Bestand (1.6 MB) - VVOG

Bestand (1.6 MB) - VVOG Bestand (1.6 MB) - VVOG

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252 De concentraties ervan in moedermelk zijn laag. Om de blootstelling zo laag mogelijk te houden, wordt vier uur wachten met borstvoeding na inname aanbevolen. Indien hoge dosissen gebruikt worden, is bijnierinsufficiëntie bij de zuigeling mogelijk na beëindigen van de borstvoeding. Thiopurines zijn waarschijnlijk veilig, wegens de lage concentraties die in moedermelk gemeten zijn. Ook TNFremmers worden als waarschijnlijk veilig ingeschat. Ze zijn in zeer lage concentraties of in het geheel niet in moedermelk terug te vinden, al zijn de bestaande gegevens hierover beperkt (44). Sperma en immunosuppressie Sommige immunosuppressiva hebben een invloed op de mannelijke fertiliteit, al zijn de gegevens hierover schaars. Er bestaan verschillende oudere meldingen van omkeerbare onvruchtbaarheid bij gebruik van sulfasalazine, als gevolg van oligospermie, verminderde beweeglijkheid en morfologische afwijkingen (45-47). Stopzetting van sulfasalazine en overschakelen naar mesalazine herstelt de spermakwaliteit (48). Azathioprine lijkt geen invloed te hebben op parameters van de spermakwaliteit (49). Gebruik van infliximab vergroot het semenvolume en toont een trend van verminderde beweeglijkheid (50). Algemeen Séverine Vermeire concludeert dat voorafgaand aan de conceptie ziekteremissie bij inflammatoire darmziekten zeer wenselijk is. Overleg met de patiënte is vereist over de noodzaak van geneesmiddelen tijdens de zwangerschap om remissie te behouden. Zo mogelijk geniet monotherapie de voorkeur boven cumulatie van verschillende behandelingen. Voedingstekorten, zoals tekorten van foliumzuur, vitamine B12, ijzer en vitamine D, dienen opgespoord te worden. In afwachting van zwangerschap is foliumzuursuppletie nuttig. Tijdens de zwangerschap is opvolging om de acht tot twaalf weken aan te bevelen, met labtests in het geval van behandeling met azathioprine of TNF-remmers. Therapie met anti-TNF wordt best gestopt in de 20ste tot 22ste zwangerschapsweek. In samenspraak met de patiënte kan de geschiktste manier van bevallen gekozen worden. Een sectio is in het bijzonder te overwegen bij perianale ziekte van Crohn of de aanwezigheid van een anale anastomose via een ileale pouch (IPAA). In overleg met de patiënte kan na de bevalling besproken worden welke geneesmiddelen opnieuw gestart worden en of aan borstvoeding gedacht wordt. Aandacht voor nieuwe ziekteopflakkeringen in de weken na de bevalling is nodig. Referenties 1. Hench PS. The ameliorating effect of pregnancy on chronic atropic (infectious rheumatoid) arthritis, fibrositis and intermittenshydarthrosis. Mayo Clin Proc 1938; 13: 161-7. 2. Ostensen M, Aune B, Husby G. Effect of pregnancy and hormonal changes on the activity of rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1983;12(2):69-72. GUNAIKEIA ■ VOL 15 Nr 7 ■ 2010 3. Nelson JL, Hughe KA, Smith AG, Nisperos BB, Branchaud AM, Hansen JA. Maternalfetal disparity in HLA class II alloantigens and the pregnancy-induced amelioration of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 1993;329(7):466-71. 4. Klipple GL, Cecere FA. Rheumatoid arthritis and pregnancy. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1989;15(2):213-39. 5. Barrett JH, Brennan P, Fiddler M, Silman A. Breast-feeding and postpartum relapse in women with rheumatoid and inflammatory arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43(5):1010-5. 6. Silman AJ. Parity status and the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992;28(3-4):228-30. 7. Lansink M, de Boer A, Dijkmans BA, Vandenbroucke JP, Hazes JM. The onset of rheumatoid arthritis in relation to pregnancy and childbirth. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1993;11(2):171-4. 8. Nelson JL, Ostensen M. Pregnancy and rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1997;23(1):195-212. 9. Hazes JM, Dijkmans BA, Vandenbroucke JP, de Vries RR, Cats A. Pregnancy and the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33(12):1770-5. 10. Spector TD, Roman E, Silman AJ. The pill, parity, and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33(6):782-9. 11. Drossaers-Bakker KW, Zwinderman AH, van Zeben D, Breedveld FC, Hazes JM. Pregnancy and oral contraceptive use do not significantly influence outcome in long term rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2002;61(5):405-8. 12. de Man YA, Dolhain RJ, van de Geijn FE, Willemsen SP, Hazes JM. Disease activity of rheumatoid arthritis during pregnancy: results from a nationwide prospective study. Arthritis Rheum 2008;59(9):1241-8. 13. Confavreux C, Hutchinson M, Hours MM, Cortinovis-Tourniaire P, Moreau T. Rate of pregnancy-related relapse in multiple sclerosis. Pregnancy in Multiple Sclerosis Group. N Engl J Med 1998;339(5):285-91. 14. de Man YA, Hazes JM, van der Heide H, et al. Association of higher rheumatoid arthritis disease activity during pregnancy with lower birth weight: results of a national prospective study. Arthritis Rheum 2009;60(11):3196-206. 15. Murase JE, Chan KK, Garite TJ, Cooper DM, Weinstein GD. Hormonal effect on psoriasis in pregnancy and post partum. Arch Dermatol 2005;141(5):601-6. 16. Ben-David G, Sheiner E, Hallak M, Levy A. Pregnancy outcome in women with psoriasis. J Reprod Med 2008;53(3):183-7. 17. Seeger JD, Lanza LL, West WA, Fernandez C, Rivero E. Pregnancy and pregnancy outcome among women with inflammatory skin diseases. Dermatology 2007;214(1):32-9. 18. Whitacre CC. Sex differences in autoimmune disease. Nat Immunol 2001;2(9):777-80. 19. Whitacre CC, Reingold SC, O’Looney PA. A gender gap in autoimmunity. Science 1999;283(5406):1277-8. 20. Sakaguchi S. Naturally arising Foxp3-expressing CD25+CD+ regulatory T cells in immunological tolerance to self and non-self. Nat Immunol 2005;6(4):345-52. 21. Girardi G, Bulla R, Salmon JE, Tedesco F. The complement system in the pathofysiology of pregnancy. Mol Immunol 2006;43(1-2):68-77. 22. Tsampalas M, Gridelet V, Berndt S, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin: a hormone with immunological and angiogenic properties. J Reprod Immunol 2010;85(1):93-8. 23. Schumacher A, Brachwitz N, Sohr S, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin attracts regulatory T cells into the fetal-maternal interface during early human pregnancy. J Immunol 2009;182(9):5488-97. 24. Malek A, Sager R, Kuhn P, Nicolaides KH, Schneider H. Evolution of maternofetal transport of immunoglobulins during human pregnancy. Am J Reprod Immunol 1996;36(5):248-55. 25. Roopenian DC, Akilesh S. FcRn: the neonatal Fc receptor comes of age. Nat Rev Immunol 2007;7(9):715-25. 26. Martin PL, Oneda S, Treacy G. Effects of an anti-TNF-alpha monoclonal antibody, administered throughout pregnancy and lactation, on the development of the macaque immune system. Am J Reprod Immunol 2007;58(2):138-49. 27. Dubinsky M, Abraham B, Mahadevan U. Management of the pregnant IBD patient. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008;14(12):1736-50. 28. Cornish J, Tan E, Teare J, et al. A meta-analysis on the influence of inflammatory bowel disease on pregnancy. Gut 2007;56(6):830-7. 29. Polifka JE, Friedman JM. Teratogen update: azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine. Teratology 2002;65(5):240-61. 30. Alstead EM, Ritchie JK, Lennard-Jones JE, Farthing MJ, Clark ML. Safety of azathioprine in pregnancy in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1990;99(2):443-6. 31. Francella A, Dyan A, Bodian C, Rubin P, Chapman M, Present DH. The safety of 6-mercaptopurine for childbearing patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a retrospective cohort study. Gastroenterology 2003;124(1):9-17. 32. Khan ZH, Mayberry JF, Spiers N, Wicks AC. Retrospective case series analysis of patients with inflammatory bowel disease on azathioprine. A district general hospital experience. Digestion 2000;62(4):249-54. 33. Moskovitz DN, Bodian C, Chapman ML, et al. The effect on the fetus of medications used to treat pregnant inflammatory bowel-disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99(4):656-61. 34. Langagergaard V, Pedersen L, Gislum M, Nørgard B, Sørensen HT. Birth outcome in women treated with azathioprine or mercaptopurine during pregnancy: A Danish nationwide cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;25(1):73-81. 35. De Boer NK, Jarbandhan SV, de Graaf P, et al. Azathioprine use during pregnancy: unexpected intrauterine exposure to metabolites. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101(6):1390-2. 36. Coelho J, Beaugerie L, Colombel JF, et al. Pregnancy outcome in patients with inflammatory bowel disease treated with thiopurines: cohort from the CESAME study. JCC 2009;3(1):S70. P149. 37. Lichtenstein GR, Feagan BG, Cohen RD, et al. Serious infections and mortality in association with therapies for Crohn’s disease: TREAT registry. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;4(5):621-30. 38. Katz JA, Antoni C, Keenan GF, Smith DE, Jacobs SJ, Lichtenstein GR. Outcome of pregnancy in women receiving infliximab for the treatment of Crohn’s disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99(12):2385-92. 39. Mahadevan U, Kane S, Sandborn WJ, et al. Intentional infliximab use during pregnancy for induction or maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;21(6):733-8. 40. Mahadevan U, Terdiman JP, Church J, et al. Infliximab levels in infants born to women with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2007;132(Suppl 1):A144:959. 41. Mahadevan U, Kane SV, Church JA, et al. The effect of maternal peripartum infliximab use on neonatal immune response. Gastroenterology 2008;134(Suppl 1):A69:499. 42. Carter JD, Ladhani A, Ricca LR, Valeriano J, Vasey FB. A safety assessment of tumor necrosis factor antagonists during pregnancy: a review of the Food and Drug Administration database. J Rheumatol 2009;36(3):635-41. 43. Winger EE, Reed JL. Was risk properly assessed in Carter, et al’s safety assessment of tumor necrosis factor antagonists during pregnancy? J Rheumatol 2009;36(9):2122. 44. Mahadevan U, Kane S. American gastroenterological association institute technical review on the use of gastrointestinal medications in pregnancy. Gastroenterology 2006;131(1):283-311. 45. Levi AJ, Fisher AM, Hughes L, Hendry WF. Male infertility due to sulphasalazine. Lancet 1979;2(8137):276-8. 46. Toth A. Reversible toxic effect of salicylazosulfapyridine on semen quality. Fertil Steril 1979;31(5):538-40. 47. Toovey S, Hudson E, Hendry WE, Levi AJ. Sulphasalazine and male infertility: reversibility and possible mechanism. Gut 1981;22(6):445-51. 48. Riley SA, Lecarpentier J, Mani V, Goodman MJ, Mandal BK, Turnberg LA. Sulphasalazine induced seminal abnormalities in ulcerative colitis: results of mesalazine substitution. Gut 1987;28(8):1008-12. 49. Dejaco C, Mittermaier C, Reinisch W, et al. Azathioprine treatment and male fertility in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2001;121(5):1048-53. 50. Mahadevan U, Terdiman JP, Aron J, Jacobsohn S, Turek P. Infliximab and semen quality in men with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005;11(4):395-9.

252<br />

De concentraties ervan in moedermelk zijn laag. Om de<br />

blootstelling zo laag mogelijk te houden, wordt vier uur<br />

wachten met borstvoeding na inname aanbevolen. Indien<br />

hoge dosissen gebruikt worden, is bijnierinsufficiëntie bij<br />

de zuigeling mogelijk na beëindigen van de borstvoeding.<br />

Thiopurines zijn waarschijnlijk veilig, wegens de lage<br />

concentraties die in moedermelk gemeten zijn. Ook TNFremmers<br />

worden als waarschijnlijk veilig ingeschat. Ze zijn<br />

in zeer lage concentraties of in het geheel niet in moedermelk<br />

terug te vinden, al zijn de bestaande gegevens hierover<br />

beperkt (44).<br />

Sperma en immunosuppressie<br />

Sommige immunosuppressiva hebben een invloed op de<br />

mannelijke fertiliteit, al zijn de gegevens hierover schaars.<br />

Er bestaan verschillende oudere meldingen van omkeerbare<br />

onvruchtbaarheid bij gebruik van sulfasalazine, als<br />

gevolg van oligospermie, verminderde beweeglijkheid en<br />

morfologische afwijkingen (45-47). Stopzetting van sulfasalazine<br />

en overschakelen naar mesalazine herstelt de<br />

spermakwaliteit (48).<br />

Azathioprine lijkt geen invloed te hebben op parameters<br />

van de spermakwaliteit (49).<br />

Gebruik van infliximab vergroot het semenvolume en<br />

toont een trend van verminderde beweeglijkheid (50).<br />

Algemeen<br />

Séverine Vermeire concludeert dat voorafgaand aan de<br />

conceptie ziekteremissie bij inflammatoire darmziekten<br />

zeer wenselijk is. Overleg met de patiënte is vereist over<br />

de noodzaak van geneesmiddelen tijdens de zwangerschap<br />

om remissie te behouden. Zo mogelijk geniet monotherapie<br />

de voorkeur boven cumulatie van verschillende<br />

behandelingen. Voedingstekorten, zoals tekorten van foliumzuur,<br />

vitamine B12, ijzer en vitamine D, dienen opgespoord<br />

te worden. In afwachting van zwangerschap is<br />

foliumzuursuppletie nuttig.<br />

Tijdens de zwangerschap is opvolging om de acht tot<br />

twaalf weken aan te bevelen, met labtests in het geval van<br />

behandeling met azathioprine of TNF-remmers. Therapie<br />

met anti-TNF wordt best gestopt in de 20ste tot 22ste<br />

zwangerschapsweek. In samenspraak met de patiënte kan<br />

de geschiktste manier van bevallen gekozen worden. Een<br />

sectio is in het bijzonder te overwegen bij perianale ziekte<br />

van Crohn of de aanwezigheid van een anale anastomose<br />

via een ileale pouch (IPAA).<br />

In overleg met de patiënte kan na de bevalling besproken<br />

worden welke geneesmiddelen opnieuw gestart worden<br />

en of aan borstvoeding gedacht wordt. Aandacht voor<br />

nieuwe ziekteopflakkeringen in de weken na de bevalling<br />

is nodig.<br />

Referenties<br />

1. Hench PS. The ameliorating effect of pregnancy on chronic atropic (infectious<br />

rheumatoid) arthritis, fibrositis and intermittenshydarthrosis. Mayo Clin Proc 1938; 13:<br />

161-7.<br />

2. Ostensen M, Aune B, Husby G. Effect of pregnancy and hormonal changes on the activity<br />

of rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1983;12(2):69-72.<br />

GUNAIKEIA ■ VOL 15 Nr 7 ■ 2010<br />

3. Nelson JL, Hughe KA, Smith AG, Nisperos BB, Branchaud AM, Hansen JA. Maternalfetal<br />

disparity in HLA class II alloantigens and the pregnancy-induced amelioration of<br />

rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 1993;329(7):466-71.<br />

4. Klipple GL, Cecere FA. Rheumatoid arthritis and pregnancy. Rheum Dis Clin North Am<br />

1989;15(2):213-39.<br />

5. Barrett JH, Brennan P, Fiddler M, Silman A. Breast-feeding and postpartum relapse in<br />

women with rheumatoid and inflammatory arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43(5):1010-5.<br />

6. Silman AJ. Parity status and the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Reprod<br />

Immunol 1992;28(3-4):228-30.<br />

7. Lansink M, de Boer A, Dijkmans BA, Vandenbroucke JP, Hazes JM. The onset of rheumatoid<br />

arthritis in relation to pregnancy and childbirth. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1993;11(2):171-4.<br />

8. Nelson JL, Ostensen M. Pregnancy and rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am<br />

1997;23(1):195-212.<br />

9. Hazes JM, Dijkmans BA, Vandenbroucke JP, de Vries RR, Cats A. Pregnancy and the risk of<br />

developing rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990;33(12):1770-5.<br />

10. Spector TD, Roman E, Silman AJ. The pill, parity, and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum<br />

1990;33(6):782-9.<br />

11. Drossaers-Bakker KW, Zwinderman AH, van Zeben D, Breedveld FC, Hazes JM. Pregnancy<br />

and oral contraceptive use do not significantly influence outcome in long term<br />

rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2002;61(5):405-8.<br />

12. de Man YA, Dolhain RJ, van de Geijn FE, Willemsen SP, Hazes JM. Disease activity of<br />

rheumatoid arthritis during pregnancy: results from a nationwide prospective study.<br />

Arthritis Rheum 2008;59(9):1241-8.<br />

13. Confavreux C, Hutchinson M, Hours MM, Cortinovis-Tourniaire P, Moreau T. Rate of<br />

pregnancy-related relapse in multiple sclerosis. Pregnancy in Multiple Sclerosis Group. N<br />

Engl J Med 1998;339(5):285-91.<br />

14. de Man YA, Hazes JM, van der Heide H, et al. Association of higher rheumatoid arthritis<br />

disease activity during pregnancy with lower birth weight: results of a national<br />

prospective study. Arthritis Rheum 2009;60(11):3196-206.<br />

15. Murase JE, Chan KK, Garite TJ, Cooper DM, Weinstein GD. Hormonal effect on psoriasis in<br />

pregnancy and post partum. Arch Dermatol 2005;141(5):601-6.<br />

16. Ben-David G, Sheiner E, Hallak M, Levy A. Pregnancy outcome in women with psoriasis. J<br />

Reprod Med 2008;53(3):183-7.<br />

17. Seeger JD, Lanza LL, West WA, Fernandez C, Rivero E. Pregnancy and pregnancy outcome<br />

among women with inflammatory skin diseases. Dermatology 2007;214(1):32-9.<br />

18. Whitacre CC. Sex differences in autoimmune disease. Nat Immunol 2001;2(9):777-80.<br />

19. Whitacre CC, Reingold SC, O’Looney PA. A gender gap in autoimmunity. Science<br />

1999;283(5406):1277-8.<br />

20. Sakaguchi S. Naturally arising Foxp3-expressing CD25+CD+ regulatory T cells in<br />

immunological tolerance to self and non-self. Nat Immunol 2005;6(4):345-52.<br />

21. Girardi G, Bulla R, Salmon JE, Tedesco F. The complement system in the pathofysiology of<br />

pregnancy. Mol Immunol 2006;43(1-2):68-77.<br />

22. Tsampalas M, Gridelet V, Berndt S, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin: a hormone with<br />

immunological and angiogenic properties. J Reprod Immunol 2010;85(1):93-8.<br />

23. Schumacher A, Brachwitz N, Sohr S, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin attracts<br />

regulatory T cells into the fetal-maternal interface during early human pregnancy. J<br />

Immunol 2009;182(9):5488-97.<br />

24. Malek A, Sager R, Kuhn P, Nicolaides KH, Schneider H. Evolution of maternofetal transport<br />

of immunoglobulins during human pregnancy. Am J Reprod Immunol 1996;36(5):248-55.<br />

25. Roopenian DC, Akilesh S. FcRn: the neonatal Fc receptor comes of age. Nat Rev Immunol<br />

2007;7(9):715-25.<br />

26. Martin PL, Oneda S, Treacy G. Effects of an anti-TNF-alpha monoclonal antibody,<br />

administered throughout pregnancy and lactation, on the development of the macaque<br />

immune system. Am J Reprod Immunol 2007;58(2):138-49.<br />

27. Dubinsky M, Abraham B, Mahadevan U. Management of the pregnant IBD patient.<br />

Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008;14(12):1736-50.<br />

28. Cornish J, Tan E, Teare J, et al. A meta-analysis on the influence of inflammatory bowel<br />

disease on pregnancy. Gut 2007;56(6):830-7.<br />

29. Polifka JE, Friedman JM. Teratogen update: azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine.<br />

Teratology 2002;65(5):240-61.<br />

30. Alstead EM, Ritchie JK, Lennard-Jones JE, Farthing MJ, Clark ML. Safety of azathioprine in<br />

pregnancy in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 1990;99(2):443-6.<br />

31. Francella A, Dyan A, Bodian C, Rubin P, Chapman M, Present DH. The safety of<br />

6-mercaptopurine for childbearing patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a<br />

retrospective cohort study. Gastroenterology 2003;124(1):9-17.<br />

32. Khan ZH, Mayberry JF, Spiers N, Wicks AC. Retrospective case series analysis of patients<br />

with inflammatory bowel disease on azathioprine. A district general hospital experience.<br />

Digestion 2000;62(4):249-54.<br />

33. Moskovitz DN, Bodian C, Chapman ML, et al. The effect on the fetus of medications<br />

used to treat pregnant inflammatory bowel-disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol<br />

2004;99(4):656-61.<br />

34. Langagergaard V, Pedersen L, Gislum M, Nørgard B, Sørensen HT. Birth outcome in women<br />

treated with azathioprine or mercaptopurine during pregnancy: A Danish nationwide<br />

cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;25(1):73-81.<br />

35. De Boer NK, Jarbandhan SV, de Graaf P, et al. Azathioprine use during pregnancy:<br />

unexpected intrauterine exposure to metabolites. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101(6):1390-2.<br />

36. Coelho J, Beaugerie L, Colombel JF, et al. Pregnancy outcome in patients with<br />

inflammatory bowel disease treated with thiopurines: cohort from the CESAME study. JCC<br />

2009;3(1):S70. P149.<br />

37. Lichtenstein GR, Feagan BG, Cohen RD, et al. Serious infections and mortality in<br />

association with therapies for Crohn’s disease: TREAT registry. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol<br />

2006;4(5):621-30.<br />

38. Katz JA, Antoni C, Keenan GF, Smith DE, Jacobs SJ, Lichtenstein GR. Outcome of pregnancy<br />

in women receiving infliximab for the treatment of Crohn’s disease and rheumatoid<br />

arthritis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99(12):2385-92.<br />

39. Mahadevan U, Kane S, Sandborn WJ, et al. Intentional infliximab use during pregnancy<br />

for induction or maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther<br />

2005;21(6):733-8.<br />

40. Mahadevan U, Terdiman JP, Church J, et al. Infliximab levels in infants born to women<br />

with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2007;132(Suppl 1):A144:959.<br />

41. Mahadevan U, Kane SV, Church JA, et al. The effect of maternal peripartum infliximab use<br />

on neonatal immune response. Gastroenterology 2008;134(Suppl 1):A69:499.<br />

42. Carter JD, Ladhani A, Ricca LR, Valeriano J, Vasey FB. A safety assessment of tumor<br />

necrosis factor antagonists during pregnancy: a review of the Food and Drug<br />

Administration database. J Rheumatol 2009;36(3):635-41.<br />

43. Winger EE, Reed JL. Was risk properly assessed in Carter, et al’s safety assessment of<br />

tumor necrosis factor antagonists during pregnancy? J Rheumatol 2009;36(9):2122.<br />

44. Mahadevan U, Kane S. American gastroenterological association institute technical<br />

review on the use of gastrointestinal medications in pregnancy. Gastroenterology<br />

2006;131(1):283-311.<br />

45. Levi AJ, Fisher AM, Hughes L, Hendry WF. Male infertility due to sulphasalazine. Lancet<br />

1979;2(8137):276-8.<br />

46. Toth A. Reversible toxic effect of salicylazosulfapyridine on semen quality. Fertil Steril<br />

1979;31(5):538-40.<br />

47. Toovey S, Hudson E, Hendry WE, Levi AJ. Sulphasalazine and male infertility: reversibility<br />

and possible mechanism. Gut 1981;22(6):445-51.<br />

48. Riley SA, Lecarpentier J, Mani V, Goodman MJ, Mandal BK, Turnberg LA. Sulphasalazine<br />

induced seminal abnormalities in ulcerative colitis: results of mesalazine substitution. Gut<br />

1987;28(8):1008-12.<br />

49. Dejaco C, Mittermaier C, Reinisch W, et al. Azathioprine treatment and male fertility in<br />

inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2001;121(5):1048-53.<br />

50. Mahadevan U, Terdiman JP, Aron J, Jacobsohn S, Turek P. Infliximab and semen quality in<br />

men with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005;11(4):395-9.

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