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MINISTÉRIO DA EDUCAÇÃO E CULTURA<br />

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE GOIÁS<br />

INSTITUTO DE PATOLOGIA TROPICAL E SAÚDE PÚBLICA<br />

XISTO SENA PASSOS<br />

<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />

<strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />

ORIENTADORA: PROFª DRª MARIA DO ROSÁRIO RODRIGUES SILVA<br />

Tese <strong>de</strong> Doutorado<br />

GOIÂNIA – GO, 2007


UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE GOIÁS<br />

INSTITUTO DE PATOLOGIA TROPICAL E SAÚDE PÚBLICA<br />

PROGRAMA DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO EM MEDICINA TROPICAL<br />

XISTO SENA PASSOS<br />

<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />

<strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />

ORIENTADORA: PROFª DRª MARIA DO ROSÁRIO RODRIGUES SILVA<br />

Tese <strong>de</strong> Doutorado apresentada ao Curso <strong>de</strong> Pós-<br />

Graduação <strong>em</strong> Medicina Tropical do Instituto <strong>de</strong><br />

Patologia e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong><br />

Goiás como requisito parcial para obtenção <strong>de</strong> Grau <strong>de</strong><br />

Doutor <strong>em</strong> Medicina Tropical. Área <strong>de</strong> concentração:<br />

Microbiologia.<br />

GOIÂNIA – GO, 2007


Dados Internacionais <strong>de</strong> Catalogação-na-Publicação (CIP)<br />

(GPT/BC/UFG)<br />

Passos, Xisto Sena.<br />

P289c <strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong><br />

<strong>nosocomiais</strong> / Xisto Sena Passos . – Goiânia, 2007.<br />

xiv,99f. : il., figs., tabs.<br />

1<br />

Orientadora: Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva.<br />

Tese ( Doutorado ) – Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong><br />

Goiás, Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Públi-<br />

ca, 2007.<br />

2 Bibliografia: f. 61-78.<br />

Inclui lista <strong>de</strong> abreviaturas, símbolos e unida<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

Anexos.<br />

1. Candidíase 2. Candidíase – Mucosa bucal 3.<br />

Candidíase – Mucosa vaginal 4. Fungos (Candida) –<br />

Tratamento I. Silva, Maria do Rosário Rodrigues II.<br />

Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia<br />

Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública III. Título<br />

CDU: 616.98:616.934


“A Deus por s<strong>em</strong>pre me dar forças, iluminar e guiar”.<br />

i


“As tarefas diárias jamais impediram alguém <strong>de</strong> seguir seus sonhos”<br />

Paulo Coelho<br />

ii


À minha esposa Ana Luiza e aos meus filhos, Rodolfo Lucas e Gabriel<br />

Augusto, a essência da magia que é a razão da minha energia,<br />

persistência e luta.<br />

iii


Zaia,<br />

“O amor é a asa que Deus <strong>de</strong>u à alma para que ela pu<strong>de</strong>sse<br />

subir até Ele. Qu<strong>em</strong> é bom t<strong>em</strong> olhos <strong>de</strong> bonda<strong>de</strong> para ver até os erros<br />

dos outros, t<strong>em</strong> coração para perdoar e t<strong>em</strong>, sobretudo, corag<strong>em</strong> para<br />

dividir a sabedoria que possui.”<br />

A você na qualida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> amiga e orientadora sou eternamente<br />

grato, sobretudo, pelo privilégio <strong>de</strong> haver trabalhado e recebido tanto <strong>de</strong><br />

você nesses anos <strong>de</strong> convivência, pois você é a síntese da bonda<strong>de</strong>.<br />

Muito obrigado e que Deus ilumine s<strong>em</strong>pre sua vida.<br />

iv


AGRADECIMENTOS<br />

“Dois homens juntos são mais felizes que um isolado. Se um vier a cair o<br />

outro o levanta. Mas, ai do hom<strong>em</strong> solitário, se ele cair, não há ninguém<br />

para levantá-lo (Ecle 4.1-10)”.<br />

Pelas motivações, somadas à genosida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> vocês conseguimos concluir<br />

este trabalho. Esta foi a maior alegria que experimentei... contar com todos<br />

vocês<br />

Orionalda <strong>de</strong> Fátima Lisboa Fenan<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Lúcia Kioko Hasimoto e Souza<br />

Carolina Rodrigues Costa<br />

Crystiane Rodrigues <strong>de</strong> Araújo<br />

Janine <strong>de</strong> Aquino L<strong>em</strong>os<br />

Ana Cristina Machado <strong>de</strong> Souza<br />

Hil<strong>de</strong>ne Menezes e Silva<br />

Elisa Sales Nascimento<br />

Werther Souza Sales<br />

Patrícia Jackeline Maciel<br />

Denise Milioli Ferreira<br />

Karla Carvalho Miranda<br />

Miranil<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Abreu Batista<br />

José Cl<strong>em</strong>entino <strong>de</strong> Oliveira Neto<br />

Kariny Vieira Soares<br />

Luiz Augusto Pereira<br />

Keili Souza<br />

v


“Aos professores do Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia<br />

Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública, um agra<strong>de</strong>cimento especial, pela<br />

acolhida e pelo muito que me ensinaram ao longo da<br />

minha caminhada”.<br />

vi


À Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás por fornecer<br />

uma excelente estrutura, o que possibilitou a realização<br />

<strong>de</strong>ste trabalho.<br />

vii


À Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista, representada pelos<br />

professores do programa <strong>de</strong> pós-gradução, que<br />

subvenciou recursos para a efetivação <strong>de</strong>sta pesquisa e<br />

pelas valiosas sugestões.<br />

viii


LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS, SÍMBOLOS E UNIDADES.<br />

AIDS Acquired immuno<strong>de</strong>ficiency syndrome<br />

ATCC American type culture colletion<br />

α Alfa<br />

BSI Bloodstream infection<br />

β Beta<br />

°C Grau Celsius<br />

CFU/ml Unida<strong>de</strong> formadora <strong>de</strong> colônia por mililitro<br />

CIM Concentração inibitória minima<br />

CLSI Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute<br />

CVV Candidíase vulvovaginal<br />

DNA Ácido <strong>de</strong>soxirribonucléico<br />

HAART Highly active anti-retroviral therapy<br />

HC Hospital das Clínicas<br />

HIV Human immuno<strong>de</strong>ficiency virus<br />

ICU Intensive care unit<br />

IgA Imunoglobulina A<br />

MIC Minimal inhibitory concentration<br />

ml Mililitro<br />

μg Micrograma<br />

NCCLS National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards<br />

PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction<br />

pH Potencial hidrogeniônico<br />

RAPD Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA<br />

RFLP Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms<br />

ix


SIDA Síndrome da imuno<strong>de</strong>ficiência adquirida<br />

sp. Espécie<br />

spp. Espécies<br />

SPSS Statistical Programmer for Social Sciences<br />

UFG Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás<br />

USA United State of América<br />

UTI Unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva<br />

x


SUMÁRIO<br />

AGRADECIMENTOS ........................................................................................ v<br />

LISTA DE ABREVIATURAS, SÍMBOLOS E UNIDADES. .............................. ix<br />

RESUMO ........................................................................................................ xiii<br />

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xiv<br />

1 INTRODUÇÃO ............................................................................................... 1<br />

1.1 ASPECTOS GERAIS ...................................................................................... 1<br />

1.2 MECANISMO DE PATOGENICIDADE................................................................ 2<br />

1.2.1 Fatores relacionados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ........................................................ 2<br />

1.2.2 Fatores relacionados ao microrganismo .................................................. 3<br />

1.3 MANIFESTAÇÕES CLÍNICAS .......................................................................... 7<br />

1.3.1 Candidíase superficial .............................................................................. 7<br />

1.3.2 Candidíase sistêmica................................................................................ 9<br />

1.4 INFECÇÕES NOSOCOMAIS POR CANDIDA SPP.............................................. 10<br />

1.5 TRATAMENTO............................................................................................ 12<br />

1.6 SUSCETIBILIDADE ANTIFÚNGICA IN VITRO.................................................... 15<br />

1.6.1 Resistência aos antifúngicos .................................................................. 18<br />

1.7 MÉTODOS MOLECULARES .......................................................................... 20<br />

2 JUSTIFICATIVA .......................................................................................... 24<br />

3 OBJETIVOS................................................................................................. 26<br />

3.1 OBJETIVO GERAL..................................................................................... 26<br />

3.2 OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS.......................................................................... 26<br />

xi


4 PRODUÇÃO CIENTÍFICA ........................................................................... 27<br />

4.1 ARTIGO 1: CANDIDA COLONIZATION IN INTENSIVE CARE UNIT PATIENST’S<br />

URINE ............................................................................................................. 28<br />

4.2 ARTIGO 2: SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AND ANTIFUNGAL SUSCEPTIBILITY<br />

PATTERNS OF CANDIDA SPP. BLOODSTREAM ISOLATES FROM A BRAZILIAN<br />

TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL................................................................................ 33<br />

4.3 ARTIGO 3: MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF BLOODSTREAM OF<br />

CANDIDA ALBICANS ......................................................................................... 41<br />

4.4 ARTIGO 4: NOSOCOMIAL INVASIVE INFECTION CAUSED BY CUNNINGHAMELLA<br />

BERTHOLLETIAE: CASE REPORT........................................................................ 55<br />

5 CONCLUSÕES............................................................................................ 59<br />

6 REFERÊNCIAS RELACIONADAS À INTRODUÇÃO ................................ 60<br />

7 ANEXOS ...................................................................................................... 79<br />

7.1 NORMAS PARA PUBLICAÇÃO NA REVISTA MEDICAL MYCOLOGY –<br />

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS (ARTIGO 3).......................................................... 79<br />

7.2 PROTOCOLO DO CEPMHA/HC/UFG ....................................................... 92<br />

7.3 TERMO DE CONSENTIMENTO LIVRE E ESCLARECIDO................................... 96<br />

xii


RESUMO<br />

Os pacientes da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva apresentam um índice elevado<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> do trato urinário e da corrente sanguínea causadas por Candida<br />

spp. As <strong>infecções</strong> por esse microrganismo, na maioria das vezes, estão<br />

relacionadas à fonte endógena. Entretanto, fontes exógenas provenientes do<br />

meio ambiente foram <strong>de</strong>scritas como prováveis fontes <strong>de</strong> candidíase. Neste<br />

trabalho, foram coletadas amostras <strong>de</strong> sangue, urina, cateter <strong>de</strong> pacientes e<br />

da superfície da cama e mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva <strong>de</strong><br />

um hospital terciário, durante o período <strong>de</strong> um ano para pesquisa e<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificação <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong>. Os potenciais fatores <strong>de</strong> risco para candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />

candidúria foram analisados e o teste <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica para os<br />

<strong>fungos</strong> isolados da corrente sanguínea foram realizados usando-se o método<br />

<strong>de</strong> microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo. A diversida<strong>de</strong> genética entre isolados <strong>de</strong> C.<br />

albicans foi avaliada na tentativa <strong>de</strong> se verificar possíveis correlações <strong>de</strong><br />

padrões <strong>de</strong> DNA das cepas obtidas <strong>de</strong> amostras clínicas e do meio ambiente<br />

da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva. Dentre as 345 amostras <strong>de</strong> sangue, Candida<br />

foi <strong>de</strong>tectada <strong>em</strong> 33 pacientes, e <strong>em</strong> um paciente foi i<strong>de</strong>nticado a presença <strong>de</strong><br />

um fungo filamentoso, Cuninghamella bertholetiae. Candida não-albicans foi<br />

responsável por 51,5% dos casos <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Das 153 amostras <strong>de</strong> urina<br />

coletadas, candidúria foi verificada <strong>em</strong> 68 pacientes, sendo que Candida não-<br />

albicans foi i<strong>de</strong>ntificada <strong>em</strong> 31,9%. O período <strong>de</strong> internação relacionado com<br />

candi<strong>de</strong>mia e candidúria foi estatisticamente significante. Uso <strong>de</strong> antibióticos e<br />

<strong>de</strong> cateter invasivo foram fatores predominantes nos casos <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />

<strong>de</strong> candidúria. A suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro dos isolados do sangue revelou alta<br />

sensibilida<strong>de</strong> aos antifúngicos estudados. A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD para os 31<br />

isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans do sangue, catheter, urina, superfície <strong>de</strong> cama e mesa<br />

<strong>de</strong> Meyer confirmou que os oligonucleotídios Cnd3 e Cnd4 possu<strong>em</strong> alto valor<br />

discriminatório. Os resultados obtidos permitiram concluir que <strong>em</strong>bora<br />

candi<strong>de</strong>mia estivesse largamente associada à fontes endógenas como<br />

candidúria, a presença <strong>de</strong> Candida nas superfícies do cateter, cama e da<br />

mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer foram consi<strong>de</strong>radas importantes fontes exógenas.<br />

xiii


ABSTRACT<br />

Nosocomial bloodstream and urinary tract infections caused by Candida<br />

spp. are common among the ICU patients. Candida nosocomial infection<br />

has been generally related to the endogenous flora but exogenous infection<br />

originating from the environment has occurred. In this work, we collected<br />

samples of blood, urine, catheter of patients and the surface of bed and<br />

Meyer table from ICU from tertiary hospital during one year period for<br />

research and i<strong>de</strong>ntification of fungus. It was yet verified the potential risk<br />

factors for candi<strong>de</strong>mia and candiduria and the antifungal susceptibility was<br />

performed by broth microdilution method for Candida isolates recovered<br />

from bloodstream. Additionally, we assessed the genetic diversity among C.<br />

albicans isolates in an effort to establish the relationship between DNA<br />

patterns of the strains recovered from clinical and environment samples<br />

from the ICU. Among 345 blood samples, candi<strong>de</strong>mia was recovered in 33<br />

patients caused by different species of Candida while funga<strong>em</strong>ia by<br />

Cunninghamella bertholetiae was i<strong>de</strong>ntified in one patient. Candida non-<br />

albicans was responsible by 51.5% of the cases of candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Among 153<br />

urine samples, candiduria was <strong>de</strong>tected in 68 patients, from which it was<br />

isolated 31.9% of Candida non-albicans. Candida species in the blood and<br />

urine were statiscally associated with long term hospitalization and the most<br />

common risk factors were the use of antibiotics and indwelling urinary<br />

catheter. The majority of Candida isolates from blood were susceptible to<br />

the antifungals tested. The analyses using RAPD among 31 C. albicans<br />

isolates from blood, urine, catheter, surface of bed and Meyer table<br />

confirmed that the Cnd3 and Cnd4 primers have high discriminatory power.<br />

In conclusion, although candi<strong>de</strong>mia was strongly associated to endogenous<br />

sources such as candiduria, it was observed that catheter, surface of bed<br />

and Meyer table were also consi<strong>de</strong>red important exogenous sources of<br />

infection.<br />

xiv


1 INTRODUÇÃO<br />

1.1 Aspectos gerais<br />

Candidíase é uma infecção normalmente secundária aguda ou crônica,<br />

com manifestações clínicas extr<strong>em</strong>amente diversificadas po<strong>de</strong>ndo produzir<br />

lesões que variam <strong>de</strong> uma simples irritação no tecido cutâneo até uma<br />

resposta granulomatosa. As lesões po<strong>de</strong>m ser superficiais com localização<br />

principalmente nas mucosas bucal e vaginal, ou sistêmica, verificando-se <strong>em</strong><br />

alguns casos, septic<strong>em</strong>ia por Candida (Menezes et al. 2005).<br />

As leveduras do gênero Candida inclu<strong>em</strong> aproximadamente 200<br />

espécies, <strong>de</strong>ntre as quais C. albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. famata, C. glabrata,<br />

C. guilliermondii, C. ha<strong>em</strong>ualaii, C. inconspicua, C. kefyr, C. krusei, C. lambica,<br />

C. lipolytica, C. lusitaniae, C. novergensis, C. parapsilosis, C. pelliculosa, C.<br />

rugosa, C. sake, C. spharice, C. tropicalis e C. zeylanoi<strong>de</strong>s estão associadas<br />

com candidíase no hom<strong>em</strong> e/ou <strong>em</strong> animais (Hajjeh et al 2004; Segal, 2004;<br />

Almirante et al. 2005; Colombo et al. 2006). Candida albicans é a espécie<br />

patogênica <strong>de</strong> maior prevalência na maioria das casuísticas estudadas (Richet<br />

et al. 2002). Espécies não-albicans, entretanto têm aumentado<br />

gradativamente, sendo que C. tropicalis, C. glabrata e C. parapsilosis são<br />

comumente isoladas <strong>em</strong> casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase relatadas por diferentes<br />

pesquisadores (Pfaller et al. 1999; Sota et al. 1999; Cantón et al. 2001; Galván<br />

& Mariscal 2006).


O gênero Candida faz parte da microbiota da pele, das mucosas, do trato<br />

digestivo e geniturinário humano ou <strong>de</strong> animais, encontrando-se também<br />

saprofiticamente <strong>em</strong> plantas, objetos inanimados e no meio ambiente<br />

havendo, portanto fatores ligados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ou ao microrganismo que<br />

influenciam na transformação <strong>de</strong>ssas leveduras <strong>de</strong> saprófitas para parasitas<br />

(Galván & Mariscal, 2006).<br />

1.2 Mecanismo <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong><br />

1.2.1 Fatores relacionados ao hospe<strong>de</strong>iro<br />

A capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> produção <strong>de</strong> infecção por espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong><br />

mais do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro do que do fungo. A candidíase po<strong>de</strong> ocorrer pelo<br />

rompimento do equilíbrio parasita-hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, que po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>ado<br />

pelas alterações das barreiras teciduais, da microbiota autóctone e da<br />

resposta imune (Drago et al. 2000; Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001).<br />

Alterações na superfície da pele ou mucosas possibilitam a proliferação<br />

ou mudança do sítio anatômico da levedura contribuindo para a instalação <strong>de</strong><br />

Candida no organismo do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro. Esse fator é comum <strong>em</strong> pacientes que<br />

sofr<strong>em</strong> constant<strong>em</strong>ente traumatismo <strong>de</strong>vido a procedimentos invasivos, como<br />

sondas e cateteres, e <strong>em</strong> pacientes com extensas queimaduras (Pulcini et al.<br />

2006).<br />

Espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida, especialmente C. albicans, consi<strong>de</strong>radas como<br />

pertencentes à microbiota autóctone humana, <strong>de</strong> orofaringe, dobras da pele,<br />

secreções brônquicas, vagina, urina e fezes (Odds, 1988; Macphail et al.<br />

2002) po<strong>de</strong>m, <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminadas circunstâncias como uso <strong>de</strong> antibioticoterapia<br />

2


prolongada, proliferar<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>ando infecção. Pacientes <strong>de</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

terapia intensiva, que geralmente receb<strong>em</strong> altas doses <strong>de</strong> antibióticos, tornam-<br />

se mais propensos à produção <strong>de</strong> infecção por estas leveduras (Safdar et al.<br />

2002).<br />

Mecanismos mediados por imunida<strong>de</strong> celular e humoral constitu<strong>em</strong> uma<br />

eficiente proteção contra <strong>infecções</strong> por <strong>fungos</strong> do gênero Candida (Richardson<br />

& Warnock, 1994). O papel da ativida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> neutrófilos contra <strong>infecções</strong><br />

sistêmicas po<strong>de</strong> ser evi<strong>de</strong>nciado pelo aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> diss<strong>em</strong>inadas <strong>em</strong><br />

pacientes submetidos à quimioterapia (Merz, 1990). Neutrófilos e macrófagos<br />

participam na <strong>de</strong>fesa do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro <strong>de</strong>vido à sua ação microbicida<br />

(Greenfield, 1992). Por outro lado, a importância das células T na prevenção<br />

do <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento <strong>de</strong> candidíase mucocutânea t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>monstrada.<br />

Candidíase é freqüente <strong>em</strong> crianças com probl<strong>em</strong>as no timo, principal órgão<br />

formador <strong>de</strong> linfócitos T, e <strong>em</strong> pacientes com a síndrome da imuno<strong>de</strong>ficiência<br />

humana adquirida (AIDS ou SIDA), <strong>em</strong> que se observa uma acentuada<br />

diminuição <strong>de</strong>ssas células (Merz, 1990). A imunida<strong>de</strong> humoral po<strong>de</strong> auxiliar na<br />

<strong>de</strong>fesa do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro através da formação <strong>de</strong> anticorpos, que associados ao<br />

sist<strong>em</strong>a compl<strong>em</strong>ento, atuam como opsonizadores para as células<br />

fagocitárias, ou impe<strong>de</strong>m a a<strong>de</strong>são do microrganismo às células do<br />

hospe<strong>de</strong>iro (IgA secretora) (Odds, 1988; Samaranayake & MacFarlane, 1990).<br />

1.2.2 Fatores relacionados ao microrganismo<br />

Candida albicans e outras espécies do gênero possu<strong>em</strong> características<br />

celulares e moleculares que possibilitam a produção <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong>. Estas<br />

3


características estão relacionadas principalmente à a<strong>de</strong>são, ao dimorfismo<br />

(variação <strong>de</strong> antígenos <strong>de</strong> superfície), à variabilida<strong>de</strong> fenotípica (fenômeno<br />

switching), e à produção <strong>de</strong> toxinas e exoenzimas, como proteases e<br />

fosfolipases produzidas pelos microrganismos (Hellstein et al. 1993; Vargas et<br />

al. 2000; Fotedar & Al-Hedaithy, 2003).<br />

Os mecanismos <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> das espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida variam <strong>de</strong><br />

acordo com o tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção. A invasão da corrente sangüínea e<br />

crescimento nos tecidos po<strong>de</strong>m requerer <strong>de</strong>terminados fatores <strong>de</strong> virulência<br />

que po<strong>de</strong>m ser diferentes daqueles para causar doenças na superfície das<br />

mucosas (De Bernardis et al. 1993; Venkatesan et al. 2005). No<br />

estabelecimento da infecção sistêmica os patógenos oportunistas são<br />

capazes <strong>de</strong> evadir<strong>em</strong> do sist<strong>em</strong>a imune, sobreviver<strong>em</strong> e iniciar<strong>em</strong> o seu<br />

processo <strong>de</strong> divisão, difundindo-se para os órgãos internos do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro<br />

(Casa<strong>de</strong>vall & Piorfski, 2001). O mecanismo <strong>de</strong> produção <strong>de</strong> lesões por<br />

<strong>fungos</strong> do gênero Candida não é totalmente conhecido. Não há evidências se<br />

a invasão da levedura está mais relacionada à falhas no sist<strong>em</strong>a <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fesa do<br />

hospe<strong>de</strong>iro ou a proprieda<strong>de</strong>s específicas da levedura (Venkatesan et al.<br />

2005).<br />

A capacida<strong>de</strong> que o microrganismo t<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> se a<strong>de</strong>rir a superfícies das<br />

células do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro representa o primeiro mecanismo da patogênese<br />

(Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001). As doenças infecciosas, <strong>de</strong> uma maneira geral,<br />

são conhecidas por começar com a fixação do patógeno a um alvo particular<br />

no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, como ocorre com a candidíase. A pare<strong>de</strong> das leveduras do<br />

4


gênero Candida, como C. albicans, não possui apenas a proprieda<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

conferir a forma estrutural à célula, mas também é o local on<strong>de</strong> se inicia a<br />

interação entre esse fungo e o meio ambiente (Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001).<br />

Isso ocorre porque estas leveduras apresentam proteínas <strong>de</strong>nominadas<br />

a<strong>de</strong>sinas que permit<strong>em</strong> a sua a<strong>de</strong>são a el<strong>em</strong>entos extracelulares,<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rados receptores, como fibrinogênio, fibronectina e laminina, presentes<br />

nos tecidos humanos (Vardar-Ünlü, 1998, Cal<strong>de</strong>rone & Fronzi, 2001; Yang,<br />

2003).<br />

Candida albicans po<strong>de</strong> se apresentar sob a forma <strong>de</strong> levedura ou<br />

filamentosa, o que caracteriza o seu dimorfismo (Brown & Gow, 1999; Ernst,<br />

2000). A formação <strong>de</strong> hifas é consi<strong>de</strong>rada importante fator <strong>de</strong> virulência não<br />

apenas por promover a invasão da célula para o interior da mucosa, mas<br />

também por impedir que as células <strong>de</strong> Candida sejam englobadas por<br />

macrófagos e neutrófilos (Yang et al. 2003). A transição <strong>de</strong> leveduras para<br />

hifas po<strong>de</strong> ser influenciada pela t<strong>em</strong>peratura, pH, fontes <strong>de</strong> carbono e<br />

substâncias químicas (Odds, 1988, Lan et al. 2002). Sua capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

mudar <strong>de</strong> fase <strong>de</strong> levedura para filamentosa é importante para uma maior<br />

interação com o hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, facilitando a a<strong>de</strong>são, e aumentando assim a sua<br />

virulência (Cutler, 1991). As células <strong>em</strong> forma <strong>de</strong> leveduras e <strong>de</strong> hifas po<strong>de</strong>m<br />

estar presentes no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro não somente durante o processo <strong>de</strong> infecção,<br />

mas também durante o processo <strong>de</strong> colonização do fungo (Souza et al. 1990;<br />

Bartie et al. 2001).<br />

5


As variações na morfologia <strong>de</strong> colônias <strong>de</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida,<br />

<strong>de</strong>scritas principalmente <strong>em</strong> C. albicans, caracterizadas como fenômeno<br />

switching, parec<strong>em</strong> estar envolvidas no mecanismo <strong>de</strong> virulência <strong>de</strong>ssas<br />

leveduras. Nesse fenômeno, a mudança fenotípica que se expressa pela<br />

morfologia, induz provavelmente alteração na fisiologia e na patogenicida<strong>de</strong><br />

do microrganismo (Lian et al. 2003, Laffey & Butler, 2005). Esse mecanismo<br />

po<strong>de</strong> permitir que um organismo adaptado ao meio ambiente altere, através<br />

da expressão <strong>de</strong> um gene seletivo, a resposta fúngica frente aos agentes<br />

antifúngicos (Lachke et al. 2002; Miller et al. 2006).<br />

A produção <strong>de</strong> proteinase e da fosfolipase t<strong>em</strong> sido relatada como sendo<br />

um importante <strong>de</strong>terminante <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> C. albicans (Cutler, 1991;<br />

Pincus et al. 1999, Menezes et al. 2005). As proteinases têm afinida<strong>de</strong> por<br />

substratos tais como queratina, colágeno <strong>de</strong>snaturado, h<strong>em</strong>oglobinas, matriz<br />

celular e albumina (Rüchel et al. 1982; McDonalds & Odds, 1983; Ghannoun &<br />

Abu-Elteen, 1990; Culter 1991; Odds 1994, Ibrahim et al. 1995, Cal<strong>de</strong>rone &<br />

Fronzi, 2001) envolvidas <strong>em</strong> vários processos bioquímicos. Esses atributos<br />

estão associados a diversos fatores <strong>de</strong> virulência como formação <strong>de</strong><br />

pseudomicélio, a<strong>de</strong>são e fenômeno “switching”, tornando mais complexos os<br />

mecanismos <strong>de</strong> patogenicida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> leveduras (Naglik et al. 2003, Naglik et al.<br />

2004). O primeiro relato <strong>de</strong> fosfolipase <strong>em</strong> C. albicans foi publicado <strong>em</strong> 1966<br />

(Werner, 1966). A presença <strong>de</strong> fosfolipases na superfície da levedura e na<br />

extr<strong>em</strong>ida<strong>de</strong> do pseudomicélio propicia a lesão tecidual por alterar os<br />

constituintes lipídicos da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro. Esta enzima t<strong>em</strong><br />

6


sido <strong>de</strong>tectada <strong>em</strong> poucas espécies, como C. albicans e C. glabrata<br />

(Samaranayake et al. 1984; Banno et al. 1985; Hube, 1996; Ghannoum, 1998;<br />

Ghannoum, 2000). Williams et al. (1990) verificaram que 94% <strong>de</strong> C. albicans<br />

isoladas da cavida<strong>de</strong> bucal <strong>de</strong> pacientes com AIDS, foram produtoras <strong>de</strong><br />

fosfolipase. Outras enzimas, como glucoamilase, fosfatase ácida e<br />

metalopeptidase, provavelmente correlacionadas com virulência po<strong>de</strong>m ser<br />

encontradas <strong>em</strong> leveduras do gênero Candida (Naglik et al. 2003).<br />

1.3 Manifestações clínicas<br />

As <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>de</strong>correntes da ação patogênica <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> do gênero<br />

Candida, <strong>de</strong>nominadas candidíases, po<strong>de</strong>m envolver a pele, as mucosas e<br />

órgãos internos atingindo algumas vezes o sist<strong>em</strong>a sanguíneo. De acordo<br />

com o envolvimento do organismo no hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, a candidíase po<strong>de</strong> ser<br />

classificada <strong>em</strong> superficial e sistêmica.<br />

1.3.1 Candidíase superficial<br />

A candidíase com envolvimento superficial acomete pele, unhas e<br />

mucosas orofaríngeas e genitais (Ghannoum, 2001).<br />

As <strong>infecções</strong> da pele se localizam principalmente <strong>em</strong> áreas intertriginosas<br />

úmidas, como os espaços interdigitais, os sulcos submamários, axilas e<br />

pregas suprapúbicas. As lesões se caracterizam por se apresentar<strong>em</strong><br />

erit<strong>em</strong>atosas, úmidas, com bordos mal <strong>de</strong>finidos e escamosos formados por<br />

vesículas que se romp<strong>em</strong> precoc<strong>em</strong>ente. Em alguns casos, observa-se a<br />

presença <strong>de</strong> placas secas, escamosas e pústulas (Samanarayake et al. 2002).<br />

7


A onicomicose, <strong>de</strong>finida como infecção fúngica ungueal, representa 20%<br />

das doenças das unhas, sendo uma das mais freqüentes causas <strong>de</strong><br />

onicopatias <strong>em</strong> todo o mundo (Arena & Ruiz-Esmenjaud, 2004). Essa infecção<br />

po<strong>de</strong> manifestar-se como um e<strong>de</strong>ma erit<strong>em</strong>atoso da prega ungueal<br />

(paroníquia), ou como uma separação da placa ungueal do seu leito<br />

(onicólise). Esse tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção, segundo as recomendações da<br />

nomenclatura das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas proposta pela "Socieda<strong>de</strong> Internacional<br />

<strong>de</strong> Micologia Humana e Animal", quando o agente causal se trata <strong>de</strong><br />

leveduras do gênero Candida, <strong>de</strong>ve ser <strong>de</strong>nominada candidoses ungueais<br />

(López-Jodra et al. 1999). Onicomicose por Candida spp afeta<br />

aproximadamente 5% da população mundial, sendo altamente freqüentes na<br />

América Latina (Arenas & Ocego 1997; Murray & Dawber, 2002) e representa<br />

<strong>em</strong> torno <strong>de</strong> 30% <strong>de</strong> todas as <strong>infecções</strong> micóticas superficiais (Migdley et al.<br />

1994).<br />

A candidíase <strong>de</strong> mucosa bucal po<strong>de</strong> se apresentar sob quatro formas<br />

clínicas. A forma erit<strong>em</strong>atosa, a qual é representada por áreas avermelhadas,<br />

localizadas principalmente no palato, língua e mucosa bucal. A<br />

pseudom<strong>em</strong>branosa, on<strong>de</strong> se observa a formação <strong>de</strong> lesões m<strong>em</strong>branosas <strong>de</strong><br />

cor branca à amarelada <strong>em</strong> toda a mucosa, a queilite angular que acomete as<br />

comissuras labiais com aspectos clínicos, que variam <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> os fissurais a<br />

ulcerados e a candidíase hiperplásica que se apresenta sob a forma <strong>de</strong> placas<br />

ou nódulos esbranquiçados, firm<strong>em</strong>ente a<strong>de</strong>ridos às áreas da mucosa,<br />

po<strong>de</strong>ndo ocorrer na língua e ser confundida com a leucoplasia pilosa<br />

8


(Cavassani et al. 2002). Lesões <strong>de</strong> mucosa bucal são frequent<strong>em</strong>ente<br />

relatadas <strong>em</strong> pacientes imunocomprometidos, particularmente <strong>em</strong> AIDS.<br />

Candidíase vulvovaginal (CVV), processo inflamatório que acarreta<br />

corrimentos, pruridos, além <strong>de</strong> incômodos como ardência e dor ao urinar<br />

po<strong>de</strong>m ser <strong>de</strong>correntes <strong>de</strong> diversos fatores, como o abafamento da área<br />

vaginal, higiene pessoal ina<strong>de</strong>quada, mudança <strong>de</strong> pH ou até mesmo o uso <strong>de</strong><br />

contraceptivos (Ferrazza et al. 2005). A freqüência <strong>de</strong> CVV t<strong>em</strong> aumentado<br />

gradativamente, evoluindo <strong>de</strong> 0,5% <strong>em</strong> 1968 para 22,5% <strong>em</strong> 1998, época <strong>em</strong><br />

que se tornou a causa mais comum <strong>de</strong> infecção vaginal (Adad et al. 2001).<br />

Atualmente, CVV está entre os principais probl<strong>em</strong>as ginecológicos que afetam<br />

mulheres <strong>em</strong> ida<strong>de</strong> reprodutiva, atingindo milhares <strong>de</strong> pessoas no mundo<br />

(Costa et al. 2004). Há estimativas <strong>de</strong> que provavelmente 55,7% <strong>de</strong> todas as<br />

mulheres terão pelo menos um episódio <strong>de</strong> vulvovaginite por Candida spp ao<br />

longo <strong>de</strong> suas vidas (Foxman et al. 2000).<br />

1.3.2 Candidíase sistêmica<br />

Esse tipo <strong>de</strong> infecção ocorre quando o fungo se instala <strong>em</strong> diferentes<br />

órgãos do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, com localização mais freqüente nos pulmões e trato<br />

urinário, sendo que <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados indivíduos po<strong>de</strong>m levar a candi<strong>de</strong>mia<br />

(Galván & Mariscal, 2006).<br />

Uma das características mais importantes com relação à candidíase<br />

sistêmica é sua associação à altas taxas <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong>. A taxa média <strong>de</strong><br />

mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> pacientes com essa patologia nos Estados Unidos é <strong>de</strong><br />

aproximadamente 38% (Beck-Sagué & Jarvis 1993), <strong>em</strong> Israel <strong>de</strong> 21,5%<br />

9


(Rennert et al. 2000), na Espanha oscila entre 22 e 33,3% (Sota et al. 1999;<br />

Saballs et al. 2000), enquanto no Brasil é <strong>de</strong> aproximadamente 50% (Colombo<br />

et al. 1999).<br />

Em pacientes hospitalizados a combinação <strong>de</strong> vários fatores constitui<br />

riscos para candidíase invasiva e candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Cantón et al. 2001). O uso <strong>de</strong><br />

cateter, <strong>de</strong> antibióticos, nutrição parenteral, freqüent<strong>em</strong>entes utilizados <strong>em</strong><br />

pacientes internados contribu<strong>em</strong> para uma maior capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> invasão por<br />

leveduras do gênero Candida (Frazer et al. 1992; Franklin & Metry 1992;<br />

Fridkin & Jarvis, 1996).<br />

A incidência das <strong>infecções</strong> sistêmicas por Candida t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrita<br />

principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos hospitalizados, particularmente <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

terapia intensiva (Vincent et al. 1998), verificando-se um gran<strong>de</strong> aumento nas<br />

últimas décadas. Segundo Schwesinger et al. (2005), <strong>em</strong> um hospital terciário<br />

al<strong>em</strong>ão, <strong>de</strong> necropsias realizadas no período <strong>de</strong> 1994 – 1998, verificou-se<br />

uma incidência <strong>de</strong> 3% <strong>de</strong> candidíases invasivas e no período compreendido<br />

entre 1999 – 2003, a mesma passou a ser <strong>de</strong> 10%.<br />

1.4 Infecções nosocomais por Candida spp.<br />

Infecções invasivas são consi<strong>de</strong>radas importantes causas <strong>de</strong> morbida<strong>de</strong><br />

e mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> hospitais (Saleh & Al-Hedaithy, 2003, Boo et al. 2005). A<br />

tecnologia disponível na área médica e laboratorial, para diagnóstico e<br />

tratamento, além do aprimoramento das medidas <strong>de</strong> suporte <strong>de</strong> vida a<br />

pacientes críticos, particularmente os <strong>de</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva,<br />

possibilitaram uma maior sobrevida <strong>de</strong> portadores <strong>de</strong> doenças <strong>de</strong>generativas<br />

10


e neoplásicas, pós-cirúrgicos e <strong>de</strong> crianças pr<strong>em</strong>aturas, aumentando o risco à<br />

aquisição <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> (Araújo, 1998, Antunes et al. 2005). Alterações na<br />

resposta imune do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro, rompimento <strong>de</strong> barreiras e exposição a vários<br />

antibióticos, ren<strong>de</strong>m aos pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI altamente suscetíveis, <strong>infecções</strong> da<br />

corrente sangüínea, do trato respiratório e urinário (Arantes et al. 2003). Um<br />

estudo realizado por Appelgren et al. 2001, <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva,<br />

mostrou que 35% dos pacientes tiveram infecção nosocomial, sendo que 17%<br />

eram <strong>infecções</strong> da corrente sanguínea.<br />

Espécies <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> pertencentes aos gêneros Candida e Aspergillus e a<br />

classe dos Zygomycetos são os responsáveis pela maioria <strong>de</strong>ssas <strong>infecções</strong><br />

(Anaisse et al. 1989; Wingard et al. 1991). É <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> interesse a elevada<br />

freqüência <strong>de</strong> candidíase <strong>de</strong>tectada nos gran<strong>de</strong>s hospitais. Diversos fatores<br />

concorr<strong>em</strong> para o aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong> por Candida. Colombo &<br />

Guimarães (2003) i<strong>de</strong>ntificaram azot<strong>em</strong>ia, uso <strong>de</strong> cateter venoso central, uso<br />

<strong>de</strong> esterói<strong>de</strong>s, cirurgia <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> porte, colonização por Candida spp. e<br />

h<strong>em</strong>odiálise, como fatores <strong>de</strong> risco associados <strong>em</strong> pacientes hospitalizados.<br />

Segundo esses autores, consi<strong>de</strong>rando os fatores <strong>de</strong> riscos mencionados, é<br />

possível enten<strong>de</strong>r porque a maior freqüência <strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia t<strong>em</strong> sido<br />

documentada <strong>em</strong> indivíduos críticos admitidos <strong>em</strong> unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia<br />

intensiva.<br />

C. albicans é a principal espécie capaz <strong>de</strong> produzir candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Colombo<br />

& Guimarães, 2003), mas outras espécies não-albicans, como C. parapsilosis,<br />

C. glabrata, C. krusei e C. tropicalis estão implicadas como agentes <strong>de</strong>ssa<br />

11


infecção (Colombo et al. 1999; Ellis et al. 2003; Marchetti et al. 2004, Medrano<br />

et al. 2006). O aumento <strong>de</strong> espécies não-albicans como agentes importantes<br />

<strong>de</strong> candi<strong>de</strong>mia está ligado ao uso profilático, ou <strong>em</strong>pírico, <strong>de</strong> agentes<br />

antifúngicos, com menor suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> a esses (Rodriguez & Moreira, 1999;<br />

Lewis & Klepser, 1999; Pfaller, 2000).<br />

As espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida po<strong>de</strong>m causar o mesmo tipo <strong>de</strong> enfermida<strong>de</strong>, no<br />

entanto, a gravida<strong>de</strong> e as opções terapêuticas difer<strong>em</strong> entre as distintas<br />

espécies e <strong>de</strong>ntro da mesma espécie (Sandven, 2000; Cantón, 2001),<br />

justificando o uso dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro para uma terapia<br />

a<strong>de</strong>quada.<br />

1.5 Tratamento<br />

Anfotericina B é consi<strong>de</strong>rada o padrão ouro da terapia antifúngica. Esse<br />

fármaco é um antibiótico macroli<strong>de</strong>o com ativida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica frente a<br />

numerosas espécies <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> como Candida, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma<br />

capsulatum, Paracoccidioi<strong>de</strong>s brasiliensis e Aspergillus. É um antifúngico<br />

altamente lipofílico, sendo administrado <strong>em</strong> associação à <strong>de</strong>soxicolato. A sua<br />

principal limitação no <strong>em</strong>prego clínico é <strong>de</strong>corrente <strong>de</strong> seus efeitos<br />

secundários, dos quais um dos mais graves é a nefrotoxicida<strong>de</strong> (López-<br />

Medrado et al. 2005).<br />

O tratamento das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas t<strong>em</strong> sido também realizado com<br />

<strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos, como fluconazol, itraconazol, voriconazol, ou ainda com<br />

cancidas, como caspofungina, equinocandina e micafungina, os quais<br />

apresentam maior facilida<strong>de</strong> na sua administração, e menores efeitos<br />

12


colaterais do que os observados para anfotericina B (Ayeni et al. 1999;<br />

Berrouane et al. 1999; Sheehan et al. 1999). A pouca toxicida<strong>de</strong>, fácil<br />

administração e eficácia no tratamento têm resultado no uso abusivo <strong>de</strong><br />

fluconazol, o que provavelmente possibilitou o <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento da resistência<br />

<strong>de</strong>sse antifúngico <strong>em</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida (Rex et al. 1995; Rex & Pfaller<br />

2002). As <strong>infecções</strong> invasivas por C. glabrata, principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos<br />

transplantados, têm ocorrido com altos índices <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>vido ao uso<br />

<strong>de</strong> fluconazol como profilático. Candida krusei é consi<strong>de</strong>rada intrinsecamente<br />

resistente a este <strong>de</strong>rivado azólico (Abi-Said et al. 1997; Bo<strong>de</strong>y et al. 2002). Em<br />

casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase que não respon<strong>de</strong>m ao tratamento com fluconazol e<br />

itraconazol, t<strong>em</strong> sido instituído o uso <strong>de</strong> voriconazol com boa eficácia (Lozano-<br />

Chiu et al. 1999; Pfaller et al. 2002).<br />

Voriconazol é um agente antifúngico triazólico <strong>de</strong> segunda geração, com<br />

amplo espectro, sendo <strong>de</strong>rivado sintético do fluconazol. As modificações<br />

introduzidas na molécula <strong>de</strong> voriconazol resultaram <strong>em</strong> uma maior afinida<strong>de</strong> à<br />

enzima 14-α-lanosterol <strong>de</strong>metilase e no aumento do espectro <strong>de</strong> ação.<br />

Voriconazol exibe um amplo e potente espectro <strong>de</strong> ação contra os <strong>fungos</strong>: C.<br />

albicans, Aspergillus sp, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum,<br />

Coccidioi<strong>de</strong>s immitis, Scedosporium spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium<br />

marneffei, Trichosporon spp. e Saccharomyces cerevisae (Sabo & Ab<strong>de</strong>l-<br />

Rahmanl, 2000; Bizarro & Dinis, 2003, Gimeno & Martinez, 2007), po<strong>de</strong>ndo<br />

apresentar ativida<strong>de</strong> contra isolados que são resistentes ao fluconazol,<br />

itraconazol e anfotericina B.<br />

13


As equinocandinas, pertencente ao grupo das candinas, possu<strong>em</strong> três<br />

agentes antifúngicos, caspofungina, micafungina e anidulafungina, sendo<br />

fármacos que inib<strong>em</strong> a síntese da β-1,3-D glucana, componente da pare<strong>de</strong><br />

celular <strong>de</strong> muitos <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos e <strong>de</strong> leveduras (Bergold & Georgiadis<br />

2004). A sua ação na pare<strong>de</strong> faz com que esses agentes antifúngicos tenham<br />

maior facilida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> ação sobre os <strong>fungos</strong> s<strong>em</strong> haver interferência no<br />

hospe<strong>de</strong>iro e <strong>de</strong>ssa forma são menos tóxicos para o paciente (Gimeno &<br />

Martinez, 2007).<br />

A caspofungina, licenciada para uso clínico, é um <strong>de</strong>rivado s<strong>em</strong>i-sintético<br />

da pneumonocandina B, única equinocandina aprovada nos Estados Unidos,<br />

indicada no tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, on<strong>de</strong> as espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida<br />

respon<strong>de</strong>m a este antifúngico, inclusive as resistentes ao fluconazol<br />

(Deresinski & Stevens, 2003). Resultados <strong>de</strong> estudos <strong>de</strong> caspofungina na<br />

candidíase invasiva e na candi<strong>de</strong>mia suger<strong>em</strong> equivalente eficácia à<br />

anfotericina B, mas com menos efeitos tóxicos (Abuhammour & Habte-Gaber,<br />

2004).<br />

Em um estudo realizado por Odio et al. (2004) foi avaliado o tratamento<br />

com caspofungina <strong>em</strong> 10 recém-nascidos, com candidíase invasiva, causada<br />

por C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis e C. glabrata. Embora tivesse<br />

sido registrada resistência ao fluconazol nas espécies não-albicans e <strong>em</strong> dois<br />

casos <strong>de</strong> C. albicans, b<strong>em</strong> como resistência a anfotericina por C. glabrata, a<br />

caspofungina mostrou-se com elevada eficácia, no tratamento da candidíase<br />

<strong>de</strong>stas crianças.<br />

14


Embora haja boa resposta às terapias com diferentes agentes<br />

antifúngicos no tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, para pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI há uma<br />

enorme dificulda<strong>de</strong> na eficácia, pois além da sintomatologia das <strong>infecções</strong><br />

fúngicas ser totalmente inespecífica nesses pacientes dificultando o<br />

diagnóstico, a <strong>de</strong>bilida<strong>de</strong> do hospe<strong>de</strong>iro leva a uma diminuição na resposta ao<br />

agente antifúngico (Muñoz et al. 2000). Nesses pacientes, a utilização <strong>de</strong><br />

antifúngicos se t<strong>em</strong> restringido àqueles com <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas documentadas<br />

ou com um alto risco <strong>de</strong> apresentar <strong>infecções</strong> por esses <strong>fungos</strong> (Wa<strong>de</strong>, 1993;<br />

Pizzo, 2000), para evitar o <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento <strong>de</strong> resistência aos antifúngicos.<br />

Com a crescente incidência das <strong>infecções</strong> fúngicas sistêmicas, o<br />

aumento do número <strong>de</strong> agentes antifúngicos além do aparecimento <strong>de</strong><br />

isolados resistentes, torna-se necessário à seleção a<strong>de</strong>quada do antifúngico,<br />

o que po<strong>de</strong> ser realizado através dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>.<br />

1.6 Suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica in vitro<br />

A utilização dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> antifúngica in vitro para que seja<br />

realizado um tratamento rápido, a<strong>de</strong>quado e eficaz, tornou-se necessária<br />

<strong>de</strong>vido às constantes resistências <strong>de</strong>tectadas <strong>em</strong> diferentes <strong>fungos</strong> (Colombo,<br />

1994; Zardo & Mezzan, 2004; Yang et al. 2005; Magill et al. 2006)<br />

Na última década, foram padronizados vários métodos para provas <strong>de</strong><br />

sensibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro a antifúngicos e alguns <strong>de</strong>les são atualmente indicados<br />

como referência, servindo para validar outras provas, incluindo àquelas<br />

comerciais.<br />

15


Alguns testes preconizados para <strong>de</strong>tectar resistência a antifúngicos, têm<br />

mostrado boa reprodutibilida<strong>de</strong> intra e interlaboratorial, além <strong>de</strong> correlação<br />

com a evolução clínica dos pacientes. O National Committee for Clinical<br />

Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), atual Clinical and Laboratory Standards<br />

Institute (CLSI), publicou o documento M27-A2, para provas <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong><br />

a antifúngicos <strong>em</strong> leveduras como método <strong>de</strong> referência (NCCLS/CLSI, 2002).<br />

Esse documento contém técnicas <strong>de</strong> macro e microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo para<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminar a concentração inibitória mínima (CIM). Elas foram <strong>de</strong>senvolvidas<br />

para testes com leveduras dos gêneros Candida e Cryptococcus, frente à<br />

anfotericina B, 5-fluorocitosina e azólicos, incluindo cetoconazol, fluconazol,<br />

itraconazol, posaconazol, ravuconazol e voriconazol. Os possíveis fatores<br />

como meio <strong>de</strong> cultura, pH, t<strong>em</strong>peratura <strong>de</strong> incubação e leitura do teste, que<br />

po<strong>de</strong>m causar erros na <strong>de</strong>terminação da CIM são padronizados neste método<br />

(NCCLS/CLSI, 2002).<br />

Um outro método do CLSI foi <strong>de</strong>scrito no documento M44-A que<br />

<strong>de</strong>screve uma prova sensível e prática, validada para testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>em</strong> Candida spp., utilizando discos impregnados com fluconazol ou com<br />

voriconazol. O documento inclui critério <strong>de</strong> interpretação para os diâmetros <strong>de</strong><br />

halos obtidos com discos <strong>de</strong> fluconazol e valores esperados para cepas-<br />

padrão permitindo verificar a concentração inibitória mínima (NCCLS/CLSI,<br />

2004).<br />

Testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro aos antifúngicos são realizados por<br />

vários sist<strong>em</strong>as comerciais, incluindo, <strong>de</strong>ntre outros, ASTY (Kyokyuto Pharma-<br />

16


Centical, Japão), ATB Fungus 2 (Api-bioMérieux, França), Candifast<br />

(International Microbio, Itália), Etest (AB-Biodisck, Suécia), Fungitest (Bio-Rad,<br />

Farança), Integral Syst<strong>em</strong>s Yeast (Liofilchen Diagnostics, Itália), Mycostandard<br />

(Institut Pasteur, França), Mycototal (Behring Diagnostic, França) e Sensititre<br />

® YeastOne (Trek Diagnostic Syst<strong>em</strong>, EUA) (Arikan & Akova, 1997; Morace et<br />

al. 2002; Bae et al. 2004; Durussel et al. 2004; Lombardi et al. 2004; Carrillo-<br />

Muñoz et al. 2006).<br />

Dentre os sist<strong>em</strong>as comerciais estudados, apenas alguns <strong>de</strong>monstraram<br />

potencial suficiente para se constituir <strong>em</strong> uma alternativa para os laboratórios<br />

assistenciais, como o Sensititre ® YeastOne e o Etest, os quais mostraram boa<br />

reprodutibilida<strong>de</strong> e indiscutível capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>tectar a resistência in vitro<br />

aos azóis, sobretudo ao fluconazol, quando comparados aos métodos <strong>de</strong><br />

macro e microdiluição para leveduras (Lombardi et al. 2004; Carrillo-Muñoz et<br />

al. 2006).<br />

Sensititre ® YeastOne é um método <strong>de</strong> microdiluição <strong>em</strong> caldo baseado<br />

no documento M27-A2, que consiste <strong>de</strong> uma placa <strong>de</strong> microtitulação<br />

<strong>de</strong>scartável, que contém diluições seriadas <strong>de</strong>sidratadas <strong>de</strong> seis agentes<br />

antifúngicos, incluindo anfotericina B, fluconazol, itraconazol, cetoconazol,<br />

voriconazol e 5-fluorocitosina, <strong>em</strong> cavida<strong>de</strong>s individuais. As cavida<strong>de</strong>s contêm<br />

azul <strong>de</strong> Alamar como indicador colorimétrico, o qual melhora a leitura do ponto<br />

<strong>de</strong> corte mediante mudança <strong>de</strong> cor azul para rosa. Os resultados são<br />

expressos <strong>em</strong> CIM e estudos comparativos com os métodos NCCLS/CLSI<br />

mostraram-se concordantes (Chaturvedi et al. 2004).<br />

17


O Etest, método <strong>de</strong> difusão <strong>em</strong> ágar, utiliza uma tira contendo um<br />

gradiente <strong>de</strong> concentração do agente antimicrobiano <strong>em</strong> estudo permitindo a<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminação <strong>de</strong> CIM. Este método é disponível para <strong>de</strong>tectar a CIM <strong>de</strong><br />

anfotericina B, 5-fluorocitosina, cetoconazol, itraconazol, voriconazol,<br />

fluconazol e caspofungina para leveduras dos gêneros Candida e<br />

Cryptococcus e para alguns <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos (Denning et al. 1997; Clancy<br />

& Nguyen, 1999; Fernan<strong>de</strong>s et al. 2003; Costa et al. 2004). Trabalhos<br />

experimentais têm <strong>de</strong>monstrado concordância <strong>de</strong> Etest com os resultados<br />

encontrados pelo NCCLS/CLSI (Hazen et al., 2003; Pfaller et al., 2003).<br />

1.6.1 Resistência aos antifúngicos<br />

Os <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos, como fluconazol e itraconazol, largamente<br />

utilizados para o tratamento <strong>de</strong> candidíase, atuam inibindo a C14α–<br />

<strong>de</strong>metilase, uma citocromo P-450 acarretando o acúmulo <strong>de</strong> esterói<strong>de</strong>s<br />

metilados e diminuição da síntese do ergosterol. Essa enzima inibe a<br />

produção <strong>de</strong> ergosterol, que é o principal constituinte da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular do<br />

fungo, com conseqüente inibição do crescimento celular (Hitchocock et al.<br />

1993; Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche, 1997; Manavathu et al. 1999, Nenoff et al. 1999;<br />

Burgess et al. 2000; Bizarro & Dinis, 2003). Alguns isolados <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> po<strong>de</strong>m<br />

apresentar resistência aos <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos. São conhecidos três<br />

mecanismos <strong>de</strong> resistência aos azólicos. 1- Redução do acúmulo intracelular<br />

do fármaco resultante da utilização reduzida <strong>de</strong>ste agente antifúngico ou do<br />

aumento da efluxo do fármaco <strong>de</strong>vido à ação <strong>de</strong> produtos <strong>de</strong> genes <strong>de</strong><br />

resistência aos antifúngicos, 2- Alteração estrutural da enzima C14α-<br />

18


<strong>de</strong>metilase, resultando <strong>em</strong> uma diminuição na sua ligação aos azólicos, 3-<br />

Aumento da produção <strong>de</strong> 14α-<strong>de</strong>metilase, superando o efeito inibidor dos<br />

azólicos (Nenoff et al. 1999; Gao et al. 2003).<br />

A resistência aos <strong>de</strong>rivados azólicos po<strong>de</strong> ser influenciada pela<br />

imunossupressão dos pacientes e uso prolongado do agente antifúngico<br />

(Yang et al. 2003). O uso freqüente <strong>de</strong> terapia antifúngica <strong>em</strong> pacientes<br />

imunocomprometidos, <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>corrência <strong>de</strong> constantes recidivas <strong>de</strong> candidíase,<br />

é o fator que provavelmente tenha maior influencia na ocorrência <strong>de</strong><br />

resistência a diferentes fármacos e selecionando espécies. Espécies <strong>de</strong><br />

Candida como C. glabrata e C. krusei, têm se mostrado resistentes ao<br />

fluconazol <strong>de</strong>vido ao uso prolongado <strong>de</strong>sse agente antifúngico (Abbas et al.<br />

2000; Kauffman et al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2000; Colombo et al. 2002; Trick et al.<br />

2002). Segundo Barchiesi et al. (2002), pacientes infectados pelo HIV que<br />

faz<strong>em</strong> uso <strong>de</strong> terapia antiretroviral altamente ativa (HAART) freqüent<strong>em</strong>ente<br />

apresentam leveduras na cavida<strong>de</strong> bucal resistentes ao fluconazol.<br />

Há poucos relatos <strong>de</strong> resistência <strong>de</strong> espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida frente ao<br />

voriconazol. Takakura et al. (2004) relataram que 100% dos isolados <strong>de</strong> C.<br />

krusei e 60% <strong>de</strong> outras espécies não-albicans, com baixa suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> ao<br />

fluconazol, foram suscetíveis ao voriconazol.<br />

A anfotericina B pertence à ampla família dos macrolí<strong>de</strong>os poliênicos e<br />

atua ligando-se ao ergosterol da m<strong>em</strong>brana celular fúngica, alterando sua<br />

permeabilida<strong>de</strong> o que acarreta <strong>de</strong>sequilíbrio osmótico, pela perda <strong>de</strong> íons<br />

intracelulares e conseqüent<strong>em</strong>ente lise e morte das células (Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche,<br />

19


1997). A resistência <strong>de</strong> leveduras à anfotericina B é raramente <strong>de</strong>tectada. A<br />

resistência a anfotericina B por isolados <strong>de</strong> C. lusitaniae e C. tropicalis, assim<br />

como <strong>de</strong> alguns <strong>fungos</strong> filamentosos como Trichosporon spp. e Fusarium spp<br />

t<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrita (Van<strong>de</strong>n Bossche, 1997; Godoy et al. 2003; Antunes et al.<br />

2005).<br />

Diferenças na suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, importante característica fenotípica <strong>de</strong> um<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminado patógeno aos agentes terapêuticos, po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>tectada pela<br />

variabilida<strong>de</strong> genética existente entre os isolados (Cirak et al. 2003; Schaller et<br />

al. 2005).<br />

1.7 Métodos moleculares<br />

Várias técnicas <strong>de</strong> tipag<strong>em</strong> molecular têm sido utilizadas para<br />

caracterização <strong>de</strong> diferentes microrganismos produtores <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> no ser<br />

humano (Voss et al. 1995; Lian et al. 2003). Esses procedimentos po<strong>de</strong>m<br />

respon<strong>de</strong>r questões relacionadas à patogênese do fungo, <strong>de</strong>tecção <strong>de</strong><br />

microepi<strong>de</strong>mias, distinção <strong>de</strong> infecção primária ou recidiva, à similarida<strong>de</strong><br />

entre as diferentes cepas e a tentativa <strong>de</strong> relacionar o isolado à fonte <strong>de</strong><br />

infecção (Merz, 1990; Voss et al. 1995; Soll, 2000; Lian et al. 2003).<br />

A caracterização dos isolados <strong>de</strong> leveduras inclui métodos <strong>de</strong> tipag<strong>em</strong><br />

molecular, análise do DNA polimórfico amplificado aleatoricamente (RAPD),<br />

métodos <strong>de</strong> fingerprinting, análise <strong>de</strong> fragmentos <strong>de</strong> DNA gerados por<br />

enzimas <strong>de</strong> restrição (RFLPs) e hibridação por Southern blot do DNA<br />

(Andrigheto et al. 2000; Dassanayake et al. 2000; Ergon & Gülay, 2004).<br />

20


A cariotipag<strong>em</strong> por eletroforese <strong>de</strong> campo pulsado é consi<strong>de</strong>rada útil<br />

<strong>de</strong>vido ao seu alto po<strong>de</strong>r discriminatório, sendo utilizada para diferenciação<br />

intra e interespecífica <strong>de</strong> leveduras, <strong>de</strong>vido a gran<strong>de</strong> varieda<strong>de</strong> no tamanho e<br />

número <strong>de</strong> seus cromossomos (Dassanayake et al. 2000; Cirak et al. 2003).<br />

Dentre as técnicas moleculares, o RAPD t<strong>em</strong> sido usado no estudo da<br />

variabilida<strong>de</strong> entre espécies (Uijthof et al. 1994; Molnár et al. 1996). A<br />

<strong>de</strong>tecção e exploração <strong>de</strong> seqüências <strong>de</strong> polimorfismos <strong>de</strong> DNA ocorridos<br />

naturalmente representam um dos mais significativos <strong>de</strong>senvolvimentos na<br />

biologia molecular. O método RAPD t<strong>em</strong> sido bastante utilizado principalmente<br />

pela vantag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> ser simples e rápido (Tavares et al. 1992).<br />

O RAPD requer uma pequena quantida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> DNA e permite a<br />

visualização <strong>de</strong> um gran<strong>de</strong> número <strong>de</strong> marcas polimórficas. O uso <strong>de</strong> RAPD<br />

t<strong>em</strong>-se mostrado útil nos estudos <strong>de</strong> microrganismos para o quais não se t<strong>em</strong><br />

muita informação genética. A técnica é baseada na amplificação <strong>de</strong><br />

fragmentos não específicos <strong>de</strong> DNA, <strong>em</strong> reações sucessivas <strong>de</strong><br />

polimerização. Como <strong>de</strong>scrito por Williams et al. (1990), os oligonucleotídios<br />

são construídos com seqüências aleatórias, ao contrário da PCR<br />

fingerprinting, revelando polimorfismos <strong>em</strong> toda a extensão do genoma. Tais<br />

polimorfismos são reconhecidos pela presença <strong>de</strong> um fragmento amplificado<br />

<strong>em</strong> um dos genomas <strong>em</strong> relação à ausência <strong>de</strong>sse mesmo fragmento <strong>em</strong><br />

outro.<br />

O <strong>de</strong>senvolvimento da técnica <strong>de</strong> RAPD representou um marco na<br />

caracterização molecular <strong>de</strong> diversos microrganismos, especialmente para<br />

21


i<strong>de</strong>ntificação <strong>de</strong> espécies microbianas, quando pequenas seqüências<br />

genômicas são avaliadas (Ergon & Gülay, 2004; Pinto et al. 2004). A análise<br />

<strong>de</strong> RAPD é projetada para caracterizar isolados <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> uma mesma<br />

espécie (Melo et al. 1998; Cirak et al. 2003) e para enfoques epi<strong>de</strong>miológicos<br />

evi<strong>de</strong>nciando uma relação entre fonte ambiental e manifestações clínicas<br />

(Soll, 2000; Lian et al. 2003). Essa técnica, além <strong>de</strong> gastar menos t<strong>em</strong>po, é <strong>de</strong><br />

fácil aplicabilida<strong>de</strong> e os resultados têm <strong>de</strong>monstrado o alto po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

discriminatório e eficácia (Soll, 2000). A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD t<strong>em</strong> também sido<br />

usada <strong>em</strong> vários estudos <strong>em</strong> que é investigada a relação clonal entre<br />

diferentes espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida obtidas <strong>de</strong> vários espécimes <strong>de</strong> pacientes<br />

hospitalizados <strong>em</strong> diferentes unida<strong>de</strong>s hospitalares, incluindo unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

terapia intensiva (Arif et al. 1996; Hed<strong>de</strong>rwick et al. 2000).<br />

A análise <strong>de</strong> RAPD foi usada por Pinto et al. (2004), para verificar a<br />

variabilida<strong>de</strong> genômica <strong>de</strong> 37 isolados obtidos <strong>de</strong> diferentes regiões do corpo<br />

<strong>de</strong> 11 pacientes imunocomprometidos infectados com o HIV, permitindo<br />

verificar polimorfismo intra e inter específicos entre isolados <strong>de</strong> um mesmo<br />

paciente e entre os isolados <strong>de</strong> diferentes pacientes.<br />

Em experimentos utilizando diferentes materiais clínicos <strong>de</strong> um mesmo<br />

indivíduo, usando RAPD para tipag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> C. albicans isoladas <strong>de</strong> pacientes <strong>de</strong><br />

UTI, Vrion & Matsiota-Bernard (2001) conseguiram estabelecer a natureza<br />

endógena <strong>de</strong> 17 isolados <strong>de</strong>sta espécie. Em isolados clínicos <strong>de</strong> C.<br />

parapsilosis, Dassanayake et al. (2000) observaram através <strong>de</strong> RAPD<br />

variações genéticas intra-espécies, as quais foram verificadas pelos padrões<br />

22


diferentes <strong>de</strong> bandas. Esses experimentos <strong>de</strong>monstram a capacida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sse<br />

método <strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar a epi<strong>de</strong>miologia <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> por Candida.<br />

PCR fingerprinting utiliza oligonucleotí<strong>de</strong>os que são específicos para<br />

seqüências curtas e repetitivas hipervariáveis <strong>de</strong> leveduras, permitindo que<br />

isolados sejam i<strong>de</strong>ntificados com sensibilida<strong>de</strong> suficiente para <strong>de</strong>tectar<br />

diferenças inter e intra espécies (Dassanayake et al. 2000; Meyer et al. 2001).<br />

Esse método, <strong>de</strong>vido à sua eficácia, é usado com freqüência, pois permite<br />

verificar a epi<strong>de</strong>miologia <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong><br />

(Schönian et al. 1993; Dassanayake et al. 2000).<br />

A técnica <strong>de</strong> RFLP é utilizada para caracterizar microrganismos pelos<br />

padrões <strong>de</strong>rivados da clivag<strong>em</strong> <strong>de</strong> seu DNA, cujos comprimentos dos<br />

fragmentos produzidos po<strong>de</strong>m diferir quando o DNA é digerido com diferentes<br />

enzimas <strong>de</strong> restrição. Os padrões <strong>de</strong> bandas gerados po<strong>de</strong>m ser usados para<br />

diferenciar uma espécie <strong>de</strong> outra (Irobi et al. 1999; Mirhendi et al. 2005).<br />

23


2 JUSTIFICATIVA<br />

Como exposto anteriormente, o aumento da incidência das <strong>infecções</strong><br />

fúngicas <strong>nosocomiais</strong> nas últimas décadas, faz com que esse t<strong>em</strong>a seja<br />

abordado por muitos pesquisadores. O registro <strong>de</strong> maior incidência <strong>de</strong>ssas<br />

<strong>infecções</strong> é observado principalmente <strong>em</strong> indivíduos imunocomprometidos,<br />

como pacientes com AIDS, transplantados <strong>de</strong> medula óssea e órgãos sólidos,<br />

nos submetidos à quimioterapia e naqueles que permanec<strong>em</strong> longos períodos<br />

<strong>em</strong> hospitais essencialmente nos pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI (Hazen 1995, Voss et al.<br />

1995). A maior sobrevivência <strong>de</strong>tectada nestes indivíduos induz a aquisição<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> oportunísticas como a candidíase. Em pacientes<br />

imunocomprometidos com granulocitopenia acentuada, há um risco maior <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>infecções</strong> sistêmicas por Candida, como a candi<strong>de</strong>mia (Medrano et al. 2006).<br />

A i<strong>de</strong>ntificação da espécie <strong>de</strong> Candida, nos últimos anos, t<strong>em</strong>-se<br />

mostrado <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> importância, pois t<strong>em</strong> sido verificada uma tendência <strong>de</strong><br />

mudança <strong>de</strong> etiologia da candidíase. Apesar <strong>de</strong> C. albicans ser o agente<br />

etiológico mais comumente i<strong>de</strong>ntificado, espécies não-albicans, têm-se<br />

mostrado predominantes (Brilhante et al. 2005, Menezes et al. 2005). As<br />

<strong>infecções</strong> observadas <strong>em</strong> diferentes casuísticas estudadas <strong>em</strong> pacientes <strong>de</strong><br />

unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva mostram as espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida não-albicans<br />

como responsáveis por altas taxas <strong>de</strong> morbida<strong>de</strong> e mortalida<strong>de</strong> (Aquino et al.<br />

2005).<br />

O tratamento rápido <strong>de</strong> candidíase, provavelmente faz com que diminua<br />

os casos <strong>de</strong> mortalida<strong>de</strong>. A eficácia do agente antifúngico po<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>de</strong>tectada<br />

através da realização prévia <strong>de</strong> testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro, pois há<br />

24


alguns microrganismos que po<strong>de</strong>m ser resistentes aos diferentes antifúngicos.<br />

O teste <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> diluição <strong>em</strong> caldo, preconizado pelo CLSI,<br />

proporciona na maioria das vezes, bons resultados <strong>de</strong> leitura <strong>de</strong> end-point.<br />

T<strong>em</strong> sido <strong>de</strong>scrito que há uma concordância in vitro e in vivo dos resultados<br />

<strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, principalmente quando se refere a <strong>de</strong>tecção <strong>de</strong> resistência.<br />

Há vários fatores que interfer<strong>em</strong> na aquisição <strong>de</strong> candidíase nos<br />

pacientes <strong>de</strong> UTI. Eliminar os fatores endógenos é uma tarefa difícil, mas<br />

fatores exógenos po<strong>de</strong>m perfeitamente ser<strong>em</strong> contornados, o que<br />

provavelmente evitaria vários casos <strong>de</strong> candidíase nosocomial. Sendo assim,<br />

a verificação das características moleculares, usando testes como o RAPD,<br />

que permite diferenciação intra-espécie torna-se <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> valia para o auxílio<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminação <strong>de</strong>ssas fontes exógenas ou endógenas, contribuindo na<br />

prevenção <strong>de</strong> candidíase.<br />

25


3 OBJETIVOS<br />

3.1 Objetivo Geral<br />

I<strong>de</strong>ntificar e caracterizar leveduras do gênero Candida <strong>de</strong> fômites<br />

(cateter, mesa <strong>de</strong> Meyer e cama) e amostras clínicas (sangue e urina) <strong>de</strong><br />

pacientes da unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> terapia intensiva do Hospital das Clínicas da<br />

Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás.<br />

3.2 Objetivos específicos<br />

a. Isolar e i<strong>de</strong>ntificar <strong>fungos</strong> presentes na corrente sangüínea e urina <strong>de</strong><br />

pacientes da UTI.<br />

b. Avaliar a prevalência das espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida presentes na corrente<br />

sangüínea e na urina e <strong>de</strong>tectar os fatores <strong>de</strong> riscos para candi<strong>de</strong>mia e<br />

candidúria <strong>em</strong> pacientes da UTI.<br />

c. Avaliar o padrão <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro <strong>de</strong> amostras <strong>de</strong> Candida<br />

isoladas do sangue dos pacientes frente à anfotericina B, fluconazol,<br />

itraconazol e voriconazol.<br />

d. Analisar os isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans genotipicamente, tentando<br />

correlacionar os padrões <strong>de</strong> DNA obtidos <strong>de</strong> amostras clínicas e<br />

ambientais da Unida<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> Terapia Intensiva.<br />

26


4 PRODUÇÃO CIENTÍFICA<br />

a. ARTIGO 1: Candida colonization in intensive care unit patienst’s urine<br />

b. ARTIGO 2: Species distribution and antifungal susceptibility patterns of<br />

Candida spp. bloodstream isolates from a Brazilian tertiary care hospital<br />

c. ARTIGO 3: Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream of<br />

Candida albicans<br />

d. ARTIGO 4: Nosocomial invasive infection caused by Cunninghamella<br />

bertholletiae: case report<br />

27


4.1 ARTIGO 1: Candida colonization in intensive care unit<br />

patienst’s urine<br />

28


4.2 ARTIGO 2: Species distribution and antifungal susceptibility<br />

patterns of Candida spp. bloodstream isolates from a Brazilian<br />

tertiary care hospital.<br />

33


4.3 ARTIGO 3: Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream<br />

of Candida albicans<br />

41


Molecular epi<strong>de</strong>miological analysis of bloodstream of Candida albicans<br />

Xisto Sena Passos 1 , Werther Souza Sales 2 , Carolina Rodrigues Costa 2 , Janine <strong>de</strong><br />

Aquino L<strong>em</strong>os 2 , Lúcia Kioko Hasimoto e Souza 2 , Keili Souza 2 , Luiz Augusto Pereira 3 ,<br />

Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva 2,4<br />

1 2<br />

Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista, Goiânia, GO; Brazil; Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia e Saú<strong>de</strong> Pública<br />

da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, GO, Brazil, 3 Instituto <strong>de</strong> Ciências Biológicas da<br />

Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás, 4 Rua 15, no. 108 Apto. 700, Setor Oeste, Goiânia,<br />

GO, 74.140-090, Brazil<br />

Summary: Candi<strong>de</strong>mia is generally related to the endogenous flora but exogenous<br />

infection originating from hospital staff or from the environment has been <strong>de</strong>termined<br />

as occurring. The randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method can reveal<br />

strain specific variation. In this work, we used a RAPD assay to assess genetic<br />

diversity among C. albicans isolates in an effort to find the relatedness between DNA<br />

patterns of the strains recovered from clinical and environment samples from the ICU<br />

from the Hospital das Clínicas da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás. The primers<br />

named Cnd3 (5´-CCAGATGCAC-3`) and Cnd4 (5’-ACGGTACACT-3`) were used as<br />

single primers in the PCR. RAPD profiles from blood and urine from the same patient<br />

were i<strong>de</strong>ntical in almost all samples studied, except for one patient. The bed of this<br />

patient had the same genotype from his blood. Although most of C. albicans isolates<br />

probably had had an endogenous origin, the finding of isolates from the patients with<br />

same profile as the environment isolates suggest that the candi<strong>de</strong>mia may be<br />

resulted from an exogenous source.<br />

Key words: Candida albicans, PCR, RAPD, nosocomial infection<br />

Correspon<strong>de</strong>nce:<br />

Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva.<br />

Rua 15, n o . 108 Apto. 700, Setor Oeste. 74.140-090 Goiânia – GO, Brasil. Phone: 55<br />

62 3209-6127; Fax: 55 62 3202-3022. E-mail: rosario@iptsp.ufg.br<br />

42


Introduction<br />

Candida septic<strong>em</strong>ia is consi<strong>de</strong>red as fungal major nosocomial infection and it is<br />

largely associated with a least a 50% mortality rate [1,2,3]. ICU patients are<br />

particularly susceptible to syst<strong>em</strong>ic infection because they are seriously ill and are<br />

subjected to a number of therapeutic and supportive interventions (central venous<br />

catheters, mechanical ventilations and tracheostomy), which breach physiological<br />

barriers to infection [4,5].<br />

Although the yeast species are consi<strong>de</strong>red important nosocomial pathogens,<br />

little is known of their epi<strong>de</strong>miology. Candi<strong>de</strong>mia is generally related to the<br />

endogenous flora but exogenous infection originating from hospital staff or from the<br />

environment has been <strong>de</strong>termined as occurring [5]. In cases in which an exogenous<br />

source is involved, the sanitary measures are mandatory to prevent the cross-<br />

transmission of C. albicans.<br />

Molecular typing syst<strong>em</strong> can be <strong>em</strong>ployed to characterize the pathogen to the<br />

subspecies level or still to <strong>de</strong>termine whether the infections studied are due to same<br />

strain or due to different strains [3,6,7]. The randomly amplified polymorphic DNA<br />

(RAPD) method, that use specific short oligonucleoti<strong>de</strong> primers which can be<br />

arbitrarily primed at multiple positions of the yeast genome, can reveal strain specific<br />

variation. This method has been used to characterize the genetic relations among<br />

Candida species isolates [8,9].<br />

In this work, we used a RAPD assay to assess genetic diversity among C.<br />

albicans isolates in an effort to find the relationship between DNA patterns of the<br />

strains recovered from clinical and environment samples from the ICU from the same<br />

hospital over a period of one year.<br />

43


Materials and Methods<br />

Isolates and patients. A total of 10 C. albicans isolates recovered from blood<br />

specimens of 10 patients of the ICU from a tertiary hospital between March 2004 and<br />

April 2005 were inclu<strong>de</strong>d in this study. Isolates of the same species recovered from<br />

other sources related to these patients such as urine, catheter besi<strong>de</strong>s isolates from<br />

environmental sources as of surface of bed and from Meyer table collected on the<br />

same day were also taken in this study. The sources of isolates studied are related in<br />

table 1.<br />

The isolates were i<strong>de</strong>ntified by conventional sugar assimilation and<br />

fermentation methods and the germ-tube formation and confirmed by the<br />

commercially available API 20C i<strong>de</strong>ntification test (API Laboratory Products Ltd.,<br />

Grafton Way, Basingstoke, Hants, England). All isolates were maintained in sterile<br />

water at – 20 o C and the purity of cultures was ensured by regular i<strong>de</strong>ntification using<br />

standard techniques.<br />

Genotypic characterization<br />

Preparation of DNA for randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD).<br />

Yeasts obtained from stock cultures were sub-cultured on yeast-peptone <strong>de</strong>xtrose<br />

medium (1% yeast extract peptone, 2% glucose, 1.2% agar) at 37 o C for 24 to 48<br />

hours.<br />

Genomic DNA extraction was based on the method <strong>de</strong>scribed by Del Poeta et<br />

al. 1999 [10] modified by Casali et al. 2003 [11]. Briefly, a heavy inoculum of C.<br />

albicans strains grown in YEPD agar (Yeast Extract Peptone Dextrose) were<br />

suspen<strong>de</strong>d in 0.5 ml TENTS (10 mM Tris, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0, 200 mM NaCl,<br />

2% Triton, 1% SDS) containing 0.2 ml of 0.45 mm glass beads and 0.5 ml of<br />

44


phenol:chloroform and vortexed for 2 min. After the centrifugation for 10 min at 13000<br />

g, the aqueous phase transferred to a new tube and the same volume of 100%<br />

ethanol was ad<strong>de</strong>d and incubated at -20 o C for 1 h for DNA precipitation. The<br />

precipitated DNA was resuspen<strong>de</strong>d in 0.5 ml TE (10 mM Tris HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA<br />

pH 8.0) containing 50 µg/mL RNAse A, and incubated at 37 o C for 30 min. The yeast<br />

DNA was <strong>de</strong>proteinated and extracted from the sample by adding equal volume of<br />

phenol and chloroform. Finally, the DNA was precipitated with 70% ethanol and after<br />

dryed, stored at-20 o C in 100 μl of TE buffer until further processing for PCR.<br />

RAPD analysis<br />

The primers named Cnd3 (5´-CCAGATGCAC-3`) and Cnd4 (5’-ACGGTACACT-3`)<br />

were used as single primers in the PCR. Amplifications reactions as <strong>de</strong>scribed by<br />

Ergon & Gülay [12], were performed in volumes of 25 μl including about 25 ng of the<br />

DNA t<strong>em</strong>plate; 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3, 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl, 0.2 mM each of<br />

the dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP and 2.5 U Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen). The<br />

primers were used at a concentration of 30 ng. Amplification was performed in a PCR<br />

MJ Research Thermal Cycler mo<strong>de</strong>l PTC-100 TM programmed for <strong>de</strong>naturation at<br />

94 º C for 3 min; 45 cycles of 1 min at 94 º C, 1 min at 36 º C and 2 min at 72 º C, and<br />

extension at 72 0 C for 7 min. Amplification products were separated by<br />

electrophoresis in 1.2% agarose gel containing 1x tris-borate-EDTA (TBE) buffer,<br />

stained with ethidium bromi<strong>de</strong> at 0.5 μg/ml and visualized un<strong>de</strong>r UV light. All<br />

amplifications were reapeated at least twice.<br />

45


PCR profile analysis<br />

The banding profiles for each isolate were compared visually. Bands were recor<strong>de</strong>d<br />

as present (1) or absent (0). Simple matching´s similarity coefficient (SM) values for<br />

each pair wise comparison between isolates were calculated and a similarity<br />

coefficient matrix was constructed. An SM value of 1.00 represented the same<br />

genotype; SM values between 0.80 and 0.99 represented clonally related isolates<br />

and SM un<strong>de</strong>r 0.80 represented distinct strains [12]. Clonally related isolates are<br />

presented as of the same pattern ad<strong>de</strong>d of ` (e.g. A’ and A’’ for Cnd3 and 1’ and 1’’<br />

for Cnd4).<br />

Results<br />

A total of 31 C. albicans isolates (10 of blood, 9 of urine, 5 of catheter, 4 of Meyer<br />

table and 3 of bed) were submitted to molecular typing using the RAPD method. Both<br />

two primers (Cnd3 and Cnd 4) used in this study were successful in eliciting banding<br />

profiles for each isolate. Amplification products obtained were specific to each primer<br />

and ranged from 4 to 8 bands with fragment size from 350 bp to 2000 bp for Cnd3<br />

and from 3 to 6 bands with fragment size from 300 bp to a 3500 bp for Cnd4. Most of<br />

the major bands were present in all isolates studied and almost all strains had a<br />

conserved fragment: 650 Kb for both primers (Figs 1 and 2).<br />

Both two primers had high discriminatory power. Among 31 C. albicans<br />

isolates, 12 patterns were <strong>de</strong>tected with primer Cnd3 and 14 patterns with Cnd4<br />

(Table 1). The similarity coefficients for Cnd3 between profiles A-L were calculated<br />

and ranged from 28% to 85%. Some strains had closely related patterns. The isolate<br />

7 (A’) had high similarity with the isolates 4, 5 and 6 (A), the isolate 24 (F’) with<br />

isolates 23 and 25 (F) and the isolate 34 (B’) with the isolates 10 and 11 (B). The<br />

46


similarity coefficients for Cnd 4 between the profiles 1-14 ranged from 16 to 80%.<br />

Profiles 1 to 15 were clearly different from 15 previously i<strong>de</strong>ntified.<br />

RAPD profiles from blood and urine from the same patient were i<strong>de</strong>ntical in<br />

almost all sample studied, except for patient 5, where the two clinical samples were<br />

different by using the two primers. However it was observed that the isolate from the<br />

bed of this patient (5) had a similar genotype as the one isolated from his blood.<br />

Another interesting fact was verified with isolates 12 (surface of Meyer table of patient<br />

3) and 40 (bed of patient 8) of C. albicans. These isolates presented had the same<br />

genotype when isolated from blood and urine of their patients. Additionally, it was<br />

<strong>de</strong>tected the same genotype in isolates, 19 (catheter from patient 4), 32 (bed from<br />

patient 6) and 42 (catheter from patient 9)<br />

Discussion<br />

Although nosocomial candi<strong>de</strong>mia constitutes a growing issue, [3] it is quite difficult to<br />

achieve a precise un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of its epi<strong>de</strong>miology. Colonization prece<strong>de</strong>s<br />

candi<strong>de</strong>mia and it is consi<strong>de</strong>red to be an important risk factor in endogenous<br />

infections [13]. Tortorano et al. 2004 [14] showed a previous colonization of the<br />

alimentary tract by the same Candida specie causing funga<strong>em</strong>ia. Candi<strong>de</strong>mia has<br />

been relationship with previous colonization of the urinary tract [15]. Urinary tract<br />

colonization <strong>de</strong>serves consi<strong>de</strong>ration, because it is a common event in hospitalized<br />

patients affecting 6.5-20% of patients [16]. In this work, molecular typing<br />

<strong>de</strong>monstrated that the paired isolates from blood and urine were i<strong>de</strong>ntical for patients<br />

with C. albicans, suggesting an endogenous origin of candi<strong>de</strong>mia.<br />

It is well known that exogenous sources of C. albicans may be involved in the<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment of nosocomial candidiasis [17]. In this study, it was found that strains of<br />

47


C. albicans isolated from the blood of patients 5 and 8 were i<strong>de</strong>nticals to isolated from<br />

surface of their beds. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, i<strong>de</strong>ntical strains were isolated from blood of patient 3<br />

and surface of Meyer table (table 1). These samples from environment were collected<br />

on the same day of blood collection of patients with candi<strong>de</strong>mia. Robert et al. 1995<br />

[18] characterized strains of C. albicans colonized on admission as i<strong>de</strong>ntical to other<br />

patient that was culture negative on admission and acquired the yeast after 25 days,<br />

suggesting cross infection. The epi<strong>de</strong>miology of nosocomial C. albicans isolates<br />

infection is complex and the mechanism by which the patients in our study acquired<br />

their strains r<strong>em</strong>ains not totally clear. However the finding of three isolates from the<br />

blood of patients with the same molecular profile as the ones isolated from the<br />

environment isolates suggest that the candi<strong>de</strong>mia may be resulted from exogenous<br />

source.<br />

Exogenous acquisition of candi<strong>de</strong>mia is also postulated to be associated with<br />

intravascular <strong>de</strong>vices and parenteral nutrition. The candi<strong>de</strong>mia related to catheter has<br />

been suggested by some researchers [19, 20]. The isolates from catheter and blood<br />

of patient 6 had the same genotype, suggesting that the portal of entry of C. albicans<br />

was via the catheter.<br />

Interestingly, molecular typing, <strong>de</strong>monstrated that isolates of catheter from<br />

patient 4 (isolate 19), of bed from patient 6 (isolate 32) and of catheter from patient 9<br />

(isolate 42) also had the same genotypes. These results may infere in cross infection.<br />

It is possible that C. albicans strains recovered in catheter or surface of bed was<br />

arised from hands of hospital coworkers.<br />

The 12 and 14 different patterns presented by primers Cnd3 and Cnd4<br />

respectively, confirm the discriminatory value of RAPD, which is consi<strong>de</strong>red quite<br />

similar to other powerful genotyping methods [3,5]. The RAPD assay using primers<br />

48


Cnd3 and Cnd4 can be an important tool to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the intra-specific genetic<br />

variability among C. albicans isolates.<br />

In conclusion, although candi<strong>de</strong>mia was strongly associated to endogenous<br />

sources as candiduria, it was indicated that catheter, surface of bed and Meyer table<br />

can also be consi<strong>de</strong>red important exogenous sources of infection.<br />

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />

The financial help received by the first author from the Universida<strong>de</strong> Paulista – Brazil.<br />

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albicans in epi<strong>de</strong>miological surveillance of a burn unit. J Clin Microb1995; 33:2366-<br />

2371.<br />

19. Shin JH, Park MR, Song JW, Shin DH, Jung SI, Cho D, Kee SJ, Shin MG, Suh<br />

SP, Ryang DW. Microevolution of Candida albicans strains during catheter-related<br />

candi<strong>de</strong>mia. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:4025-4031.<br />

20. Torturano AM, Kibbler C, P<strong>em</strong>an J, Bernhardt H, Klingspor L, Grillot R.<br />

Candida<strong>em</strong>ia in Europe: epi<strong>de</strong>miology and resistance. Int J Antimicrobiol Agents<br />

2006; 27:359-366.<br />

51


Table 1. Candida albicans isolates recovered from 10 ICU patients with candi<strong>de</strong>mia<br />

and from other clinical and environment materials relationship to these<br />

patients.<br />

Patients<br />

Isolation date<br />

(mo/day/yr)<br />

Isolates Sources of isolates<br />

Genotype (patterns)<br />

Cnd3 Cnd4<br />

1. 09/12/2003 4-112A3E Catheter A 1<br />

09/26/2003 5-112C6E Blood A 1<br />

09/19/2003 6-112B7E Urine A 1<br />

09/23/2003 7-112C1A Meyer table A’ 2<br />

2. 12/18/2003 10-159C6A Blood B 3<br />

12/12/2003 11-159B7A Urine B 3<br />

3. 12/15/2003 12-164A1A Meyer table C 4<br />

12/15/2003 13-164A6A Blood C 4<br />

12/15/2003 14-164A7A Urine C 4<br />

4. 01/06/2004 15-174B1E Meyer table C 4<br />

01/06/2004 17-174B6A Blood D 5<br />

01/06/2004 18-174B7A Urine D 5<br />

01/06/2004 19-174B2A Catheter E 6<br />

5. 05/31/2004 23-231I6A Blood F 7<br />

05/17/2004 24-231G7A Urine F’ 8<br />

05/31/2004 25-231I2E Bed F 7<br />

6. 04/05/2004 30-234A3E Catheter G 9<br />

04/05/2004 31-234F6A Blood G 9<br />

04/05/2004 32-234A2A Bed E 6<br />

7. 08/11/2004 34-280C1E Meyer table B’ 10<br />

08/18/2004 35-280D6A Blood H 11<br />

08/04/2004 36-280B7E Urine H 11<br />

8. 10/29/2004 37-315A6E Blood I 12<br />

11/19/2004 38-315D7E Urine I 12<br />

10/29/2004 39-315A3E Catheter J 12<br />

10/29/2004 40-315A2E Bed I 12<br />

9. 11/10/2004 42-320A3E Catheter E 6<br />

11/10/2004 43-320A6E Blood K 13<br />

11/10/2004 44-320A7A Urine K 13<br />

10. 05/04/2005 45-365B6A Blood L 14<br />

05/04/2005 46-365B7A Urine L 14<br />

52


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MM<br />

Figure1. RAPD Profiles of 31 Candida albicans isolates obtained with primer Cnd3. Profile A (lines 1-3:<br />

catheter, blood and urine related with patient 1); profile A´(line 4: table Meyer related with patient 1);<br />

profile B (lines 5, 6: blood and urine related with patient 2); profile C (lines 7, 8, 9 and 10: table Meyer,<br />

blood and urine related with patient 3 and table Meyer related with patient 4); profile D (lines 11, 12<br />

blood and urine related with patient 4); profile E (lines 13 ,19, 27: catheter related with patient 4, 19<br />

bed related with patient 6, 27 catheter related with patient 9, respectively); profile F (lines 14, 16: blood<br />

and bed related with patient 5); profile F’ (line 15: urine related with patient 5); profile G (lines 17, 18:<br />

catheter and blood related with patient 6); profile H (lines 21, 22: blood and urine related with patient<br />

7); profile I (lines 23, 24, 26: blood, urine and bed related with patient 8); profile J (line 25: catheter<br />

related with patient 8); profile K (lines 28, 29: blood and urine related with patient 9), and profile L<br />

(lines 30, 31: blood and urine related with patient 10).<br />

53<br />

12000<br />

5000<br />

2000<br />

1650<br />

1000<br />

850<br />

650<br />

500<br />

400


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MM<br />

Figure 2. RAPD Profiles of 31 Candida albicans isolates obtained with primer Cnd4. Profile 1 (lines 1,<br />

2, 3: catheter, blood and urine related with patient 1), profile 2 (line 4: Meyer table related with patient<br />

1); profile 3 (lines 5, 6: blood and urine related with patient 2); profile 4 (lines 7, 8, 9 and 10: Meyer<br />

table, blood and urine related with patient 3 and Meyer table related with patient 4); profile 5 (lines 11,<br />

12: blood and urine related with patient 4), profile 6 (line 13, 19, 27: catheter related with patient 4, bed<br />

related with patient 6; catheter related with patient 9, respectively); profile 7 (lines 14, 16: blood and<br />

bed related with patient 5), profile 8 (line 15: urine related with patient 5); profile 9 (lines 17, 18:<br />

catheter and blood related with patient 6); profile 10 (line 20: Meyer table related with patient 7); profile<br />

11 (lines 21, 22: blood and urine related with patient 7); profile 12 (lines 23, 24, 25, 26 blood, urine,<br />

catheter and bed related with patient 8); profile 13 ( lines 28, 29: blood and urine related with patient<br />

9); and profile 14 (lines 30, 31: blood and urine related with patient 10).<br />

54<br />

12000<br />

5000<br />

2000<br />

1650<br />

1000<br />

850<br />

650<br />

500<br />

400<br />

300


4.4 ARTIGO 4: Nosocomial invasive infection caused by<br />

Cunninghamella bertholletiae: case report<br />

55


5 CONCLUSÕES<br />

1. Foi observada uma elevada freqüência <strong>de</strong> candidúria <strong>em</strong> pacientes da UTI<br />

(44,4%).<br />

2. Candidúria e candi<strong>de</strong>mia po<strong>de</strong>m ser adquiridas após um longo período <strong>de</strong><br />

internação.<br />

3. Espécies <strong>de</strong> Candida não-albicans estavam presentes no sangue e urina<br />

com um percentual elevado.<br />

4. A ativida<strong>de</strong> in vitro <strong>de</strong> voriconazol foi maior do que a do itraconazol,<br />

fluconazol e anfotericina B, sugerindo que voriconazol po<strong>de</strong> ser o azólico<br />

mais efetivo no tratamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> por Candida na corrente<br />

sangüínea.<br />

5. O encontro <strong>de</strong> isolados resistentes a diferentes antifúngicos mostra a<br />

importância do uso dos testes <strong>de</strong> suscetibilida<strong>de</strong> in vitro para a terapia<br />

a<strong>de</strong>quada.<br />

6. O ensaio <strong>de</strong> RAPD usando os primers Cnd3 e Cnd4 po<strong>de</strong>m ser uma<br />

ferramenta importante para i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a variabilida<strong>de</strong> genética intra-<br />

específica entre isolados <strong>de</strong> C. albicans.<br />

7. A possível fonte <strong>de</strong> transmissão ambiental <strong>de</strong> candidíase encontrada <strong>em</strong><br />

três casos justifica a importância <strong>de</strong> maiores cuidados na UTI para evitar a<br />

transmissão da infecção.<br />

8. O achado <strong>de</strong> infecção por C. bertholletiae causando fung<strong>em</strong>ia <strong>em</strong> pacientes<br />

imunocomprometidos foi muito importante, porque este microrganismo é<br />

normalmente um contaminante. Este achado mostra que t<strong>em</strong> que se ter um<br />

gran<strong>de</strong> cuidado no isolamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> não usualmente causadores <strong>de</strong><br />

infecção.<br />

59


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7 ANEXOS<br />

7.1 Normas para publicação na revista Medical Mycology –<br />

Instructions to Authors (Artigo 3)<br />

The official publication of the International Society for Human and<br />

Animal Mycology, Medical Mycology is an international journal which<br />

focuses on original and innovative studies of all aspects of medical,<br />

veterinary and environmental mycology. The topics inclu<strong>de</strong>, but are not<br />

limited to mycological, bioch<strong>em</strong>ical and molecular investigations of<br />

etiological agents of mycoses; aspects of pathogenesis, immunology,<br />

and epi<strong>de</strong>miology of mycotic diseases; case reports of unusual medical<br />

or veterinary fungal infections; laboratory approaches to the i<strong>de</strong>ntification<br />

of fungal pathogens, antifungal therapy and prophylaxis; mo<strong>de</strong> of action,<br />

pharmacokinetics and assessments of new antifungal agents;<br />

investigations of the mycological aspects of the indoor environment, with<br />

a focus on human and animal health. The aim of the journal is to present<br />

the best scientific reports from throughout the world and in so doing to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> a comprehensive reference base for medical mycologists,<br />

microbiologists, clinicians, and environ-mental specialists.<br />

Further information about the Journal including links to the online<br />

sample copy, contents pages and copyright assignment form can be<br />

found on the Journal homepage.<br />

79


Please note that you and your co-authors in submitting this<br />

manuscript are confirming that all authors have (a) ma<strong>de</strong> a substantial<br />

contribution to the information or material submitted for publication, (b)<br />

read and approved the final manuscript, and (c) no direct or indirect<br />

financial incentive associated with publishing the article. In addition, by<br />

submitting your work, you and your co-authors are stipulating that the<br />

manuscript is not, either in whole or in part, currently un<strong>de</strong>r consi<strong>de</strong>ration<br />

by any other scientific journal or has been previously published in either<br />

hard copy or electronic format.<br />

Types of Papers<br />

Original papers. These may be of any length, but must have; (a) a<br />

Cover-Page listing all authors and their affiliations and contact<br />

information for the corresponding author, (b) a separate page for a<br />

Summary, (c) text consisting of Introduction, Materials & Methods,<br />

Results, and Discussion, (d) References, (e) Tables with footnoted<br />

<strong>de</strong>scriptions of all abbreviations contained in the table, and (f) Figures,<br />

with appropriate figure legends allowing a rea<strong>de</strong>r to un<strong>de</strong>rstand their<br />

content without reference to the text. Manuscripts should be in English,<br />

double-spaced, in no less than size 12 font. Pages should be numbered<br />

consecutively, beginning with the cover-page. References are to be<br />

80


numbered, in brackets, e.g., [1], in or<strong>de</strong>r of their citation in the text and<br />

listed in the Reference section by their appearance in the text.<br />

Reviews. Authors must first electronically submit an outline of their<br />

proposed article for evaluation by the Editor. The outline should be no<br />

more than two, double-spaced pages in 12 font, in which the authors<br />

<strong>de</strong>scribe the objectives and contents of the report. The outline must be<br />

submitted to the Reviews Editor, Francoise Dromer: dromer@pasteur.fr.<br />

Once the proposal has been evaluated, the authors will be informed of<br />

the results of the Review Editor’s initial consi<strong>de</strong>ration of their proposal.<br />

NOTE - the journal does NOT accept uncommisioned reviews for<br />

publication.<br />

Case Reports. Such articles must make a distinct, novel contribution to<br />

the un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the etiologic agents, its clinical manifestations,<br />

and/or its treatment. They should NOT be based merely on the first<br />

inci<strong>de</strong>nce of a known cosmopolitan or wi<strong>de</strong>ly distributed etiologic agent in<br />

the nations of the authors’ resi<strong>de</strong>nce. Reports of unusual etiologic agents<br />

MUST be substantiated with a living culture <strong>de</strong>posited in an<br />

internationally recognized professional culture collection, <strong>de</strong>fined as a<br />

collection that has full-time staff <strong>de</strong>dicated to receiving, preserving and<br />

shipping of culture cultures. Manuscripts MUST be in English and<br />

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prepared as is an original article, EXCEPT that the text should consist of<br />

an Introduction, Case Report and Discussion.<br />

Short Communications. These manuscripts are to provi<strong>de</strong> an<br />

opportunity for the presentation of preliminary or brief observations that<br />

do not warrant a full paper. The manuscript should be prepared as is an<br />

original article, except they may be no more than 10 double-spaced<br />

pages in no less than size 12 font (including cover-page, abstract, text,<br />

references, and tables/figures).<br />

Letters. Letters to the Editor are inten<strong>de</strong>d to provi<strong>de</strong> an opportunity to<br />

discuss issues related to previous published original articles, case<br />

reports or short communications and should not be used for the<br />

presentation of the authors’ preliminary data from their own<br />

investigations. Letters should be no more than 2 double-spaced pages, in<br />

no less than size 12 font, including references.<br />

Submission of manuscripts<br />

All submissions to this journal should be ma<strong>de</strong> via the Manuscript<br />

Central site: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tmmy. Users who have not<br />

used the site before must create an account from the link on the login<br />

page. Assistance with this and all other areas of the site are available in<br />

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the User Gui<strong>de</strong>, which is accessed via the ‘Get Help Now’ button at the<br />

top right of all Manuscript Central web pages.<br />

Preparation of manuscripts<br />

1. Manuscripts must be written in English and submitted as a Word for<br />

Windows (PC) file.<br />

2. Manuscripts must be prepared in 12pt font with one (1) inch<br />

margins all around and double spaced.<br />

3. Papers should be organized as follows: Full title and Short title;<br />

Name(s) and affiliations of author(s); Full postal address, telephone<br />

and fax numbers, and <strong>em</strong>ail address for the corresponding author;<br />

Summary (maximum 200 words); Keywords (up to five); Introduction;<br />

Materials and Methods; Results; Discussion (as appropriate to the<br />

article); Acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ents; References; Tables; Figure captions.<br />

4. Statistics and measur<strong>em</strong>ents should be given in numerals when<br />

followed by a unit (e.g., 2 mg but two patients). SI units must be used.<br />

5. Abbreviations should be <strong>de</strong>fined when first used in the text.<br />

References<br />

Use the Vancouver syst<strong>em</strong> in preparing the references. They should<br />

be numbered sequentially in the or<strong>de</strong>r in which they first appear in the<br />

text. References should be cited in the text within brackets. e.g., [1]. In<br />

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preparing your reference list, please note that works with six (6) or more<br />

authors should be cited by the names of the first three (3) authors, with<br />

the r<strong>em</strong>aining authors inclu<strong>de</strong>d by et al. Journal names must be<br />

abbreviated without the use of periods and should be in italic font. The<br />

journal number should be in bold font and issue numbers should not be<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>d. In addition, inclu<strong>de</strong> all page numbers of the citations. The<br />

following examples illustrate the correct style for the different types of<br />

references:<br />

1. Journal article<br />

Author AB, Author CD, Author EF, et al. [if six or more] Title of paper. J<br />

Title Abbrev 1995; 00: 000-000.<br />

2. Book chapter<br />

Author AB, Author CD, Author EF, et al. [if six or more] Chapter title. In:<br />

Editor AB, Editor CD, eds. Book Title With Initial Uppercase Letters, 5th<br />

edn. Place: Publisher, 1995: 000-000.<br />

3. Book<br />

Author AB, Author CD (eds). Book Title With Initial Uppercase Letters,<br />

5th edn. Place: Publisher, 1995.<br />

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4. Thesis<br />

Author AB. Paper title with lowercase initials to all words. PhD thesis,<br />

University, 1995.<br />

5. Conference proceedings<br />

Author AB. Paper title. In: Editor AB, ed. Proceedings Title, place, date.<br />

Place: publisher, 1995: 000-000 (for abstracts the abstract number<br />

should be cited instead of the page number).<br />

6. Personal communications, Unpublished results etc References to<br />

personal communications, unpublished results and papers submitted for<br />

publication (but not yet accepted) should only appear in the text, and in<br />

the following form: [A. B. Author, unpublished results]. [C. D. Author,<br />

personal communication].<br />

7. Journal article on the Internet<br />

Abood S. Quality improv<strong>em</strong>ent initiative in nursing homes: the ANA acts<br />

in an advisory role. Am J Nurs [serial on the Internet]. 2002 Jun [cited<br />

2002 Aug 12];102(6):[about3 p.]. Available from:<br />

<br />

85


8. Monograph on the Internet<br />

Foley KM, Gelband H, editors. Improving palliative care for cancer<br />

[monograph on the Internet]. Washington: National Aca<strong>de</strong>my Press; 2001<br />

[cited 2002 Jul 9]. Available from:<br />

<br />

9. Homepage/Web site<br />

Cancer-Pain.org [homepage on the Internet].<br />

New York: Association of Cancer Online Resources, Inc.; c2000-01<br />

[updated 2002 May 16; cited 2002 Jul 9]. Available from:<br />

<br />

10. Part of a homepage/Web site<br />

American Medical Association [homepage on the Internet]. Chicago: The<br />

Association; c1995-2002 [updated 2001 Aug 23; cited 2002 Aug 12].<br />

AMA Office of Group Practice Liaison; [about 2 screens]. Available from:<br />

<br />

11. Database on the Internet<br />

Open database:<br />

Who’s Certified [database on the Internet]. Evanston (IL): The American<br />

Board of Medical Specialists. c2000-[cited 2001 Mar 8]. Available from:<br />

<br />

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Closed database:<br />

Jablonski S. Online Multiple Congential Anomaly/Mental Retardation<br />

(MCA/MR) Syndromes [database on the Internet]. Bethesda (MD):<br />

National Library of Medicine (US). c1999 [updated 2001 Nov 20; cited<br />

2002 Aug 12]. Available from:<br />

<br />

12. Part of a database on the InternetMeSH Browser [database on the<br />

Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2002-[cited<br />

2003 Jun 10]. Meta-analysis; unique ID: D015201; [about 3 p.]. Available<br />

from:<br />

Files updated weekly.<br />

Tables<br />

Tables should be numbered according to their sequence in the text;<br />

all tables should be referred to in the text. Each table should be supplied<br />

on a separate sheet, never within the body of the text. The table heading<br />

should be brief and self explanatory. Column headings should be brief<br />

and inclu<strong>de</strong> units in parentheses where applicable. Only horizontal rules<br />

should be used.<br />

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Figures<br />

Graphics must be submitted as JPEG, GIF or BMP files. Scanned<br />

images should be of a sufficient resolution: 300 dpi for halftones/color;<br />

500 dpi for combination halftones; 1000–1200 dpi for line art. Illustrations<br />

should be submitted separate from the manuscript text file, either as<br />

individual files or together in a single file. The journal has a limited<br />

number of free colour pages within its annual page allowance. Authors<br />

should consult the editorial office with respect to colour reproduction at<br />

submission stage. Authors may be required to pay to guarantee colour<br />

reproduction. Any figure submitted as a colour original may appear in<br />

colour within the journal’s online edition.<br />

Nomenclature<br />

Proposals for names of new taxa of fungi must conform with the<br />

requir<strong>em</strong>ents of the current International Co<strong>de</strong> of Botanical<br />

Nomenclature, as should the scientific names used for fungi. Binomials<br />

should appear in italic; each must be spelt out in full at first mention in<br />

both the abstract and text (thereafter, the generic name may be<br />

appropriately abbreviated) and whenever used in the titles of figures and<br />

tables.<br />

88


Animals in research<br />

Manuscripts containing information related to the experimental use<br />

of animals must clearly state that the studies complied with relevant<br />

professional and institutional animal welfare policies. Specifically, that<br />

procedures involving animals conformed to the ILAR Gui<strong>de</strong> for the Care<br />

and Use of<br />

Laboratory Animals (1996 and later editions) of the Institute of<br />

Laboratory Animal Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National<br />

Research Council (http://www.nap.edu/catalog/5140.html).<br />

Disclosures of potential conflicts of interest<br />

Authors of research articles should disclose at the time of<br />

submission any financial arrang<strong>em</strong>ent they may have with a company<br />

whose product is pertinent to the manuscript or with a company making a<br />

competing product. Such information will be held in confi<strong>de</strong>nce while the<br />

paper is un<strong>de</strong>r review and will not influence the editorial <strong>de</strong>cision, but if<br />

the article is accepted for publication, a disclosure stat<strong>em</strong>ent will appear<br />

in the journal. The intent of this policy is not to prevent authors with these<br />

relationships from publishing work, but rather to adopt transparency such<br />

that rea<strong>de</strong>rs can make objective judg<strong>em</strong>ents on conclusions drawn.<br />

89


Authorship contributions<br />

Contributions must be substantial in or<strong>de</strong>r to warrant authorship.<br />

Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take<br />

public responsibility for the content. All other contributors should be listed<br />

in the acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ents.<br />

Electronic proofs<br />

When proofs are ready, corresponding authors will receive e-mail<br />

notification with a password and Web address from which to download a<br />

PDF. Hard copies of proofs will not be mailed. To avoid <strong>de</strong>lays in<br />

publication, corrections to proofs must be returned within 48 hours, by<br />

electronic transmittal, fax or mail.<br />

Offprints<br />

Corresponding authors will receive either fifty printed offprints or a<br />

PDF of the final version of the paper. Preferences should be stipulated<br />

when returning proofs.<br />

Copyright<br />

It is a condition of publication that authors assign copyright or licence<br />

the publication rights in their articles, including abstracts, to ISHAM. This<br />

enables us to ensure full copyright protection and to diss<strong>em</strong>inate the<br />

90


article, and the journal, to the wi<strong>de</strong>st possible rea<strong>de</strong>rship in print and<br />

electronic formats as appropriate. Authors may, of course, use the article<br />

elsewhere after publication without prior permission from Informa UK<br />

Ltd., provi<strong>de</strong>d that acknowledg<strong>em</strong>ent is given to the journal as the<br />

original source of publication, and that Informa Healthcare is notified so<br />

that our records show that its use is properly authorised. Authors retain a<br />

number of other rights un<strong>de</strong>r the Informa UK Ltd. rights policies<br />

documents. These policies are referred to at the Copyright FAQs page.<br />

91


7.2 Protocolo do CEPMHA/HC/UFG<br />

92


7.3 Termo <strong>de</strong> consentimento livre e esclarecido<br />

Você está sendo convidado (a) para participar, com voluntário, <strong>em</strong> uma<br />

pesquisa intitulada “<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong><br />

<strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong>”. Após ser esclarecido (a) sobre as informações a<br />

seguir, no caso <strong>de</strong> aceitar fazer parte do estudo, assine ao final <strong>de</strong>ste<br />

documento, que está <strong>em</strong> duas vias. Uma <strong>de</strong>las é sua e a outra é do<br />

pesquisador responsável. Em caso <strong>de</strong> recusa você não será penalizado (a) <strong>de</strong><br />

forma alguma. Se aceitar participar e <strong>de</strong>cidir retirar seu consentimento, não<br />

será prejudicado <strong>em</strong> seu tratamento. Em caso <strong>de</strong> dúvida sobre a pesquisa,<br />

você po<strong>de</strong>rá entrar <strong>em</strong> contato com o pesquisador responsável Ms. Xisto<br />

Sena Passos nos telefones: 3255-9858 / 9972-4158.<br />

INFORMAÇÕES SOBRE A PESQUISA<br />

“<strong>Caracterização</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>fungos</strong> <strong>envolvidos</strong> <strong>em</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> <strong>nosocomiais</strong>”.<br />

PESQUISADORES PARTICIPANTES<br />

Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva – Investigadora responsável<br />

Fone: (0XX62) 3209-6127<br />

Ms. Xisto Sena Passos – Biólogo / Pesquisador<br />

Fones: (0XX62) 3209-6127 / 3255-9858 / 9972-4158<br />

OBJETIVO DO ESTUDO<br />

Será avaliado um gran<strong>de</strong> grupo <strong>de</strong> pacientes, os quais se encontram<br />

internados na UTI do Hospital das Clínicas da Universida<strong>de</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Goiás,<br />

durante o período <strong>de</strong> fevereiro <strong>de</strong> 2003 a <strong>de</strong>z<strong>em</strong>bro <strong>de</strong> 2004.<br />

Provavelmente você já <strong>de</strong>ve ter ouvido falar <strong>em</strong> micose. Esta doença é<br />

causada por <strong>fungos</strong> que produz<strong>em</strong> lesões na pele ou <strong>em</strong> qualquer parte do<br />

96


organismo humano, através <strong>de</strong>ste estudo o responsável pelo paciente terá<br />

acesso aos exames laboratoriais que ajudará o médico a tratá-la.<br />

Neste trabalho, após a <strong>de</strong>vida i<strong>de</strong>ntificação e caracterização do fungo,<br />

será realizado um teste, chamado suscetibilida<strong>de</strong>, no qual será verificado a<br />

sensibilida<strong>de</strong> do fungo isolado frente a três medicamentos, anfotericina B,<br />

itraconazol e fluconazol.<br />

Através das informações obtidas no laboratório e com ajuda do médico,<br />

nós tentar<strong>em</strong>os controlar melhor a doença e possivelmente evitar que outros<br />

indivíduos a adquiram.<br />

CONDUÇÃO DO ESTUDO<br />

O paciente será submetido inicialmente à colheita <strong>de</strong> sangue e urina, pelo<br />

profissional responsável pela UTI, assim que for internado.<br />

Durante a permanência do paciente na UTI serão realizadas colheitas <strong>de</strong><br />

sangue e urina a cada sete dias. O material coletado será levado para o<br />

laboratório <strong>de</strong> Micologia do Instituto <strong>de</strong> Patologia Tropical e Saú<strong>de</strong> Publica da<br />

UFGO, on<strong>de</strong> será submetido a exame micológico.<br />

Estes exames não serão pagos pelo paciente.<br />

PARTICIPAÇÃO AUTORIZADA<br />

Participar <strong>de</strong>ste estudo será uma <strong>de</strong>cisão autorizada pela responsável e<br />

este po<strong>de</strong>rá se recusar a participar ou <strong>de</strong>sistir <strong>de</strong>ste estudo a qualquer<br />

momento, s<strong>em</strong> explicar o porquê.<br />

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PACIENTES PARTICIPANTES DO ESTUDO<br />

Neste estudo serão incluídos todos os pacientes (autorizados), que<br />

apresentar<strong>em</strong> características ou não <strong>de</strong> fung<strong>em</strong>ia internados na UTI do<br />

Hospital das Clínicas da UFGO.<br />

RISCOS<br />

Não há riscos para o paciente. Nenhum tipo <strong>de</strong> medicamento será<br />

utilizado por nós.<br />

Para colheita do material, o paciente não será maltratado. A colheita do<br />

sangue e da urina, não implicará <strong>em</strong> mal estar para o paciente.<br />

BENEFÍCIOS<br />

O estudo realizado por nós possivelmente contribuirá enorm<strong>em</strong>ente para<br />

a redução <strong>de</strong> <strong>infecções</strong> nos hospitais por <strong>fungos</strong>.<br />

CONFIDENCIALIDADE<br />

Se o responsável concordar com a participação do paciente, as<br />

informações clínicas e laboratoriais relacionadas ao paciente serão<br />

confi<strong>de</strong>ncialmente mantidas <strong>em</strong> sigilo o t<strong>em</strong>po todo, n<strong>em</strong> o nome ou mesmo<br />

iniciais irão constar <strong>em</strong> qualquer registro nesta pesquisa. O Comitê <strong>de</strong> Ética<br />

po<strong>de</strong>rá necessitar ter acesso aos seus registros médicos para verificação dos<br />

formulários <strong>de</strong> estudo, no entanto, sua i<strong>de</strong>ntida<strong>de</strong> será mantida <strong>em</strong> sigilo<br />

absoluto.<br />

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RESPONSÁVEL<br />

Este estudo será conduzido por:<br />

Dra. Maria do Rosário Rodrigues Silva pelo fone (0XX62) 3209-6127.<br />

(Investigadora responsável)<br />

Ms. Xisto Sena Passos pelo fone (0XX62) 209-6127(Biólogo / Pesquisador)<br />

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