropicalis, assim<br />
como <strong>de</strong> alguns <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos como Trichosporon spp. e Fusarium spp<br />
t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrita (Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche, 1997; Godoy et al. 2003; Antunes et al.<br />
2005).<br />
Diferenças na suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, importante característica fenotípica <strong>de</strong> um<br />
<strong>de</strong>terminado patógeno aos agentes terapêuticos, po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>tectada pela<br />
variabilida<strong>de</strong> genética existente entre os isolados (Cirak et al. 2003; Schaller et<br />
al. 2005).<br />
1.7 Métodos moleculares<br />
Várias técnicas <strong>de</strong> tipag<strong>em</strong> molecular têm sido utilizadas para<br />
caracterização <strong>de</strong> diferentes microrganismos produtores <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> no ser<br />
humano (Voss et al. 1995; Lian et al. 2003). Esses procedimentos po<strong>de</strong>m<br />
respon<strong>de</strong>r questões relacionadas à patogênese do fungo, <strong>de</strong>tecção <strong>de</strong><br />
microepi<strong>de</strong>mias, distinção <strong>de</strong> infecção primária ou recidiva, à similarida<strong>de</strong><br />
entre as diferentes cepas e a tentativa <strong>de</strong> relacionar o isolado à fonte <strong>de</strong><br />
infecção (Merz, 1990; Voss et al. 1995; Soll, 2000; Lian et al. 2003).<br />
A caracterização dos isolados <strong>de</strong> leveduras inclui métodos <strong>de</strong> tipag<strong>em</strong><br />
molecular, análise do DNA polimórfico amplificado aleatoricamente (RAPD),<br />
métodos <strong>de</strong> fingerprinting, análise <strong>de</strong> fragmentos <strong>de</strong> DNA gerados por<br />
enzimas <strong>de</strong> restrição (RFLPs) e hibridação por Southern blot do DNA<br />
(Andrigheto et al. 2000; Dassanayake et al. 2000; Ergon & Gülay, 2004).<br />
20
A cariotipag<strong>em</strong> por eletroforese <strong>de</strong> campo pulsado é consi<strong>de</strong>rada útil<br />
<strong>de</strong>vido ao seu alto po<strong>de</strong>r discriminatório, sendo utilizada para diferenciação<br />
intra e interespecífica <strong>de</strong> leveduras, <strong>de</strong>vido a gran<strong>de</strong> varieda<strong>de</strong> no tamanho e<br />
número <strong>de</strong> seus cromossomos (Dassanayake et al. 2000; Cirak et al. 2003).<br />
Dentre as técnicas moleculares, o RAPD t<strong>em</strong> sido usado no estudo da<br />
variabilida<strong>de</strong> entre espécies (Uijthof et al. 1994; Molnár et al. 1996). A<br />
<strong>de</strong>tecção e exploração <strong>de</strong> seqüências <strong>de</strong> polimorfismos <strong>de</strong> DNA ocorridos<br />
naturalmente representam um dos mais significativos <strong>de</strong>senvolvimentos na<br />
biologia molecular. O método RAPD t<strong>em</strong> sido bastante utilizado principalmente<br />
pela vantag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> ser simples e rápido (Tavares et al. 1992).<br />
O RAPD requer uma pequena quantida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> DNA e permite a<br />
visualização <strong>de</strong> um gran<strong>de</strong> número <strong>de</strong> marcas polimórficas. O uso <strong>de</strong> RAPD<br />
t<strong>em</strong>-se mostrado útil nos estudos <strong>de</strong> microrganismos para o quais não se t<strong>em</strong><br />
muita informação genética. A técnica é baseada na amplificação <strong>de</strong><br />
fragmentos não específicos <strong>de</strong> DNA, <strong>em</strong> reações sucessivas <strong>de</strong><br />
polimerização. Como <strong>de</strong>scrito por Williams et al. (1990), os oligonucleotídios<br />
são construídos com seqüências aleatórias, ao contrário da PCR<br />
fingerprinting, revelando polimorfismos <strong>em</strong> toda a extensão do genoma. Tais<br />
polimorfismos são reconhecidos pela presença <strong>de</strong> um fragmento amplificado<br />
<strong>em</strong> um dos genomas <strong>em</strong> relação à ausência <strong>de</strong>sse mesmo fragmento <strong>em</strong><br />
outro.<br />
O <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento da técnica <strong>de</strong> RAPD representou um marco na<br />
caracterização molecular <strong>de</strong> diversos microrganismos, especialmente para<br />
21
i<strong>de</strong>ntificação <strong>de</strong> espécies microbianas, quando pequenas seqüências<br />
genômicas são avaliadas (Ergon & Gülay, 2004; Pinto et al. 2004). A análise<br />
<strong>de</strong> RAPD é projetada para caracterizar isolados <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> uma mesma<br />
espécie (Melo et al. 1998; Cirak et al. 2003) e para enfoques epi<strong>de</strong>miológicos<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nciando uma relação entre fonte ambiental e manifestações clínicas<br />
(Soll, 2000; Lian et al. 2003). Essa técnica, além <strong>de</strong> gastar menos t<strong>em</strong>po, é <strong>de</strong><br />
fácil aplicabilida<strong>de</strong> e os resultados têm <strong>de</strong>monstrado o alto po<strong>de</strong>r<br />
discriminatório e eficácia (Soll, 2000). A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD t<strong>em</strong> também sido<br />
usada <strong>em</strong> vários estudos <strong>em</strong> que é investigada a relação clonal entre<br />
diferentes espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida obtidas <strong>de</strong> vários espécimes <strong>de</strong> pacientes<br />
hospitalizados <strong>em</strong> diferentes unida<strong>de</strong>s hospitalares, incluindo unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
terapia intensiva (Arif et al. 1996; Hed<strong>de</strong>rwick et al. 2000).<br />
A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD foi usada por Pinto et al. (2004), para verificar a<br />
variabilida<strong>de</strong> genômica <strong>de</strong> 37 isolados obtidos <strong>de</strong> diferentes regiões do corpo<br />
<strong>de</strong> 11 pacientes imunocomprometidos infectados com o HIV, permitindo<br />
verificar polimorfismo intra e inter específicos entre isolados <strong>de</strong> um mesmo<br />
paciente e entre os isolados <strong>de</strong> diferentes pacientes.<br />
Em experimentos utilizando diferentes materiais clínicos <strong>de</strong> um mesmo<br />
indivíduo, usando RAPD para tipag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> C. albicans isoladas <strong>de</strong> pacientes <strong>de</strong><br />
UTI, Vrion & Matsiota-Bernard (2001) conseguiram estabelecer a natureza<br />
endógena <strong>de</strong> 17 isolados <strong>de</strong>sta espécie. Em isolados clínicos <strong>de</strong> C.<br />
parapsilosis, Dassanayake et al. (2000) observaram através <strong>de</strong> RAPD<br />
variações genéticas intra-espécies, as quais foram verificadas pelos padrões<br />
22
diferentes <strong>de</strong> bandas. Esses experimentos <strong>de</strong>monstram a capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sse<br />
método <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar a epi<strong>de</strong>miologia <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> por Candida.<br />
PCR fingerprinting utiliza oligonucleotí<strong>de</strong>os que são específicos para<br />
seqüências curtas e repetitivas hipervariáveis <strong>de</strong> leveduras, permitindo que<br />
isolados sejam i<strong>de</strong>ntificados com sensibilida<strong>de</strong> suficiente para <strong>de</strong>tectar<br />
diferenças inter e intra espécies (Dassanayake et al. 2000; Meyer et al. 2001).<br />
Esse método, <strong>de</strong>vido à sua eficácia, é usado com freqüência, pois permite<br />
verificar a epi<strong>de</strong>miologia <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />
(Schönian et al. 1993; Dassanayake et al. 2000).<br />
A técnica <strong>de</strong> RFLP é utilizada para caracterizar microrganismos pelos<br />
padrões <strong>de</strong>rivados da clivag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> seu DNA, cujos comprimentos dos<br />
fragmentos produzidos po<strong>de</strong>m diferir quando o DNA é digerido com diferentes<br />
enzimas <strong>de</strong> restrição. Os padrões <strong>de</strong> bandas gerados po<strong>de</strong>m ser usados para<br />
diferenciar uma espécie <strong>de</strong> outra (Irobi et al. 1999; Mirhendi et al. 2005).<br />
23
2 JUSTIFICATIVA<br />
Como exposto anteriormente, o aumento da incidência das <strong>infecções</strong><br />
fúngicas <strong>nosocomiais</strong> nas últimas décadas, faz com que esse t<strong>em</strong>a seja<br />
abordado por muitos pesquisadores. O registro <strong>de</strong> maior incidência <strong>de</strong>ssas<br />
<strong>infecções</strong> é observado principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos imunocomprometidos,<br />
como pacientes com AIDS, transplantados <strong>de</strong> medula óssea e órgãos sólidos,<br />
nos submetidos à quimioterapia e naqueles que permanec<strong>em</strong> longos períodos<br />
<strong>em</strong> hospitais essencialmente nos pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI (Hazen 1995, Voss et al.<br />
1995). A maior sobrevivência <strong>de</strong>tectada nestes indivíduos induz a aquisição<br />
<strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> oportunísticas como a candidíase. Em pacientes<br />
imunocomprometidos com granulocitopenia acentuada, há um risco maior <strong>de</strong><br />
<strong>infecções</strong> sistêmicas por Candida, como a candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Medrano et al. 2006).<br />
A i<strong>de</strong>ntificação da espécie <strong>de</strong> Candida, nos últimos anos, t<strong>em</strong>-se<br />
mostrado <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> importância, pois t<strong>em</strong> sido verificada uma tendência <strong>de</strong><br />
mudança <strong>de</strong> etiologia da candidíase. Apesar <strong>de</strong> C. albicans ser o agente<br />
etiológico mais comumente i<strong>de</strong>ntificado, espécies não-albicans, têm-se<br />
mostrado predominantes (Brilhante et al. 2005, Menezes et al. 2005). As<br />
<strong>infecções</strong> observadas <strong>em</strong> diferentes casuísticas estudadas <strong>em</strong> pacientes <strong>de</strong><br />
unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva mostram as espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida não-albicans<br />
como responsáveis por altas taxas <strong>de</strong> morbida<strong>de</strong> e mortalida<strong>de</strong> (Aquino et al.<br />
2005).<br />
O tratamento rápido <strong>de</strong> candidíase, provavelmente faz com que diminua<br />
os casos <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong>. A eficácia do agente antifúngico po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>tectada<br />
através da realização prévia <strong>de</strong> testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro, pois há<br />
24
alguns microrganismos que po<strong>de</strong>m ser resistentes aos diferentes antifúngicos.<br />
O teste <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> diluição <strong>em</strong> caldo, preconizado pelo CLSI,<br />
proporciona na maioria das vezes, bons resultados <strong>de</strong> leitura <strong>de</strong> end-point.<br />
T<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrito que há uma concordância in vitro e in vivo dos resultados<br />
<strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, principalmente quando se refere a <strong>de</strong>tecção <strong>de</strong> resistência.<br />
Há vários fatores que interfer<strong>em</strong> na aquisição <strong>de</strong> candidíase nos<br />
pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI. Eliminar os fatores endógenos é uma tarefa difícil, mas<br />
fatores exógenos po<strong>de</strong>m perfeitamente ser<strong>em</strong> contornados, o que<br />
provavelmente evitaria vários casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase nosocomial. Sendo assim,<br />
a verificação das características moleculares, usando testes como o RAPD,<br />
que permite diferenciação intra-espécie torna-se <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> valia para o auxílio<br />
<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminação <strong>de</strong>ssas fontes exógenas ou endógenas, contribuindo na<br />
prevenção <strong>de</strong> candidíase.<br />
25
3 OBJETIVOS<br />
3.1 Objetivo Geral<br />
I<strong>de</strong>ntificar e caracterizar leveduras do gênero Candida <strong>de</strong> fômites<br />
(cateter, mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer e cama) e amostras clínicas (sangue e urina) <strong>de</strong><br />
pacientes da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva do Hospital das Clínicas da<br />
Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás.<br />
3.2 Objetivos específicos<br />
a. Isolar e i<strong>de</strong>ntificar <strong>fungos</strong> presentes na corrente sangüínea e urina <strong>de</strong><br />
pacientes da UTI.<br />
b. Avaliar a prevalência das espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida presentes na corrente<br />
sangüínea e na urina e <strong>de</strong>tectar os fatores <strong>de</strong> riscos para candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />
candidúria <strong>em</strong> pacientes da UTI.<br />
c. Avaliar o padrão <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro <strong>de</strong> amostras <strong>de</strong> Candida<br />
isoladas do sangue dos pacientes frente à anfotericina B, fluconazol,<br />
itraconazol e voriconazol.<br />
d. Analisar os isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans genotipicamente, tentando<br />
correlacionar os padrões <strong>de</strong> DNA obtidos <strong>de</strong> amostras clínicas e<br />
ambientais da Unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> Terapia Intensiva.<br />
26
4 PRODUÇÃO CIENTÍFICA<br />
a. ARTIGO 1: Candida colonization in intensive care unit patienst’s urine<br />
b. ARTIGO 2: Species distribution and antifungal susceptibility patterns of<br />
Candida spp. bloodstream isolates from a Brazilian tertiary care hospital<br />
c. ARTIGO 3: Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream of<br />
Candida albicans<br />
d. ARTIGO 4: Nosocomial invasive infection caused by Cunninghamella<br />
bertholletiae: case report<br />
27
4.1 ARTIGO 1: Candida colonization in intensive care unit<br />
patienst’s urine<br />
28
4.2 ARTIGO 2: Species distribution and antifungal susceptibility<br />
patterns of Candida spp. bloodstream isolates from a Brazilian<br />
tertiary care hospital.<br />
33
4.3 ARTIGO 3: Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream<br />
of Candida albicans<br />
41
Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream of Candida albicans<br />
Xisto Sena Passos 1 , Werther Souza Sales 2 , Carolina Rodrigues Costa 2 , Janine <strong>de</strong><br />
Aquino L<strong>em</strong>os 2 , Lúcia Kioko Hasimoto e Souza 2 , Keili Souza 2 , Luiz Augusto Pereira 3 ,<br />
Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva 2,4<br />
1 2<br />
Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista, Goiânia, GO; Brazil; Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública<br />
da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, GO, Brazil, 3 Instituto <strong>de</strong> Ciências Biológicas da<br />
Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, 4 Rua 15, no. 108 Apto. 700, Setor Oeste, Goiânia,<br />
GO, 74.140-090, Brazil<br />
Summary: Candi<strong>de</strong>mia is generally related to the endogenous flora but exogenous<br />
infection originating from hospital staff or from the environment has been <strong>de</strong>termined<br />
as occurring. The randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method can reveal<br />
strain specific variation. In this work, we used a RAPD assay to assess genetic<br />
diversity among C. albicans isolates in an effort to find the relatedness between DNA<br />
patterns of the strains recovered from clinical and environment samples from the ICU<br />
from the Hospital das Clínicas da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás. The primers<br />
named Cnd3 (5´-CCAGATGCAC-3`) and Cnd4 (5’-ACGGTACACT-3`) were used as<br />
single primers in the PCR. RAPD profiles from blood and urine from the same patient<br />
were i<strong>de</strong>ntical in almost all samples studied, except for one patient. The bed of this<br />
patient had the same genotype from his blood. Although most of C. albicans isolates<br />
probably had had an endogenous origin, the finding of isolates from the patients with<br />
same profile as the environment isolates suggest that the candi<strong>de</strong>mia may be<br />
resulted from an exogenous source.<br />
Key words: Candida albicans, PCR, RAPD, nosocomial infection<br />
Correspon<strong>de</strong>nce:<br />
Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva.<br />
Rua 15, n o . 108 Apto. 700, Setor Oeste. 74.140-090 Goiânia – GO, Brasil. Phone: 55<br />
62 3209-6127; Fax: 55 62 3202-3022. E-mail: rosario@iptsp.ufg.br<br />
42
Introduction<br />
Candida septic<strong>em</strong>ia is consi<strong>de</strong>red as fungal major nosocomial infection and it is<br />
largely associated with a least a 50% mortality rate [1,2,3]. ICU patients are<br />
particularly susceptible to syst<strong>em</strong>ic infection because they are seriously ill and are<br />
subjected to a number of therapeutic and supportive interventions (central venous<br />
catheters, mechanical ventilations and tracheostomy), which breach physiological<br />
barriers to infection [4,5].<br />
Although the yeast species are consi<strong>de</strong>red important nosocomial pathogens,<br />
little is known of their epi<strong>de</strong>miology. Candi<strong>de</strong>mia is generally related to the<br />
endogenous flora but exogenous infection originating from hospital staff or from the<br />
environment has been <strong>de</strong>termined as occurring [5]. In cases in which an exogenous<br />
source is involved, the sanitary measures are mandatory to prevent the cross-<br />
transmission of C. albicans.<br />
Molecular typing syst<strong>em</strong> can be <strong>em</strong>ployed to characterize the pathogen to the<br />
subspecies level or still to <strong>de</strong>termine whether the infections studied are due to same<br />
strain or due to different strains [3,6,7]. The randomly amplified polymorphic DNA<br />
(RAPD) method, that use specific short oligonucleoti<strong>de</strong> primers which can be<br />
arbitrarily primed at multiple positions of the yeast genome, can reveal strain specific<br />
variation. This method has been used to characterize the genetic relations among<br />
Candida species isolates [8,9].<br />
In this work, we used a RAPD assay to assess genetic diversity among C.<br />
albicans isolates in an effort to find the relationship between DNA patterns of the<br />
strains recovered from clinical and environment samples from the ICU from the same<br />
hospital over a period of one year.<br />
43
Materials and Methods<br />
Isolates and patients. A total of 10 C. albicans isolates recovered from blood<br />
specimens of 10 patients of the ICU from a tertiary hospital between March 2004 and<br />
April 2005 were inclu<strong>de</strong>d in this study. Isolates of the same species recovered from<br />
other sources related to these patients such as urine, catheter besi<strong>de</strong>s isolates from<br />
environmental sources as of surface of bed and from Meyer table collected on the<br />
same day were also taken in this study. The sources of isolates studied are related in<br />
table 1.<br />
The isolates were i<strong>de</strong>ntified by conventional sugar assimilation and<br />
fermentation methods and the germ-tube formation and confirmed by the<br />
commercially available API 20C i<strong>de</strong>ntification test (API Laboratory Products Ltd.,<br />
Grafton Way, Basingstoke, Hants, England). All isolates were maintained in sterile<br />
water at – 20 o C and the purity of cultures was ensured by regular i<strong>de</strong>ntification using<br />
standard techniques.<br />
Genotypic characterization<br />
Preparation of DNA for randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD).<br />
Yeasts obtained from stock cultures were sub-cultured on yeast-peptone <strong>de</strong>xtrose<br />
medium (1% yeast extract peptone, 2% glucose, 1.2% agar) at 37 o C for 24 to 48<br />
hours.<br />
Genomic DNA extraction was based on the method <strong>de</strong>scribed by Del Poeta et<br />
al. 1999 [10] modified by Casali et al. 2003 [11]. Briefly, a heavy inoculum of C.<br />
albicans strains grown in YEPD agar (Yeast Extract Peptone Dextrose) were<br />
suspen<strong>de</strong>d in 0.5 ml TENTS (10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0, 200 mM NaCl,<br />
2% Triton, 1% SDS) containing 0.2 ml of 0.45 mm glass beads and 0.5 ml of<br />
44
phenol:chloroform and vortexed for 2 min. After the centrifugation for 10 min at 13000<br />
g, the aqueous phase transferred to a new tube and the same volume of 100%<br />
ethanol was ad<strong>de</strong>d and incubated at -20 o C for 1 h for DNA precipitation. The<br />
precipitated DNA was resuspen<strong>de</strong>d in 0.5 ml TE (10 mM Tris HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA<br />
pH 8.0) containing 50 µg/mL RNAse A, and incubated at 37 o C for 30 min. The yeast<br />
DNA was <strong>de</strong>proteinated and extracted from the sample by adding equal volume of<br />
phenol and chloroform. Finally, the DNA was precipitated with 70% ethanol and after<br />
dryed, stored at-20 o C in 100 μl of TE buffer until further processing for PCR.<br />
RAPD analysis<br />
The primers named Cnd3 (5´-CCAGATGCAC-3`) and Cnd4 (5’-ACGGTACACT-3`)<br />
were used as single primers in the PCR. Amplifications reactions as <strong>de</strong>scribed by<br />
Ergon & Gülay [12], were performed in volumes of 25 μl including about 25 ng of the<br />
DNA t<strong>em</strong>plate; 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3, 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl, 0.2 mM each of<br />
the dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP and 2.5 U Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen). The<br />
primers were used at a concentration of 30 ng. Amplification was performed in a PCR<br />
MJ Research Thermal Cycler mo<strong>de</strong>l PTC-100 TM programmed for <strong>de</strong>naturation at<br />
94 º C for 3 min; 45 cycles of 1 min at 94 º C, 1 min at 36 º C and 2 min at 72 º C, and<br />
extension at 72 0 C for 7 min. Amplification products were separated by<br />
electrophoresis in 1.2% agarose gel containing 1x tris-borate-EDTA (TBE) buffer,<br />
stained with ethidium bromi<strong>de</strong> at 0.5 μg/ml and visualized un<strong>de</strong>r UV light. All<br />
amplifications were reapeated at least twice.<br />
45
PCR profile analysis<br />
The banding profiles for each isolate were compared visually. Bands were recor<strong>de</strong>d<br />
as present (1) or absent (0). Simple matching´s similarity coefficient (SM) values for<br />
each pair wise comparison between isolates were calculated and a similarity<br />
coefficient matrix was constructed. An SM value of 1.00 represented the same<br />
genotype; SM values between 0.80 and 0.99 represented clonally related isolates<br />
and SM un<strong>de</strong>r 0.80 represented distinct strains [12]. Clonally related isolates are<br />
presented as of the same pattern ad<strong>de</strong>d of ` (e.g. A’ and A’’ for Cnd3 and 1’ and 1’’<br />
for Cnd4).<br />
Results<br />
A total of 31 C. albicans isolates (10 of blood, 9 of urine, 5 of catheter, 4 of Meyer<br />
table and 3 of bed) were submitted to molecular typing using the RAPD method. Both<br />
two primers (Cnd3 and Cnd 4) used in this study were successful in eliciting banding<br />
profiles for each isolate. Amplification products obtained were specific to each primer<br />
and ranged from 4 to 8 bands with fragment size from 350 bp to 2000 bp for Cnd3<br />
and from 3 to 6 bands with fragment size from 300 bp to a 3500 bp for Cnd4. Most of<br />
the major bands were present in all isolates studied and almost all strains had a<br />
conserved fragment: 650 Kb for both primers (Figs 1 and 2).<br />
Both two primers had high discriminatory power. Among 31 C. albicans<br />
isolates, 12 patterns were <strong>de</strong>tected with primer Cnd3 and 14 patterns with Cnd4<br />
(Table 1). The similarity coefficients for Cnd3 between profiles A-L were calculated<br />
and ranged from 28% to 85%. Some strains had closely related patterns. The isolate<br />
7 (A’) had high similarity with the isolates 4, 5 and 6 (A), the isolate 24 (F’) with<br />
isolates 23 and 25 (F) and the isolate 34 (B’) with the isolates 10 and 11 (B). The<br />
46
similarity coefficients for Cnd 4 between the profiles 1-14 ranged from 16 to 80%.<br />
Profiles 1 to 15 were clearly different from 15 previously i<strong>de</strong>ntified.<br />
RAPD profiles from blood and urine from the same patient were i<strong>de</strong>ntical in<br />
almost all sample studied, except for patient 5, where the two clinical samples were<br />
different by using the two primers. However it was observed that the isolate from the<br />
bed of this patient (5) had a similar genotype as the one isolated from his blood.<br />
Another interesting fact was verified with isolates 12 (surface of Meyer table of patient<br />
3) and 40 (bed of patient 8) of C. albicans. These isolates presented had the same<br />
genotype when isolated from blood and urine of their patients. Additionally, it was<br />
<strong>de</strong>tected the same genotype in isolates, 19 (catheter from patient 4), 32 (bed from<br />
patient 6) and 42 (catheter from patient 9)<br />
Discussion<br />
Although nosocomial candi<strong>de</strong>mia constitutes a growing issue, [3] it is quite difficult to<br />
achieve a precise un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of its epi<strong>de</strong>miology. Colonization prece<strong>de</strong>s<br />
candi<strong>de</strong>mia and it is consi<strong>de</strong>red to be an important risk factor in endogenous<br />
infections [13]. Tortorano et al. 2004 [14] showed a previous colonization of the<br />
alimentary tract by the same Candida specie causing funga<strong>em</strong>ia. Candi<strong>de</strong>mia has<br />
been relationship with previous colonization of the urinary tract [15]. Urinary tract<br />
colonization <strong>de</strong>serves consi<strong>de</strong>ration, because it is a common event in hospitalized<br />
patients affecting 6.5-20% of patients [16]. In this work, molecular typing<br />
<strong>de</strong>monstrated that the paired isolates from blood and urine were i<strong>de</strong>ntical for patients<br />
with C. albicans, suggesting an endogenous origin of candi<strong>de</strong>mia.<br />
It is well known that exogenous sources of C. albicans may be involved in the<br />
<strong>de</strong>velopment of nosocomial candidiasis [17]. In this study, it was found that strains of<br />
47
C. albicans isolated from the blood of patients 5 and 8 were i<strong>de</strong>nticals to isolated from<br />
surface of their beds. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, i<strong>de</strong>ntical strains were isolated from blood of patient 3<br />
and surface of Meyer table (table 1). These samples from environment were collected<br />
on the same day of blood collection of patients with candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Robert et al. 1995<br />
[18] characterized strains of C. albicans colonized on admission as i<strong>de</strong>ntical to other<br />
patient that was culture negative on admission and acquired the yeast after 25 days,<br />
suggesting cross infection. The epi<strong>de</strong>miology of nosocomial C. albicans isolates<br />
infection is complex and the mechanism by which the patients in our study acquired<br />
their strains r<strong>em</strong>ains not totally clear. However the finding of three isolates from the<br />
blood of patients with the same molecular profile as the ones isolated from the<br />
environment isolates suggest that the candi<strong>de</strong>mia may be resulted from exogenous<br />
source.<br />
Exogenous acquisition of candi<strong>de</strong>mia is also postulated to be associated with<br />
intravascular <strong>de</strong>vices and parenteral nutrition. The candi<strong>de</strong>mia related to catheter has<br />
been suggested by some researchers [19, 20]. The isolates from catheter and blood<br />
of patient 6 had the same genotype, suggesting that the portal of entry of C. albicans<br />
was via the catheter.<br />
Interestingly, molecular typing, <strong>de</strong>monstrated that isolates of catheter from<br />
patient 4 (isolate 19), of bed from patient 6 (isolate 32) and of catheter from patient 9<br />
(isolate 42) also had the same genotypes. These results may infere in cross infection.<br />
It is possible that C. albicans strains recovered in catheter or surface of bed was<br />
arised from hands of hospital coworkers.<br />
The 12 and 14 different patterns presented by primers Cnd3 and Cnd4<br />
respectively, confirm the discriminatory value of RAPD, which is consi<strong>de</strong>red quite<br />
similar to other powerful genotyping methods [3,5]. The RAPD assay using primers<br />
48
Cnd3 and Cnd4 can be an important tool to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the intra-specific genetic<br />
variability among C. albicans isolates.<br />
In conclusion, although candi<strong>de</strong>mia was strongly associated to endogenous<br />
sources as candiduria, it was indicated that catheter, surface of bed and Meyer table<br />
can also be consi<strong>de</strong>red important exogenous sources of infection.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
The financial help received by the first author from the Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista – Brazil.<br />
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albicans in epi<strong>de</strong>miological surveillance of a burn unit. J Clin Microb1995; 33:2366-<br />
2371.<br />
19. Shin JH, Park MR, Song JW, Shin DH, Jung SI, Cho D, Kee SJ, Shin MG, Suh<br />
SP, Ryang DW. Microevolution of Candida albicans strains during catheter-related<br />
candi<strong>de</strong>mia. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:4025-4031.<br />
20. Torturano AM, Kibbler C, P<strong>em</strong>an J, Bernhardt H, Klingspor L, Grillot R.<br />
Candida<strong>em</strong>ia in Europe: epi<strong>de</strong>miology and resistance. Int J Antimicrobiol Agents<br />
2006; 27:359-366.<br />
51
Table 1. Candida albicans isolates recovered from 10 ICU patients with candi<strong>de</strong>mia<br />
and from other clinical and environment materials relationship to these<br />
patients.<br />
Patients<br />
Isolation date<br />
(mo/day/yr)<br />
Isolates Sources of isolates<br />
Genotype (patterns)<br />
Cnd3 Cnd4<br />
1. 09/12/2003 4-112A3E Catheter A 1<br />
09/26/2003 5-112C6E Blood A 1<br />
09/19/2003 6-112B7E Urine A 1<br />
09/23/2003 7-112C1A Meyer table A’ 2<br />
2. 12/18/2003 10-159C6A Blood B 3<br />
12/12/2003 11-159B7A Urine B 3<br />
3. 12/15/2003 12-164A1A Meyer table C 4<br />
12/15/2003 13-164A6A Blood C 4<br />
12/15/2003 14-164A7A Urine C 4<br />
4. 01/06/2004 15-174B1E Meyer table C 4<br />
01/06/2004 17-174B6A Blood D 5<br />
01/06/2004 18-174B7A Urine D 5<br />
01/06/2004 19-174B2A Catheter E 6<br />
5. 05/31/2004 23-231I6A Blood F 7<br />
05/17/2004 24-231G7A Urine F’ 8<br />
05/31/2004 25-231I2E Bed F 7<br />
6. 04/05/2004 30-234A3E Catheter G 9<br />
04/05/2004 31-234F6A Blood G 9<br />
04/05/2004 32-234A2A Bed E 6<br />
7. 08/11/2004 34-280C1E Meyer table B’ 10<br />
08/18/2004 35-280D6A Blood H 11<br />
08/04/2004 36-280B7E Urine H 11<br />
8. 10/29/2004 37-315A6E Blood I 12<br />
11/19/2004 38-315D7E Urine I 12<br />
10/29/2004 39-315A3E Catheter J 12<br />
10/29/2004 40-315A2E Bed I 12<br />
9. 11/10/2004 42-320A3E Catheter E 6<br />
11/10/2004 43-320A6E Blood K 13<br />
11/10/2004 44-320A7A Urine K 13<br />
10. 05/04/2005 45-365B6A Blood L 14<br />
05/04/2005 46-365B7A Urine L 14<br />
52
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MM<br />
Figure1. RAPD Profiles of 31 Candida albicans isolates obtained with primer Cnd3. Profile A (lines 1-3:<br />
catheter, blood and urine related with patient 1); profile A´(line 4: table Meyer related with patient 1);<br />
profile B (lines 5, 6: blood and urine related with patient 2); profile C (lines 7, 8, 9 and 10: table Meyer,<br />
blood and urine related with patient 3 and table Meyer related with patient 4); profile D (lines 11, 12<br />
blood and urine related with patient 4); profile E (lines 13 ,19, 27: catheter related with patient 4, 19<br />
bed related with patient 6, 27 catheter related with patient 9, respectively); profile F (lines 14, 16: blood<br />
and bed related with patient 5); profile F’ (line 15: urine related with patient 5); profile G (lines 17, 18:<br />
catheter and blood related with patient 6); profile H (lines 21, 22: blood and urine related with patient<br />
7); profile I (lines 23, 24, 26: blood, urine and bed related with patient 8); profile J (line 25: catheter<br />
related with patient 8); profile K (lines 28, 29: blood and urine related with patient 9), and profile L<br />
(lines 30, 31: blood and urine related with patient 10).<br />
53<br />
12000<br />
5000<br />
2000<br />
1650<br />
1000<br />
850<br />
650<br />
500<br />
400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MM<br />
Figure 2. RAPD Profiles of 31 Candida albicans isolates obtained with primer Cnd4. Profile 1 (lines 1,<br />
2, 3: catheter, blood and urine related with patient 1), profile 2 (line 4: Meyer table related with patient<br />
1); profile 3 (lines 5, 6: blood and urine related with patient 2); profile 4 (lines 7, 8, 9 and 10: Meyer<br />
table, blood and urine related with patient 3 and Meyer table related with patient 4); profile 5 (lines 11,<br />
12: blood and urine related with patient 4), profile 6 (line 13, 19, 27: catheter related with patient 4, bed<br />
related with patient 6; catheter related with patient 9, respectively); profile 7 (lines 14, 16: blood and<br />
bed related with patient 5), profile 8 (line 15: urine related with patient 5); profile 9 (lines 17, 18:<br />
catheter and blood related with patient 6); profile 10 (line 20: Meyer table related with patient 7); profile<br />
11 (lines 21, 22: blood and urine related with patient 7); profile 12 (lines 23, 24, 25, 26 blood, urine,<br />
catheter and bed related with patient 8); profile 13 ( lines 28, 29: blood and urine related with patient<br />
9); and profile 14 (lines 30, 31: blood and urine related with patient 10).<br />
54<br />
12000<br />
5000<br />
2000<br />
1650<br />
1000<br />
850<br />
650<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300
4.4 ARTIGO 4: Nosocomial invasive infection caused by<br />
Cunninghamella bertholletiae: case report<br />
55
5 CONCLUSÕES<br />
1. Foi observada uma elevada freqüência <strong>de</strong> candidúria <strong>em</strong> pacientes da UTI<br />
(44,4%).<br />
2. Candidúria e candi<strong>de</strong>mia po<strong>de</strong>m ser adquiridas após um longo período <strong>de</strong><br />
internação.<br />
3. Espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida não-albicans estavam presentes no sangue e urina<br />
com um percentual elevado.<br />
4. A ativida<strong>de</strong> in vitro <strong>de</strong> voriconazol foi maior do que a do itraconazol,<br />
fluconazol e anfotericina B, sugerindo que voriconazol po<strong>de</strong> ser o azólico<br />
mais efetivo no tratamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> por Candida na corrente<br />
sangüínea.<br />
5. O encontro <strong>de</strong> isolados resistentes a diferentes antifúngicos mostra a<br />
importância do uso dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro para a terapia<br />
a<strong>de</strong>quada.<br />
6. O ensaio <strong>de</strong> RAPD usando os primers Cnd3 e Cnd4 po<strong>de</strong>m ser uma<br />
ferramenta importante para i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a variabilida<strong>de</strong> genética intra-<br />
específica entre isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans.<br />
7. A possível fonte <strong>de</strong> transmissão ambiental <strong>de</strong> candidíase encontrada <strong>em</strong><br />
três casos justifica a importância <strong>de</strong> maiores cuidados na UTI para evitar a<br />
transmissão da infecção.<br />
8. O achado <strong>de</strong> infecção por C. bertholletiae causando fung<strong>em</strong>ia <strong>em</strong> pacientes<br />
imunocomprometidos foi muito importante, porque este microrganismo é<br />
normalmente um contaminante. Este achado mostra que t<strong>em</strong> que se ter um<br />
gran<strong>de</strong> cuidado no isolamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> não usualmente causadores <strong>de</strong><br />
infecção.<br />
59
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7 ANEXOS<br />
7.1 Normas para publicação na revista Medical Mycology –<br />
Instructions to Authors (Artigo 3)<br />
The official publication of the International Society for Human and<br />
Animal Mycology, Medical Mycology is an international journal which<br />
focuses on original and innovative studies of all aspects of medical,<br />
veterinary and environmental mycology. The topics inclu<strong>de</strong>, but are not<br />
limited to mycological, bioch<strong>em</strong>ical and molecular investigations of<br />
etiological agents of mycoses; aspects of pathogenesis, immunology,<br />
and epi<strong>de</strong>miology of mycotic diseases; case reports of unusual medical<br />
or veterinary fungal infections; laboratory approaches to the i<strong>de</strong>ntification<br />
of fungal pathogens, antifungal therapy and prophylaxis; mo<strong>de</strong> of action,<br />
pharmacokinetics and assessments of new antifungal agents;<br />
investigations of the mycological aspects of the indoor environment, with<br />
a focus on human and animal health. The aim of the journal is to present<br />
the best scientific reports from throughout the world and in so doing to<br />
provi<strong>de</strong> a comprehensive reference base for medical mycologists,<br />
microbiologists, clinicians, and environ-mental specialists.<br />
Further information about the Journal including links to the online<br />
sample copy, contents pages and copyright assignment form can be<br />
found on the Journal homepage.<br />
79
Please note that you and your co-authors in submitting this<br />
manuscript are confirming that all authors have (a) ma<strong>de</strong> a substantial<br />
contribution to the information or material submitted for publication, (b)<br />
read and approved the final manuscript, and (c) no direct or indirect<br />
financial incentive associated with publishing the article. In addition, by<br />
submitting your work, you and your co-authors are stipulating that the<br />
manuscript is not, either in whole or in part, currently un<strong>de</strong>r consi<strong>de</strong>ration<br />
by any other scientific journal or has been previously published in either<br />
hard copy or electronic format.<br />
Types of Papers<br />
Original papers. These may be of any length, but must have; (a) a<br />
Cover-Page listing all authors and their affiliations and contact<br />
information for the corresponding author, (b) a separate page for a<br />
Summary, (c) text consisting of Introduction, Materials & Methods,<br />
Results, and Discussion, (d) References, (e) Tables with footnoted<br />
<strong>de</strong>scriptions of all abbreviations contained in the table, and (f) Figures,<br />
with appropriate figure legends allowing a rea<strong>de</strong>r to un<strong>de</strong>rstand their<br />
content without reference to the text. Manuscripts should be in English,<br />
double-spaced, in no less than size 12 font. Pages should be numbered<br />
consecutively, beginning with the cover-page. References are to be<br />
80
numbered, in brackets, e.g., [1], in or<strong>de</strong>r of their citation in the text and<br />
listed in the Reference section by their appearance in the text.<br />
Reviews. Authors must first electronically submit an outline of their<br />
proposed article for evaluation by the Editor. The outline should be no<br />
more than two, double-spaced pages in 12 font, in which the authors<br />
<strong>de</strong>scribe the objectives and contents of the report. The outline must be<br />
submitted to the Reviews Editor, Francoise Dromer: dromer@pasteur.fr.<br />
Once the proposal has been evaluated, the authors will be informed of<br />
the results of the Review Editor’s initial consi<strong>de</strong>ration of their proposal.<br />
NOTE - the journal does NOT accept uncommisioned reviews for<br />
publication.<br />
Case Reports. Such articles must make a distinct, novel contribution to<br />
the un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the etiologic agents, its clinical manifestations,<br />
and/or its treatment. They should NOT be based merely on the first<br />
inci<strong>de</strong>nce of a known cosmopolitan or wi<strong>de</strong>ly distributed etiologic agent in<br />
the nations of the authors’ resi<strong>de</strong>nce. Reports of unusual etiologic agents<br />
MUST be substantiated with a living culture <strong>de</strong>posited in an<br />
internationally recognized professional culture collection, <strong>de</strong>fined as a<br />
collection that has full-time staff <strong>de</strong>dicated to receiving, preserving and<br />
shipping of culture cultures. Manuscripts MUST be in English and<br />
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prepared as is an original article, EXCEPT that the text should consist of<br />
an Introduction, Case Report and Discussion.<br />
Short Communications. These manuscripts are to provi<strong>de</strong> an<br />
opportunity for the presentation of preliminary or brief observations that<br />
do not warrant a full paper. The manuscript should be prepared as is an<br />
original article, except they may be no more than 10 double-spaced<br />
pages in no less than size 12 font (including cover-page, abstract, text,<br />
references, and tables/figures).<br />
Letters. Letters to the Editor are inten<strong>de</strong>d to provi<strong>de</strong> an opportunity to<br />
discuss issues related to previous published original articles, case<br />
reports or short communications and should not be used for the<br />
presentation of the authors’ preliminary data from their own<br />
investigations. Letters should be no more than 2 double-spaced pages, in<br />
no less than size 12 font, including references.<br />
Submission of manuscripts<br />
All submissions to this journal should be ma<strong>de</strong> via the Manuscript<br />
Central site: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tmmy. Users who have not<br />
used the site before must create an account from the link on the login<br />
page. Assistance with this and all other areas of the site are available in<br />
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the User Gui<strong>de</strong>, which is accessed via the ‘Get Help Now’ button at the<br />
top right of all Manuscript Central web pages.<br />
Preparation of manuscripts<br />
1. Manuscripts must be written in English and submitted as a Word for<br />
Windows (PC) file.<br />
2. Manuscripts must be prepared in 12pt font with one (1) inch<br />
margins all around and double spaced.<br />
3. Papers should be organized as follows: Full title and Short title;<br />
Name(s) and affiliations of author(s); Full postal address, telephone<br />
and fax numbers, and <strong>em</strong>ail address for the corresponding author;<br />
Summary (maximum 200 words); Keywords (up to five); Introduction;<br />
Materials and Methods; Results; Discussion (as appropriate to the<br />
article); Acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ents; References; Tables; Figure captions.<br />
4. Statistics and measur<strong>em</strong>ents should be given in numerals when<br />
followed by a unit (e.g., 2 mg but two patients). SI units must be used.<br />
5. Abbreviations should be <strong>de</strong>fined when first used in the text.<br />
References<br />
Use the Vancouver syst<strong>em</strong> in preparing the references. They should<br />
be numbered sequentially in the or<strong>de</strong>r in which they first appear in the<br />
text. References should be cited in the text within brackets. e.g., [1]. In<br />
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preparing your reference list, please note that works with six (6) or more<br />
authors should be cited by the names of the first three (3) authors, with<br />
the r<strong>em</strong>aining authors inclu<strong>de</strong>d by et al. Journal names must be<br />
abbreviated without the use of periods and should be in italic font. The<br />
journal number should be in bold font and issue numbers should not be<br />
inclu<strong>de</strong>d. In addition, inclu<strong>de</strong> all page numbers of the citations. The<br />
following examples illustrate the correct style for the different types of<br />
references:<br />
1. Journal article<br />
Author AB, Author CD, Author EF, et al. [if six or more] Title of paper. J<br />
Title Abbrev 1995; 00: 000-000.<br />
2. Book chapter<br />
Author AB, Author CD, Author EF, et al. [if six or more] Chapter title. In:<br />
Editor AB, Editor CD, eds. Book Title With Initial Uppercase Letters, 5th<br />
edn. Place: Publisher, 1995: 000-000.<br />
3. Book<br />
Author AB, Author CD (eds). Book Title With Initial Uppercase Letters,<br />
5th edn. Place: Publisher, 1995.<br />
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4. Thesis<br />
Author AB. Paper title with lowercase initials to all words. PhD thesis,<br />
University, 1995.<br />
5. Conference proceedings<br />
Author AB. Paper title. In: Editor AB, ed. Proceedings Title, place, date.<br />
Place: publisher, 1995: 000-000 (for abstracts the abstract number<br />
should be cited instead of the page number).<br />
6. Personal communications, Unpublished results etc References to<br />
personal communications, unpublished results and papers submitted for<br />
publication (but not yet accepted) should only appear in the text, and in<br />
the following form: [A. B. Author, unpublished results]. [C. D. Author,<br />
personal communication].<br />
7. Journal article on the Internet<br />
Abood S. Quality improv<strong>em</strong>ent initiative in nursing homes: the ANA acts<br />
in an advisory role. Am J Nurs [serial on the Internet]. 2002 Jun [cited<br />
2002 Aug 12];102(6):[about3 p.]. Available from:<br />
<br />
85
8. Monograph on the Internet<br />
Foley KM, Gelband H, editors. Improving palliative care for cancer<br />
[monograph on the Internet]. Washington: National Aca<strong>de</strong>my Press; 2001<br />
[cited 2002 Jul 9]. Available from:<br />
<br />
9. Homepage/Web site<br />
Cancer-Pain.org [homepage on the Internet].<br />
New York: Association of Cancer Online Resources, Inc.; c2000-01<br />
[updated 2002 May 16; cited 2002 Jul 9]. Available from:<br />
<br />
10. Part of a homepage/Web site<br />
American Medical Association [homepage on the Internet]. Chicago: The<br />
Association; c1995-2002 [updated 2001 Aug 23; cited 2002 Aug 12].<br />
AMA Office of Group Practice Liaison; [about 2 screens]. Available from:<br />
<br />
11. Database on the Internet<br />
Open database:<br />
Who’s Certified [database on the Internet]. Evanston (IL): The American<br />
Board of Medical Specialists. c2000-[cited 2001 Mar 8]. Available from:<br />
<br />
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Closed database:<br />
Jablonski S. Online Multiple Congential Anomaly/Mental Retardation<br />
(MCA/MR) Syndromes [database on the Internet]. Bethesda (MD):<br />
National Library of Medicine (US). c1999 [updated 2001 Nov 20; cited<br />
2002 Aug 12]. Available from:<br />
<br />
12. Part of a database on the InternetMeSH Browser [database on the<br />
Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2002-[cited<br />
2003 Jun 10]. Meta-analysis; unique ID: D015201; [about 3 p.]. Available<br />
from:<br />
Files updated weekly.<br />
Tables<br />
Tables should be numbered according to their sequence in the text;<br />
all tables should be referred to in the text. Each table should be supplied<br />
on a separate sheet, never within the body of the text. The table heading<br />
should be brief and self explanatory. Column headings should be brief<br />
and inclu<strong>de</strong> units in parentheses where applicable. Only horizontal rules<br />
should be used.<br />
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Figures<br />
Graphics must be submitted as JPEG, GIF or BMP files. Scanned<br />
images should be of a sufficient resolution: 300 dpi for halftones/color;<br />
500 dpi for combination halftones; 1000–1200 dpi for line art. Illustrations<br />
should be submitted separate from the manuscript text file, either as<br />
individual files or together in a single file. The journal has a limited<br />
number of free colour pages within its annual page allowance. Authors<br />
should consult the editorial office with respect to colour reproduction at<br />
submission stage. Authors may be required to pay to guarantee colour<br />
reproduction. Any figure submitted as a colour original may appear in<br />
colour within the journal’s online edition.<br />
Nomenclature<br />
Proposals for names of new taxa of fungi must conform with the<br />
requir<strong>em</strong>ents of the current International Co<strong>de</strong> of Botanical<br />
Nomenclature, as should the scientific names used for fungi. Binomials<br />
should appear in italic; each must be spelt out in full at first mention in<br />
both the abstract and text (thereafter, the generic name may be<br />
appropriately abbreviated) and whenever used in the titles of figures and<br />
tables.<br />
88
Animals in research<br />
Manuscripts containing information related to the experimental use<br />
of animals must clearly state that the studies complied with relevant<br />
professional and institutional animal welfare policies. Specifically, that<br />
procedures involving animals conformed to the ILAR Gui<strong>de</strong> for the Care<br />
and Use of<br />
Laboratory Animals (1996 and later editions) of the Institute of<br />
Laboratory Animal Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National<br />
Research Council (http://www.nap.edu/catalog/5140.html).<br />
Disclosures of potential conflicts of interest<br />
Authors of research articles should disclose at the time of<br />
submission any financial arrang<strong>em</strong>ent they may have with a company<br />
whose product is pertinent to the manuscript or with a company making a<br />
competing product. Such information will be held in confi<strong>de</strong>nce while the<br />
paper is un<strong>de</strong>r review and will not influence the editorial <strong>de</strong>cision, but if<br />
the article is accepted for publication, a disclosure stat<strong>em</strong>ent will appear<br />
in the journal. The intent of this policy is not to prevent authors with these<br />
relationships from publishing work, but rather to adopt transparency such<br />
that rea<strong>de</strong>rs can make objective judg<strong>em</strong>ents on conclusions drawn.<br />
89
Authorship contributions<br />
Contributions must be substantial in or<strong>de</strong>r to warrant authorship.<br />
Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take<br />
public responsibility for the content. All other contributors should be listed<br />
in the acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ents.<br />
Electronic proofs<br />
When proofs are ready, corresponding authors will receive e-mail<br />
notification with a password and Web address from which to download a<br />
PDF. Hard copies of proofs will not be mailed. To avoid <strong>de</strong>lays in<br />
publication, corrections to proofs must be returned within 48 hours, by<br />
electronic transmittal, fax or mail.<br />
Offprints<br />
Corresponding authors will receive either fifty printed offprints or a<br />
PDF of the final version of the paper. Preferences should be stipulated<br />
when returning proofs.<br />
Copyright<br />
It is a condition of publication that authors assign copyright or licence<br />
the publication rights in their articles, including abstracts, to ISHAM. This<br />
enables us to ensure full copyright protection and to diss<strong>em</strong>inate the<br />
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article, and the journal, to the wi<strong>de</strong>st possible rea<strong>de</strong>rship in print and<br />
electronic formats as appropriate. Authors may, of course, use the article<br />
elsewhere after publication without prior permission from Informa UK<br />
Ltd., provi<strong>de</strong>d that acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ent is given to the journal as the<br />
original source of publication, and that Informa Healthcare is notified so<br />
that our records show that its use is properly authorised. Authors retain a<br />
number of other rights un<strong>de</strong>r the Informa UK Ltd. rights policies<br />
documents. These policies are referred to at the Copyright FAQs page.<br />
91
7.2 Protocolo do CEPMHA/HC/UFG<br />
92
7.3 Termo <strong>de</strong> consentimento livre e esclarecido<br />
Você está sendo convidado (a) para participar, com voluntário, <strong>em</strong> uma<br />
pesquisa intitulada “<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong><br />
<strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong>”. Após ser esclarecido (a) sobre as informações a<br />
seguir, no caso <strong>de</strong> aceitar fazer parte do estudo, assine ao final <strong>de</strong>ste<br />
documento, que está <strong>em</strong> duas vias. Uma <strong>de</strong>las é sua e a outra é do<br />
pesquisador responsável. Em caso <strong>de</strong> recusa você não será penalizado (a) <strong>de</strong><br />
forma alguma. Se aceitar participar e <strong>de</strong>cidir retirar seu consentimento, não<br />
será prejudicado <strong>em</strong> seu tratamento. Em caso <strong>de</strong> dúvida sobre a pesquisa,<br />
você po<strong>de</strong>rá entrar <strong>em</strong> contato com o pesquisador responsável Ms. Xisto<br />
Sena Passos nos telefones: 3255-9858 / 9972-4158.<br />
INFORMAÇÕES SOBRE A PESQUISA<br />
“<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong>”.<br />
PESQUISADORES PARTICIPANTES<br />
Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva – Investigadora responsável<br />
Fone: (0XX62) 3209-6127<br />
Ms. Xisto Sena Passos – Biólogo / Pesquisador<br />
Fones: (0XX62) 3209-6127 / 3255-9858 / 9972-4158<br />
OBJETIVO DO ESTUDO<br />
Será avaliado um gran<strong>de</strong> grupo <strong>de</strong> pacientes, os quais se encontram<br />
internados na UTI do Hospital das Clínicas da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás,<br />
durante o período <strong>de</strong> fevereiro <strong>de</strong> 2003 a <strong>de</strong>z<strong>em</strong>bro <strong>de</strong> 2004.<br />
Provavelmente você já <strong>de</strong>ve ter ouvido falar <strong>em</strong> micose. Esta doença é<br />
causada por <strong>fungos</strong> que produz<strong>em</strong> lesões na pele ou <strong>em</strong> qualquer parte do<br />
96
organismo humano, através <strong>de</strong>ste estudo o responsável pelo paciente terá<br />
acesso aos exames laboratoriais que ajudará o médico a tratá-la.<br />
Neste trabalho, após a <strong>de</strong>vida i<strong>de</strong>ntificação e caracterização do fungo,<br />
será realizado um teste, chamado suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, no qual será verificado a<br />
sensibilida<strong>de</strong> do fungo isolado frente a três medicamentos, anfotericina B,<br />
itraconazol e fluconazol.<br />
Através das informações obtidas no laboratório e com ajuda do médico,<br />
nós tentar<strong>em</strong>os controlar melhor a doença e possivelmente evitar que outros<br />
indivíduos a adquiram.<br />
CONDUÇÃO DO ESTUDO<br />
O paciente será submetido inicialmente à colheita <strong>de</strong> sangue e urina, pelo<br />
profissional responsável pela UTI, assim que for internado.<br />
Durante a permanência do paciente na UTI serão realizadas colheitas <strong>de</strong><br />
sangue e urina a cada sete dias. O material coletado será levado para o<br />
laboratório <strong>de</strong> Micologia do Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Publica da<br />
UFGO, on<strong>de</strong> será submetido a exame micológico.<br />
Estes exames não serão pagos pelo paciente.<br />
PARTICIPAÇÃO AUTORIZADA<br />
Participar <strong>de</strong>ste estudo será uma <strong>de</strong>cisão autorizada pela responsável e<br />
este po<strong>de</strong>rá se recusar a participar ou <strong>de</strong>sistir <strong>de</strong>ste estudo a qualquer<br />
momento, s<strong>em</strong> explicar o porquê.<br />
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PACIENTES PARTICIPANTES DO ESTUDO<br />
Neste estudo serão incluídos todos os pacientes (autorizados), que<br />
apresentar<strong>em</strong> características ou não <strong>de</strong> fung<strong>em</strong>ia internados na UTI do<br />
Hospital das Clínicas da UFGO.<br />
RISCOS<br />
Não há riscos para o paciente. Nenhum tipo <strong>de</strong> medicamento será<br />
utilizado por nós.<br />
Para colheita do material, o paciente não será maltratado. A colheita do<br />
sangue e da urina, não implicará <strong>em</strong> mal estar para o paciente.<br />
BENEFÍCIOS<br />
O estudo realizado por nós possivelmente contribuirá enorm<strong>em</strong>ente para<br />
a redução <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> nos hospitais por <strong>fungos</strong>.<br />
CONFIDENCIALIDADE<br />
Se o responsável concordar com a participação do paciente, as<br />
informações clínicas e laboratoriais relacionadas ao paciente serão<br />
confi<strong>de</strong>ncialmente mantidas <strong>em</strong> sigilo o t<strong>em</strong>po todo, n<strong>em</strong> o nome ou mesmo<br />
iniciais irão constar <strong>em</strong> qualquer registro nesta pesquisa. O Comitê <strong>de</strong> Ética<br />
po<strong>de</strong>rá necessitar ter acesso aos seus registros médicos para verificação dos<br />
formulários <strong>de</strong> estudo, no entanto, sua i<strong>de</strong>ntida<strong>de</strong> será mantida <strong>em</strong> sigilo<br />
absoluto.<br />
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RESPONSÁVEL<br />
Este estudo será conduzido por:<br />
Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva pelo fone (0XX62) 3209-6127.<br />
(Investigadora responsável)<br />
Ms. Xisto Sena Passos pelo fone (0XX62) 209-6127(Biólogo / Pesquisador)<br />
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