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LANDAU NETWORK - CENTRO VOLTA<br />

Ricerca CeMiSS<br />

<strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong>:<br />

<strong>temi</strong>, <strong>piste</strong> <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffusione e<br />

<strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong> <strong>reducismo</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

a cura <strong>di</strong><br />

Riccardo Redaelli


Prepared by Gaia Caverzasio<br />

Landau Network – Centro Volta<br />

Via Cantoni 1, V<strong>il</strong>la Olmo<br />

22100 COMO, Italy<br />

ph. +39 031579820<br />

landau.network@centrovolta.it<br />

2


INDICE<br />

Gruppo <strong>di</strong> Lavoro 7<br />

Introduzione – Riccardo Redaelli 9<br />

Ascesa e frammentazione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale. Dall’islamizzazione <strong>del</strong>la<br />

modernità al jihad globale - Riccardo Redaelli<br />

17<br />

1. Il jiha<strong>di</strong>smo: evoluzione naturale o epi<strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong>l’islam? 17<br />

2. Il problema <strong>del</strong>la definizione <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> islamista 22<br />

3. Ascesa e frammentazione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale 27<br />

4. L’islam globale e <strong>il</strong> terrorismo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta 34<br />

5. Il neo-fondamentalismo islamico europeo 40<br />

Themes of the Culture of Modern <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> - Revuen Paz 47<br />

Introduction 47<br />

1. <strong>Jihad</strong> movements in their own eyes 51<br />

2. Muslim Ra<strong>di</strong>calization in the West 53<br />

3. The globalization of the Islamist struggle 56<br />

4. The Ideology of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> 58<br />

5. Al-Qa’ida: the doctrine of Brotherhood of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> 62<br />

6. Muslim Communities in the West: the infrastructure of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> 66<br />

7. The Immigrant Experience 69<br />

8. Hotwiring the Apocalypse 71<br />

9. September 11 -- attack by “programmed terrorists” 74<br />

10. The war in Iraq – apocalyptic visions 77<br />

11. <strong>Jihad</strong>i Apocalyptic Discourse 80<br />

12 .<strong>Jihad</strong>i perceptions of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) 84<br />

13. Shaykh Nasser al-Fahd’s Fatwa on WMD 85<br />

14. The Islamist Reaction to Shaykh al-Fahd 88<br />

15. Abu Mus’ab al-Suri and “The Call for Islamist <strong>Global</strong> Resistance” 90<br />

16. <strong>Jihad</strong>i use of the Internet – the Open University for <strong>Jihad</strong> 96<br />

Conclusion 101<br />

3


La nuova al-Qa’ida: tra <strong>di</strong>ssoluzione e rinascita - Andrea Plebani 111<br />

Introduzione 111<br />

1. Al-Qa’ida: tra piano materiale e ideologico 112<br />

2. La storia 118<br />

2.1 Le origini <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida 119<br />

2.1.1 L’Afghanistan quale culla <strong>del</strong> movimento qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta 119<br />

2.1.2 Le brevi parentesi sau<strong>di</strong>ta e pakistana 123<br />

2.1.3 L’es<strong>il</strong>io sudanese 124<br />

2.2. Consolidamento, ascesa e caduta: <strong>il</strong> ritorno in Afghanistan: 126<br />

3. Al-Qa’ida dopo l’11 settembre 2001 135<br />

3.1 La controffensiva e la trasformazione <strong>del</strong> movimento 135<br />

3.2 La ricerca <strong>di</strong> un nuovo santuario 143<br />

3.2.1 Afghanistan 143<br />

3.2.2 Iraq 147<br />

3.3 L’Europa e i rischi legati al <strong>fenomeno</strong> dei returning jiha<strong>di</strong>sts dal fronte<br />

iracheno<br />

4. Conclusioni 161<br />

Tra virtuale e reale: le nuove <strong>piste</strong> <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo - Marco Lombar<strong>di</strong> 164<br />

1. Il quadro <strong>di</strong> riferimento in sintesi : “al-Qa’ida” 165<br />

2. Il caso <strong>di</strong> Ansar al Islam 167<br />

3. Il caso: Guantanamo 177<br />

4. Videocassette e CD, DvD e Internet quale strumento <strong>di</strong> reclutamento. 179<br />

4.1 Nuove forme <strong>di</strong> comunicazione promozione 185<br />

4.2 Il caso <strong>del</strong> Quinto Anniversario <strong>del</strong>l’Un<strong>di</strong>ci Settembre 193<br />

5. Reclutatori, reclute e reclutamento 197<br />

5.1 Il caso <strong>di</strong> Londra 2005 198<br />

5.2 Reclute iternazionali dal campo iraqeno 200<br />

Abu Dujanah al-Qahtani (Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia) 200<br />

Abu Hummam al-Urdani (Jordan) 201<br />

Abu Radwan al-Urdani (Jordan) 202<br />

Abu Usama al-Ansari (Iraq) 203<br />

Abu As<strong>il</strong> al-Jazairi (Algeria) 203<br />

Abu Ibrahim al-Tunisi (Tunisia) 206<br />

6. Conclusioni 206<br />

4<br />

157


Understan<strong>di</strong>ng Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism. Threat and Countermeasures -<br />

Maurizio Martellini and Kathryn McLaughlin<br />

Introduction 210<br />

Technical Aspects 211<br />

Framing the <strong>di</strong>scussion: the faces of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological (NR) terrorism 214<br />

1. The Magnitude of the Threat 215<br />

1.1 The “W<strong>il</strong>l” 216<br />

Assassination – the surreptitious administration of ionising ra<strong>di</strong>ation to an in<strong>di</strong>vidual 221<br />

1.2 The “Way” 223<br />

1.2.1 Nuclear weapons and materials surety 223<br />

1.2.2 Attacks against and sabotage of nuclear power plants 224<br />

Research reactors 225<br />

Nuclear fuel reprocessing plants 226<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products 227<br />

1.2.3 Nuclear smuggling 228<br />

1.2.4 Organised Crime Networks 231<br />

1.2.5 Ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources 233<br />

Commercial and industrial sources 234<br />

Orphaned ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources 235<br />

1.2.6 Illicit trafficking of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources 236<br />

1.2.7 The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of relevant nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological expertise 240<br />

Section 1 Conclusion 241<br />

2. International Efforts and Initiatives to Address the Threat 243<br />

2.1 A <strong>Global</strong> Counter-Terrorism Strategy 243<br />

2.2 A Counter-Nuclear-Terrorism Strategy? 246<br />

2.2.1 Dissuasion 247<br />

2.2.2 Denial 247<br />

2.2.3 Deterrence 250<br />

2.2.4 Developing State Capacity 251<br />

2.3 Basic Gap Analysis of Existing Initiatives to Counter Nuclear and<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism<br />

2.4 The <strong>Global</strong> Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) 254<br />

2.4.1 The GICNT and Dissuasion 257<br />

2.4.2 The GICNT and Denial 257<br />

2.4.3 The GICNT and Deterrence 257<br />

2.4.4 The GICNT and Developing State Capacity 258<br />

5<br />

209<br />

252


2.4.5 The GICNT and Defen<strong>di</strong>ng Human Rights 258<br />

Conclusion 259<br />

Assessing Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism 260<br />

Countering Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism 264<br />

6


Gruppo <strong>di</strong> Lavoro<br />

Riccardo Redaelli, Direttore <strong>del</strong> Middle East Program e <strong>del</strong> Central-South Asia<br />

Programe <strong>del</strong> Landau Network- Centro Volta <strong>di</strong> Como. Professore <strong>di</strong> "Storia <strong>del</strong>le<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>tà e <strong>del</strong>le culture politiche" e docente <strong>di</strong> "Geopolitica", presso la Facoltà <strong>di</strong><br />

Scienze linguistiche e letterature straniere, e Docente <strong>di</strong> "Storia dei paesi afroasiatici",<br />

presso la Facoltà <strong>di</strong> Scienze Politiche, <strong>del</strong>l’Università Cattolica <strong>del</strong> sacro<br />

Cuore <strong>di</strong> M<strong>il</strong>ano, Italia<br />

Revuen Paz, Direttore <strong>del</strong> Progetto <strong>di</strong> Ricerca sui Movimenti Islamici al Gloria<br />

Center, Istituto Inter<strong>di</strong>sciplinare <strong>di</strong> Herzliya, Israele. Esperto <strong>di</strong> organizzazioni<br />

estremiste islamiche.<br />

Andrea Plebani, Research Fellow presso <strong>il</strong> Landau Network – Centro Volta <strong>di</strong> Como,<br />

Italia.<br />

Marco Lombar<strong>di</strong>, Professore <strong>di</strong> Sociologia presso la Facoltà <strong>di</strong> Lettere e F<strong>il</strong>osofia<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Università Cattolica <strong>del</strong> Sacro Cuore <strong>di</strong> M<strong>il</strong>ano, Italia. Membro <strong>del</strong>la<br />

International Visual Sociology Assoc. – IVSA, membro <strong>del</strong>l' International Sociological<br />

Association e Senior Research Fellow <strong>di</strong> Globis, Center for the Study of <strong>Global</strong> Issues,<br />

University of Georgia, USA.<br />

Maurizio Martellini, Segretario Generale <strong>del</strong> Landau Network – Centro Volta <strong>di</strong><br />

Como e Professore <strong>di</strong> Fisica Teorica all’Università <strong>del</strong>l’Insubria, sede <strong>di</strong> Como, Italia.<br />

Esperto <strong>di</strong> non-proliferazione, <strong>di</strong>sarmo e sicurezza internazionale.<br />

Kathryn McLaughlin, Ricercatrice e collaboratrice <strong>del</strong> Landau Network – Centro<br />

Volta <strong>di</strong> Como, Italia.<br />

7


Introduzione<br />

Riccardo Redaelli<br />

Questi ultimi decenni sono stati contrassegnati dalla crescita imprevista e<br />

<strong>di</strong>rompente <strong>di</strong> movimenti politici islamisti in quasi tutte le regioni e stati <strong>del</strong> mondo<br />

musulmano. Un evento che ha scosso brutalmente gli equ<strong>il</strong>ibri politico-sociali interni,<br />

e ha finito per con<strong>di</strong>zionare tutta la politica internazionale.<br />

Negli ultimi anni <strong>del</strong> secolo XX, la frammentazione e la de-territorializzazione <strong>di</strong><br />

questi movimenti islamisti – i quali, nonostante la loro forza, avevano fallito quasi<br />

ovunque la conquista <strong>del</strong> potere – hanno portato alla nascita <strong>di</strong> un jiha<strong>di</strong>smo<br />

violento, che pre<strong>di</strong>ca <strong>il</strong> jihad globale, combattuto non solo all’interno dei confini <strong>del</strong><br />

dar al-islam, bensì ovunque, e soprattutto ut<strong>il</strong>izzando qualsivoglia strategia. Non si<br />

devono solo combattere gli «empi governanti» e i «cattivi musulmani»: occorre<br />

colpire tanto <strong>il</strong> nemico interno che <strong>il</strong> nemico esterno, rappresentato dai «crociati<br />

cristiani» e dal «nemico sionista», come non mancano sempre <strong>di</strong> ricordare i proclami<br />

<strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida e <strong>del</strong>le altre organizzazioni terroristiche.<br />

Il <strong>di</strong>lagare <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico ha sequestrato <strong>di</strong> fatto <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>battito<br />

sulla realtà <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo politico, molto più complesso e variegato, trasformando<br />

l’islam in una sorta <strong>di</strong> nemico metafisico e ontologico per l’Occidente. L’immagine<br />

<strong>del</strong>lo shahid jiha<strong>di</strong>sta, <strong>del</strong>l’attentatore suicida che fa strage <strong>di</strong> civ<strong>il</strong>i, ha trasformato <strong>il</strong><br />

nostro senso <strong>di</strong> sicurezza e ha prodotto una frattura ancora non ben compresa fra la<br />

9


massa dei musulmani e i rappresentanti riconosciuti <strong>del</strong>la religione (‘ulema’ sunniti,<br />

mullah e clero sciita, esperti <strong>di</strong> shari’a e <strong>di</strong> fiqh, <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto islamico) da un lato, e un<br />

insieme eterogeneo <strong>di</strong> gruppi, cellule e giovani auto-ra<strong>di</strong>calizzati che credono<br />

nell’idea <strong>del</strong> jihad globale, <strong>del</strong>la violenza e <strong>del</strong> martirio come via per l’affermazione<br />

<strong>del</strong> vero islam.<br />

Questo stu<strong>di</strong>o cerca <strong>di</strong> analizzare <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> da prospettive <strong>di</strong>verse, concentrandosi<br />

su alcuni degli aspetti che destano, in Europa, la nostra maggiore attenzione e<br />

preoccupazione.<br />

Nel primo capitolo, Riccardo Redaelli <strong>del</strong>inea un breve quadro storico e culturale<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’ascesa dei movimenti islamisti e <strong>del</strong>la loro frammentazione <strong>di</strong> questi ultimi 10-15<br />

anni. Senza uno “sguardo lungo”, che abbia un minimo <strong>di</strong> prospettiva e <strong>di</strong><br />

profon<strong>di</strong>tà storica e concettuale è infatti estremamente scivoloso avventurarsi<br />

nell’analisi <strong>di</strong> questa complessa realtà. Dopo essersi interrogato sul fatto se <strong>il</strong><br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>smo rappresenti un epi<strong>fenomeno</strong> o una logica evoluzione <strong>del</strong>la religione<br />

islamica, <strong>il</strong> capitolo affronta la crescita dei movimenti islamisti, i loro fondamenti<br />

dottrinali, per poi soffermarsi sul jiha<strong>di</strong>smo salafita <strong>di</strong> questi ultimi anni e sulla<br />

trasformazione dei concetti <strong>di</strong> martire e <strong>di</strong> jihad. Altro termine-concetto <strong>di</strong> grande<br />

importanza per l’Europa è quello <strong>di</strong> neofondamentalismo islamico, ossia <strong>di</strong> quella<br />

corrente <strong>di</strong> musulmani che vivono in Occidente e che combatto la propria<br />

deculturizzazione e per<strong>di</strong>ta d’identità aderendo a una visione globalizzata <strong>di</strong><br />

islamismo astorico e privo <strong>del</strong>le sue tra<strong>di</strong>zionali peculiarità culturali e regionali. Una<br />

deriva – quella <strong>del</strong> neofondamentalismo – ab<strong>il</strong>mente sfruttata dai gruppi salafiti e<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>sti per <strong>di</strong>ffondere <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> jihad globale, per reclutare terroristi e<br />

mujahed<strong>di</strong>n.<br />

Reuven Paz, si è soffermato – nel suo lungo saggio che rappresenta <strong>il</strong> secondo<br />

capitolo <strong>del</strong>lo stu<strong>di</strong>o – sul concetto <strong>di</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong>, sulla autorappresentazione fatta<br />

dai principali ideologi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, come pure sulle più recenti evoluzioni <strong>di</strong> questo<br />

variegato <strong>fenomeno</strong> in seguito ai fatti <strong>del</strong>l’11/9 e <strong>del</strong>la guerra in Iraq. Paz analizza la<br />

trasformazione dei <strong>temi</strong> propagan<strong>di</strong>stici jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, con la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>l’idea che <strong>il</strong><br />

10


jihad non sia solo un mezzo <strong>di</strong> lotta contro <strong>il</strong> Nemico anti-islamico, bensì che esso sia<br />

anche - forse soprattutto – una modalità per rafforzare la fratellanza e la solidarietà<br />

panislamica, e per creare una nuova società, basata sul concetto omnicomprensivo <strong>di</strong><br />

jihad come mezzo <strong>di</strong> vita. Il jihad non è più solo un dovere religioso, un mezzo <strong>di</strong> lotta<br />

per <strong>di</strong>fendere l’islam, ma <strong>di</strong>viene una cultura esaustiva attraverso la quale ricreare la<br />

società islamica <strong>del</strong>le origini e <strong>il</strong> califfato mon<strong>di</strong>ale, e che serve anche per rafforzare <strong>il</strong><br />

senso identitario <strong>di</strong> quella gioventù islamista che autoalimenta la propria ra<strong>di</strong>calità<br />

religiosa e che fornisce <strong>il</strong> materiale umano per la strategia degli attacchi suici<strong>di</strong>,<br />

tramite la celebrazione <strong>del</strong> martirio per la vera fede.<br />

Idealmente collegato al lavoro <strong>di</strong> Reuven Paz, lo stu<strong>di</strong>o <strong>di</strong> Andrea Plebani prende in<br />

esame le origini e <strong>il</strong> progressivo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, esaminandone le mo<strong>di</strong>fiche<br />

strutturali e dottrinali e la peculiare situazione attuale. In particolar modo, Plebani<br />

sottolinea i profon<strong>di</strong> cambiamenti avvenuti all’interno <strong>del</strong> movimento in seguito alla<br />

caduta <strong>del</strong> santuario afgano e analizza lo scontro ingaggiato in Afghanistan e in Iraq,<br />

<strong>del</strong>ineando le connessioni esistenti tra lo scenario iracheno e <strong>il</strong> continente europeo,<br />

sempre più al centro <strong>del</strong>la strategia e degli obiettivi <strong>del</strong> campo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

Marco Lombar<strong>di</strong> nel suo saggio, si sofferma su <strong>di</strong> una interessante analisi <strong>di</strong> dettaglio<br />

<strong>di</strong> alcuni movimenti jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, come Ansar al-Islam e sulla rete <strong>di</strong> collegamenti –<br />

virtuali e non – per la <strong>di</strong>ffusione e la propaganda sul web in Europa, con <strong>il</strong><br />

reclutamento <strong>di</strong> terroristi e attentatori suici<strong>di</strong>. Internet infatti rappresenta un veicolo<br />

fondamentale per <strong>il</strong> terrorismo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta, dato che <strong>il</strong> terrorismo è – come spiega<br />

Lombar<strong>di</strong> - comunicazione: questa semplice affermazione orienta <strong>il</strong> particolare<br />

interesse per internet. Lo stu<strong>di</strong>o che porta alla comprensione e spiegazione<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’azione terrorista, anche con l’obiettivo <strong>di</strong> sv<strong>il</strong>uppare adeguate pratiche <strong>di</strong><br />

risposta al <strong>fenomeno</strong>, deve dunque dotarsi <strong>di</strong> una “cassetta degli attrezzi” altamente<br />

specializzata ma inter<strong>di</strong>sciplinare in cui la <strong>di</strong>mensione comunicativa offre un<br />

in<strong>di</strong>rizzo interpretativo importante: la grande <strong>di</strong>fferenza che esiste tra un criminale e<br />

un terrorista è, infatti, che <strong>il</strong> secondo, a <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>del</strong> primo, ha interesse per <strong>il</strong><br />

riconoscimento simbolico che l’azione fornisce; ricerca la platea offerta dal sistema<br />

11


me<strong>di</strong>atico; si propone quale attore protagonista. Lo stu<strong>di</strong>o <strong>di</strong> Lombar<strong>di</strong> si sofferma<br />

anche sulle <strong>piste</strong> <strong>di</strong> penetrazione verso l’Europa e le possib<strong>il</strong>i strategie <strong>del</strong>la risposta.<br />

Infine, Maurizio Martellini e Cathryn MacLaughlin insistono sul problema <strong>del</strong>le armi<br />

<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>struzioni <strong>di</strong> massa e <strong>del</strong>la minaccia <strong>di</strong> un loro possib<strong>il</strong>e uso da parte <strong>di</strong><br />

organizzazioni non statuali jiha<strong>di</strong>ste. Nel loro dettagliato stu<strong>di</strong>o, affrontano questo<br />

tema – spesso banalizzato e volgarizzato dai mass me<strong>di</strong>a dato <strong>il</strong> suo impatto<br />

sull’opinione pubblica – che è in realtà ben più complesso e sfaccettato.<br />

Lo stu<strong>di</strong>o dei due autori analizza prima – con grande dettaglio tecnico – la<br />

“magnitu<strong>di</strong>ne <strong>del</strong>la minaccia” da parte <strong>di</strong> organizzazioni non statuali, soffermandosi<br />

anche sui traffici <strong>il</strong>leciti e sulla reperib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> componenti nucleari, chimiche e ra<strong>di</strong>o-<br />

batteriologiche. Nella seconda parte si sofferma sulle risposte a questa minaccia,<br />

dalla <strong>di</strong>ssuasione alla deterrenza, allo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo <strong>di</strong> specifiche iniziative nazionali e<br />

sopranazionali come la <strong>Global</strong> Initiative to Combact Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT).<br />

Dai citati lavori e dall’incrocio <strong>del</strong>le loro tesi e dei dati proposti risulta con chiarezza<br />

come <strong>il</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale e <strong>il</strong> qa’i<strong>di</strong>smo o<strong>di</strong>erni siano frutto <strong>del</strong>la trasformazione e<br />

<strong>del</strong> sostanziale fallimento <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo politico che nei decenni ’70 – ’90 ha cercato<br />

<strong>di</strong> scalzare i regimi arabo-islamici usciti dalla decolonizzazione per creare stati<br />

veramente islamici, legati a una visione apologetica e mitizzata <strong>del</strong>l’islam <strong>del</strong>le<br />

origini. La già ricordata de-territorializzazione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ha favorito la nascita<br />

<strong>di</strong> un’ideologia basata sul jihad globale. Da qui la ripresa <strong>del</strong>l’idea califfale, con <strong>il</strong><br />

progetto politico <strong>di</strong> un nuovo califfato islamico che superi ogni <strong>di</strong>visione etnica,<br />

regionale e culturale in favore <strong>di</strong> una nuova presa <strong>di</strong> coscienza <strong>del</strong>la umma islamica.<br />

Lo scontro fra la «nuova jah<strong>il</strong>iyya» immaginata da Sayyid Qutb e l’islam perde ogni<br />

valenza geografica e ogni confine, e si fa ideologica e culturale. Se <strong>il</strong> Nemico è globale<br />

e pervasivo, anche <strong>il</strong> jihad deve essere globale e pervasivo, colpendo i nemici <strong>del</strong>la<br />

vera fede ovunque sia possib<strong>il</strong>e e in tutte le forme che siano possib<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

Vari analisti in questo stu<strong>di</strong>o hanno sottolineato come la semplicità, la trasmettib<strong>il</strong>ità<br />

e la fruib<strong>il</strong>ità degli slogan jiha<strong>di</strong>sti contemporanei abbiano favorito la proliferazione<br />

<strong>di</strong> gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti scollegati o non <strong>di</strong>pendenti gerarchicamente, con una sorta <strong>di</strong><br />

12


franchising <strong>del</strong> terrore e <strong>del</strong> tema jiha<strong>di</strong>sta. Al-Qa’ida <strong>di</strong>viene così non solo una<br />

struttura terroristica, bensì un ombrello strategico, dottrinale e ideologico per una<br />

varietà <strong>di</strong> movimenti, <strong>di</strong> gruppi e per quella gioventù islamica auto-ra<strong>di</strong>calizzata che<br />

funge da serbatoio e da veicolo proliferante <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale.<br />

Questa gioventù – per lo più ben alfabetizzata e urbanizzata – non è più intercettata<br />

solo dai movimenti islamisti più “istituzionali” e politici: spesso si tratta <strong>di</strong> piccoli<br />

gruppi che si richiamano alla ideologia jiha<strong>di</strong>sta appresa da internet, ma che non<br />

hanno vere guide dottrinali; per l’esegesi <strong>del</strong>le fonti sciaraitiche – <strong>il</strong> Corano e la<br />

Sunna fra tutte – essi spesso semplicemente bypassato gli ‘ulema’ e gli esperti <strong>del</strong>la<br />

legge religiosa ufficiali, preferendo un approccio più in<strong>di</strong>viduale, una manifestazione<br />

<strong>del</strong>la propria fede, basata sul mito <strong>del</strong> martirio e sulla professione religiosa come atto<br />

<strong>di</strong> volontà.<br />

Questa proliferazione <strong>di</strong> nuclei e gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti interessa ovviamente anche <strong>il</strong><br />

nostro continente, con una penetrazione che segue linee e <strong>piste</strong> <strong>di</strong>verse, ma che è<br />

certo favorita da internet e dalla <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>le notizie, dei proclami e <strong>del</strong>lo stesso<br />

training per le attività jiha<strong>di</strong>ste lungo la rete. Lombar<strong>di</strong> evidenzia bene i vantaggi<br />

<strong>del</strong>le ICT per l’azione jiha<strong>di</strong>sta; l’interconnettività, la comunicazione coperta, la<br />

moltiplicazione <strong>del</strong>le forze e la “sovra-esposizione” dei terroristi; non ultima la<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> raggiungere una molteplicità <strong>di</strong> target, in<strong>di</strong>pendentemente dal sistema<br />

me<strong>di</strong>atico formale. Le ITC permettono anche una propaganda fondamentale per<br />

l’auto-ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione dei giovani musulmani, tanto nei loro paesi <strong>di</strong> origine quanto<br />

in Europa.<br />

Ma un ruolo molto attivo lo giocano anche i contatti con moschee e centri islamici<br />

penetrati da pre<strong>di</strong>catori ra<strong>di</strong>cali e jiha<strong>di</strong>sti (in Italia è un problema soprattutto<br />

m<strong>il</strong>anese): in questo canale <strong>di</strong> reclutamento, i “reduci”, ossia mujahed<strong>di</strong>n ra<strong>di</strong>cali,<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>sti e salafiti che hanno partecipato ad azioni terroristiche e <strong>di</strong> guerriglia in uno<br />

dei tanti fronti aperti <strong>del</strong> jihad globale giocano un ruolo molto importante, per<br />

l’effetto imitativo e <strong>di</strong> mimesi, così come per rafforzare la convinzione che <strong>il</strong> jihad<br />

globale possa effettivamente essere combattuto e vinto.<br />

13


L’analisi <strong>di</strong> molti esperti rivela come questo sforzo <strong>di</strong> coltivare e addestrare jiha<strong>di</strong>sti e<br />

specialisti <strong>del</strong>la guerriglia urbana nel nostro continente si sia rivelata fruttuosa, non<br />

solo per creare una rete <strong>di</strong> cellule attive jiha<strong>di</strong>ste in Occidente, ma anche per<br />

raccogliere fon<strong>di</strong> e volontari da ut<strong>il</strong>izzare per le azioni <strong>di</strong> guerriglia o per gli attacchi<br />

suici<strong>di</strong> nei vari fronti aperti <strong>del</strong> jihad globale. Quanto preoccupa è <strong>il</strong> fatto che questi<br />

nuovi combattenti <strong>del</strong> jihad globale vengano reclutati fra gruppi socio-culturali molto<br />

<strong>di</strong>versi fra loro: vi sono aff<strong>il</strong>iati fra gli immigrati <strong>di</strong> prima generazione che non<br />

riescono a inserirsi nel mo<strong>del</strong>lo <strong>di</strong> vita occidentale (anche se non si tratta<br />

necessariamente <strong>di</strong> elementi socialmente marginalizzati), i quali trovano nel mo<strong>del</strong>lo<br />

islamico astorico e globale <strong>del</strong>le moschee neo-fondamentaliste europee un elemento<br />

fondamentale per la ricostruzione <strong>del</strong>la propria identità e acculturazione. Ma vi sono<br />

anche aff<strong>il</strong>iati fra gli immigrati <strong>di</strong> seconda e terza generazione che sono ormai<br />

deculturalizzati rispetto alla cultura d’origine dei loro padri. Infine, vi è anche la<br />

presenza <strong>di</strong> alcuni europei convertiti, un <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>mente quantificab<strong>il</strong>e nella<br />

sua reale <strong>di</strong>mensione, dato che molti si convertono all’islam solo per poter sposare<br />

donne musulmane. In ogni caso, gli europei convertiti e avvicinati all’ideologia <strong>del</strong><br />

jihad globale sembrano rappresentare un obiettivo particolarmente importante per al-<br />

Qa’ida e per i vari gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, dato che essi rappresentano elementi ancor più<br />

<strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>i da controllare per le forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza europee.<br />

Va anche notato come molte <strong>di</strong> queste cellule sembrano essere composte <strong>di</strong><br />

consanguinei e amici, che provengono dalla stessa area, e che cercano ispirazione,<br />

<strong>di</strong>rettive e addestramento attraverso internet, come <strong>di</strong>mostrato dagli attentati <strong>di</strong><br />

Londra. Come ben noto in Italia, più strutture anti-statuali sono strette da legami<br />

fam<strong>il</strong>istici e tribali (tipico <strong>il</strong> caso <strong>del</strong>la ‘ndrangheta calabrese), maggiore è la <strong>di</strong>fficoltà<br />

<strong>di</strong> penetrarle per le attività <strong>di</strong> intelligence.<br />

Il successo <strong>di</strong> questo proselitismo, deriva anche dal fatto che – <strong>di</strong>versamente rispetto<br />

a quanto sostenuto spesso, ossia che la molla principale dei jiha<strong>di</strong>sti sia<br />

nell’occupazione <strong>del</strong> proprio territorio da parte <strong>di</strong> forze allogene e nemiche o in una<br />

14


visione puramente nich<strong>il</strong>ista – <strong>il</strong> senso <strong>di</strong> frustrazione, <strong>di</strong> um<strong>il</strong>iazione percepita sia un<br />

elemento fondamentale.<br />

Insomma, secondo Scott Atran: «suicide terrorists today are not motivated<br />

exclusively or primar<strong>il</strong>y by foreign occupation, they are not <strong>di</strong>rected by a central<br />

organization, and they are not nih<strong>il</strong>istic. Most suicide terrorist today are inspired by<br />

a global jiha<strong>di</strong>sm which, despite atavistic cultural elements, is a thoroughly modern<br />

movement f<strong>il</strong>ing the popular political void in Islamic communities left in the wake of<br />

<strong>di</strong>scre<strong>di</strong>ted Western ideologies co-opted by corrupt local governments». 1<br />

Il presente stu<strong>di</strong>o analizza poi in dettaglio – grazie ai lavori <strong>di</strong> Reuven Paz e<br />

soprattutto a quello <strong>di</strong> Martellini-Maclaughlin – i pericoli <strong>del</strong>l’uso <strong>di</strong> armi <strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>di</strong> massa (WMD) da parte <strong>di</strong> gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti. In realtà, finora, <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>battito<br />

sull’uso <strong>di</strong> armi e/o materiali non convenzionali in ambito salafita e jiha<strong>di</strong>sta è stato<br />

molto limitato, e sono forti le perplessità anche da chi <strong>di</strong>fende <strong>il</strong> jihad. Tuttavia, la<br />

ricerca <strong>di</strong> effetti propagan<strong>di</strong>stici e <strong>di</strong> ut<strong>il</strong>izzare <strong>il</strong> cosiddetto “shock factor” nella lotta<br />

globale, porta naturalmente questi gruppi a considerare l’ut<strong>il</strong>izzo <strong>di</strong> queste armi per<br />

infliggere sostanziali per<strong>di</strong>te o per produrre devastanti effetti psicologici negli stati<br />

occidentali. Da questo punto <strong>di</strong> vista, più che i materiali collegati al nucleare,<br />

sembrano più fac<strong>il</strong>mente gestib<strong>il</strong>i i materiali ra<strong>di</strong>ologici. Da qui l’importanza <strong>di</strong><br />

aumentare e <strong>di</strong> coor<strong>di</strong>nare meglio la prevenzione e <strong>il</strong> controllo internazionale e<br />

sopranazionale in questo complesso campo, come sottolinea <strong>il</strong> saggio <strong>di</strong> Martellini-<br />

Maclaughlin.<br />

Diversi saggi <strong>di</strong> questo lavoro suggeriscono risposte e possib<strong>il</strong>i contro-strategie a<br />

questo <strong>fenomeno</strong>. In realtà, <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>battito sulle contromisure necessarie per fronteggiare<br />

<strong>il</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale e per vincere la minaccia <strong>del</strong> terrore è immenso, ed esula dagli<br />

obiettivi e dalle possib<strong>il</strong>ità questo stu<strong>di</strong>o. E’ tuttavia evidente come non si debba<br />

parlare <strong>di</strong> “risposta”, bensì <strong>di</strong> “risposte”, <strong>di</strong>verse ed articolate. Esistono risposte più<br />

operative <strong>di</strong> breve-me<strong>di</strong>o periodo che vanno da una migliore<br />

sorveglianza/monitoraggio <strong>del</strong>la rete <strong>di</strong> internet, all’inf<strong>il</strong>trazione nelle chat jiha<strong>di</strong>ste<br />

1 Scott Atran, The Moral Logic and Growth of Suicide Terrorism, «The Washington Quarterly», 29 (2006), n.2, p.139.<br />

15


per comprendere e contrastare dottrinalmente la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>l’ideologia jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

Se è certo cruciale <strong>il</strong> lavoro per <strong>di</strong>sarticolare i network <strong>di</strong> cellule attive, soprattutto in<br />

Europa, occorre anche non <strong>il</strong>ludersi <strong>di</strong> combattere contro un <strong>fenomeno</strong> fortemente<br />

gerarchizzato. I recenti attentati in Europa mostrano la flessib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> questi gruppi e<br />

l’importanza <strong>del</strong> fattore imitativo-mimetico; anche per questo <strong>il</strong> flusso <strong>di</strong> reduci dai<br />

vari <strong>di</strong> fronti <strong>di</strong> guerra interni o esterni alla Dar al-islam è molto importante: essi non<br />

solo forniscono expertise e professionalità, ma testimoniano la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong><br />

combattere <strong>il</strong> jihad globale, rafforzando l’idea che sia possib<strong>il</strong>e vincerlo. Molto<br />

importante è poi ridurre la possib<strong>il</strong>ità che i sis<strong>temi</strong> me<strong>di</strong>atici occidentali,<br />

<strong>di</strong>sastrosamente orientati al sensazionalismo <strong>del</strong> terrore, offrono al qa’i<strong>di</strong>smo. In<br />

questo senso è auspicab<strong>il</strong>e un ruolo <strong>del</strong>le istituzioni che, chiede Lombar<strong>di</strong>, «devono<br />

legittimare la presenza dei me<strong>di</strong>a dentro alle procedure <strong>di</strong> sicurezza che riguardano<br />

la nostra comunità».<br />

Ma è altresì evidente come una sola azione <strong>di</strong> repressione e <strong>di</strong> contro-intelligence non<br />

sia sufficiente. Occorre interiorizzare <strong>il</strong> fatto che <strong>il</strong> nich<strong>il</strong>ismo estremo non spiega <strong>il</strong><br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale, ma offre solo como<strong>di</strong> alibi per evitare <strong>di</strong> parlare degli errori e <strong>del</strong>le<br />

connivenze <strong>del</strong>l’Occidente verso sis<strong>temi</strong> corrotti, non rappresentativi, verso<br />

situazioni che um<strong>il</strong>iano i musulmani e minano la cre<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>ità occidentale. Senza una<br />

comprensione <strong>del</strong>le cause economico-sociali, politiche e cultural-identitarie <strong>di</strong> questa<br />

crisi che lacera orami da troppi decenni i molti mon<strong>di</strong> islamici, e che è <strong>di</strong>lagata in<br />

tutto <strong>il</strong> mondo anche come conseguenza <strong>del</strong>la globalizzazione e <strong>del</strong>la sempre più<br />

stretta inter<strong>di</strong>pendenza, non sarà possib<strong>il</strong>e affrontare durevolmente e cre<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>mente<br />

<strong>il</strong> problema <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo e <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale. L’idea <strong>del</strong>lo scontro <strong>del</strong>le civ<strong>il</strong>tà<br />

è una fac<strong>il</strong>e scorciatoia per non vedere fenomeni ben più complessi e crisi ben più<br />

profonde che attanagliano tutte le civ<strong>il</strong>tà e che sono sostanzialmente interne ad ogni<br />

macro-sistema cultural-religioso.<br />

16


Ascesa e frammentazione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale.<br />

Dall’islamizzazione <strong>del</strong>la modernità al jihad globale<br />

Riccardo Redaelli<br />

1. Il jiha<strong>di</strong>smo: evoluzione naturale o epi<strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong>l’islam?<br />

Il <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamista e la moltiplicazione <strong>del</strong>le cellule jiha<strong>di</strong>ste in<br />

Europa come nel resto <strong>del</strong> mondo rappresentano probab<strong>il</strong>mente <strong>il</strong> problema <strong>di</strong><br />

sicurezza maggiormente percepito oggi: una sorta <strong>di</strong> nemico metafisico, <strong>di</strong> Moloch<br />

ost<strong>il</strong>e che minaccia l’Occidente e i paesi ad esso collegati – in particolare i cosiddetti<br />

paesi arabi/islamici moderati (anche se si tratta <strong>di</strong> una definizione tutt’altro che<br />

sod<strong>di</strong>sfacente e che favorisce frainten<strong>di</strong>menti ed errori <strong>di</strong> valutazione politica).<br />

Come ben sottolinea Reuven Paz nel suo saggio sul <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> contenuto in questo<br />

stu<strong>di</strong>o, <strong>di</strong>versi gruppi islamisti hanno cercato <strong>di</strong> ricondurre le loro azioni violente<br />

all’interno <strong>di</strong> una rappresentazione ideologica <strong>di</strong>cotomica, <strong>di</strong> lotta fra la religione e<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>tà islamica contro quella occidentale. Sfortunatamente, questa visione manichea<br />

17


si è <strong>di</strong>ffusa con successo tanto all’interno <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico quanto in Occidente,<br />

anche sull’onda <strong>del</strong>la volgarizzazione mass-me<strong>di</strong>atica <strong>del</strong>la <strong>di</strong>scussa teoria <strong>di</strong> Samuel<br />

Huntington sullo «scontro <strong>del</strong>le civ<strong>il</strong>tà» 2 .<br />

All’interno <strong>del</strong> propagandato conflitto islam/Occidente, le <strong>di</strong>fferenze interne, le<br />

sfumature dottrinali, politiche, ideologiche e teologiche perdono <strong>di</strong>fferenza,<br />

lasciando <strong>il</strong> posto a una rielaborazione stereotipata e convenzionale tanto <strong>del</strong> Noi<br />

quanto <strong>del</strong>l’Altro; rielaborazione funzionale alla lettura <strong>di</strong>cotomica e conflittuale dei<br />

rapporti contemporanei fra i mon<strong>di</strong> musulmani e i mon<strong>di</strong> occidentali (volutamente al<br />

plurale). Riprendendo <strong>il</strong> pensiero <strong>di</strong> Edward Sa‘id 3 , siamo <strong>di</strong> fronte a un nuovo<br />

Orientalismo – dopo quello classico funzionale al periodo coloniale – con una visione<br />

caricaturale <strong>del</strong>l’islam quale civ<strong>il</strong>tà violenta e monolitica, contrapposto<br />

all’Occidentalismo dei gruppi islamisti, ossia l’invenzione <strong>di</strong> un Occidente coeso,<br />

aggressivo e reificato in soggetto agente nella politica internazionale: « Ciò che<br />

abbiamo chiamato ‘occidentalismo’ è <strong>il</strong> quadro <strong>di</strong>sumanizzato <strong>del</strong>l’Occidente che<br />

tratteggiano i suoi nemici» 4 .<br />

Fatto ancor più gravido <strong>di</strong> conseguenze, si è <strong>di</strong>ffusa in Occidente una lettura<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam come religione e come <strong>fenomeno</strong> storico, sociale e culturale non solo<br />

erronea, ma astorica e perennialista. La complessità <strong>del</strong>la realtà dei <strong>di</strong>versi mon<strong>di</strong><br />

musulmani e le variazioni nel vissuto islamico attraverso le varie epoche storiche –<br />

non <strong>di</strong>versamente da quanto avvenuto in Europa con la enorme <strong>di</strong>versità <strong>del</strong> vissuto<br />

2 Uscito dapprima come articolo su «Foreing Affairs», The Clash of Civ<strong>il</strong>ization, è <strong>di</strong>venuto poco dopo un libro dal<br />

successo mon<strong>di</strong>ale. La teoria <strong>di</strong> uno scontro fra civ<strong>il</strong>tà, che sarebbe seguita al confronto bipolare basato sulle<br />

ideologie è stata al centro <strong>di</strong> un amplissimo <strong>di</strong>battito, con sostenitori e denigratori <strong>del</strong>le idee <strong>di</strong> Huntington. Fra i<br />

tanti che sottolineano le lacune e le debolezze scientifiche <strong>del</strong>la teoria <strong>del</strong>lo scontro <strong>del</strong>le civ<strong>il</strong>tà, ricordo Oliver<br />

Roy, John Esposito e soprattutto Dieter Senghaas, autore <strong>di</strong> The Clash within civ<strong>il</strong>izations, London – New York,<br />

1998, i quali sottolineano come le tensioni che ci appaiono come apparente scontro <strong>di</strong> civ<strong>il</strong>tà, riflettono al<br />

contrario la crisi interna e la frammentazione <strong>del</strong>le stesse per effetto <strong>del</strong>la globalizzazione e dei mutamenti socioeconomici<br />

e culturali. Con<strong>di</strong>visib<strong>il</strong>e anche la critica circa le datata visione <strong>di</strong> civ<strong>il</strong>tà come soggetti storici<br />

monolitici.<br />

3 Le opere <strong>di</strong> Ewdar Sa’id e – soprattutto Orientalism – sono meno conosciute in Italia che nel resto <strong>del</strong> mondo, e in<br />

particolare nei paesi anglo-sassoni, ove l’influenza dei concetti sa’i<strong>di</strong>ani è stata fortissima negli ambienti<br />

intellettuali e universitari. Fra le sue opere ricordo, Orientalismo, M<strong>il</strong>ano, 1991 e Culture and Imperialism, London,<br />

1993.<br />

4 «Ciò che abbiamo chiamato ‘occidentalismo’ è <strong>il</strong> quadro <strong>di</strong>sumanizzato <strong>del</strong>l’Occidente che tratteggiano i suoi<br />

nemici …. È chiaro che non possono essere spiegati come un problema specificatamente islamico. Nel mondo<br />

musulmano molte cose sono andate in modo sbagliato, ma l’occidentalismo non può essere ridotto a una malattia<br />

me<strong>di</strong>orientale». Ian Burma e Avishai Margalit, Occidentalismo. L’Occidente agli occhi dei suoi nemici, Torino, 2004,<br />

p.5.<br />

18


eligioso cristiano attraverso venti secoli – non vengono percepite, <strong>di</strong>lagando una<br />

visione <strong>del</strong> vissuto islamico e <strong>del</strong>l’interpretazione <strong>del</strong>la Legge religiosa (la shari’a) che<br />

fa <strong>del</strong>l’islam un monolite immutab<strong>il</strong>e. Secondo Ghassam Salamé: «The idea of an<br />

Arab and/or Islamic ‘exceptionalism’ has thus re-emerged among both western<br />

proponents of universal democracy and established orientalists, and this in turn has<br />

encoruged a great many local apologists of ‘cultural authenticity’ in their rejection of<br />

western mo<strong>del</strong>s of government», e ancora: «una sorta <strong>di</strong> santa alleanza che unisce <strong>il</strong><br />

fondamentalismo più sguaiato all'orientalismo più folcloristico nell'affermazione,<br />

storicamente falsa, ideologicamente partigiana e intellettualmente effimera<br />

<strong>del</strong>l'ontologismo musulmano» 5 .<br />

In verità, la maggior parte degli stu<strong>di</strong>osi <strong>di</strong> islam sottolinea la non sostenib<strong>il</strong>ità<br />

scientifica <strong>di</strong> una tale rappresentazione. Non solo non esiste un solo modo <strong>di</strong><br />

applicare i precetti <strong>del</strong>la shari’a nelle <strong>di</strong>verse regioni islamiche, ma – nella storia – vi<br />

sono perio<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> straor<strong>di</strong>naria apertura culturale <strong>del</strong>l’islam, <strong>di</strong> ricettività e tolleranza,<br />

che contrastano con l’immagine stereotipata <strong>del</strong>l’islam contemporanea, che gli stessi<br />

islamisti e movimenti jiha<strong>di</strong>sti vogliono accre<strong>di</strong>tare come l’unica vera. In verità, se si<br />

analizza la storia <strong>del</strong>l’islam, si evince chiaramente come l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale sia una<br />

innovazione recente, una deviazione dalla tra<strong>di</strong>zione islamica e non un «ritorno ai<br />

fondamenti puri <strong>del</strong>la religione islamica» come pretendono gli ideologi <strong>del</strong><br />

ra<strong>di</strong>calismo e <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo violento islamisti. Ancora oggi, la maggioranza dei<br />

pensatori e dei movimenti politici islamisti rifiuta <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> jihad globale come<br />

mezzo per stab<strong>il</strong>ire una forma veramente islamica <strong>di</strong> governo, pur mantenendo<br />

formulazioni ambigue nel <strong>di</strong>fferenziarsi dalle violenze, e accentuando le «colpe»<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Occidente e <strong>di</strong> Israele quali istigatori <strong>del</strong>le violenze, che sarebbero una risposta<br />

alle politiche <strong>di</strong> repressione e <strong>di</strong> accanimento contro l’islam e i musulmani.<br />

Prima <strong>di</strong> affrontare la tematica <strong>del</strong>la presente ricerca è quin<strong>di</strong> fondamentale capire<br />

questo elemento: <strong>il</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo, <strong>il</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo, <strong>il</strong> qa’i<strong>di</strong>smo, <strong>il</strong> salafismo sono tutte<br />

reazioni contemporanee alla modernità e all’impatto travolgente che le <strong>di</strong>verse<br />

5 Ghassam Salamé (Ed.), Democracy without Democrats ? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World, London – New<br />

York, 1994. p. 1 e citato da F. Burgat, L'islamisme en face, Parigi 1996, p. 17.<br />

19


egioni <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico hanno avuto con l’espansione coloniale prima e con <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong>la globalizzazione poi. Un giu<strong>di</strong>zio che si evince tanto guardando da<br />

una prospettiva storico-culturale, come fanno <strong>di</strong>versi autori (G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel, John<br />

Esposito, Ghassan Salamé), quanto da una più sociologica, come fa ad esempio<br />

Olivier Roy. Pur rifiutando la modernità occidentale, questi movimenti crescono e<br />

prosperano proprio grazie ad essa, adottandone le tecniche e modalità. Secondo<br />

alcuni, anzi, la stessa al-Qa’ida «è un effetto collaterale <strong>del</strong>la globalizzazione. La<br />

caratteristica che la contrad<strong>di</strong>stingue – progettare una forma privatizzata <strong>di</strong> violenza<br />

organizzata a livello mon<strong>di</strong>ale – era impossib<strong>il</strong>e in passato» 6 .<br />

Tutto ciò non significa voler negare lo stato <strong>di</strong> profonda crisi che vive l’islam<br />

contemporaneo, una crisi che si evidenzia ormai da molti anni in tutte le <strong>di</strong>verse<br />

regioni <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano. La questione fondamentale è se queste<br />

manifestazioni islamiste ra<strong>di</strong>cali siano una deviazione e un’aberrazione <strong>di</strong> una<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>zione religiosa ben <strong>di</strong>versa, o se esse ne siano invece <strong>il</strong> risultato naturale, poiché<br />

le cause <strong>del</strong> loro sv<strong>il</strong>uppo sono contenute nel messaggio religioso islamico? In altre<br />

parole, <strong>il</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo islamisti è un epi<strong>fenomeno</strong> o una tendenza innata <strong>del</strong>l’islam 7 ?<br />

IL RADICALISMO ISLAMICO: TENDENZA INNATA O EPIFENOMENO? Estratto da<br />

un articolo <strong>di</strong> Paolo Branca pubblicato su «Annali <strong>di</strong> Scienze religiose», 4/1999.<br />

[….]<br />

Se alcuni caratteri presenti nella formulazione tra<strong>di</strong>zionale <strong>del</strong>l'islam, insieme a talune<br />

funzioni mancanti o quanto meno bloccate, sembrano favorire l'emergere <strong>del</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo<br />

musulmano, non possiamo esimerci dal notare che le forme e le <strong>di</strong>mensioni da quest'ultimo<br />

recentemente assunte devono essere ricondotte anche e forse soprattutto a fattori legati a<br />

situazioni storico-politiche: "Islamic fundamentalism is both fully politics and fully<br />

religion". 8 La grande mob<strong>il</strong>itazione che ha caratterizzato la recente storia <strong>del</strong> mondo arabomusulmano<br />

ha portato fatalmente al priv<strong>il</strong>egiare un pensiero finalizzato al raggiungimento<br />

<strong>di</strong> obiettivi pratici che esso contribuiva a sostenere e legittimare, mettendo tra parentesi la<br />

funzione critica che pure dovrebbe contrad<strong>di</strong>stinguere l'azione degli intellettuali. Pur nelle<br />

mutate con<strong>di</strong>zioni storiche e culturali l'idéologie de combat persiste, con la funzione <strong>di</strong> «ridurre<br />

la complessità <strong>del</strong>le realtà storiche, sociologiche e psicologiche a un insieme <strong>di</strong> affermazioni<br />

6 John Gray, Al Qaeda e <strong>il</strong> significato <strong>del</strong>la modernità, Roma, 2004, p.5.<br />

7 Cfr. Paolo Branca, Il ra<strong>di</strong>calismo islamico: tendenza innata o epi<strong>fenomeno</strong>?, «Annali <strong>di</strong> Scienze Religiose», 1999, n.4,<br />

pp. 89-102.<br />

8 J.J.G. Jansen, The dual nature of Islamic fundamentalims, Londra 1997, p. 1.<br />

20


più o meno coerenti, destinate a valorizzare e legittimare gli obiettivi <strong>del</strong>l'azione collettiva.<br />

Non si tratta tanto <strong>di</strong> raggiungere l'obiettività - come si sforza <strong>di</strong> fare <strong>il</strong> pensiero scientifico -<br />

quanto <strong>di</strong> trasformare con<strong>di</strong>zioni <strong>di</strong> vita ritenute insopportab<strong>il</strong>i in altre che vengono<br />

idealizzate per renderle più desiderab<strong>il</strong>i». 9<br />

«La situazione culturale, politica ed economica attuale <strong>del</strong> mondo arabo fa sì che sia<br />

impossib<strong>il</strong>e, soprattutto se si è arabi e dal mondo arabo, parlare <strong>del</strong>la religione come <strong>di</strong> un<br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> sociale totalmente spiegab<strong>il</strong>e [...] Il risultato è che ogni <strong>di</strong>scorso sulla società, sulla<br />

religione, sul <strong>di</strong>ritto suppone preventivamente una sorta <strong>di</strong> autocensura da parte <strong>di</strong> chi parla<br />

o scrive. Quest’ultima consiste nel riconoscere l’incontestab<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> alcune verità e principii<br />

per la ragione - anch’essa incontestab<strong>il</strong>e - che essi non possono essere messi in <strong>di</strong>scussione. Il<br />

massimo <strong>di</strong> libertà che ci si può permettere <strong>di</strong> fronte a tutto ciò è quin<strong>di</strong> far finta <strong>di</strong> niente,<br />

cercare <strong>di</strong> cavarsela con giochi <strong>di</strong> parole o correre <strong>il</strong> rischio <strong>del</strong>la scomunica (Ali Abdurrazik,<br />

Tahar Haddad...) o <strong>del</strong>la messa a morte (Mahmoud Mohamed Taha, giustiziato da Numeiry<br />

nel 1985). E’ dunque un <strong>di</strong>battito quasi impossib<strong>il</strong>e, poiché gli mancano due con<strong>di</strong>zioni<br />

in<strong>di</strong>spensab<strong>il</strong>i all’obiettività: l’accordo sugli strumenti d’analisi e l’autonomia <strong>di</strong> giu<strong>di</strong>zio. In<br />

generale, l'analisi <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> religioso coinvolge colui che la conduce in prima persona e<br />

ciò non è dovuto esclusivamente a una debolezza intrinseca alla sua personalità o alla sua<br />

formazione, ma all’ambiente in cui opera. Infatti ciò che egli scriverà, a <strong>di</strong>spetto <strong>del</strong>la<br />

neutralità che si sforzerà <strong>di</strong> mantenere, sarà percepito come una scelta <strong>di</strong> campo religioso,<br />

ideologico, etnico o politico. Per quanto egli tenterà <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>ssociarsi, la società continuerà a<br />

valutarlo secondo i propri criteri e gli negherà ogni neutralità. [...] Egli lo sa e sa che,<br />

impegnandosi nella ricerca, è condannato a perdere la propria innocenza, in quanto sa che<br />

alla fine potrà essere condannato. E’ quin<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong> tutto naturale che - non essendo ogni<br />

intellettuale necessariamente un eroe - in tali con<strong>di</strong>zioni non tutto venga detto e che <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>scorso <strong>del</strong>l’intellettuale a proposito <strong>del</strong>la religione, <strong>del</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto, <strong>del</strong>la politica sia<br />

<strong>di</strong>plomatico, fatto <strong>di</strong> s<strong>il</strong>enzi, prudenza e furbizie, sia in definitiva un <strong>di</strong>scorso corrotto». 10<br />

E' indubbio che su questa situazione hanno influito anche elementi esterni: l'incapacità <strong>di</strong><br />

contribuire alla soluzione dei conflitti, allo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo economico e al superamento <strong>di</strong><br />

con<strong>di</strong>zioni sfavorevoli all'armonica coesistenza fra <strong>di</strong>fferenti civ<strong>il</strong>tà non soltanto non<br />

contribuisce a rimuovere, ma col tempo rafforza una logica <strong>del</strong> rifiuto e <strong>del</strong>la<br />

contrapposizione che ha come conseguenza sul piano interno <strong>il</strong> ripiegamento su <strong>di</strong> sé nella<br />

ricerca <strong>di</strong> un mo<strong>del</strong>lo proprio e autosufficiente che, per quanto mitico, svolge una funzione<br />

<strong>di</strong> rifugio e <strong>di</strong> rassicurazione che contribuisce alla sua <strong>di</strong>ffusione al suo successo.<br />

[…]<br />

Credo che questi tratti possano essere riscontrati nella visione tra<strong>di</strong>zionale <strong>di</strong> molte religioni<br />

e che l'islam sembrerebbe ad<strong>di</strong>rittura più pre<strong>di</strong>sposto a sv<strong>il</strong>upparle in forza sia <strong>di</strong> alcune sue<br />

originarie <strong>di</strong>sposizioni, sia <strong>del</strong>la fase involutiva che sta attraversando, sia infine dei fattori<br />

esterni che ne con<strong>di</strong>zionano lo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo. Il ra<strong>di</strong>calismo religioso si configura così nell'islam<br />

come una sorta <strong>di</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> ritornante, esito <strong>di</strong> alcuni no<strong>di</strong> irrisolti <strong>di</strong> base uniti alla<br />

funzione che la religione è chiamata ad assolvere perio<strong>di</strong>camente da quanti la ut<strong>il</strong>izzano per<br />

legittimare la propria azione, poco importa se finalizzata al mantenimento o al<br />

rovesciamento <strong>del</strong>lo status quo. Quanto questo stato <strong>di</strong> cose sia pernicioso per la stessa sorte<br />

9 M. Arkoun, La pensée arabe, Parigi 1985 (1.a ed. 1975), p. 107.<br />

10 Yadh Ben Achour, Religion et Droit dans le Monde arabe, Tunisi 1992, pp. 28-29.<br />

21


<strong>del</strong>l'islam è chiaramente percepito da alcuni: «La religione, ben lungi dall'essere l'origine <strong>di</strong><br />

questa <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e situazione, ne è la prima vittima». 11<br />

Nel tentativo <strong>di</strong> rispondere alla <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e domanda che ci siamo posti e alla quale non<br />

preten<strong>di</strong>amo <strong>di</strong> aver fornito una risposta completa né definitiva, ho dato voce quasi<br />

esclusivamente ad autori musulmani. Voglio concludere sottolineando questo punto poiché<br />

mi sembra la più chiara <strong>di</strong>mostrazione che, in definitiva, qualsiasi determinismo sarebbe<br />

indebito e ingiustificato: l'islam non è un blocco monolitico e i musulmani non sono meri<br />

esponenti <strong>di</strong> un sistema statico e inalterab<strong>il</strong>e. Oltre le grida <strong>di</strong> chi fa la voce più grossa <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>battito è vivo e merita rispetto e considerazione più <strong>di</strong> quanto comunemente avviene. Mi<br />

sembra dunque giusto e opportuno terminare con le considerazioni <strong>di</strong> uno <strong>di</strong> quanti vi<br />

partecipano, se non altro per contribuire a fare uscire dall'ombra una <strong>del</strong>le tante figure che<br />

meriterebbero ben maggiore visib<strong>il</strong>ità: «Al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>la crisi politica e sociale, <strong>il</strong> mondo<br />

musulmano affronta tuttavia, oggi, la sua più grande crisi religiosa. Così come la mancanza<br />

<strong>di</strong> un pensiero politico critico va <strong>di</strong> pari passo con lo strapotere <strong>del</strong>lo Stato, la mancanza <strong>di</strong><br />

un'autorità legittima religiosa seguita dai fe<strong>del</strong>i fa perdere <strong>il</strong> controllo sulle forze spirituali<br />

<strong>del</strong>la religione. Da forza d'umanizzazione e <strong>di</strong> stab<strong>il</strong>izzazione, la religione si trasforma in<br />

potenza esplosiva. Il riconoscimento <strong>di</strong> uno spazio proprio, al riparo da ogni ingerenza<br />

politica, quella <strong>del</strong>lo Stato in primo luogo, può solo permettere all'islam, oggi veramente<br />

devastato dall'accumulazione d'esigenze contrad<strong>di</strong>ttorie e <strong>di</strong>sor<strong>di</strong>nate, <strong>di</strong> ritrovare la sua<br />

purezza, la sua identità, <strong>il</strong> suo equ<strong>il</strong>ibrio interno, la rassicurazione e la ripresa spirituale». 12<br />

2. Il problema <strong>del</strong>la definizione <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> islamista<br />

Le definizioni <strong>di</strong> “fondamentalismo islamico”, o <strong>di</strong> “ra<strong>di</strong>calismo” o <strong>di</strong> “integralismo”<br />

sono ormai entrate da anni nel linguaggio comune dei mass me<strong>di</strong>a, <strong>di</strong>venendo una<br />

comoda etichetta per definire fenomeni, tendenze e movimenti in realtà molto <strong>di</strong>versi<br />

fra loro. Come tutte le definizioni generalizzanti, anch'esse rischiano da un lato <strong>di</strong><br />

imbrigliare la complessa realtà o<strong>di</strong>erna in schemi rigi<strong>di</strong>, e dall'altro <strong>di</strong> risultare<br />

ambigue o fuorvianti.<br />

Particolare <strong>di</strong>ffusione ha avuto <strong>il</strong> termine “fondamentalismo”, ut<strong>il</strong>izzato dagli<br />

stu<strong>di</strong>osi occidentali per in<strong>di</strong>care una molteplicità <strong>di</strong> movimenti moderni a sfondo<br />

religioso. Adottato inizialmente per in<strong>di</strong>care alcuni movimenti cristiani protestanti<br />

11 B. Ghalioun, , Islam e islamismo. La modernità tra<strong>di</strong>ta, Roma 1998, p. 118.<br />

12 Ibidem, pp. 199-200.<br />

22


statunitensi <strong>di</strong> fine secolo XIX - i quali sostenevano un'interpretazione rigorosamente<br />

letterale <strong>del</strong>la Bibbia - questa parola è stata ut<strong>il</strong>izzata con sempre maggior frequenza<br />

per identificare gruppi politici e religiosi appartenenti anche ad altre religioni, come<br />

<strong>il</strong> neo-induismo, l'ebraismo, lo scintoismo e particolarmente l'islamismo.<br />

Negli ultimi decenni, <strong>il</strong> fondamentalismo è andato assumendo una connotazione<br />

marcatamente negativa, identificando ambiguamente sia movimenti che pre<strong>di</strong>cavano<br />

un ritorno alle proprie (mitizzate) origini e ai propri fondamenti religiosi, sia gruppi<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>calmente ost<strong>il</strong>i alle <strong>di</strong>namiche <strong>del</strong>la Modernizzazione, sia movimenti <strong>di</strong><br />

opposizione politica che si legittimavano religiosamente. E in particolare, larghissima<br />

<strong>di</strong>ffusione ha avuto la definizione <strong>di</strong> “fondamentalismo islamico”, per identificare<br />

dei movimenti <strong>di</strong> attivismo sociale e politico fondati sull’islam; un islam a un tempo<br />

ideologia politica e religione. In essi è fondamentale – quando non ad<strong>di</strong>rittura<br />

ossessiva – l’idea <strong>di</strong> tornare alle fonti <strong>del</strong>l’islam più puro, come <strong>il</strong> Corano (<strong>il</strong> Libro<br />

sacro che contiene le rivelazioni fatte da Dio tramite Maometto, e che è quin<strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>rettamente parola <strong>di</strong> Dio), la shari‘a, la comunità primigenia <strong>del</strong>l’islam, <strong>del</strong> periodo<br />

<strong>del</strong> Profeta e dei primi califfi (i cosiddetti al-Rashidun, i “Ben guidati”).<br />

Molti stu<strong>di</strong>osi <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano hanno sottolineato le vaghezze <strong>di</strong> questo<br />

termine, <strong>il</strong> suo essere ut<strong>il</strong>izzato in modo talora contrad<strong>di</strong>ttorio, caricato <strong>di</strong> significati<br />

– e anche <strong>di</strong> simboli – <strong>di</strong>versi, proponendo altre definizioni che dovrebbero<br />

sostituirlo o definirlo più nettamente.<br />

Se <strong>il</strong> termine <strong>di</strong> integralismo/integrismo è ormai scarsamente adottato, per le sue<br />

evidenti connotazioni valoriali negative <strong>di</strong> cui è così carico, maggior fortuna ha avuto<br />

la definizione <strong>di</strong> “ra<strong>di</strong>calismo”. L’islam ra<strong>di</strong>cale è un termine molto ut<strong>il</strong>izzato, talora<br />

in sostituzione <strong>del</strong> termine fondamentalismo, in altri casi per in<strong>di</strong>care un preciso<br />

momento storico all’interno <strong>del</strong>la più generale corrente <strong>del</strong> fondamentalismo: ossia <strong>il</strong><br />

periodo che segue <strong>il</strong> cosiddetto risveglio islamico e <strong>il</strong> primo riformismo islamico, e<br />

che ha fra i suoi principali ideologi Sayyid Qutb, in Mawdu<strong>di</strong> e in Khomeini (le basi<br />

ideologiche <strong>del</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo – ancora allo sta<strong>di</strong>o <strong>di</strong> corrente intellettuale - si sarebbero<br />

23


sv<strong>il</strong>uppate soprattutto negli anni ’50 e ’60, dando vita a movimenti politici attivi veri<br />

e propri con gli anni ’70).<br />

Nella letteratura scientifica si è spesso ricorso anche a perifrasi come “movimenti<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’attivismo islamico”, o a definizioni come “l’islam politico”, o “islam m<strong>il</strong>itante”.<br />

Con queste parole si voleva evidenziare <strong>il</strong> fatto che i movimenti islamici che si<br />

andavano descrivendo non perseguissero tanto, o solo, un’imposizione artificiale<br />

sopra tutta la società islamica <strong>di</strong> pratiche religiose e consuetu<strong>di</strong>ni <strong>di</strong> un passato<br />

immaginato; essi tentavano piuttosto <strong>di</strong> ri-organizzare l'intero or<strong>di</strong>ne socio-politico<br />

secondo la loro lettura <strong>del</strong> religioso. L’islam era una via per risolvere tutti i numerosi<br />

problemi sociali, politici ed economici creando una “contro-utopia” alternativa<br />

all’Occidente, alla modernità e alla globalizzazione: un’ideologia per la conquista <strong>del</strong><br />

potere politico e la rie<strong>di</strong>ficazione <strong>del</strong>la società.<br />

John Esposito ha sottolineato come <strong>il</strong> termine «fondamentalismo» sia una definizione<br />

troppo imbevuta <strong>di</strong> presupposti cristiani e <strong>di</strong> stereotipi occidentali, e che spinga alla<br />

visione erronea <strong>di</strong> una minaccia monolitica che in realtà non esiste. Da qui l’idea <strong>di</strong><br />

ut<strong>il</strong>izzare <strong>il</strong> termine <strong>di</strong> «revival islamico», o <strong>di</strong> «attivismo islamico» - definizione<br />

quest’ultima spesso adotta in questo stu<strong>di</strong>o – che sembrano più legati alla storia<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam. Esso, infatti, possiede una lunga tra<strong>di</strong>zione <strong>di</strong> revivalismo religioso (taj<strong>di</strong>d)<br />

come <strong>di</strong> riformismo (islah), che includono anche l’attivismo sociale e politico che ha<br />

caratterizzato lunghi perio<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>la storia islamica, dai primi secoli post Egira ai giorni<br />

nostri 13 .<br />

Negli ultimi anni si è andato <strong>di</strong>ffondendo nel nostro paese la definizione <strong>di</strong><br />

“islamismo” e <strong>di</strong> “islamisti” – movimenti islamismi, ideologia islamista, etc. – per<br />

definire queste realtà. E’ un termine ripreso dal francese les islamistes (a sua volta<br />

derivato dall’arabo al-islamiyyun), ma che ha trovato <strong>del</strong>le resistenze per i suoi<br />

possib<strong>il</strong>i frainten<strong>di</strong>menti, dato che in Italia, l’islamista è anche lo stu<strong>di</strong>oso <strong>di</strong> cose<br />

islamiche, l’esperto <strong>di</strong> islam.<br />

13 Cfr. John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality, Oxford, 1999, pp.6 sgg. Dello stesso autore ve<strong>di</strong> anche<br />

l’interessante Guerra Santa? Terrore nel nome <strong>del</strong>l’Islam, M<strong>il</strong>ano, 2004.<br />

24


In ogni caso, quale sia la definizione ut<strong>il</strong>izzata, essa rimane comunque un’etichetta<br />

data dall’esterno, che viene generalmente rifiutata dalla maggior parte dei pensatori<br />

e degli attivisti <strong>del</strong>l’islam m<strong>il</strong>itante. Questi ultimi – fondamentalisti, ra<strong>di</strong>cali, islamisti<br />

che <strong>di</strong>r si voglia – si auto-definiscono come al-islamiyyun, oppure come salafiti, dalla<br />

parola salaf (i pii antenati <strong>del</strong> tempo <strong>del</strong> Profeta e <strong>del</strong>le generazioni imme<strong>di</strong>atamente<br />

succesive), riallacciandosi così all’idea <strong>di</strong> un islam puro <strong>del</strong>le origini. Essi,<br />

insod<strong>di</strong>sfatti dalla comune qualifica <strong>di</strong> "musulmani" (muslimûn), pongono l'accento<br />

non tanto sulla loro fede come fatto personale, quanto la loro adesione a un sistema<br />

religioso totalizzante <strong>di</strong> cui si priv<strong>il</strong>egia l'aspetto istituzionale rispetto all’accettazione<br />

in<strong>di</strong>viduale, riproponendo, <strong>il</strong> prevalere <strong>del</strong>la legge sulla teologia che caratterizza da<br />

sempre l’islam.<br />

Secondo alcuni stu<strong>di</strong>osi arabi, come ad esempio M. `Imâra 14 (uno stu<strong>di</strong>oso che<br />

simpatizza con i movimenti ra<strong>di</strong>cali islamisti), la definizione <strong>di</strong> "fondamentalisti"<br />

(usûliyyûn) è completamente inesatta, dato che essa qualifica in Occidente un insieme<br />

<strong>di</strong> movimenti conservatori, mentre nel mondo islamico si tratta – a suo <strong>di</strong>re - <strong>di</strong><br />

movimenti rivoluzionari e riformisti. Egli opta così per la definizione <strong>di</strong> islâmî,<br />

ripresa da antiche opere classiche <strong>del</strong>la tra<strong>di</strong>zione islamica (cf. al-Ash`arî, Maqâlât al-<br />

islâmiyyîn, <strong>del</strong> X sec.), anche se secondo Paolo Branca, a ‘Imara sfugge la <strong>di</strong>fferenza<br />

fondamentale che, in quelle opere classiche, <strong>il</strong> termine designava in<strong>di</strong>stintamente<br />

tutte le <strong>di</strong>verse correnti <strong>del</strong> pensiero musulmano, riconoscendone implicitamente la<br />

qualifica <strong>di</strong> “islamicità”". Al contrario gli attivisti islamisti <strong>di</strong> questi anni considerano<br />

veramente islamica solo la propria posizione, mettendo in <strong>di</strong>scussione l’islamicità <strong>di</strong><br />

quanti non con<strong>di</strong>vidono <strong>il</strong> loro pensiero.<br />

M.A. al-`Alim 15 suggerisce <strong>il</strong> termine <strong>di</strong> usuliyya per definire <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong>, ossia<br />

l'attenersi alla lettera a tali princìpi (usûl) così come si trovano nei testi, e la<br />

conseguente tendenza ad applicarli al quoti<strong>di</strong>ano in modo acritico e totalizzante,<br />

prescindendo dai singoli casi e dall’analisi <strong>del</strong>le realtà contingenti.<br />

14 M. `Imâra, al-Usûliyya bayna al-gharb wal-islâm (Il fondamentalismo tra occidente e islam), Il Cairo 1998, pp. 16-<br />

17.<br />

15 M. A. al-`Alim, al-Fikr al-`arabî bayna al- khusûsiyya wa-l-kauniyya (Il pensiero arabo fra particolarismo e<br />

universalismo), Il Cairo 1996, pp. 100-101.<br />

25


Insomma, una concezione totalizzante e autoreferenziale, che rifiuta tutto ciò che<br />

percepisce come non omogeneo ad essa, e promovendo una visione dualistica e<br />

<strong>di</strong>cotomica <strong>del</strong> mondo, <strong>di</strong>viso fra bene e male, lecito e <strong>il</strong>lecito, credente e<br />

miscredente, e traendo infine da questa <strong>di</strong>cotomia una giustificazione superiore per<br />

la violenza <strong>del</strong>le loro politiche.<br />

Sayyid Qutb e le “Pietre M<strong>il</strong>iari” <strong>del</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo islamico<br />

Lo scrittore egiziano Sayyid Qutb (1906 - 1966) è stato l’ideologo più influente dei Fratelli<br />

Musulmani dopo la morte <strong>del</strong> loro fondatore, Hasan al-Banna, avvenuta nel 1949, ed è ancor<br />

oggi un riferimento teoretico per l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale e jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

Qutb, un funzionario <strong>del</strong> Ministero egiziano <strong>del</strong>l’istruzione, si avvicinò all’Associazione dei<br />

Fratelli Musulmani dopo un soggiorno <strong>di</strong> circa due anni negli Stati Uniti (1948 - 50);<br />

quest’esperienza ra<strong>di</strong>cò in lui la convinzione <strong>del</strong>la profonda alterità e inconc<strong>il</strong>iab<strong>il</strong>ità fra<br />

modernità occidentale e islam. Paradossalmente, Qutb ha involontariamente assorbito idee e<br />

linguaggi rivoluzionari e d’opposizione tipici <strong>del</strong>l’Europa <strong>del</strong> XIX secolo, e <strong>del</strong><br />

contro<strong>il</strong>luminismo europeo abbinata a «l’estetica postkantiana <strong>del</strong>l’in<strong>di</strong>vidualismo liberale»,<br />

quando afferma la fede c0me impegno personale espresso attraverso un atto <strong>di</strong> volontà16. Dopo la rivoluzione degli “Ufficiali Liberi” <strong>del</strong> 1952 egli collaborò per breve tempo con la<br />

nuova <strong>di</strong>rigenza rivoluzionaria, ma profonde <strong>di</strong>fferenze ideologiche portarono Qutb su<br />

posizioni sempre più critiche. Arrestato nel 1954 e condannato all’ergastolo, rimase in carcere<br />

fino al 1964 allorché venne r<strong>il</strong>asciato per un breve periodo. Già l’anno dopo era nuovamente<br />

in carcere. Condannato per tra<strong>di</strong>mento fu infine impiccato nell’agosto <strong>del</strong> 1966.<br />

In carcere Qutb scrisse o completò alcune opere che hanno rappresentato i testi <strong>di</strong><br />

riferimento principali per i movimenti <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo islamico più ra<strong>di</strong>cali: dall’imponente<br />

commentario in 30 volume <strong>del</strong> Corano, dal titolo Fi z<strong>il</strong>al al-Qur’an (All’ombra <strong>del</strong> Corano) al<br />

libro Ma’alim fi al-tariq (Pietre M<strong>il</strong>iari), apparso nel 1964. In quest’opera Qutb riprendeva –<br />

dandogli forti connotazioni ideologiche – i concetti <strong>di</strong> jah<strong>il</strong>iyya e <strong>di</strong> takfir. Il primo termine<br />

in<strong>di</strong>ca semplicemente <strong>il</strong> periodo prima <strong>del</strong>la rivelazione <strong>di</strong> Maometto, ossia “pre-islamico”;<br />

Qutb ne fa una definizione a-temporale, dai significativi profondamente negativi, <strong>di</strong> periodo<br />

barbaro, corrotto, anti-islamico, e la usa per definire le società contemporanee <strong>del</strong> mondo<br />

musulmano. Esse non sono islamiche perché non vivono secondo i precetti <strong>del</strong>la Legge<br />

religiosa, e si sono lasciate corrompere dalla modernità occidentale. I loro governanti sono<br />

per Qutb colpevoli <strong>di</strong> una <strong>del</strong>le colpe più gravi per un musulmano, ossia l’apostasia<br />

volontaria (takfir). Volontariamente essi hanno abbandonato l’islam: una colpa che va punita<br />

con la morte. Inoltre essi sono <strong>di</strong>venuti parte <strong>del</strong>la “grande cospirazione contro l’islam”, un<br />

altro tema molto ricorrente in Qutb: una lotta permanente ingaggiata da forze ost<strong>il</strong>i all’islam,<br />

che ha per obiettivo la <strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>del</strong>l’islam stesso, e che vede molti musulmani asserviti<br />

all’«intruso occidentale». Una lotta <strong>del</strong>la miscredenza e <strong>del</strong> materialismo contro la vera fede<br />

e la spiritualità.<br />

16 Cfr. Leonard Binder, Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Ideologies, Chicago, 1988, p.193.<br />

26


E’ evidente la riflessione <strong>di</strong> tipo binario, basata sull’antitesi, <strong>del</strong> pensiero <strong>di</strong> Qutb, e la sua<br />

natura <strong>di</strong> pensiero reattivo a un presente rifiutato, che irrigi<strong>di</strong>sce <strong>il</strong> pensiero dei Fratelli<br />

Musulmani e ne favorisce la deriva violenta, ra<strong>di</strong>cale e <strong>il</strong> dogmatismo ideologico, come<br />

sottolineato anche da Tariq Ramadan 17.<br />

3. Ascesa e frammentazione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale<br />

Lo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo e l’ascesa dei movimenti <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo islamico riformista e ra<strong>di</strong>cale,<br />

violenti o meno che siano, è un argomento che esula dal presente stu<strong>di</strong>o. Si tratta in<br />

ogni caso <strong>di</strong> un processo storico che attraversa la seconda metà <strong>del</strong> secolo XIX e tutto<br />

<strong>il</strong> secolo XX; un processo <strong>di</strong> straor<strong>di</strong>naria complessità e pluralità, sul quale la<br />

bibliografia occidentale è amplissima.<br />

La molteplicità storica e socio-culturale <strong>di</strong> questi movimenti non può certo essere<br />

sovrasemplificata per essere riassunta in poche righe. In ogni caso, pur sottolineando<br />

questa pluralità e la <strong>di</strong>versità <strong>del</strong>le manifestazioni islamiste, sembra <strong>di</strong> poter scorgere<br />

alcuni elementi che ne rappresentano i tratti caratteristici”: 18<br />

«i) principio <strong>del</strong>l'inerranza, relativo al contenuto <strong>del</strong> Libro sacro, assunto nella sua<br />

interezza, come una totalità <strong>di</strong> senso e <strong>di</strong> significati che non possono essere<br />

scomposti, e soprattutto che non possono essere interpretati liberamente dalla<br />

ragione umana, pena lo stravolgimento <strong>del</strong>la verità che <strong>il</strong> Libro racchiude;<br />

ii) principio <strong>del</strong>l'astoricità <strong>del</strong>la verità e <strong>del</strong> Libro che la conserva; l'astoricità significa<br />

che è preclusa alla ragione umana la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> collocare <strong>il</strong> messaggio religioso in<br />

una prospettiva storica o <strong>di</strong> adattarlo alle mutate con<strong>di</strong>zioni <strong>del</strong>la società umana;<br />

17 Tariq Ramadan, nipote <strong>di</strong> Hassan el-Banna e controverso stu<strong>di</strong>oso musulmano residente in Europa sottolinea lo<br />

spostamento ideologico e la ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione <strong>del</strong> pensiero dei Fratelli Musulmani attuata da Sayyid Qutb rispetto<br />

al pensiero <strong>del</strong> fondatore <strong>del</strong>la Fratellanza. Cfr. Tariq Ramadan, Il riformismo islamico. Un secolo <strong>di</strong> rinnovamento<br />

musulmano, Troina (Enna), 2004, pp.411 sgg.<br />

18 E. Pace, R. Guolo, I fondamentalismi, Bari 1998, p. 6.<br />

27


iii) principio <strong>del</strong>la superiorità <strong>del</strong>la Legge <strong>di</strong>vina su quella terrena, secondo cui dalle<br />

parole scritte nel Libro sacro scaturisce un mo<strong>del</strong>lo integrale <strong>di</strong> società perfetta,<br />

superiore a qualsiasi forma <strong>di</strong> società inventata e configurata dagli esseri umani;<br />

iv) primato <strong>del</strong> mito <strong>di</strong> fondazione: un vero e proprio mito <strong>del</strong>le origini che ha la<br />

funzione <strong>di</strong> segnalare l'assolutezza <strong>del</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> credenza cui ogni fe<strong>del</strong>e è chiamato<br />

ad aderire e <strong>il</strong> senso profondo <strong>di</strong> coesione che stringe tutti coloro che ad essa fanno<br />

riferimento (etica <strong>del</strong>la fraternità).»<br />

E’ soprattutto alla fine degli anni ’70, che si registra <strong>il</strong> prepotente ritorno sulla scena<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam. Il mondo si confronta con movimenti <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo islamico che vedono e<br />

ut<strong>il</strong>izzano l’islam soprattutto come una ideologia politica tesa alla conquista <strong>del</strong><br />

potere, una forza “rivoluzionaria e popolare” capace <strong>di</strong> mob<strong>il</strong>itare le masse e <strong>di</strong><br />

pre<strong>di</strong>care la rottura <strong>del</strong>l’or<strong>di</strong>ne costituito. Quasi tutti i regimi <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano<br />

ne sono scossi, e gli islamisti <strong>di</strong>vengono rapidamente in Occidente l’emblema <strong>di</strong> una<br />

alterità culturale minacciosa e pericolosa, la variab<strong>il</strong>e principale per analizzare i<br />

possib<strong>il</strong>i sv<strong>il</strong>uppi politici e sociali <strong>di</strong> tutto <strong>il</strong> Dar al-islam. Si tratta <strong>di</strong> movimenti molto<br />

aggressivi, che affermano <strong>di</strong> rifiutare l’Occidente in quanto civ<strong>il</strong>tà irriconc<strong>il</strong>iab<strong>il</strong>e con<br />

l’islam. Ma contemporaneamente combattono anche l’islam praticato<br />

meccanicamente dagli ‘ulema’ tra<strong>di</strong>zionali, combattono le visioni riformiste <strong>del</strong>la<br />

religione – che appaiono loro come un allontanamento dai precetti coranici e dalla<br />

perfezione <strong>del</strong>l’islam <strong>del</strong>le origini – e combattono con forza anche le spinte<br />

secolariste e nazionaliste (<strong>il</strong> «nemico interno». «l’intruso occidentale» stigmatizzato<br />

da tanti pensatori islamisti).<br />

Il nazionalismo in particolare, che era stata l’ideologia dominante in tutto <strong>il</strong> Me<strong>di</strong>o<br />

Oriente nei decenni precedenti, è attaccato con forza dal nuovi movimenti islamisti. I<br />

partiti e i leader <strong>del</strong>la lotta contro <strong>il</strong> colonialismo e gli alfieri <strong>del</strong>la modernità<br />

nazionale – come <strong>il</strong> Partito <strong>del</strong>la Resurrezione Araba, Nasser, <strong>il</strong> regime imperiale<br />

<strong>del</strong>lo shah Pahlavi, per citarne alcuni – sono visti negativamente: <strong>il</strong> nazionalismo,<br />

secondo essi, indebolisce la umma (la comunità dei credenti), imponendo <strong>di</strong>visioni<br />

artificiali e contrarie all’or<strong>di</strong>ne voluto da Dio. Disgregando l’unità dei fe<strong>del</strong>i, e<br />

28


indebolendo quin<strong>di</strong> l’islam, <strong>il</strong> nazionalismo finisce per <strong>di</strong>venire una <strong>di</strong>mostrazione <strong>di</strong><br />

miscredenza.<br />

Queste idee e questi movimenti non nascono dal nulla. Fra la fine degli anni ’70 e gli<br />

anni ’90 essi hanno goduto <strong>di</strong> un prepotente successo, che ha attirato loro <strong>il</strong> consenso<br />

<strong>di</strong> masse <strong>di</strong> studenti, <strong>di</strong> esponenti <strong>del</strong> ceto me<strong>di</strong>o esclusi dal potere, <strong>del</strong>la masse <strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>seredati e <strong>del</strong> sottoproletario formatosi nelle megalopoli per effetto dei processi <strong>di</strong><br />

inurbamento e per la crisi <strong>del</strong>le società tra<strong>di</strong>zionali. Ma le loro origini risalgono a<br />

molto prima. Sono <strong>il</strong> frutto <strong>del</strong>la riflessione e <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo <strong>di</strong> pensatori e <strong>di</strong><br />

movimenti che iniziano a muoversi negli anni ’30 e ’40. L’associazione deI Fratelli<br />

Musulmani in Egitto, con la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong> pensiero <strong>del</strong> suo fondatore, Hasan al-<br />

Banna, e <strong>del</strong> già ricordato Sayyid Qutb, <strong>del</strong>l’in<strong>di</strong>ano musulmano Abu ‘Ala Mawdu<strong>di</strong><br />

– la cui influenza sopra i movimenti islamisti <strong>del</strong>la regione araba è speso<br />

sottostimata, ma è in realtà notevolissima – e <strong>del</strong>l’ayatollah sciita iraniano Ruhollah<br />

Khomeini, sono i riferimenti principali per l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale: essi faranno<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam un’ideologia rivoluzionaria e d’opposizione capace <strong>di</strong> sconvolgere l’assetto<br />

politico-istituzionale <strong>di</strong> tutto <strong>il</strong> mondo musulmano.<br />

Un’utopia affascinante, che promette <strong>di</strong> restaurare la società giusta dei primor<strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam, <strong>di</strong> trovare soluzioni ai fallimenti economici dei nuovi regimi usciti dalla<br />

fase <strong>di</strong> decolonizzazione, <strong>di</strong> eliminare gli squ<strong>il</strong>ibri sociali e la <strong>di</strong>lagante corruzione, <strong>di</strong><br />

proteggere le famiglie dalle impetuose trasformazioni sociali imposte dalla<br />

modernizzazione, <strong>di</strong> dare voce al <strong>di</strong>ssenso e <strong>di</strong> combattere l’autoritarismo e la<br />

soppressione <strong>del</strong>le libertà civ<strong>il</strong>i. Un pensiero fac<strong>il</strong>mente traducib<strong>il</strong>e in slogan efficaci<br />

e che semplificano dualisticamente la complessa realtà contemporanea. Il tutto<br />

restaurando in pieno i valori profon<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>la civ<strong>il</strong>tà islamica, espressi nel Corano. Il<br />

ritorno inderogab<strong>il</strong>e alla Legge, la shari‘a, e la sua piena applicazione nella società<br />

sono obiettivi conclamati. Non è l’islam che deve adattarsi alla modernità. E’ la<br />

modernità che deve essere islamizzata.<br />

Importante, è stato anche <strong>il</strong> ruolo giocato in questi anni dall’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta, che era<br />

stata, come noto, la maggiore beneficiaria <strong>del</strong> vertiginoso aumento <strong>di</strong> risorse<br />

29


economiche per i paesi produttori <strong>di</strong> petrolio prodotto prima crisi petrolifera <strong>del</strong><br />

1973. Il regno sau<strong>di</strong>ta ut<strong>il</strong>izzò questa nuova ricchezza per rafforzare sia <strong>il</strong> proprio<br />

ruolo <strong>di</strong> potenza regionale politicamente moderata (contrapposta alle repubbliche<br />

rivoluzionarie arabe <strong>di</strong> Siria, Iraq, Libia, etc.), sia per esportare nel resto <strong>del</strong> mondo<br />

islamico la propria visione <strong>del</strong>l’islam – legata al movimento <strong>del</strong> wahhabismo 19 - fino<br />

ad allora estremamente marginale.<br />

Fino agli anni ’60, infatti, la corrente wahhabita era considerata come un movimento<br />

settario e “arretrato” rispetto al mondo moderno dalla maggior parte dei giurisperiti<br />

e dei teologi musulmani. Ma nella seconda metà degli anni ’70 la situazione iniziò a<br />

mutare. La crisi <strong>del</strong>le ideologie nazionaliste e modernizzanti favorì questo progetto<br />

<strong>di</strong> esportazione <strong>del</strong>la propria “visione” islamica. L’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta finanziò un po’<br />

ovunque centri religiosi, inviò ‘ulema’ hanbaliti (la scuola giuri<strong>di</strong>ca hanbalita,<br />

vigente in Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta è la più rigorista e rigida <strong>del</strong>le scuola giuri<strong>di</strong>che canoniche)<br />

per <strong>di</strong>rigere nuove moschee, creò scuole religiose, etc.. A ciò si è aggiunto <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong>l’immigrazione lavorativa: conta<strong>di</strong>ni, artigiani, <strong>di</strong>plomati e laureati,<br />

giovani professori emigravano dalle <strong>di</strong>verse regioni <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico per trovare<br />

lavoro nelle ricche monarchie petrolifere <strong>del</strong> Golfo. Qui assorbirono almeno in parte<br />

le forme <strong>di</strong> religiosità <strong>del</strong> luogo, che riporteranno nei loro paesi <strong>di</strong> origine, alla fine<br />

19 Wahhabismo è un termine che identifica un movimento rigorista sunnita <strong>di</strong>ffusosi nell’Arabia centrale attorno<br />

alla metà <strong>del</strong> XVIII secolo, a opera <strong>di</strong> Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703 - 1792). Tale definizione è per la<br />

verità rifiutata dai wahhabiti stessi che preferiscono definirsi muwahhidun (ossia “sostenitori, <strong>di</strong>fensori<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Unicità <strong>di</strong> Dio”). Al-Wahhab riprese e rielaborò <strong>il</strong> pensiero <strong>del</strong>l’insigne teologo e giurista musulmano Ibn<br />

Taymiyya (1263 - 1328), vissuto in uno dei momenti più critici <strong>del</strong>la storia islamica, subito dopo la fine <strong>del</strong><br />

califfato e durante <strong>il</strong> periodo <strong>del</strong> dominio mongolo sul mondo iranico e <strong>il</strong> Levante. Questi r<strong>il</strong>anciò gli<br />

insegnamenti <strong>del</strong>la scuola giuri<strong>di</strong>ca (madhhab) hanbalita - la più rigorosa e intransigente <strong>del</strong>le quattro scuole<br />

giuri<strong>di</strong>che classiche sunnite, fondata dal giurista Ibn Hanbal (m. 855 d.C.) – rivitalizzandone gli insegnamenti e<br />

contribuendo alla sua <strong>di</strong>ffusione. Adottando una interpretazione molto rigida e “purista” <strong>del</strong>la dottrina hanbalita<br />

e <strong>del</strong> pensiero <strong>di</strong> Ibn Taymiyya, i wahhabiti hanno sempre avversato ogni presunta “deviazione” dalla purezza<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islam <strong>del</strong>le origini, ogni forma <strong>di</strong> ostentazione <strong>del</strong> lusso, mostrando una decisa ost<strong>il</strong>ità verso <strong>il</strong> misticismo, le<br />

forme popolari <strong>di</strong> fede (come <strong>il</strong> culto dei santi, da essi aborrito) e una certa avversione agli sciiti. Il wahhabismo<br />

crebbe <strong>di</strong> importanza fra la fine <strong>del</strong> XVIII e l’inizio <strong>del</strong> XIX secolo, arrivando a controllare parte <strong>del</strong>la penisola<br />

arabica, prima <strong>di</strong> essere sconfitto dagli ottomani, che gli inviarono contro <strong>il</strong> governatore d’Egitto, Muhammad<br />

‘Ali (1805 - 1849). Sostenuti politicamente da uno degli antenati degli attuali sovrani sau<strong>di</strong>ti, Ibn al-Sa‘ud, i<br />

wahhabiti riemersero quale primario elemento politico e m<strong>il</strong>itare <strong>del</strong>la penisola arabica nel primo dopoguerra,<br />

con la fondazione <strong>del</strong> regno <strong>del</strong>l’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta (1924). Proprio <strong>il</strong> loro rigorismo estremo ha a lungo impe<strong>di</strong>to una<br />

più vasta <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong> movimento. A partire dagli anni ’70, l’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta ha investito somme notevoli per<br />

l’esportazione <strong>del</strong> pensiero wahhabita nel resto <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico, dando vita a una pluralità <strong>di</strong> movimenti<br />

islamisti estremamente ra<strong>di</strong>cali (spesso definiti come movimenti neo-wahahbiti), spesso legati al <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong><br />

terrorismo islamico (in particolare nell’area afgano-pakistana, nel Caucaso, nell’Asia centrale e nel Sud-est<br />

asiatico).<br />

30


<strong>del</strong> loro periodo <strong>di</strong> lavoro nel Golfo. Il risultato è stato quello <strong>di</strong> una crescita dei<br />

movimenti ra<strong>di</strong>cali islamici e una sempre più esasperata attenzione verso le pratiche<br />

islamiche “corrette” in molti paesi musulmani, e soprattutto in Pakistan e nel sud-est<br />

asiatico.<br />

Questo ambizioso programma teso all’affermazione <strong>del</strong> ruolo regionale sau<strong>di</strong>ta e alla<br />

creazione <strong>di</strong> un network <strong>di</strong> movimenti e ideologi islamisti nelle <strong>di</strong>verse aree <strong>del</strong><br />

mondo islamico “ben <strong>di</strong>sposti” verso la casa regnante <strong>di</strong> Riyad è riuscito però solo in<br />

parte. Il trattamento sprezzante dei lavoratori stranieri, l’espulsione <strong>di</strong> molti <strong>di</strong> essi<br />

con <strong>il</strong> sopraggiungere <strong>del</strong>la crisi economica negli anni ’90, la palese contrad<strong>di</strong>zione<br />

fra la dottrina professata e gli st<strong>il</strong>i <strong>di</strong> vita <strong>del</strong>la famiglia reale, <strong>il</strong> ricorso alla<br />

protezione degli Stati Uniti in seguito all’invasione <strong>del</strong> Kuwait da parte <strong>del</strong>l’Iraq <strong>di</strong><br />

Saddam Hussein (1990), con la cessione <strong>di</strong> basi m<strong>il</strong>itari permanenti agli americani sul<br />

“sacro suolo” <strong>del</strong>l’Arabia – che contiene le città sante <strong>di</strong> Mecca e Me<strong>di</strong>ca, precluse ai<br />

non musulmani – sono tutti motivi che hanno finito per vanificare gran parte <strong>di</strong><br />

questo progetto.<br />

Le conseguenze più pericolose <strong>di</strong> questa politica <strong>di</strong> sostegno ai movimenti islamici<br />

sunniti più dogmatici e ra<strong>di</strong>cali si sono però palesate solo nella seconda metà degli<br />

anni ’90, con lo sv<strong>il</strong>uppo <strong>di</strong> movimenti islamisti estremamente violenti e ra<strong>di</strong>cali,<br />

fortemente ost<strong>il</strong>i all’occidente e agli stessi sau<strong>di</strong>ti. La presenza Usa nel Golfo e <strong>il</strong><br />

sostegno politico-m<strong>il</strong>itare dato ad essi dalle monarchie petrolifere ha scatenato<br />

l’opposizione politica. I <strong>di</strong>versi gruppi islamismi d’opposizione hanno così finito per<br />

rafforzare progressivamente la loro cooperazione trans-nazionale, sfruttando aree <strong>di</strong><br />

tensione come l’Afghanistan, la Cecenia e <strong>il</strong> Kashmir.<br />

In ogni caso, i risultati politici <strong>di</strong> questi movimenti islamisti sono stati estremamente<br />

<strong>del</strong>udenti, dato che quasi ovunque essi – pur influenzando e trasformando le società<br />

islamiche e ottenendo un aumento <strong>del</strong> conformismo religioso e l’adozione <strong>di</strong> norme<br />

giuri<strong>di</strong>che “sciaraitiche” – hanno fallito la conquista <strong>del</strong> potere, anche per via <strong>del</strong>la<br />

violenta repressione attuata da molti regimi “secolari” con <strong>il</strong> sostegno occidentale (ad<br />

esempio, l’Egitto, l’Algeria, la Tunisia, etc.). L’ideologia <strong>di</strong> questi gruppi –<br />

31


estremamente ra<strong>di</strong>cale – s’incentrava sulla retorica <strong>del</strong>la <strong>di</strong>fesa <strong>del</strong>l’islam dagli<br />

attacchi <strong>del</strong>l’Occidente e dei “sionisti”, ma gli obiettivi principali <strong>del</strong>l’azione erano<br />

principalmente <strong>di</strong>retti all’interno <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico: <strong>il</strong> loro obiettivo era scar<strong>di</strong>nare<br />

i regimi (politicamente) moderati per creare veri stati islamici. Ironicamente, fra gli<br />

obiettivi primari vi era anche <strong>il</strong> governo sau<strong>di</strong>ta, a lungo uno degli “appren<strong>di</strong>sti<br />

stregoni” <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale sunnita.<br />

I movimenti islamisti che si muovevano in un’ottica – per così <strong>di</strong>re – nazionale, ossia<br />

miranti a prendere <strong>il</strong> potere nei singoli stati islamici abbattendone i «regimi empi»,<br />

per affermarsi dall’interno, dovevano riuscire a operare una sintesi politica e<br />

ideologica fra gruppi sociali <strong>di</strong>versi, che erano portatori <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>verse agende sociali.<br />

G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel 20 parla <strong>del</strong>la necessità – per questi movimenti – <strong>di</strong> aggregare oltre alla<br />

intellighenzia islamista, le masse urbane <strong>di</strong> giovani, spesso emarginate dal regime o<br />

che vivono situazioni sociali ed economiche estremamente frustranti, come<br />

conseguenza <strong>del</strong> boom demografico che ha caratterizzato la seconda metà <strong>del</strong> XX<br />

secolo, e che ha prodotto enormi tensioni socio-economiche in tutti i paesi afro-<br />

asiatici. Ma fondamentale è per i movimenti islamisti riuscire ad aggregare anche <strong>il</strong><br />

ceto me<strong>di</strong>o religioso tra<strong>di</strong>zionale(<strong>il</strong> ceto <strong>del</strong> bazar) , che forma un ceto sociale spesso<br />

nebuloso ma in<strong>di</strong>spensab<strong>il</strong>e per rafforzare <strong>il</strong> consenso popolare, generalmente<br />

scontento dei regimi al potere ma che rifugge gli eccessi <strong>del</strong>l’attivismo islamico più<br />

violento.<br />

Nonostante gli indubbi successi parziali <strong>di</strong> molti <strong>di</strong> questi movimenti nel re-<br />

islamizzare parzialmente le società in cui operavano, ottenendo significative<br />

concessioni dai vari regimi a ci si opponevano (come ad esempio in Egitto) o<br />

riuscendo a venire cooptati (come nel caso <strong>del</strong>l’Indonesia, <strong>del</strong> Pakistan e <strong>del</strong>la<br />

Malaysia) in tema <strong>di</strong> shari’a, <strong>di</strong> co<strong>di</strong>ci <strong>di</strong> famiglia, <strong>di</strong> scuole coraniche, etc., essi hanno<br />

mancato quasi ovunque la conquista <strong>del</strong> potere.<br />

20 Cfr alcuni lavori <strong>di</strong> G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel, Fitna. Guerra nel cuore <strong>del</strong>l’islam, Roma-Bari, 2004; idem, <strong>Jihad</strong>. Ascesa e declino<br />

<strong>del</strong>la guerra santa, Roma, 2001; idem, The Tra<strong>il</strong> of Political Islam, Opendemocracy.net, luglio 2002<br />

(www.opendemocracy.net).<br />

32


All’inizio degli anni ’90 si è così assistito a una trasformazione <strong>del</strong> pensiero islamico<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>cale che per alcuni anni non è stato percepito nella sua interezza in Occidente: vi<br />

è stata una ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione dei movimenti islamisti, e una loro crescente<br />

frammentazione. L’aumento <strong>del</strong>le violenze e la crescente ra<strong>di</strong>calità <strong>del</strong>le posizioni ha<br />

finito per favorire <strong>il</strong> frazionamento <strong>di</strong> questi movimenti, e ne ha ridotto <strong>il</strong> sostegno<br />

popolare, in particolare presso <strong>il</strong> ceto me<strong>di</strong>o tra<strong>di</strong>zionale. Afghanistan, Kashmir,<br />

Cecenia sono <strong>di</strong>venuti dei centri <strong>di</strong> training per cellule terroristiche, per singoli<br />

combattenti in nome <strong>del</strong>l’islam; si sono formati gruppi para-m<strong>il</strong>itari dotati <strong>di</strong> un’alta<br />

mob<strong>il</strong>ità nelle <strong>di</strong>verse “aree calde” internazionali (dal Me<strong>di</strong>o Oriente, al Maghreb, dal<br />

Sudan alla Bosnia, al Sud-est asiatico), grazie a un network <strong>di</strong> movimenti e<br />

organizzazioni clandestine sempre più ramificato (al-Qa’ida ne è l’esempio più<br />

famoso). Il <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong> <strong>reducismo</strong> <strong>di</strong> combattenti mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, i quali ritornavano<br />

nei propri paesi dopo aver combattuto i «nemici <strong>del</strong>l’islam» in Afghanistan, Sudan,<br />

Kashmir, Cecenia, ex Jugoslavia, Algeria, etc. ha favorito l’emergere <strong>di</strong> gruppi<br />

islamisti e jiha<strong>di</strong>sti spesso non legati ai tra<strong>di</strong>zionali movimenti islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cali più<br />

strutturali, o comunque non controllab<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

La spirale <strong>di</strong> violenze, la fuga verso posizioni sempre più massimaliste, <strong>il</strong> clamore<br />

<strong>del</strong>le azioni <strong>di</strong> alcuni gruppi m<strong>il</strong>itanti (come gli attentati <strong>del</strong> settembre 2001 a<br />

Washington e New York) ha enfatizzato oltre misura la loro azione e <strong>il</strong> loro peso<br />

effettivo all’interno <strong>del</strong> Dar al-islam. In realtà proprio queste tendenze sembrano aver<br />

ridotto la capacità <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale, e ne hanno favorito una<br />

<strong>di</strong>varicazione fra movimenti islamisti politici e gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti.<br />

Per quanto spesso ambigui nei loro rapporti con l’uso <strong>del</strong>la violenza e nel<br />

condannare gli attacchi terroristici, gruppi come i Fratelli Musulmani in Egitto e in<br />

Giordania, gli elementi più moderati <strong>del</strong> FIS, i partiti islamici pakistani – sol per fare<br />

alcuni esempi –hanno un’agenda che è essenzialmente sociale e politica, molto più<br />

secolarizzata <strong>di</strong> quanto la loro retorica e la loro ideologia potrebbe lasciar intendere.<br />

Da questi movimenti sono usciti gruppi sempre più ra<strong>di</strong>cali e violenti, che hanno<br />

finito per indebolire i gruppi islamisti che perseguono i loro obiettivi rifiutando <strong>il</strong><br />

33


icorso alla violenza. Profittando <strong>del</strong> clima <strong>di</strong> allarme generale, molti governi (si<br />

vedano ad esempio i casi <strong>del</strong>lo Hizb-e Tahrir in Uzbekistan e <strong>del</strong>la Malaysia) hanno<br />

attuato una repressione <strong>del</strong>l’opposizione islamista non-violenta.<br />

Alcuni stu<strong>di</strong>osi occidentali hanno già parlato <strong>di</strong> “tramonto”, <strong>di</strong> “declino”<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale come ideologia politica, travolta dalla sanguinosa ascesa e<br />

dalle violenze <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo salafita. Le variab<strong>il</strong>i storiche e culturali, in realtà, sono<br />

così numerose – e così complesse – da rendere ardua ogni previsione univoca. Certo<br />

è che le varie espressioni <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo sono risultate generalmente incapaci <strong>di</strong><br />

tramutarsi da opposizione politica a forza <strong>di</strong> governo (finendo in molti casi per<br />

scivolare verso forme <strong>di</strong> opposizione violenta che hanno favorito la loro brutale<br />

repressione da parte dei regimi al potere). Nei pochi casi in cui essi sono<br />

effettivamente riusciti a ottenere un ruolo politico e amministrativo, i loro risultati<br />

sono risultati per lo più estremamente <strong>del</strong>udenti.<br />

4. L’islam globale e <strong>il</strong> terrorismo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

La lotta in Afghanistan contro <strong>il</strong> regime comunista <strong>di</strong> Kabul e le truppe<br />

d’occupazione sovietiche da parte dei muhajed<strong>di</strong>n (ve<strong>di</strong> box sul jihad) è stata, come già<br />

ricordato, un turning point fondamentale, assieme alla vittoria <strong>del</strong>la rivoluzione<br />

popolare in Iran, che permise a Khomeyni <strong>di</strong> instaurare una repubblica islamica<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>cale. Dopo la vittoria sul comunismo in Afghanistan – e la successiva caduta per<br />

implosione <strong>di</strong> tutto <strong>il</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> potere sovietico è stata letta dagli islamisti ra<strong>di</strong>cali<br />

come un effetto <strong>del</strong>la loro lotta m<strong>il</strong>itante – <strong>il</strong> nucleo duro <strong>di</strong> combattenti formatisi<br />

sugli impervi campi <strong>di</strong> battaglia centroasiatici continuarono la loro battaglia, vuoi<br />

ritornando nei loro paesi d’origine per alimentare nuovi e più violenti gruppi<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>sti che combattono contro <strong>il</strong> regime al potere, vuoi spostandosi in altri<br />

quadranti geostrategici per alimentare lotte contro chi minacci l’islam: «the Islamist<br />

34


victory against the Soviets re-energized Salafi jiha<strong>di</strong>sm and moved it from a local to a<br />

global struggle: the inward-looking doctrine of bin Laden’s Salafi-Wahhabism was<br />

transformed by the transnational jiha<strong>di</strong>sm of the followers of Qutb» 21 .<br />

Questa nuova <strong>di</strong>mensione panislamista e a-nazionale «risponde anche alla necessità <strong>di</strong><br />

mantenere vivo <strong>il</strong> mito panislamista ma è anche <strong>il</strong> tentativo <strong>di</strong> sfuggire alla riduzione<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’islamismo a fattore locale […] l’ideologia panislamista ha funzionato per molti anni più<br />

da mito <strong>di</strong> riferimento che come pratica effettiva. Ma dopo le dure sconfitte subite negli<br />

scenari nazionali, in particolare in Egitto e in Algeria, gli “internazionalisti” hanno cercato <strong>di</strong><br />

trasformare tale riferimento in progetto politico» 22 . Da qui la ripresa <strong>del</strong>l’idea califfale, con <strong>il</strong><br />

progetto politico <strong>di</strong> un nuovo califfato islamico che superi ogni <strong>di</strong>visione etnica, regionale e<br />

culturale in favore <strong>di</strong> una nuova presa <strong>di</strong> coscienza <strong>del</strong>la umma islamica. Se per anni, i<br />

movimenti islamisti si sono mossi su base nazionale, mirando alla presa <strong>del</strong> potere nei singoli<br />

stati, molto più efficace – e fianco ideologicamente e m<strong>il</strong>itarmente comodo – è stato<br />

deterritorializzare la lotta jiha<strong>di</strong>sta, unendo <strong>il</strong> «nemico interno», «l’empio governante», ai<br />

«crociati cristiani» e al tra<strong>di</strong>zionale «nemico sionista». Lo scontro fra la jah<strong>il</strong>iyya e l’islam<br />

perde ogni valenza geografica e ogni confine, e si fa ideologica e culturale. Se <strong>il</strong> Nemico è<br />

globale e pervasivo, anche <strong>il</strong> jihad deve essere globale e pervasivo, colpendo i nemici <strong>del</strong>la<br />

vera fede ovunque sia possib<strong>il</strong>e e in tutte le forme che siano possib<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

Il complesso significato <strong>del</strong> termine jihad<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong> è un termine <strong>di</strong> lingua araba entrato ormai nel linguaggio comune, spesso tradotto<br />

imprecisamente come “guerra santa” – una guerra che i musulmani dovrebbero combattere<br />

contro “gli infe<strong>del</strong>i”.<br />

Si tratta <strong>di</strong> una interpretazione estremamente limitata e che genera frainten<strong>di</strong>menti. Da un<br />

punto <strong>di</strong> vista f<strong>il</strong>ologico, la parola jihad deriva dalla ra<strong>di</strong>ce jhd, che in<strong>di</strong>ca lo “sforzo”,<br />

“l’applicarsi verso qualcosa”.<br />

Maometto parla <strong>di</strong> jihad come <strong>di</strong> sforzo, <strong>di</strong> impegno sulla via <strong>di</strong> Dio. La dottrina giuri<strong>di</strong>ca<br />

musulmana classica ha poi co<strong>di</strong>ficato quattro modalità in cui è possib<strong>il</strong>e attuare <strong>il</strong> jihad: con<br />

l’animo, con la parola, con la mano e con la spada. I primi tre rimangono nella sfera<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’impegno etico e morale personale – e sono talora definiti come “grande jihad”. Il “piccolo<br />

jihad” sarebbe l’ultimo, ossia quello con la spada.<br />

In ogni caso <strong>il</strong> jihad con la spada è un obbligo che <strong>di</strong> solito attiene alla comunità dei<br />

musulmani (umma), non al singolo in<strong>di</strong>viduo (non vincola cioè tutti i singoli i credenti, ma<br />

21 M<strong>il</strong>itant <strong>Jihad</strong>ism Ra<strong>di</strong>calization, Conversion, Recruitment, «ITAC Presents», 2006, n.4, p.5.<br />

22 Renzo Guolo, Il partito <strong>di</strong> Dio. L’islam ra<strong>di</strong>cale contro l’Occidente, M<strong>il</strong>ano, 2004, pp.88-89.<br />

35


solo un numero “sufficiente” all’interno <strong>del</strong>la comunità, a meno che sia in pericolo l’esistenza<br />

<strong>del</strong>la comunità). E non può essere ut<strong>il</strong>izzato per in<strong>di</strong>care <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> guerra (<strong>di</strong> conquista,<br />

<strong>di</strong> bottino, etc.) in generale. E’ un conflitto armato teso alla <strong>di</strong>fesa o all’espansione <strong>del</strong>l’islam<br />

– da qui la ripresa <strong>del</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> “guerra santa” - che può essere combattuto solo in certi<br />

casi, rigidamente definiti dai giuristi classici musulmani, e solo contro certe categorie sociali.<br />

Per la dottrina classica, <strong>il</strong> jihad deve essere combattuto:<br />

i) contro i pagani, i politeisti e gli idolatri (kafirun), ma solo dopo aver formulato<br />

chiari inviti alla loro conversione, e dopo aver accertato <strong>il</strong> loro rifiuto. Non può esser<br />

combattuto contro ebrei, cristiani e zoroastriani – a meno che essi minaccino l’umma<br />

islamica - dato perché essi godono <strong>di</strong> uno statuto particolare e non sono considerati<br />

kafirun (infe<strong>del</strong>i);<br />

ii) contro gli apostati (irtidad), una colpa molto grave nell’islam, che la shari‘a<br />

sanziona con la pena <strong>di</strong> morte;<br />

iii) contro i ribelli politici, se la loro ribellione al legittimo imam minaccia l’unità e la<br />

sicurezza <strong>del</strong>la comunità musulmana<br />

iv) per la <strong>di</strong>fesa <strong>del</strong>le frontiere <strong>del</strong> Dar al-islam, ossia tutti i territori in cui prevalga<br />

l’islam, e viga la shari‘a (questa forma <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>fesa viene chiamata ribat).<br />

In ogni caso – secondo la dottrina - esso deve risparmiare donne, bambini, vecchi e infermi, e<br />

può essere proclamato solo da ‘ulema’ ab<strong>il</strong>itati, capaci <strong>di</strong> valutarne i rischi e i vantaggi. Un<br />

punto su cui oggi esiste un <strong>di</strong>battito molto vivo nel mondo musulmano dato che esso<br />

contrasta con la dottrina jiha<strong>di</strong>sta contemporanea <strong>del</strong>la lotta globale contro ogni occidentale<br />

e con ogni espe<strong>di</strong>ente, sfruttando la forza <strong>del</strong> martirio per la vera fede.<br />

Nell’epoca contemporanea <strong>il</strong> jihad è <strong>di</strong>venuto via via una potente arma ideologica per la lotta<br />

politica interna ai vari stati <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano, per scre<strong>di</strong>tare e <strong>del</strong>egittimare<br />

l’avversario, e per giustificare azioni violente anceh all’interno <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano. Il<br />

jihad, infatti, va combattuto anchecontro gli apostati, fra cui vi sono tutti quei musulmani che<br />

rifiutano la vera interpretazione <strong>del</strong>l’islam e che servono l’Occidente. Uno degli esempi più<br />

noti e quello <strong>del</strong>l’uccisione <strong>del</strong> presidente egiziano Anwar Sadat da parte <strong>di</strong> gruppi islamicora<strong>di</strong>cali:<br />

per loro, Sadat era <strong>di</strong>venuto un apostata, e la sua uccisione un dovere <strong>del</strong>la<br />

comunità islamica. Il termine è stato r<strong>il</strong>anciato dalla guerriglia tribale e islamica contro <strong>il</strong><br />

regime comunista <strong>di</strong> Kabul dopo <strong>il</strong> colpo <strong>di</strong>stato comunista <strong>del</strong> 1978 e <strong>il</strong> successivo<br />

intervento sovietico: i guerriglieri si definirono mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, ossia combattenti <strong>il</strong> jihad,<br />

<strong>di</strong>fensori <strong>del</strong> Dar al-islam. Il termine si rivelò un potente ed efficacissimo veicolo <strong>di</strong><br />

propaganda in tutto <strong>il</strong> mondo islamico, attirando un variegato insieme <strong>di</strong> combattenti non<br />

afgani che si mob<strong>il</strong>itarono per <strong>di</strong>fendere la fede.<br />

La <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> jihad e la sua r<strong>il</strong>ettura con un canone teoretico innovativo, <strong>del</strong><br />

resto, era già avvenuta con i gran<strong>di</strong> ideologi <strong>del</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo islamico, ossia Mawdu<strong>di</strong> e Qutb.<br />

Per quest’ultimo, chiunque avesse compreso la vera natura <strong>del</strong>l’islam si sarebbe reso conto<br />

<strong>del</strong>la «assoluta necessità che <strong>il</strong> movimento islamico non si limiti alla pre<strong>di</strong>cazione e al<br />

proselitismo, ma comprenda anche la lotta armata» 23. Il jihad, inoltre, non è da considerasi<br />

come un’azione <strong>di</strong>fensiva, bensì uno strumento <strong>di</strong> liberazione <strong>del</strong>l’uomo che non esista a<br />

ricorre a tutti gli strumenti necessari per ottenere la vittoria contro <strong>il</strong> Nemico e per <strong>il</strong> trionfo<br />

23 Sayyid Qutb, Ma’alim fi al-tariq (Le pietre m<strong>il</strong>iari), Beirut, 1978, p.60.<br />

36


<strong>del</strong>l’islam. Una lettura ra<strong>di</strong>cale che si è rivelata uno straor<strong>di</strong>nario volano propagan<strong>di</strong>stico,<br />

ma che sembra allontanarsi dalle interpretazioni <strong>del</strong>la giurisprudenza classica.<br />

In questi anni, <strong>il</strong> termine jiha<strong>di</strong>smo identifica una pluralità <strong>di</strong> movimenti, cellule terroristiche<br />

e pensatori, che si collega all’idea <strong>di</strong> una guerra totale, de-territorializzata negli obiettivi, su<br />

cui si soffermano vari saggi <strong>di</strong> questo stu<strong>di</strong>o, e in particolare <strong>il</strong> lavoro sul <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> <strong>di</strong><br />

Reuven Paz.<br />

Il jiha<strong>di</strong>smo salafita si è così deterritorializzato, rinunciando a perseguire una via<br />

nazionale alla re-islamizzazione <strong>del</strong>la società, a favore <strong>di</strong> un vagheggiato ritorno<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’idea califfale, con la creazione <strong>di</strong> un grande stato a-nazionale che includa tutta la<br />

umma islamica, e capace <strong>di</strong> far avanzare le frontiere <strong>del</strong> dar al-islam fin dentro<br />

l’Occidente; in questo <strong>di</strong>segno <strong>il</strong> jihad è <strong>il</strong> mezzo per restaurare l’autentico islam <strong>del</strong>le<br />

origini (basato sui valori e sulle pratiche <strong>del</strong> tempo <strong>di</strong> Muhammad e dei cosiddetti<br />

califfi al-rashidun, i ben guidati – 622-661 d.Cr.) 24 .<br />

I proclami <strong>di</strong> Osama bin Laden, soprattutto dopo <strong>il</strong> 1998 e la creazione <strong>di</strong> un «Fronte<br />

islamico per <strong>il</strong> jihad» sono un esempio tipico <strong>di</strong> questo slittamento teoretico:<br />

sfruttando l’arma <strong>del</strong> martirio, ossia <strong>di</strong> attentatori suici<strong>di</strong>, la battaglia per l’autentica<br />

fede deve essere combattuta ovunque e adottando qualsivoglia stratagemma. Essa<br />

deve portare a un’unione dei gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti locali per una mon<strong>di</strong>alizzazione <strong>del</strong>la<br />

lotta. Come sottolinea Andrea Plebani nel suo stu<strong>di</strong>o, l’obiettivo principe <strong>del</strong> leader<br />

sau<strong>di</strong>ta non era tanto creare un vero e proprio esercito alle sue <strong>di</strong>rette <strong>di</strong>pendenze –<br />

fattore che, tra l’altro, avrebbe rischiato <strong>di</strong> alienargli le simpatie dei nuovi leader <strong>del</strong><br />

Paese – ma rafforzare i legami intessuti con le organizzazioni islamiche ra<strong>di</strong>cali con<br />

le quali era entrato in contatto, così da creare un network potenzialmente in grado <strong>di</strong><br />

agire a livello globale.<br />

In realtà, sull’unione e sul presunto coor<strong>di</strong>namento fra gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti non vi è un<br />

vero accordo da parte degli esperti. Per molti, al contrario, è proprio la semplicità, la<br />

trasmettib<strong>il</strong>ità e la fruib<strong>il</strong>ità degli slogan jiha<strong>di</strong>sti contemporanei a favorire la<br />

proliferazione <strong>di</strong> gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti scollegati o non <strong>di</strong>pendenti gerarchicamente, con<br />

una sorta <strong>di</strong> franchising <strong>del</strong> terrore e <strong>del</strong> tema jiha<strong>di</strong>sta. Al-Qa’ida <strong>di</strong>viene così non<br />

24 Cfr. Marc Sageman, Understan<strong>di</strong>ng Terror Networks, Pennsylvania, 2004.<br />

37


solo una struttura terroristica, bensì un ombrello strategico, dottrinale e ideologico<br />

per una varietà <strong>di</strong> movimenti, <strong>di</strong> gruppi e per quella gioventù islamica auto-<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>calizzata che funge da serbatoio e da veicolo proliferante <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale.<br />

Questa gioventù – per lo più ben alfabetizzata e urbanizzata – non è più intercettata<br />

solo dai movimenti islamisti più “istituzionali” e politici: spesso si tratta <strong>di</strong> piccoli<br />

gruppi che si richiamano alla ideologia jiha<strong>di</strong>sta appresa da internet, ma che non<br />

hanno vere guide dottrinali; per l’esegesi <strong>del</strong>le fonti sciaraitiche – <strong>il</strong> Corano e la<br />

Sunna fra tutte – essi spesso semplicemente bypassato gli ‘ulema’ e gli esperti <strong>del</strong>la<br />

legge religiosa ufficiali, preferendo un approccio più in<strong>di</strong>viduale, una manifestazione<br />

<strong>del</strong>la propria fede, basata sul mito <strong>del</strong> martirio e sulla professione religiosa come atto<br />

<strong>di</strong> volontà (riprendendo l’esempio <strong>di</strong> Sayyid Qutb).<br />

Questa separazione fra islamisti politici e ‘ulema’ accre<strong>di</strong>tati e giovani jiha<strong>di</strong>sti<br />

salafisti – che a mio giu<strong>di</strong>zio riproduce a ben vedere la spaccatura <strong>del</strong> primo<br />

riformismo islamico fra ‘ulema’ tra<strong>di</strong>zionalisti e nuovi pensatori religiosi che<br />

volevano <strong>il</strong> rinnovamento <strong>del</strong>l’islam, tipico <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano a cavallo dei<br />

secoli XIX e XX – rappresenta una vera e propria fitna, ossia una <strong>di</strong>visone, una<br />

frattura gravida <strong>di</strong> pericolose conseguenze per le società <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico,come<br />

sostiene Kepel. Secondo lo stu<strong>di</strong>oso francese: «Gli ulema <strong>del</strong>l’islam contemporaneo<br />

hanno perduto <strong>il</strong> controllo <strong>del</strong>la <strong>di</strong>chiarazione <strong>di</strong> jihad, non hanno più i mezzi per<br />

ammonire i fe<strong>del</strong>i contro l’avvento <strong>del</strong>la fitna: sono stati superati dai m<strong>il</strong>itanti attivi<br />

che possono fare a meno <strong>del</strong>la cautela, e soprattutto ignorano <strong>del</strong>iberatamente la<br />

lunga storia <strong>del</strong>le società musulmane, ma padroneggiano le tecnologie postmoderne,<br />

navigano su internet e p<strong>il</strong>otano aerei, nutriti da una visione <strong>del</strong>l’universo fortemente<br />

limitata» 25 . Questa spaccatura accentua la ricerca <strong>del</strong> martirio – e li rende<br />

letteralmente «avi<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>la propria morte» - certi che <strong>il</strong> loro sacrificio avrà una valenza<br />

salvifica e catartica, con una visione m<strong>il</strong>lenarista che era fino a pochi anni fa<br />

patrimonio più <strong>del</strong>l’islam sciita che <strong>di</strong> quello sunnita. Secondo Faisal Devji, pur non<br />

essendo possib<strong>il</strong>e <strong>del</strong>ineare un chiaro processo genealogico che ha prodotto <strong>il</strong><br />

25 G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel, Fitna. Guerra nel cuore <strong>del</strong>l’islam, Roma-Bari, 2004, p.275.<br />

38


jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale m<strong>il</strong>itante, risulta chiaro come esso sia <strong>il</strong> prodotto «of the<br />

fragmentation of tra<strong>di</strong>tional structures of Muslim authority within new global<br />

landscapes» 26 .<br />

Tuttavia, occorre essere molto attenti a non sovrastimare <strong>il</strong> nich<strong>il</strong>ismo <strong>di</strong> questi<br />

movimenti, o l’idea che essi vogliano semplicemente <strong>di</strong>struggere e annich<strong>il</strong>ire<br />

l’Occidente. Esistono cause e motivazioni che si è cercato qui <strong>di</strong> descrivere, e che<br />

sarebbe ingiusto e sbagliato negare o non considerare. In particolare, risulta sempre<br />

più evidente <strong>il</strong> ruolo <strong>di</strong> catalizzatore <strong>del</strong>le violenze che gioca la percezione <strong>di</strong> essere<br />

um<strong>il</strong>iati, <strong>di</strong> vedere calpestati (o <strong>di</strong> immaginare calpestati, che fa lo stesso) i propri<br />

valori e <strong>il</strong> proprio co<strong>di</strong>ce d’onore – ancora così importante nel vissuto quoti<strong>di</strong>ano <strong>di</strong><br />

molte popolazioni musulmane.<br />

Lo Shahid<br />

Il concetto <strong>di</strong> shahid, ossia martire, è stato per gran parte <strong>del</strong>la storia islamica un concetto<br />

marginale, collegato soprattutto alla tra<strong>di</strong>zione <strong>del</strong>le varie correnti <strong>del</strong>lo sciismo. Gli sciiti,<br />

infatti soffrirono spesso sconfitte, persecuzioni e dovettero affrontare <strong>il</strong> martirio <strong>di</strong> molti dei<br />

loro imam.<br />

E’ Khomeyni che – nel suo pensiero rivoluzionario - r<strong>il</strong>ancia la figura <strong>del</strong> martire, e la rende<br />

popolare anche nel mondo sunnita, facendola progressivamente <strong>di</strong>venire una <strong>del</strong>le armi <strong>di</strong><br />

propaganda e <strong>di</strong> lotta più efficaci dei vari movimenti islamisti. Ma anche qui, Khomeyni<br />

sottolinea aspetti nuovi: <strong>il</strong> martire non è più solo colui che accetta la morte per testimoniare<br />

la sua fede, non è solo una accettazione <strong>del</strong>la volontà <strong>di</strong>vina; per Khomeyni, la morte <strong>del</strong><br />

martire non è solo espressione <strong>di</strong> santità, bensì è un sacrificio rivoluzionario nel tentativo <strong>di</strong><br />

abbattere un regime <strong>di</strong>spotico. Anche l’evento più luttuoso in assoluta <strong>del</strong>la storia sciita,<br />

l’uccisione <strong>del</strong>l’imam Husayn - figlio <strong>di</strong> ‘Ali, primo legittimo imam dopo Maometto, <strong>di</strong> cui era<br />

cugino e genero (ve<strong>di</strong> box 3 <strong>del</strong> capitolo 1) - avvenuta per mano dei califfi sunniti omayya<strong>di</strong><br />

durante la battaglia <strong>di</strong> Kerbela <strong>del</strong> 870 AD è da lui r<strong>il</strong>etto. Husayn muore nel tentativo <strong>di</strong><br />

sconfiggere un regime <strong>il</strong>legittimo e <strong>di</strong>spotico, un tentativo non “<strong>di</strong> testimonianza”, sapendo<br />

<strong>di</strong> dover perdere, ma attuato con <strong>il</strong> proposito <strong>di</strong> vincere, e <strong>di</strong> restaurare <strong>il</strong> vero governo<br />

islamico.<br />

Soprattutto, a partire dagli anni ’80, la repubblica islamica usa l’arma dei martiri durante la<br />

guerra con l’Iraq, con masse <strong>di</strong> bassiji, giovani volontari che si immolano praticamente<br />

<strong>di</strong>sarmati sui campi <strong>di</strong> battaglia. Poco dopo, gruppi sciiti ra<strong>di</strong>cali (Amal prima e poi<br />

Hezbollah) che si ispirano al leader <strong>del</strong>la repubblica islamica iraniana riprendono in Libano<br />

l’idea <strong>del</strong> martire come attentatore suicida. Il successo <strong>di</strong> questa tecnica, che permette ai<br />

movimenti islamisti <strong>di</strong> compensare almeno in parte la fortissima inferiorità m<strong>il</strong>itare e<br />

26 Faisal Devji, Landscapes of the <strong>Jihad</strong>, New York, 2005. Cfr ancheStefan M. Aubrey, The New Dimension of<br />

International Terrorism, Zurich, 2004, in particolare capp.7 e 8, pp.53-213.<br />

39


tecnologica nei confronti dei propri “nemici”, Israele fra tutti, fac<strong>il</strong>ita la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>l’idea<br />

contemporanea <strong>del</strong>lo shahid come attentatore-suicida ache nei movimenti sunniti. Fino a<br />

perio<strong>di</strong> molto recenti, in ambito sunnita, infatti, <strong>il</strong> suici<strong>di</strong>o era considerato un gravissimo<br />

peccato contro Dio. La morte <strong>del</strong>iberata <strong>del</strong> fedayn, <strong>del</strong> combattente la guerriglia, era quin<strong>di</strong><br />

solo l’estrema inelu<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>e scelta.<br />

Non casualmente, ‘ulema’ jiha<strong>di</strong>sti hanno giustificato sciaraticamente l’idea <strong>del</strong>l’attentatore<br />

suicida, fornendo un “ombrello” dottrinale e giuri<strong>di</strong>co al numero crescente <strong>di</strong> nuovi<br />

aspiranti martiri.<br />

5. Il neo-fondamentalismo islamico europeo<br />

Da anni, ormai, l’islam si è trasferito a Ovest. Un “trasferimento” non avvenuto<br />

sull’onda <strong>di</strong> conquiste m<strong>il</strong>itari o proselitismo religioso, come per quasi tutte le terre<br />

entrate a far parte <strong>del</strong>la dar al-islam ma come conseguenza <strong>del</strong>la migrazione verso<br />

l’Europa <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>ioni <strong>di</strong> musulmani, attratti dalle migliori possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> vita e dalla<br />

prospettiva <strong>di</strong> un lavoro stab<strong>il</strong>e. M<strong>il</strong>ioni <strong>di</strong> musulmani, provenienti dalle più <strong>di</strong>verse<br />

regioni dei mon<strong>di</strong> islamici e portatori <strong>di</strong> ortoprassi religiose, sociali e culturali<br />

estremamente variegate, si sono ritrovati in società percepite come ost<strong>il</strong>i o che<br />

tendevano a relegarli ai loro margini.<br />

Questo processo sociologico – estremamente complesso e <strong>di</strong>fferente per mo<strong>di</strong> e tempi<br />

a seconda dei paesi europei coinvolti – ha prodotto enormi conseguenze sociali,<br />

politiche e culturali tanto fra le popolazioni europei, quanto fra gli immigrati<br />

musulmani. Quanto qui interessa far emergere è <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> cosiddetto <strong>del</strong>la re-<br />

islamizzazione conservatrice e <strong>di</strong> un neo-fondamentalismo islamico che inventa una<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>zione e un’identità panislamica sia per accre<strong>di</strong>tare i rappresentanti auto-<br />

proclamatisi come rappresentanti ufficiali e riconosciuti <strong>del</strong>l’islam, sia come effetto<br />

<strong>del</strong>la per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>di</strong> identità culturale e <strong>di</strong> straniamento.<br />

In altre parole, la re-islamizzzione degli immigrati musulmani, anche <strong>di</strong> seconda o<br />

terza generazione, permette in primo luogo <strong>di</strong> riaffermare la propria identità. Ma<br />

40


soprattutto, consente <strong>di</strong> «accompagnare» <strong>il</strong> processo <strong>di</strong> acculturazione che <strong>il</strong> vivere in<br />

una società profondamente allogena come quelle occidentali comporta. La per<strong>di</strong>ta<br />

progressiva <strong>del</strong>la propria identità in<strong>di</strong>viduale, legata alle tra<strong>di</strong>zioni locali e agli st<strong>il</strong>i<br />

<strong>di</strong> vita dei singoli immigrati, è compensata da una reislamizzazione che trasforma <strong>il</strong><br />

vissuto religioso quoti<strong>di</strong>ano, fino ad allora parte <strong>di</strong> un bagaglio <strong>di</strong> valori e <strong>di</strong> simboli<br />

identitari più complesso, che mischiava lingue e tra<strong>di</strong>zioni locali, tribali e prassi<br />

religiosa, etc. Ora, immersi nella civ<strong>il</strong>tà occidentale, l’inevitab<strong>il</strong>e processo <strong>di</strong><br />

acculturazione viene gestito e fatto proprio esaltando la propria adesione a un islam<br />

universale a-storico e a-culturale e idealizzando l’età <strong>del</strong>l’oro musulmana.<br />

Ciò ha portato alla crescita <strong>di</strong> visib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> quel <strong>fenomeno</strong> che è stato definito come<br />

«neofondamentalismo» 27 , ossia <strong>di</strong> una spinta che va oltre l’islamismo politico, per<br />

sostenere una versione “globalizzata” e teologicamente banalizzata <strong>del</strong>l’islam, e con<br />

in più un’attenzione verso la questione sociale molto modesta. Il trascurare la<br />

<strong>di</strong>mensione sociale <strong>di</strong>fferenzia questa corrente dai movimenti tipici <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>cale, come Hamas, Hezbollah, la Fratellanza Musulmana; questi ultimi hanno<br />

infatto sempre ut<strong>il</strong>izzato l’impegno sociale come via per penetrare cap<strong>il</strong>larmente<br />

nelle società in cui operano, per acquisire cre<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>ità e come forma <strong>di</strong> impegno che<br />

precede la crescita politica. Ossessiva è invece la visione rigorosa, dogmatica e<br />

letterale <strong>del</strong>la rivelazione coranica, con l’esaltazione <strong>del</strong>l’unicità <strong>di</strong> Dio (tawhid)<br />

Corano, <strong>del</strong>la sunna e <strong>del</strong>la shari’a, mentre si fa tabula rasa <strong>del</strong>la tra<strong>di</strong>zione più tarda,<br />

rigettata come un allontanamento dal vero messaggio iniziale: si nega valore alle<br />

<strong>di</strong>stinzioni fra scuole giuri<strong>di</strong>che (una <strong>di</strong>fferenza ra<strong>di</strong>cata nel mondo islamico), si<br />

rifiuta <strong>il</strong> sufismo e <strong>il</strong> riformismo islamico come contaminazioni non islamiche, si<br />

esalta con <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> jihad e <strong>di</strong> martirio per <strong>di</strong>fendersi<br />

Il neofondamentalismo europeo si sv<strong>il</strong>uppa dopo <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>stacco dalla sua cultura<br />

d’origine (la fase <strong>di</strong> deculturizzazione), cercando <strong>di</strong> ricostruire una comunità astratta,<br />

che prescinde dai particolarismi etnici-culturali-linguistici, e che viene immaginata<br />

come strutturata sul rispetto dogmatico e univoco <strong>di</strong> precetti, norme e valori <strong>di</strong> un<br />

27 Oliver Roy, <strong>Global</strong> Muslim. Le ra<strong>di</strong>ci occidentali nel nuovo Islam, Feltrinelli, 2003, in particolare cap.VI, pp.103 sgg.<br />

41


islam percepito come immutab<strong>il</strong>e e unico. Negando valore a ogni <strong>di</strong>fferenza etnica e<br />

culturale, paradossalmente, <strong>il</strong> neofondamentalismo islamico in occidente costruire<br />

una «neoetnicità», che inventa una nuova etnia: i musulmani.<br />

Basta pensare alla percezione tra<strong>di</strong>zionale europea e italiana, che <strong>di</strong>stingue gli<br />

immigrati per provenienza etnica o geografica (i f<strong>il</strong>ippini, i sudamericani, gli slavi, gli<br />

albanesi), tranne per gli immigrati provenienti dalla Dar al-islam, etichettati come “gli<br />

islamici”. Questa invenzione neoetnica favorisce tanto gli autoproclamatisi<br />

rappresentanti <strong>del</strong>l’islam europeo - come i capi <strong>del</strong>le associazioni islamiche, <strong>del</strong>le<br />

moschee, etc. – quanto gli attivisti <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo locale. Entrambi infatti lavorano per<br />

eliminare la percezione <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>versità e <strong>del</strong>le particolarità identitarie degli immigrati<br />

dalla dar al-islam, a favore <strong>di</strong> una visione astorica <strong>del</strong> credente musulmano, più<br />

manipolab<strong>il</strong>e e indubbiamente percepito come “altro” dalla società ospitante. La<br />

riduzione <strong>del</strong>le peculiarità storiche e culturali, così come <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>fferenze<br />

nell’ortoprassi <strong>del</strong>l’islam quoti<strong>di</strong>ano, rafforza la percezione <strong>di</strong> alterità e <strong>di</strong><br />

comunanza.<br />

Va anche sottolineato come <strong>il</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo globale sia stato estremamente ab<strong>il</strong>e a<br />

penetrare in questi “interstizi” culturali e <strong>di</strong>sagi socio-identitari, facendo proseliti<br />

anche fra i musulmani <strong>del</strong>la terza o quarta generazione, creando cellule salafite e<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>ste estremamente <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>i da localizzare e neutralizzare. Gli esperti <strong>di</strong> sicurezza<br />

<strong>di</strong>battono da tempo se i gruppi salafiti e jiha<strong>di</strong>sti attivi in Europa siano controllati e<br />

<strong>di</strong>retti da al-Qa’ida o siano una sorta <strong>di</strong> gruppi in “franchising”, ispirati dal<br />

messaggio <strong>del</strong> jihad globale ma sostanzialmente autonomi. Nei vari saggi <strong>del</strong><br />

presente stu<strong>di</strong>o emerge questa pluralità <strong>di</strong> possib<strong>il</strong>ità. In ogni caso, è evidente come –<br />

quale sia <strong>il</strong> tipo <strong>di</strong> command-and-control esercitato da al-Qa’ida durante gli attacchi o<br />

i tentativi <strong>di</strong> attacco <strong>di</strong> questi ultimi anni in Europa – <strong>il</strong> suo sforzo <strong>di</strong> coltivare e<br />

addrestare jiha<strong>di</strong>sti e specialisti <strong>del</strong>la guerriglia urbana nel nostro continente, in<br />

particolare attraverso internet, si sia rivelata fruttuosa 28 . Dall’analisi dei siti fatta da<br />

28 Cfr. Michael Scheuer, Assessing the London and Sharm al-Sheikh Bombings: The Role of Internet Intelligence and<br />

Urban Warfare Training, «Terrorism Focus», II, n.15, agosto 2005<br />

42


Scheuer e altri 29 emerge la complessità <strong>del</strong> training, <strong>del</strong>le istruzioni, <strong>del</strong>la copertura<br />

dottrinale e ideologico, così come dei suggerimenti per rendere queste cellule più<br />

efficienti, capaci <strong>di</strong> attrarre altri giovani al jiha<strong>di</strong>smo, per evitare l’effetto domino in<br />

caso <strong>di</strong> arresto, favorendo una struttura a nuclei 30 , per ridurre l’attenzione <strong>del</strong>le forze<br />

<strong>di</strong> sicurezza per ridurre l’attenzione <strong>del</strong>le forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza occidentali, e così via 31 .<br />

In sostanza, sembrerebbe esservi almeno tre tipi <strong>di</strong>stinti <strong>di</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>sti “europei” 32 :<br />

i) <strong>il</strong> primo è quello rappresentato dagli immigrati <strong>di</strong> prima generazione che<br />

non riescono a inserirsi nel mo<strong>del</strong>lo <strong>di</strong> vita occidentale (e non si tratta<br />

necessariamente <strong>di</strong> elementi socialmente marginalizzati);<br />

ii) <strong>il</strong> secondo è quello degli immigrati <strong>di</strong> seconda e terza generazione che sono<br />

ormai deculturalizzati rispetto alla cultura d’origine dei loro padri, ma che<br />

interiorizzano una visione apologetica e dogmatica <strong>del</strong>l’islam<br />

neofondamentalista (ve<strong>di</strong> pagine precedenti). In questa loro riconversione<br />

giocano un ruolo importantissimo tanto le moschee e gli imam ra<strong>di</strong>cali<br />

presenti in Europa, quanto l’auto-ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione dei giovani attraverso<br />

internet e ideologi improvvisati, esterni alle scuole religiose riconosciute<br />

<strong>del</strong> mondo islamico;<br />

iii) <strong>il</strong> terzo è quello degli europei convertiti, un <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>mente<br />

quantificab<strong>il</strong>e nella sua reale <strong>di</strong>mensione, dato che molti si convertono<br />

all’islam solo per poter sposare donne musulmane. In ogni caso, gli<br />

europei convertiti e avvicinati all’ideologia <strong>del</strong> jihad globale sembrano<br />

rappresentare un obiettivo particolarmente importante per al-Qa’ida e per i<br />

vari gruppi jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, dato che essi rappresentano elementi ancor più<br />

<strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>i da controllare per le forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza europee.<br />

29 Si vedano in particolare i saggi <strong>di</strong> Marco Lombar<strong>di</strong> e quello <strong>di</strong> Reuven Paz contenuti in questo stu<strong>di</strong>o.<br />

30 Secondo Scott Atran: «’Al-Qaeda’ terrorist actions are now chiefly executed by self-forming cells of firends that<br />

swarm for attack, then <strong>di</strong>sappear or <strong>di</strong>sperse to from new swarms». Scott Atran, The Moral Logic…, op cit., p.135.<br />

31 Cfr l’interessante raccolta <strong>di</strong> analisi in Christopher Heffelfinger (ed.), Unmasking Terror. A <strong>Global</strong> Review of<br />

Terrorist Activities, Washington DC, 2005.<br />

32 Michael Taarnby, The European Battleground, «Terrorism Monitor», II, n.23, <strong>di</strong>cembre 2004.<br />

43


Secondo Robert Leiken circa l’ottanta per cento degli jiha<strong>di</strong>sti vivono in «<strong>di</strong>aspora<br />

communities» (ma non solo in Occidente), che sono spesso marginalizzati dalle<br />

società ospitanti, e fisicamente <strong>di</strong>sconnesse fra <strong>di</strong> loro 33 . Molte cellule sembrano<br />

essere composte <strong>di</strong> consanguinei e amici, che provengono dalla stessa area, e che<br />

cercano ispirazione, <strong>di</strong>rettive e addestramento attraverso internet.<br />

Va detto che questa attività <strong>di</strong> reclutamento, non è solo finalizzata a creare una<br />

rete <strong>di</strong> cellule attive jiha<strong>di</strong>ste in Occidente, ma anche per raccogliere volontari da<br />

ut<strong>il</strong>izzare per le azioni <strong>di</strong> guerriglia o per gli attacchi suici<strong>di</strong> nei vari fronti aperti<br />

<strong>del</strong> jihad globale. E’ questo <strong>il</strong> caso tipico <strong>del</strong>l’Italia e in particolare <strong>del</strong>le attività<br />

salafite e jiha<strong>di</strong>ste a M<strong>il</strong>ano. Diverse indagini <strong>del</strong>le forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza italiane<br />

hanno mostrato la rete <strong>del</strong>le attività <strong>di</strong> questi gruppi nel Nord <strong>del</strong> paese, e la<br />

pesante compromissione <strong>di</strong> alcune moschee e centri islamici m<strong>il</strong>anesi, nel<br />

reclutamento <strong>di</strong> attentatori suici<strong>di</strong> o <strong>di</strong> muhajed<strong>di</strong>n per operazioni in Bosnia negli<br />

anni ’90 34 , cosi’ come i legami con Ansar al-Islam per combattere la presenza<br />

statunitense in Iraq, e legami con cellule nord-africane. In questi ultimi anni<br />

sembrano accertate le inf<strong>il</strong>trazioni jiha<strong>di</strong>ste in queste moschee e la pratica <strong>di</strong><br />

creare moschee e centri islamici satelliti minori in tutto <strong>il</strong> paese, rafforzando nel<br />

contempo legami a livelli operativi con altre cellule europee.<br />

La possib<strong>il</strong>ità che si installi anche in Europa <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong> <strong>reducismo</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>sta,<br />

con <strong>il</strong> ritorno nel continente <strong>di</strong> gruppi <strong>di</strong> combattenti sempre più numerosi dai<br />

vari fronti <strong>di</strong> guerra aperti «contro i crociati» non deve essere sottostimato. Le<br />

esperienze degli anni ’90 e <strong>del</strong>la prima parte <strong>del</strong> nuovo m<strong>il</strong>lennio avute da tanti<br />

paesi islamici - dall’Algeria all’Egitto, all’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta, solo per citarne alcuni<br />

fra i più evidenti – rivelano la pericolosità e l’effetto catalizzatore <strong>di</strong> questi reduci<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>sti 35 .<br />

33 Robert Leiken, Bearers of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong>. Immigration and National Security After 9/11, 25 marzo 2004, Nixon Center<br />

publication (wwww.nixoncenter.org).<br />

34 Cfr Evan F. Kohlmann, Al-Qaida’s <strong>Jihad</strong> in Europe. The Afghan-Bosnian Network, Oxford, New York, 2004, in<br />

particolare capp.II e V.<br />

35 Si veda anche <strong>il</strong> capitolo <strong>di</strong> Andrea Plebani <strong>di</strong> questa ricerca.<br />

44


Tuttavia, una azione basta solo sulla repressione o sulla contro-intelligence, per<br />

quanto fondamentale essa certamente sia, non deve far <strong>di</strong>menticare che <strong>il</strong> jihad<br />

globale deve essere affrontato anche in una <strong>di</strong>mensione <strong>di</strong> lungo termine in modo<br />

ben <strong>di</strong>verso, analizzando e cercando <strong>di</strong> dare risposte al <strong>di</strong>sagio cultural-<br />

identitario e sociologico <strong>del</strong>le crescenti minoranze musulmane in Occidente,<br />

evitando le stereotipizzazioni nei confronti <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>verse comunità musulmane, e<br />

soprattutto, evitando <strong>di</strong> rafforzare l’idea <strong>del</strong>la neoetnicità islamica,<br />

paradossalmente ut<strong>il</strong>e tanto ai fautori <strong>del</strong> neofondamentalismo islamico e <strong>del</strong><br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>smo quanto ai cantori <strong>di</strong> un inevitab<strong>il</strong>e scontro fra le civ<strong>il</strong>tà (forse la più<br />

pericolosa <strong>del</strong>le moderne «self-fulf<strong>il</strong>ling prophecies», come è stata definita).<br />

45


Themes of the Culture of Modern <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

Introduction<br />

Reuven Paz<br />

In the past decade, since the emergence of al-Qa’ida as the lea<strong>di</strong>ng element of the<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi clash with the West and its terrorist arm worldwide, the focus of<br />

Western societies and governments has been on confronting the problem primar<strong>il</strong>y in<br />

the field of terrorism and counter-terrorism. The September 11 attacks in the United<br />

States highlighted the clash and gave it the image of a clash of civ<strong>il</strong>izations, the new<br />

global cold war, a clash between the free world and democracy vis-à-vis “the Axis of<br />

Ev<strong>il</strong>,” and other titles. The Western world found it <strong>di</strong>fficult not only to cope with the<br />

worldwide terrorist operations or <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgencies, but also to understand the<br />

motivations, spirit, and state of mind behind this phenomenon.<br />

Many Islamic movements have an unfortunate tendency to portray their struggles as<br />

part of a larger clash between Muslim and Western religions and civ<strong>il</strong>izations. Many<br />

47


Islamic and Islamist groups emphasize the struggle against Jews and Judaism as<br />

well, highlighting the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the supposedly global scope of<br />

Jewish influence, particularly on U.S. policy, culture and decisionmaking. The violent<br />

struggle of Hamas and Hizballah primar<strong>il</strong>y since the 1990s, when the prospects of<br />

reconc<strong>il</strong>iation between Israel and the Palestinians seemed close, emphasized the<br />

religious <strong>di</strong>mension of this old conflict. National and ethnic conflicts in the Balkans<br />

and Central Asia during this time had the same effect, and contributed to the<br />

globalization of the Islamist struggle. Consequently, in many Western societies, Islam<br />

in general has come to be identified with violence, terror, and fanaticism, and is<br />

considered a threat on their in<strong>di</strong>vidual and communal security.<br />

This association is mislea<strong>di</strong>ng but unfortunately popular among both Muslim and<br />

Western publics. Terms such as “fundamentalist”, “extremist”, “Islamic”, “Islamist”,<br />

and “political Islam”, are misused by many politicians, decisionmakers, journalists,<br />

citizens, and even scholars in the West. Sim<strong>il</strong>arly, Arab regimes—which generally<br />

control the press and to a certain extent, public opinion—tend not to <strong>di</strong>stinguish<br />

between various kinds of Islamic movements, organizations, groups, and<br />

in<strong>di</strong>viduals. Although Western influence is partly responsible for this phenomenon,<br />

its roots lie in the fact that many Arab regimes now feel threatened by any movement<br />

that is linked to Islam.<br />

Nevertheless, the “Islam versus the West” para<strong>di</strong>gm has grown, partly because<br />

<strong>di</strong>fferent Islamist groups have succeeded in gaining the legitimacy of Islamic<br />

establishments and in presenting parts of their sociopolitical and cultural doctrines<br />

to much of the Arab and Muslim worlds as the only true commentary of Islam. Their<br />

success has been fac<strong>il</strong>itated by a number of factors, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng the Arab-Israeli and<br />

Palestinian-Israeli conflicts, the socio-economic problems of Muslim countries,<br />

opposition to most of the local governments, and the general public host<strong>il</strong>ity toward<br />

the West and the United States—a host<strong>il</strong>ity that has equally been encouraged by<br />

various secular, socialist and even semi-Marxist, and nationalist elements in the<br />

region. This success is also attributable to the interdependent structure of <strong>di</strong>fferent<br />

48


Islamic publics and communities, which can be viewed as a pyramid of sorts. At the<br />

wide base of that pyramid stands a variety of social and non-political Islamic<br />

movements and Sufi orders that create an “Islamic atmosphere” throughout the<br />

region. At the next level are the fundamentalist Islamic groups with sociopolitical<br />

aims, like the Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab world, the Jamaat-I-Islam (Islamic<br />

Group) in In<strong>di</strong>a and Pakistan, or the Islamic Liberation Party (Hizb al-Tahrir al-Islami)<br />

in Central Asia. Such groups contribute to the anti-Western sentiment felt in many<br />

parts of the Muslim world, and serve as greenhouse for the emergence of extremist<br />

groups. At the top of the pyramid stand the various groups whose main message is<br />

jihad in the form of terrorism. Since each level contributes to the one above it, the<br />

natural tendency of the West is to view all Islamic movements as a threat, and in part<br />

Islam as a religion too.<br />

Therefore, it is important to <strong>di</strong>stinguish between the terms “Islamic” and “Islamist”<br />

in <strong>di</strong>scussion of terrorism. In general, Islamic movements are those that employ<br />

nonviolent means, however subversive, to restore the past—that is to found a single,<br />

unified Islamic state (Kh<strong>il</strong>afah), whose sole constitution is the Islamic law (shari’a).<br />

Since there is no <strong>di</strong>stinction in Islam between religion and politics, these groups<br />

recruit support through political efforts alongside their social-welfare and cultural<br />

activities, all of which they call Da`wah. In contrast, Islamists <strong>di</strong>rect all their efforts<br />

toward fulf<strong>il</strong>ling the duty of jihad by violence and terror, which often necessitates<br />

excommunicating their Muslim rivals and the secular parts of Muslim society along<br />

with the non-Muslim world. These Islamist groups are the primary subject of this<br />

paper.<br />

Over the past decade, various assessments have pre<strong>di</strong>cted a decline in these violent<br />

groups due to better international cooperation in countering terrorism in general,<br />

and Islamist terrorism in particular. Yet, it seems that this kind of terrorism is st<strong>il</strong>l<br />

growing in scope. The September 11 attacks in the United States--and the subsequent<br />

exposure of the global infrastructure that supports such attacks—showed that this<br />

kind of large-scale Islamist terrorism may not have reached its peak yet. In fact, there<br />

49


is a real threat that the impact of these violent ideologies and activities on the one<br />

hand, and of the global counterterrorism campaign led by the United States on the<br />

other, w<strong>il</strong>l speed up two major developments, whose signs have been visible<br />

throughout the past decade: namely the ra<strong>di</strong>calization of Muslim communities in the<br />

West, and the increasing host<strong>il</strong>ity and alienation that many younger Muslims feel<br />

toward the West, often based on socio-political secular grievances.<br />

Following the September 11 attacks, and mainly after the campaign against global<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism and the occupation of Iraq, al-Qa’ida and <strong>Jihad</strong>i groups aff<strong>il</strong>iated<br />

with its ideology, adopted the doctrine that jihad is not just a means to fight, but first<br />

of all a means to consolidate a global Islamist solidarity and brotherhood, on the way<br />

to create a new kind of society, based upon jihad as a way of life. <strong>Jihad</strong> is supposed to<br />

be not just a religious duty, a means of war or struggle, but a global comprehensive<br />

culture in the process of a nation-bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng.<br />

Since the emergence of al-Qa’ida, and only throughout ten years, there has been the<br />

emergence of a global <strong>Jihad</strong>i culture, which turned al-Qa’ida from a <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorist<br />

organization into an ideological, doctrinal, and strategic umbrella for a variety of<br />

movements, groups, and self-ra<strong>di</strong>calized youth, a phenomenon that has several<br />

characteristics. Above all, this is a development of the “culture of the oppressed,”<br />

whether oppression is taking place or is just part of the feeling of large segments in<br />

the Arab and Muslim world. Furthermore, this umbrella is targeting the Arab and<br />

Muslim youth through the Internet as kind of an “open university for jihad stu<strong>di</strong>es,”<br />

and thus its main activity is the indoctrinating of a generation, not only terrorist<br />

operations.<br />

Four major elements are taking place in motivating, fee<strong>di</strong>ng, and hotwiring this<br />

phenomenon:<br />

• Sense of global conspiracy against the Islamic world.<br />

• Sense of the apocalypse in the “clash of cultures.”<br />

• The search for symmetry with the enemy in every field of the clash, wh<strong>il</strong>e the<br />

50


definition of the enemy is flexible and expanded, as happens primar<strong>il</strong>y in Iraq.<br />

• <strong>Jihad</strong> as a doctrine of self-defense and hence, every doctrine or Modus Operan<strong>di</strong><br />

is religiously justified.<br />

The most important of them, at least in the level of the religious nature and<br />

interpretation of this clash, is the apocalyptic one. It seems to be shaping the whole<br />

mindset of the culture of modern <strong>Jihad</strong>is.<br />

1. <strong>Jihad</strong> movements in their own eyes<br />

On the grounds of the afore mentioned, it is interesting to see the Islamist view and<br />

definition of the global jihad movement, and the terms they use. The best possible<br />

definition has been written by Omar Mahmoud Abu Omar “Abu Qutada,” a<br />

Palestinian resi<strong>di</strong>ng in London since 1993, and one of the main ideologues of this<br />

phenomenon. In an article titled “The comprehension of the civ<strong>il</strong>izational view and<br />

the duty of jihad” 36 from his colloection of “Articles between two Doctrines”(Maqalat<br />

bayn Minhajain) he wrote:<br />

When we talk about the jihad movements in the Islamic world we mean those groups<br />

and organizations that were established in order to eliminate the ev<strong>il</strong> (Taghutiyyah)<br />

heretic (Kafirah) regimes in the apostate countries (B<strong>il</strong>ad al-Riddah), and to revive the<br />

Islamic government that w<strong>il</strong>l gather the nation under the Islamic Chaliphate.<br />

But, the “True jihad movements” <strong>di</strong>ffer from the variety of other Islamic groups that<br />

act in the various Muslim countries and seek political legitimacy of the “heretic”<br />

regimes. In such case, the conflict between these last groups and the government is<br />

36 Omar Abu Omar “Abu Qatada al-F<strong>il</strong>astini”, “Shumuliyat al-Ru’ya al-Hadhariyyah wa-Far<strong>di</strong>yyat al-<strong>Jihad</strong>”,<br />

Maqalat Bayn Minhajayn (Articles between two Doctrines). The book is a collection of 98 articles he wrote in 1994,<br />

in which he presented his worldview. There is no information whether it has been published in hard copy. The<br />

articles are ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line in the web site of his Palestinian colleague Abu Muhammad al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si --<br />

http://www.tawhed.ws/a?i=3<br />

51


etween a Muslim regime and its citizens, and not between “Heretic and apostate<br />

state and a group that seeks to eliminate and change it”.<br />

Another important definition, accor<strong>di</strong>ng to Abu Qutada is:<br />

It is very important to note that the jihad movements are not those that carry<br />

weapons or believe only in using it. This is a mistaken view of many of the jihad<br />

youth. The jihad movement is the one that posseses the comprehensive civ<strong>il</strong>izational<br />

view, that comes from the perception of true unity [of Allah] (Tawhid) on its both<br />

parts: the unity of serving (`Ibadah) and following (Ittiba`) the Lord. The one that has<br />

an historic <strong>di</strong>mension… and future view of a world totally controled by Islam.<br />

Abu Qutada suggested a new term: the jihad movement of future hope (Al-Harakah<br />

al-<strong>Jihad</strong>iyyat al-Amal), which is:<br />

A movement of Salafi worldview, perceptions, doctrines, and way; totally cleansed<br />

from any remains of the Sufi wrong doctrine; does not belong to any school or trend<br />

besides that of the Qur’an and Sunna… If we acknowledge that, we can see that the<br />

present jihad movements in the Islamic world has not reached these expectations of<br />

future hope, but they are in the right path.<br />

Abu Qutada criticized all the movements that named themselves jihad movements,<br />

even the revivalist Salafiyyah movement in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia, led by the scholars Safar al-<br />

Hawali and Salman al-Awdah. In his opinion, these groups and their <strong>di</strong>rect conflicts<br />

with their governments, are doomed to fa<strong>il</strong>, like other groups in the past. The<br />

solution is, therefore, not in fighting for jihad in their homelands:<br />

What I mean is that these [<strong>Jihad</strong>i] movements should open new arenas for the jihad<br />

outside their countries. Such a place could serve for preparations only, or, if there is<br />

hope for achieving the expected goal in a certain place – then, the jihad movement<br />

should view itself as one unit, since the nature of the conflict is of a battle. The<br />

commander is the one who can achieve this target, or benefit from the circumstances.<br />

The other [leaders] even if they were older and preceded him, should join this new<br />

hope and help him. They should serve as sol<strong>di</strong>ers of the new commander…<br />

52


From this it is obvious that the jihad movements are those that are progressing in its<br />

understan<strong>di</strong>ng of Islam and are the hope.<br />

The description or vision of Abu Qutada, written in 1994, is that of the front of al-<br />

Qa’ida under Osama Bin La<strong>di</strong>n: various groups that left their homelands; gathered in<br />

Afghanistan, where the prospects/hopes for establishing their vision of true Islamic<br />

state came true due to the Taliban regime; gave their loyalty and confidence to a new<br />

commander, Bin La<strong>di</strong>n; and launched a global struggle against what they perceived<br />

as their definition of “Axis of Ev<strong>il</strong>”— the United States and the Jews.<br />

2. Muslim Ra<strong>di</strong>calization in the West<br />

New and larger bases of Islamist ra<strong>di</strong>calism and terrorism seem to be developing in<br />

Muslim communities in Europe and North America. The notion is of global jihad as a<br />

religious duty, aimed at a perceived global conspiracy against Islam as a religion,<br />

culture, and a way of life. Another cause is the emerging doctrine of the “non-<br />

territorial Islamic state.” This doctrine views Muslim communities as a kind of loose-<br />

knit Islamic state, though without the territorial and religious mission of<br />

reestablishing a Kh<strong>il</strong>afah. Islamic scholars in the United Kingdom have long<br />

provided the impetus for this view by emphasizing the cultural, economic, and<br />

political consolidation of these Muslim communities. Furthermore, the democratic<br />

and liberal environment of Western countries fostered Islamic pluralism, giving free<br />

rein to the activities of many <strong>di</strong>fferent groups reflecting many <strong>di</strong>fferent trends of<br />

Islamic thought. Despite this pluralism, however, many of these groups went on<br />

carrying the the fundamentalist banner of many of the Islamic movements in their<br />

homelands.<br />

53


The interaction in the West between Muslim immigrants from various countries,<br />

cultures and ideologies, has grately fac<strong>il</strong>itated the growth of the Kh<strong>il</strong>afah doctrine.<br />

Such interaction has promoted both solidarity and a shared sense of a global threat to<br />

Islam and the Muslims. These factors have in turn led to the doctrine of global jihad<br />

and to the brotherhood felt by its adherents. As the worldwide investigations since<br />

the September 11 attacks and the al-Qa’ida terrorist network has shown, this new<br />

doctrine of brotherhood resulted in a new operational development—the<br />

establishment of multinational and multiorganizational terrorist cells among Muslim<br />

immigrants in the West. Apparently, some of these cells in Europe were, just as<br />

responsible for planning and carrying out these attacks as their commanders and<br />

leaders in Afghanistan, Iraq, or elsewhere.<br />

Another emerging development among Islamist groups is the ra<strong>di</strong>calism brought on<br />

by social <strong>il</strong>ls and alienation—that is, terrorism motivated primar<strong>il</strong>y by elements such<br />

as xenophobia (both by and against Muslims), growing unemployment, economic<br />

circumstances, <strong>di</strong>fficulties in coping with Western modernization, the changing and<br />

<strong>di</strong>smantling of tra<strong>di</strong>tional values and fam<strong>il</strong>y ties, and so forth. For example, in an<br />

unsigned 1991 article appearing in its main journal, the Palestinian Hamas offered<br />

the following best introduction of sorts to the doctrine of global jihad:<br />

The whole world is persecuting you and the satanic powers ambush you. The whole<br />

world is your front, and do not exclude yourself from the confrontation… The life of<br />

misery [keeps] you from the meaning of life and [turns] your life into death. You live<br />

as a dead man. . . We stand today in a crossroad: life or death, but life without<br />

martyrdom [is] death. Look for death and you are given life. 37<br />

This rhetoric would clearly appeal to those already afflicted by a sense of<br />

hopelessness or resentment. The implicit alienation in such statements becomes all<br />

the more striking when one considers that the September 11 hijackers lived in<br />

relative comfort in the United States for long periods of time before carrying out their<br />

operation, yet were apparently undeterred from their plans. The same applies to<br />

37 "`Ars al-Shahadah,"F<strong>il</strong>astin al-Muslimah”, no. 9 (September 1991), p. 63.<br />

54


many of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i volunteers to the <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency in Iraq, or supporters of global<br />

jihad in many other places. Of course, other groups of immigrants are susceptible to<br />

social <strong>il</strong>ls as well. Yet, the growing Islamist activity among Muslim immigrants,<br />

along with their shared notion of global struggle against the West, have encouraged<br />

a more rapid spread of ra<strong>di</strong>cal doctrines among younger Muslim generations.<br />

Furthermore, the prof<strong>il</strong>es of many of the people arrested in the West since the<br />

September 11 attack—most on suspicion of links to al-Qa’ida —are quite <strong>di</strong>fferent<br />

from those of the typical Arab extremists in Afghanistan. The former are generally<br />

more educated and fam<strong>il</strong>iar with Western culture. Yet, instead of using this<br />

fam<strong>il</strong>iarity for personal benefits and for greater integration with Western culture, as<br />

their fathers <strong>di</strong>d in the past, these “terrorists of alienation” hold on to their host<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

and exploit the weaknesses of the societies in which they reside.<br />

This process is not new in the Arab and Muslim worlds. Many university students<br />

and graduates tend to adopt ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamic positions and fight the regimes of their<br />

homelands as a result of their strong social awareness. In many cases they view<br />

themselves as social elites who must sacrifice themselves for the sake of their society.<br />

This sense does not change when they live outside their homelands. Their ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

positions are also a result of various ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamist trends that developed in the<br />

1960s and 1970s. During this period, under the influence of the Egyptian ideologue<br />

Sayyed Qutb, social justice became the key criterion by which Islamists began to<br />

judge their ruling elites and to acuse some of fac<strong>il</strong>itating Western culture’s<br />

conspiracy against Islam. Therefore, some of these ra<strong>di</strong>cals <strong>di</strong>d not necessar<strong>il</strong>y fit<br />

what was then the prof<strong>il</strong>e of the typical Islamist—that is, one whose religious<br />

observation is total.<br />

This sense of social mission is equally visible among Islamists who have left their<br />

homelands. Many such emigrants have sought to preserve in entirety their<br />

homeland culture, unlike previous generations, who <strong>di</strong>d their best to adopt the<br />

cultures of their new environments. This element has in turn fac<strong>il</strong>itated the<br />

globalization of the jihad. At the root of this phenomenon lies the inab<strong>il</strong>ity of many<br />

55


Muslims to cope with the technological, cultural, or economic aspects of Western<br />

modernization. Many of them blame this fa<strong>il</strong>ure on the secular cultures and<br />

ideologies that have influenced various modern Middle Eastern regimes; thus they<br />

look for salvation in a return to the glorious past of Islam. Since orthodox Islam is<br />

identified with Islamic establishments whose source of power is these regimes, many<br />

Muslims now support those who represent the opposite culture: the ra<strong>di</strong>cal activists<br />

who opposes the national state and its interpretation of Islam.<br />

3. The globalization of the Islamist struggle<br />

The prospects for cooperation between various Islamist groups have improved<br />

during the past decade—and particularly over the past two years—for several<br />

reasons. Chief among them was the fall of the Soviet Union. Islamists perceived this<br />

collapse as a victory over “The Kingdom of Ev<strong>il</strong>” and as an historic step toward the<br />

global triumph of Islam and the Muslims. Twelve years earlier, the success of the<br />

Islamic revolution in Iran had been viewed in a sim<strong>il</strong>ar fashion—it gave even the<br />

Sunni Islamic groups a revolutionary Islamic mo<strong>del</strong>, although they had many<br />

reservations about its content. The Soviet collapse, however, heralded a new stage in<br />

the global war between Islam and Western culture.<br />

This fall served also as a reminder that the global conspiracy against Islam—the one<br />

political and cultural perception that all Islamist groups held in common—st<strong>il</strong>l<br />

existed. The United States had become the sole lea<strong>di</strong>ng force in this conspiracy,<br />

though and a more dangerous one than the Soviet Union. To Islamists, the United<br />

States represents the lea<strong>di</strong>ng edge of the Western threat to the Islamic world, not so<br />

much through its m<strong>il</strong>itary force or political colonialism, but rather through its<br />

cultural influence.<br />

56


Islamists also viewed this collapse as a consequence of their contribution to the<br />

Soviet defeat in Afghanistan, and many Arab volunteers in that war sought to<br />

continue the momentum of their victory in other places. Hence, a pattern Islamist<br />

involvement emerged in various religious-national conflicts around the world:<br />

Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo, Chechnya, Dagestan, Macedonia, Kashmir, and elsewhere.<br />

The war in Iraq and the <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency that follows it, served also as a waking call<br />

for other <strong>di</strong>sputes, within the Muslim world itself, primar<strong>il</strong>y the Sunni-Shi`i one.<br />

Many observers have come to view this phenomenon of “Afghan Arabs,” “Arab<br />

Chechens,” or Arab volunteers in Iraq—what the Islamists call Ansar—as a kind of<br />

“Islamist Internacional,” sim<strong>il</strong>ar in many ways to the “International Brigades” of<br />

socialist and communist volunteers in the Spanish civ<strong>il</strong> war during the 1930s. <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

was no longer simply a matter of separate groups fighting to defeat the secular<br />

regimes in their homelands and to establish a “true” Islamic state; it has become a<br />

war against “Satanic” and “Crusader” forces worldwide. As the scope of nationalist<br />

and religious conflict expanded beyond the Israeli-Palestinian arena and into various<br />

parts of Europe and Asia, the center of Islamist struggle moved from the Arab world<br />

to the margins of the Middle East. From the Balkans to the Ph<strong>il</strong>ippines, Malaysia, and<br />

East Timor, the globalization of Islamist movements eventually consolidated in<br />

Afghanistan, the meeting point between Arab and Asian Islamists.<br />

This trend was compounded by two phenomena: the oppression that most Arab<br />

regimes brought to bear on various Islamist groups and in<strong>di</strong>viduals, and the growing<br />

Muslim population in the Western World, mainly in Europe and North-America.<br />

Many of the Islamists who survived persecution in their homelands were pushed to<br />

find refuge in “the lands of the enemy”, where they found democracy, liberal<br />

attitude, political asylum, freedom of activity and speech, and even citizenship. The<br />

growing Muslim population in these lands provided Islamists with a sympathetic<br />

environment for their political and religious rhetoric, fundraising efforts,<br />

publications, communications, recruitment, and so forth.<br />

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4. The Ideology of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

All of these factors have given rise to new ideological trends that have fac<strong>il</strong>itated the<br />

growth of Islamist terrorist activity outside the Middle East. For example, the<br />

continuance of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has marked by the permanent rise of<br />

religious elements in it, as exemplified by the broad support for Hamas and the<br />

renewal of the <strong>di</strong>spute over Jerusalem. This trend eventually expanded to<br />

Afghanistan and other areas of interfaith conflict, thus creating the social, political<br />

and ideological common ground for operational cooperation among various Islamist<br />

networks, and for the exchange of doctrines that resulted in a new ideology of <strong>Global</strong><br />

jihad. This ideology has developed not only among groups of ex<strong>il</strong>es and warlords in<br />

Muslim countries, but also among growing numbers of Islamist sympathizers,<br />

scholars and organizations in Muslim communities in the West.<br />

Another term for this new consolidation of several existing doctrines—“The Islamic<br />

Salafist fighting movement” (Al-Harakah al-Islamiyyah al-Salafiyyah al-mujahidah)—was<br />

coined by one of the lea<strong>di</strong>ng proponenets, the Palestinian Abu Qatadah. In one of his<br />

books he promoted the idea that Islamists should fight in every place possible:<br />

“The <strong>Jihad</strong>i movements… should open new places for jihad other than their<br />

countries. Such places could be just for preparations and planing, or for operating in<br />

order to achieve the expected object. In this case the <strong>Jihad</strong>i movement should view<br />

itself [as] one united unit, since the nature of the conflict is of a war”. 38<br />

One specific fighting strategy that has been granted legitimacy in certain Muslim<br />

circles worldwide is the use of suicide terrorism, whether in Lebanon, Israel, eastern<br />

Africa, Kashmir, Chechnya, Yemen, the United States, London, Iraq, or elsewhere.<br />

Islamic support and legitimacy for this method became most apparent in Apr<strong>il</strong> 2001,<br />

when a huge wave of host<strong>il</strong>e greeted Sau<strong>di</strong> grand mufti Shaikh Abd al-Aziz bin<br />

38 Omar Abu Omar “Abu Qatadah”, Al-<strong>Jihad</strong> wal-Ijtihad, p. 39. The book is ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line in:<br />

www.almaqdese.com/abuqatada.jihad.zip<br />

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Abdallah Aal al-Shaikh’s fatwa (Islamic ruling) against it 39 . Since it was issued by the<br />

chief Sau<strong>di</strong> religious authority, this stance was likely intended to forestall possible<br />

suicide operations in the Kingdom, but it had some larger, unintended effects as<br />

well. The principal criticism of his fatwa came in the form of massive Arab and<br />

Islamic support for suicide operations by Palestinians against Israel, and for many<br />

people, this support quickly expanded to include any suicide operation in the name<br />

of Islam.<br />

This same phenomenon was apparent in the contra<strong>di</strong>ctory Islamic rulings that were<br />

issued following the September 11 attacks in the United States 40 . The subsequent<br />

American attack on Afghanistan and Iraq, and the U.S. efforts to create a wide<br />

coalition of support in the Arab and Muslim worlds generated sim<strong>il</strong>ar debates, much<br />

like the Gulf War had in 1991. These debates in turn fostered a measure of support<br />

and legitimacy within the Islamic establishments for Islamist terrorist groups and<br />

their means of struggle. Secular regimes often demand that their religious<br />

establishment oppose Islamist terrorism, but many clerics tend to legitimize violence<br />

against Israel and the Western world. In some cases, these <strong>di</strong>sputes reflect internal<br />

conflicts between the religious and political establishments, such as in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia,<br />

Egypt, and Pakistan. In such cases the Islamic establishments appeals to the notion of<br />

public and popular hatred of the West or Western culture, calling for revenge against<br />

Westerners as those who are responsible for social problems in the Muslim world.<br />

Another important element in this trend of doctrinal consolidation was the recent<br />

adoption of the Palestinian cause by many Islamist groups that had fa<strong>il</strong>ed to embrace<br />

it in the past. Furthermore, many Palestinian Islamist scholars have been intensely<br />

involved in the development of the new ideology, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng: Dr. Abdallah Azzam in<br />

Afghanistan, the spiritual father of the idea of al-Qa’ida; Sheikh Issam al-Burqawi<br />

39 On the Sau<strong>di</strong> Fatwa and the reaction toward it, see Reuven Paz, The Sau<strong>di</strong> Fatwa against Suicide Terrorism,<br />

PEACEWATCH No. 323, May 2 nd 2001, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.<br />

40 For example, see the religious arguments of Anti-Western rhetoric of one Sau<strong>di</strong> Sheikh in Fatwa on Recent<br />

Events by Shaykh Humud al-'Uqla al-Shuaibi. Both the fatwa and accompanying commentary are also ava<strong>il</strong>able online:<br />

http://www.sunnahonline.com/<strong>il</strong>m/contemporary/0017.htm<br />

59


Abu Muhammad al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si in Jordan; the already mentioned Abu Qutada in<br />

London; and Dr. Fathi Shqaqi in the Palestinian territories, who introduced to the<br />

Sunni Arab world the global aspirations of Islamic revolutionary Iran and the<br />

doctrines of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. They were joined by a number of Sau<strong>di</strong>-<br />

Wahhabi oppositionist scholars and Egyptian <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Takfiri scholars. Thus, the new<br />

ideology took on the <strong>di</strong>mensions of a global terrorist struggle, justified by the<br />

perception that the jihad, like the Palestinian struggle, was an act of self-defense<br />

against a Western-Jewish global conspiracy.<br />

Although the September 11 attacks sparked a world-wide investigation into this<br />

seemingly new phenomenon of global jihad, the ideological and operational roots of<br />

these attacks had developed decades earlier. The historical <strong>di</strong>mension is therefore<br />

essential to understan<strong>di</strong>ng the present implications of this phenomenon and the<br />

prospects of countering it. The roots of <strong>Global</strong> jihad lie in the collaboration of<br />

Egyptian and Palestinian Islamic jihad during the late 1970s and early 1980s; in the<br />

flow of Arab volunteers of <strong>di</strong>fferent nationalities to Afghanistan during the 1980s; in<br />

the flow of volunteers from all over the Arab and Muslim world to Bosnia, Albania,<br />

Kosovo, and Chechnya during the 1990s, and to Iraq in the 2000s; in the massive<br />

terrorism against Israel over the past three decades; in the extensive massacres in<br />

Algeria during the 1990s; and in the growing support for Islamist doctrines during<br />

the 1990s, particularly among certain social, cultural, and welfare foundations,<br />

charity funds, and research institutes, in the West, many of which served as fronts for<br />

other activities.<br />

Thus, any investigation of, for example, the complicated Islamist terrorist networks<br />

in Europe should first consider the protocols of the Egyptian courts in the trials of the<br />

various Islamists who returned from Bosnia and Albania in the 1990s. One should<br />

also consider the ideologies and doctrines expressed in the writings, speeches, and<br />

interviews of Islamist scholars in Afghanistan, Kashmir, Egypt, the Palestinian<br />

territories, and less obvious places (e.g., London).<br />

At first glance, the doctrines of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamists might appear to constitute a major<br />

60


enovation of orthodox religious ideas and principles. Yet, their roots do not change<br />

at all; these groups continue to rely on the fundamental doctrines that were<br />

developed in the Arab world during the 1960s and the 1970s. Even in other regions of<br />

the world—Europe, North America, and Central and Southeast Asia—the lea<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

elements of Islamists primar<strong>il</strong>y Arabs, who have exported the basic elements and<br />

interpretations of the renaissance of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam that began in the 1970s.<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to Russian observers, for example, the Arab element in Chechnya is the<br />

principal force fighting the Russians there. The importance of the Arab element has<br />

become even more apparent in the wake of September 11 attacks; many of the<br />

hundreds of people arrested worldwide during the post-attack investigation were<br />

Arabs, and during the last phase of the Taliban rule in Afghanistan, the “Arab<br />

Afghans”—members of al-Qa’ida or its front groups—were the last forces to fight the<br />

opposition Northern Allience, even after the Taliban surrendered.<br />

Thus, the growth of the global jihad movement has not been dependent on ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

religious revisionism; in many cases, Islamists have had the greatest ideological<br />

influence on those Muslims whose religious knowledge is poor. As a consequence of<br />

social pressures, such Muslims tend to emphasize social and political confrontation<br />

in their actions rather than religious rules or norms. The basic, albeit ra<strong>di</strong>cal,<br />

ideology of jihad as ordered by the Prophet is therefore appealing to many of them.<br />

In recent cases against members of al-Qa’ida and various Egyptian terrorist groups,<br />

U.S. prosecutors claimed that this element has been exploited by Bin Laden and his<br />

allied groups through international companies and relief organizations that served as<br />

fronts; some of these fronts communicated regularly with U.S. residences through<br />

faxes, satellite phones, and coded letters. 41<br />

The simplistic understan<strong>di</strong>ng of jihad is perhaps best <strong>il</strong>lustrated in the letter carried<br />

by the suicide hijackers of September 11. 42 The letter <strong>di</strong>rected them to do the<br />

41 The New York Times, 23 January 2000.<br />

42 Copies of this letter—which was probably written by the suspected leader of the operation, Muhammad Atta—<br />

were found among the remains of three of the planes that crashed in New York, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. An<br />

English translation of the text is provided in Appen<strong>di</strong>x 2. The original Arabic text was published by the FBI on<br />

September 28, 2001(see www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/letter.htm).<br />

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following on the morning of the operation:<br />

Tighten up your clothes [for] this is the medal of the righteous predecessors… They<br />

used to tighten up their clothes before battle... And do not forget to take some of the<br />

booty, even a cup … of water to gratify yourself and your companions [another norm<br />

of the Prophet].<br />

In other words, the hijackers were supposed to view themselves throughout the<br />

operation as if they had returned to the seventh century, as Companions of the<br />

Prophet (Sahabah). The tone of the letter is one of men preparing themselves for battle<br />

in the manner of ancient warriors, not for a suicide operation against unarmed<br />

airplane passengers. The enemy in question is not an in<strong>di</strong>vidual country—neither<br />

“the United States” nor “America” are named even once in the letter—but rather a<br />

“civ<strong>il</strong>ization of <strong>di</strong>sbelievers” or, more often, an amorphous, faceless ev<strong>il</strong>.<br />

This basic understan<strong>di</strong>ng of Islam has become an initiation of sorts for adherents of<br />

global jihad. They tend to adopt norms of behavior that are simple to understand,<br />

and these norms in turn create a basis for unity among <strong>di</strong>fferent groups and<br />

in<strong>di</strong>viduals, thus sidestepping the <strong>di</strong>fficult terrain of ideological and theological<br />

interpretation. In past decades, Islamists in the Arab and Muslim worlds tended to<br />

split into numerous factions, generally on ideological grounds. Now, however, their<br />

tendency is to put ideological conflicts aside and cooperate on a far more practical<br />

basis--their duties within the wide framework of jihad. The dominance of the Arab<br />

element in most Islamist groups has fac<strong>il</strong>itated this consolidation.<br />

5 . Al-Qa’ida: the doctrine of Brotherhood of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

The most famous example of this trend—certainly not, as many believe, the only<br />

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example—is Bin Laden's group al-Qa’ida (The base). This group developed from the<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>ian and social infrastructure of the Afghan groups that fought against the Soviet<br />

Union in 1980-89, called "Maktab al-Khidamat” (The Office for Services). This office—<br />

established by Dr. Abdallah Azzam, a Palestinian who moved to Afghanistan from<br />

Jordan in 1980—gave the Afghan groups of mujahed<strong>di</strong>n a religious, cultural, and<br />

social basis for their struggle. In Apr<strong>il</strong> 1988, Azzam published an article in the<br />

magazine Al-<strong>Jihad</strong>—the central organ of the Afghan groups, one that he founded and<br />

e<strong>di</strong>ted—called "The Solid Base" (Al-Qa’idah al-Sulbah), 43 which laid the groundwork<br />

for the new group al-Qa’ida. Toward the end of his article, Azzam left a kind of a<br />

prophecy, one which seems to have come true in the years that followed:<br />

“Now America is trying to grab the fruits of this great jihad and to rule without<br />

recourse to Allah’s book. Accor<strong>di</strong>ngly, the solid base (Al-Qa’idah al-Sulbah) has to face<br />

international pressures and temptations from all over the world. But they refused to<br />

bow their heads before the storm. They decided to continue their march along a path<br />

of sweat, tears, and blood.<br />

Sim<strong>il</strong>arly, in an important book he first published in 1984, 44 Azzam wrote:<br />

It is about time to think about a state that would be a solid base for the <strong>di</strong>stribution of<br />

the [Islamic] creed, and a fortress to protect the preachers from the hell of the<br />

Jah<strong>il</strong>iyyah [the pre-Islamic period].<br />

This description rea<strong>di</strong>ly fits the Afghanistan and parts of Iraq of recent years—the<br />

solid base for those fighting against the West.<br />

Azzam’s implicit theme was the establishment of an Islamic army, with the Afghani<br />

struggle against the Soviets as its modern mo<strong>del</strong> and the fight of Muhammad the<br />

Prophet and his companions, its old one. The idea was to create a pioneering<br />

generation of fighters who would prepare themselves for a constant struggle against<br />

the West and its allies in the Muslim World. His mo<strong>del</strong> was not the Muslim world<br />

43 Al-<strong>Jihad</strong> 41 (Apr<strong>il</strong> 1988), p. 46.<br />

44 Aayat al-Rahman fi <strong>Jihad</strong> al-Afghan [The <strong>di</strong>vine miracles in the Afghan <strong>Jihad</strong>] (several e<strong>di</strong>tions since 1984 and a<br />

revised e<strong>di</strong>tion in 1988). Ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line in: http://www.tawhed.ws/a?i=77<br />

63


ut the Afghan scene. Wh<strong>il</strong>e visiting the United States in 1988, in order to recruit<br />

American Muslims for the fight in Afghanistan, Azzam described the Afghan<br />

mujahed<strong>di</strong>n as the sublime mo<strong>del</strong> of Islamic fighters who would lead the Muslim<br />

world toward a kind of eternal struggle against the ev<strong>il</strong> powers of Western culture. 45<br />

Another important element in the theory of al-Qa’ida was the sense of elitism that<br />

characterized this vanguard army. This elitism was spurred by two branches of Islam<br />

that had developed in Egypt and Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia long before—Takfir (refutation) and<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>cal Wahhabism. Many of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n in Afghanistan and later on in Iraq—<br />

especially those who came from other countries, either as ex<strong>il</strong>es or on a voluntary<br />

basis—adopted the Takfir principles of creating an isolated society of true Muslims<br />

and waging jihad against the rest. They also seized upon the extreme brand of<br />

Wahhabism practiced in the 1930s by the Wahhabi Ikhwan zealots, who settled on<br />

the borders of the new Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabian kingdom and developed ra<strong>di</strong>cal ideas that<br />

were counter to the rest of their society. Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to Abdallah Azzam the only way<br />

to consolidate all of these ideas was through protracted jihad. As Omar Abu Omar<br />

put it in, “The only legitimate state that could represent the correct nature of Islam<br />

and rely on its essence, is the state that would be established through the armed<br />

struggle of jihad”. 46<br />

Azzam’s “Solid base” article is sim<strong>il</strong>ar to others published in the late 1970s and early<br />

1980s in two Islamic magazines—Al-Mukhtar al-Islami [The Islamic assortment] in<br />

Cairo and Al-Tali`ah al-Islamiyyah [The Islamic Vanguard] in London. The lea<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

e<strong>di</strong>tors of these magazines were Dr. Fathi Shqaqi and Dr. Bashir Nafi` (who used the<br />

name of Ahmad Sa<strong>di</strong>q), the co-founders of the Palestinian Islamic <strong>Jihad</strong>. Wh<strong>il</strong>e<br />

studying me<strong>di</strong>cine in Egypt, they were in close contact with the founders of the<br />

Egyptian Islamic <strong>Jihad</strong> and the Egyptian Islamic Groups (Al-Gama`at al-Islamiyyah) 47 .<br />

Initially, Shqaqi and Nafi` tended to focus on the Palestinian issue, as opposed to<br />

45 Exerpts from Azzam’s presentations in American mosques can be viewed in Steve Emerson’s 1994 PBS<br />

documentary, <strong>Jihad</strong> in America.<br />

46 Omar Abu Omar “Abu Qatadah”, Al-<strong>Jihad</strong> wal-Ijtihad, p. 58.<br />

47 On the relations between the Palestinian and Egyptian <strong>Jihad</strong> groups, see: Anwar Abd al-Ha<strong>di</strong> Abu Taha,<br />

Harakat al-<strong>Jihad</strong> al-Islami fi F<strong>il</strong>astin, chapter 2, on the official web site of Palestinian Islamic <strong>Jihad</strong>:<br />

www.qudsway.com/Links/Jehad/4/Html_Jehad4/<strong>Jihad</strong>bolkhtml/4hje1-3.htm<br />

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Azzam, who focused on the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n in Afghanistan. From 1996 on, however,<br />

Osama bin Laden worked to combine these two Islamic struggles, in an effort to<br />

make the Palestinian issue the most unifying element of the global jihad. In his long<br />

"Declaration of War against the American Occupying the Land of the Two Holy<br />

Places", a Fatwa first published in the London-based Al-Sharq al-Awsat in August<br />

1996, 48 , Bin Laden stated:<br />

"My Muslim Brothers of the World, your brothers in Palestine and in the land of the<br />

two Holy Places [Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia] are calling your help and asking you to take part in<br />

fighting against the enemy--your enemy and their enemy--the Americans and the<br />

Israelis… Our Lord, the people of the Cross had come to with their horses and<br />

occupied the land of the two Holy places, and the Zionist Jews fiddling as they wish<br />

with Al-Aqsa Mosque, the route of the ascendance of the messenger of Allah. Our<br />

Lord, shatter their gathering, <strong>di</strong>vide them, shake the earth under their feet and give<br />

us control over them".<br />

The struggle against the Crusader-Jewish conspiracy was the main theme of another<br />

Bin Laden Fatwa, the "World Islamic Front for the <strong>Jihad</strong> against the Jews and the<br />

Crusaders", first published in the London-based Al-Quds al-Arabi on February 23 rd<br />

1998. 49 This time, however, Bin Laden was joined by the leaders of Egyptian Islamic<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>, the Egyptian Islamic Groups, Jamiat-ul-ulema-e-Pakistan (Association of<br />

Pakistani clerics), and the Islamic movement of Bangladesh.<br />

The union of the Islamic world, the Afghan base, and the Palestinian struggle, was<br />

the center of Bin Laden's famous interview on Al-Jazirah television following the first<br />

American attack on Afghanistan in early October 2001. Yet, the ideology of global<br />

jihad —a combination of jihad, Takfir, and Wahhabism—had been developed many<br />

years prior to the creation of its global terrorist infrastructure.<br />

48 Al-Quds Al-Arabi (London), 23 February 1998. Several English translations are ava<strong>il</strong>able on line (e.g. see<br />

www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1998.html and<br />

www.azzam.com/html/articlesdeclaration.htm)<br />

49 English translation ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line<br />

(www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html).<br />

65


6. Muslim Communities in the West: the infrastructure of <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

Long before the establishment of groups like al-Qa’ida, Islamic and Islamist<br />

movements regularly spoke of conspiracy against Islam and advocated attacks on the<br />

United States, Israel, and Western Culture. Anti-Western and anti-Jewish feelings<br />

have long proliferated in the Muslim world, even among groups and regimes. A<br />

major new element that arose in the past decade, however, was the Islamists’ success<br />

in translating the doctrine of <strong>Global</strong> jihad into efficient terrorist activity, and popular<br />

support for jihad in the form of terrorism. This element was made possible by their<br />

inf<strong>il</strong>tration of Muslim communities in the West, which provided them with essential<br />

ideological and financial support.<br />

Yet, Western-based support for Islamist groups, which is so vital to their success<br />

worldwide, cannot be fully understood without some analysis of the social and<br />

psychological factors underlying the Islamic sociopolitical renaissance in the Muslim<br />

world.<br />

Over the past three decades, Islamic and Islamist movements have been able to plant<br />

their notion of global cultural war in Arab and Muslim societies, convincing many in<br />

the region that Islam is under attack. Thus, concepts synonymous in Western<br />

political culture with terrorism—such as jihad, Takfir (refutation or ex-<br />

communication), Istishhad (Martyrdom, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng by suicide), and Shahid (Martyr)—<br />

are now commonly viewed by many in the Islamic world as religious duties. The<br />

central feeling among most Islamists—from those who carry out terrorist acts to<br />

those who provide a supportive atmosphere for such activity—is that of being under<br />

siege. Thus, all means of self-defense are justified in their eyes, particularly when<br />

these means are granted religious legitimacy.<br />

Islamist movements have also succeeded in convincing many in the Muslim world<br />

that they represent the true contemporary interpretation of Islam. Yet, most of these<br />

movements developed out of a perceived need to return to the earliest fundamentals<br />

66


of Islam. Thus, they based their views on Islamic scholars like Ibn Hanbal and Ibn<br />

Taymiyyah of the Middle ages, and Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab of the eighteenth Century,<br />

all of whom were the most unyiel<strong>di</strong>ng fundamentalist religious scholars of their<br />

time.<br />

The religious success of the Islamists lies in the basic <strong>di</strong>versity of Islam, and in the<br />

lack of a central Islamic authority that enjoys both the confidence of the majority of<br />

the Muslim public and control over the religious establishments in in<strong>di</strong>vidual<br />

countries. Such establishments are viewed by large parts of the Muslim public as<br />

puppets of the modern secular state (`Ulama’ al-Salatin), whose interpretations and<br />

rulings conform to the interests of their regimes. Thus, Islamists have become the<br />

spiritual guides for a large portion of the Islamic population, and maintain a great<br />

deal of power and influence.<br />

Given this influence, most of the Islamic movements that emerged over the past<br />

several decades have worked to portray Arab and Muslim regimes—in some cases<br />

rightfully—as symbols of arbitrary oppression and <strong>di</strong>stortion of the social justice that<br />

is inherent in orthodox Islam. Thus, they have gained some support as the supposed<br />

protectors of the weaker elements of society, in many cases over those engaged in<br />

social, political, cultural and economic protest against various regimes.<br />

This Islamic sociopolitical revival, has also been linked to the formation of an<br />

educated middle class in <strong>di</strong>fferent Muslim countries, particularly since the 1960s.<br />

This middle class partly <strong>di</strong>stanced itself from the Western secular modernization and<br />

the institutions of the modern state: the m<strong>il</strong>itary, government administration, social<br />

and economic institutions controlled by the state, the public me<strong>di</strong>a, and so forth.<br />

Some in this class—mainly professionals such as physicians, lawyers, pharmacists,<br />

engineers, academic scholars, and merchants—suffered from the state’s tendency to<br />

nationalize the economy, and looked to the Islam propounded by modern Islamist<br />

movements as an ultimate solution. This phenomenon created a large and highly<br />

educated group of in<strong>di</strong>viduals who viewed themselves as a social Avant-garde and<br />

adopted various Islamic and Islamist theories as a basis for their social struggle.<br />

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The next stage of this revival was characterized by massive activity within the<br />

existing Islamic groups, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng the formation of more ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamist groups and<br />

the publication of new doctrines that <strong>di</strong>d not necessar<strong>il</strong>y correspond with orthodox<br />

Islam. Many of these new doctrines won many adherents during the violent<br />

struggles that accompanied these changes. As these Islamist groups gained more<br />

power and public support, they were able to attract elements de<strong>di</strong>cated to the<br />

broader struggle for human and civ<strong>il</strong> rights.<br />

Yet, aside from these <strong>di</strong>rect efforts of Islamist involvement to expand their influence,<br />

their success in both the Muslim world and the West is due to large part to what we<br />

have already described as the “Islamic atmosphere”—that is, the often in<strong>di</strong>rect<br />

framework of support created by groups that are not connected to political violence<br />

or terrorism, some of whom even publicly condemn such methods. These groups<br />

carry out the vast majority of political, social, cultural and educational work in the<br />

name of Islam, both in Muslim countries and among Muslim communities in the<br />

West. Therefore, they preserve the Islamic atmosphere in which more extremist and<br />

violent Islamist groups thrive; they serve as a greenhouse of sorts of such ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

groups and for the growth of views that are host<strong>il</strong>e toward the West or Western<br />

culture.<br />

Furthermore, the social, political, cultural, economic, educational, and charitable<br />

infrastructure of some of these groups serve in part as the main source of finance and<br />

support for Islamic projects that are used also as a by-product for the financing of<br />

Islamist terrorist groups. Since many of their primary activities involve consolidating<br />

Muslim communities in the West, these groups often set the grounds, inadvertently<br />

or not, for massive fundraising, political support, and even recruitment on the part<br />

of Islamist movements. In many cases, Islamic social work has become a form of<br />

social protest, against either secular Muslim regimes or Western societies, and this<br />

protest often fac<strong>il</strong>itates the activity of Islamists.<br />

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7. The Immigrant Experience<br />

All of these elements contributed to the growth of the support for jihad movements<br />

among Muslim communities in the West, and to the increasing alienation felt by<br />

many Muslims in Western societies. Hatred of foreigners in not uncommon in these<br />

societies, particularly in Europe. Furthermore, many Muslim immigrants face<br />

poverty, unemployment, <strong>di</strong>fficulties in coping with Western modernization and<br />

values, and <strong>di</strong>sintegration of their own fam<strong>il</strong>y values, all of which have encouraged<br />

significant Islamist social and political activity among them. Furthermore, Islamist<br />

groups tend to view every symbol and element of Western modern culture as part of<br />

conspiracy against Muslim culture. A Fatwa against Valentine Day, issued in<br />

February 2002 by the group of the Al-Muhajiroun in London, may serve as a good<br />

example of the <strong>di</strong>fficulties of Muslim immigrants to cope with Western culture. Even<br />

Islamic social-welfare movements, which are not part of the ra<strong>di</strong>cal trend, help to<br />

create the Islamic atmosphere that <strong>di</strong>rectly and in<strong>di</strong>rectly assists the ra<strong>di</strong>cals.<br />

The major conflicts of the 1990s—the Gulf war, Iraq’s campaign against its Kurds,<br />

and conflicts in Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Algeria, Chechnya, and<br />

Somalia—brought waves of Muslim immigrants to Western Europe, all seeking<br />

refuge and work. Many of these immigrants entered <strong>il</strong>legally, and thus do not appear<br />

in official statistics. The United Kingdom faced its own significant increase of<br />

asylum-seekers and refugees in the second half of the 1990s, which prompted the<br />

government to announce in July 1998 “an administrative reform to clear the huge<br />

backlog of asylum applications in a parliamentary ‘White Book` called “Fairer,<br />

Faster, Firmer–a modern approach to immigration and asylum”. 50<br />

Muslim immigrants to the United States are a minority among the enormous number<br />

of immigrants from all over the world, but both American and UN statistics show a<br />

significant increase in Muslim immigration applicants over the past decade. The<br />

50 U.S. Committee for Refugees, Country Report: United Kingdom [1999]. Ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line:<br />

www.refugees.org/world/countryrpt/europe/united_kingdom.htm<br />

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United Stated has long been active in seeking resettlement of refugees from areas of<br />

risk to other countries, but during the 1990s, it had to increase the admission of<br />

refugees into its own borders as well. 51 Statistics on asylum cases covered by U.S.<br />

immigration judges between 1989 and 1999 show that only 22.4 percent of the<br />

applications were approved. Yet, the majority of applications from most Muslim<br />

countries (particularly Bosnia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Somalia, Iran, and Iraq), were<br />

approved. 52<br />

The increasing number of Muslim immigrants in Europe and the United States was<br />

also a result of the political violence that occurred and goes on in Muslim countries<br />

since the 1990s. In many cases these immigrants and asylum seekers had supported<br />

or been actively involved in violent activities and were thus eas<strong>il</strong>y affected by<br />

Islamist ideas once they arrived in the West.<br />

The Islamists’ increasing focus on Muslim immigrants was in part a practical move.<br />

Oftentimes, the long-term goals of Islamist groups are vague. They tend to speak in<br />

terms of an eternal global mission in accordance with the basics of orthodox Islam, in<br />

which victory, although guaranteed, w<strong>il</strong>l be achieved only in the far future. Thus,<br />

they often eschew normal political observance and are not pragmatic unless they are<br />

confronted by force, as happened in the second half of the 1990s. When Arab regimes<br />

started confronting Islamists forcefully, many terrorist groups began to demand that<br />

they be treated as legitimate political movements. This happened during 1998-99 in<br />

Egypt, Algeria, and Yemen, even affecting relations between Hamas and the<br />

Palestinian National Authority. As a result of their murderous operations, many<br />

Islamist groups experienced a significant decline of public support in their<br />

homelands. For example, the terrorist attack in Luxor on November 17 th , 1997—in<br />

which 59 tourists from various countries were gunned down—shocked both the<br />

Egyptian public and the Islamic establishment. Partly as a result of such changes,<br />

51 Steve Edminster, “UNHCR, U.S. Government Gear up to Double Refugee Admissions from the Middle East<br />

and South Asia,” Refugee Reports 20, no. 11 (December 1999). Also ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line:<br />

www.refugees.org/world/articles/unhcr_rr99_11.htm<br />

52 U.S. Committee for Refugees, Asylum Cases Decided by Immigration Judges Approved or Denied, by Selected Country<br />

of Origin [1999] [table]. Ava<strong>il</strong>able on-line: www.refugees.org/world/statistics/wrs00_table3.htm<br />

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Islamist groups began to target the growing Muslim communities in the West in<br />

order to seek support.<br />

The social changes that have occurred among Muslim communities in the West over<br />

the past two decades have also contributed to the economic success of Islamist<br />

movements. The expectations that many second- and third-generation Muslim<br />

immigrants had in the West often went unfulf<strong>il</strong>led, thus reinforcing their alienation<br />

from their Western societies. They were granted generous economic support in many<br />

countries (primar<strong>il</strong>y the United Kingdom, Scan<strong>di</strong>navia, and Germany), as well as<br />

freedom of speech, organizational support, and education. More often than not,<br />

though, it was the flood of financial support from the wealthier Muslim countries<br />

that allowed them to bu<strong>il</strong>d up, and become vocal advocates for, their own<br />

communities. Westerners’ resentment of foreigners in their midst, along with<br />

ongoing clashes of cultures and values (e.g., modernity versus tra<strong>di</strong>tion), encouraged<br />

the formation of a wide range of Islamic infrastructures, many of which thrived<br />

under Western democracy. This infrastructures have served as a potent greenhouse<br />

for Islamist movements. For example, a variety of associations in London, or research<br />

institutes in the United States, could serve as the principal front through which<br />

Islamist terrorist groups meet their <strong>di</strong>verse goals: recruitment, fundraising,<br />

publications, communications, and so forth. Thus, the growing feeling of alienation<br />

among younger Muslim generations has had far-reaching effects on the global jihad<br />

movement, and is perhaps the most important factor in analyzing the prospects of<br />

future Islamist terrorism in general, and the financing of terrorist groups.<br />

8. Hotwiring the Apocalypse<br />

The most important theme of the culture of global jihad in the 2000s, is the sense of<br />

the coming apocalypse. <strong>Jihad</strong>i apocalyptic <strong>di</strong>scourse, either by <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi scholars<br />

or clerics, or by supporters of global jihad is one of the main innovations of <strong>di</strong>scourse<br />

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that followed the September 11 attacks. Waves of apocalyptic <strong>di</strong>scourse are not new<br />

in the modern Arab Islamic world. They accompanied almost every major war or<br />

<strong>di</strong>saster that occurred in the Arab World in modern times. Such major events were<br />

the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the last Muslim Caliphate in 1922-24; The<br />

1948 war—the “<strong>di</strong>saster” or Nakbah in Arab and Palestinian eyes—which resulted in<br />

the establishment of the State of Israel; The 1967 war—the calamity or Naksah in Arab<br />

and Muslim eyes—which resulted in the Israeli occupation all over Palestine,<br />

Jerusalem, and Al-Aqsa mosque, and marked a hum<strong>il</strong>iating Arab defeat; The first<br />

Gulf war in 1991, following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, which marked the first<br />

round of American massive m<strong>il</strong>itary involvement in the Middle East. These wars,<br />

and some more minor events such as “Black September” and the sudden death of the<br />

wi<strong>del</strong>y admired Egyptian President Gamal Abd al-Naser in September 1970, The<br />

Islamic revolution in Iran in February 1979; The Israeli-Egyptian peace agreement the<br />

same time; The Iran-Iraq war between 1980-88, or the Israeli occupation of South-<br />

Lebanon in June 1982, created waves of apocalyptic <strong>di</strong>scourse. It also gave rise to<br />

more religious sentiments and many people approached apocalyptic Arab Islamic<br />

literature, such as the most famous book of “Interpretation of Dreams” by the Arab<br />

scholar of Me<strong>di</strong>aeval times Ibn Sirrin. 53<br />

Interpretation of visions—Tafsir or Ta’w<strong>il</strong> al-Ru’a—is a legitimate science in Islam,<br />

and people tend in hard times or “historical earthquakes” to consult such old<br />

literature or living scholars who are known in this field. In modern times there are<br />

only few such persons that profess the interpretation of visions accor<strong>di</strong>ng to all the<br />

Islamic criteria and rules. It is a result of feelings of crisis, insecure, instab<strong>il</strong>ity, or fear<br />

of the future. Since all the afore-mentioned cases were a result of a sense of defeat,<br />

political instab<strong>il</strong>ity, or national and personal <strong>di</strong>sasters, a sense of doom-day or the<br />

Day of Judgment in its Islamic meaning, became widespread, and visions related to it<br />

spread among many Muslims.<br />

53 Muhammad Ibn Sirrin, Tafsir al-Ahlam al-Kabir. Ibn Sirrin lived in the 8 th century and is regarded as the biggest<br />

authority in Islamic history for interpretation of dreams and visions, after the Prophet.<br />

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The September 11 attacks, unlike the afore-mentioned events, were perceived in a<br />

totally <strong>di</strong>fferent way. This was the first time in modern Islamic history in which the<br />

West was hum<strong>il</strong>iated by such a sophisticated attack and on its own so<strong>il</strong>. It was<br />

perceived in Islamic and Western eyes as a turning point in the relations between the<br />

two parties, and a continuance of the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan in 1988-89 and its<br />

final collapse in 1990. Muslims felt for the first time in their modern history as if they<br />

were going to reconstruct the spread of Islam in the 7 th century and the defeat of the<br />

Crusaders in the 12 th century. The American response was viewed also in terms of a<br />

global war and an envision of the global conspiracy against Islam and the Muslims in<br />

general, not just the “terrorists” among them.<br />

Arab rulers have always sought to link their wars to the glory of past Islamic history.<br />

The last one was Saddam Hussein in 1980-88, 1991 and 1998. Osama bin Laden <strong>di</strong>d so<br />

in his declaration of war against the Jews and the Crusaders in February 1998. Arab<br />

secular regimes have even sought to link their countries to pre-Islamic history—<br />

ancient Egypt, Babylon, or the Phoenicians—in order to provide their nationalism a<br />

long and glorified historic <strong>di</strong>mension. The late Iranian Shah linked himself to Koresh<br />

and celebrated it in 1970, with the fanciest festival ever made in the Middle East. The<br />

Israeli-Palestinian conflict is shaped by claims and aspirations derived from the<br />

Bible, the Qur’an, and earliest history of both sides. Palestinian secular scholars relate<br />

themselves to the Kananites who lived in Biblical Palestine before the Exodus of the<br />

Israelites from Egypt, thus “proving” their rights over the territory. Even the global<br />

war against <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism led by the United States these days, bears a notion of<br />

fundamentalist Christian aspirations of the Good against the Ev<strong>il</strong>, a kind of reflection<br />

of the Divine eternal struggle. Fundamentalist Christian preachers in the U.S. also<br />

shape the global war against <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism in kind of apocalyptic worldview.<br />

There is a kind of reflection of mutual jihad / Crusader war, in which history,<br />

religion, and myths, are playing major roles. Such an atmosphere is an ideal<br />

greenhouse for growing sense of the Apocalypse and apocalyptic <strong>di</strong>scourse,<br />

especially by young supporters of global jihad, who sense that the turning point of<br />

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history is in their favor. This sense of the apocalypse became the essence of the<br />

culture of modern global jihad.<br />

Elements of this culture lie in the connection and integration between apocalyptic<br />

<strong>di</strong>scourse and m<strong>il</strong>itant and violent jiha<strong>di</strong>st activity by <strong>di</strong>scussing the potential for<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>is to "hotwire" the apocalypse in such a <strong>Jihad</strong>i culture—How are Muslim clerics<br />

and scholars, past and present, propoun<strong>di</strong>ng a hotwired Apocalypse? How do<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>is see themselves as activators of the Apocalypse, and would they for example<br />

be more tempted to resort to WMD? How does WMD factor into <strong>Jihad</strong>i <strong>di</strong>scussions<br />

suggesting hotwiring?<br />

9. September 11 -- attack by “programmed terrorists”<br />

The September 11 attacks, the highlight of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i mindset so far, were carried out<br />

by a group of Arab <strong>Jihad</strong>is who were supposed to touch the “wings of early Islamic<br />

history.” They were acting as if they had been programmed to enter this mood<br />

throughout their preparations, wh<strong>il</strong>e living in the “world of the infi<strong>del</strong>s” and<br />

towards the highlight of the operation in the last day of their life. Right after the<br />

attacks, three copies were found of a hand-written letter in Arabic with instructions<br />

for the attackers. The deta<strong>il</strong>ed instructions aimed at shaping their behavior in every<br />

minute of their last day on earth. The letter reminds us in this context the description<br />

of the recruitment of Japanese suicide p<strong>il</strong>ots in World War II. The p<strong>il</strong>ots crashed their<br />

planes into the American naval ships in the Pacific Ocean in 1944 when the United<br />

States attempted to invade the Ph<strong>il</strong>ippines, which signified to the Japanese the<br />

beginning of their defeat. The description goes as follows:<br />

“There was no lack of volunteers, and there was even a waiting list… It was the<br />

desire to win wh<strong>il</strong>e striking the enemy, which brought about the decision to <strong>di</strong>e<br />

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voluntar<strong>il</strong>y. The enthusiasm for self-sacrifice merged with cold, calculated logic.<br />

This was the basis for their recruitment and training. The battle was already lost, but<br />

the desire to <strong>di</strong>e w<strong>il</strong>lingly was ensconced. A senior officer would gather about thirty<br />

officers, and speak to them movingly about the homeland and about the need to<br />

sacrifice for its sake. He would ask to hear their answers that very evening, each<br />

officer in<strong>di</strong>vidually. Only infrequently <strong>di</strong>d one of the officers defer the honor being<br />

offered to them. It is possible that that more courage was required to stand up<br />

against this appointment than to agree to volunteer… In letters, which they left for<br />

their parents, they generally referred to their pre<strong>di</strong>cament by saying such things as:<br />

Do not mourn us; we <strong>di</strong>e happy and proud for the sake of the Caesar and victory.” 54<br />

One of the Japanese suicide p<strong>il</strong>ots, Kosonuki Masashiga, even wrote that “he hoped<br />

to be reborn several times over in order to relive the same life he lived during the<br />

war.” It is impossible not to be reminded of the same tra<strong>di</strong>tion put forward in the<br />

Ha<strong>di</strong>th by the Prophet Muhammad, of which there are several versions. Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to<br />

this tra<strong>di</strong>tion, the “Shahid’s most fervent w<strong>il</strong>l is to be reborn several times over in<br />

order to reenact the same deeds.”<br />

The identity of the author of the letter is unknown and investigators of the FBI tend<br />

to assume it was Muhammad Atta. But, regardless of the author, the letter provides<br />

us with one of the most vivid and penetrating glimpses into the mind of the planners<br />

of the attacks, and the mental state of the suicide hijackers. The main theme of the<br />

letter is planting in the hijackers’ mind that there is a <strong>di</strong>rect line between them and<br />

the companions (Sahabah) of the Prophet in the 7 th Century. In all their preparations<br />

for the attack and during taking over the planes, they should have seen themselves<br />

and behaved as if they were fighting alongside their ancestors. They were instructed<br />

to tie their clothes “in the same manner our good predecessors had done before you”;<br />

to be courageous, “as our predecessors <strong>di</strong>d when they came to the battle”; to press<br />

their teeth together “as the predecessors used to do”; and to recite “other sim<strong>il</strong>ar<br />

verses that our predecessors used to mention in battlefield”. They were instructed<br />

54 Maurice Pinguet, Voluntary Death in Japan (Cambridge; Polity Press, 1993), pp. 229-230.<br />

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“not to forget to take some booty, even a cup or a glass of water”. Taking of booty<br />

was an important element in the norms of fighting in early Islamic history.<br />

Another important theme was to look for death and forget this world. Heroism is an<br />

important element of such Islamist groups in most of their writings. But, not just for<br />

the success of the fight and acceptance of death, but in order to prove the cowar<strong>di</strong>ce<br />

of their enemies, those who prefer the present world on the other one, or those who<br />

became the agents of the Dev<strong>il</strong>. Those that “admire the civ<strong>il</strong>ization of the West and<br />

drink their love and their worship with cold water”. This is typical to Islamic<br />

writings of such groups that deal with death or committing suicide attacks. This is<br />

the perception of the true believers versus the Party of the Dev<strong>il</strong>. The same as the<br />

view of the death in battle and becoming a martyr (Shahid) as marriage. This is a<br />

repeated element in w<strong>il</strong>ls of Palestinian suicide bombers, and probably one of the<br />

elements of self-persuasion prior to the operation. The same is with the beautiful<br />

ever-virgin women who wait for them in Para<strong>di</strong>se. The entire tone of these<br />

paragraphs is aimed at people who were going to a real battle with an armed enemy,<br />

and not with innocent unarmed civ<strong>il</strong>ians in a plane. There was also in some cases the<br />

use of the verb “slaughter” and not just “k<strong>il</strong>l”. They are supposed to “apply the<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>tion of captivity and capture among them and k<strong>il</strong>l them, as God almighty said”.<br />

The September 11 attackers, like many other <strong>Jihad</strong>ists in the past decade, are<br />

“programmed” with a mental sense of history, heroism, self-sacrifice, the search for<br />

symmetry with the enemy, and a long mental indoctrination based upon the<br />

demonization of the enemy. The definition of the enemy is dynamic and changing,<br />

unt<strong>il</strong> it includes with the growing influence of Takfiri doctrines, almost all those who<br />

do not adhere to the <strong>Jihad</strong>i interpretations. The demonization of the enemy adds a lot<br />

to the historical sense of the apocalypse. The <strong>di</strong>fficulty of the “enemy” to confront the<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i enthusiasm and martyrdom also adds to the feeling of the historical<br />

determination between the Al-Haqq/good and Al-Bat<strong>il</strong>/ev<strong>il</strong>.<br />

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10. The war in Iraq – apocalyptic visions<br />

The war in Iraq and the <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency there are naturally accompanied by<br />

reactions of al-Qa’ida, its front groups, and its many supporters and sympathizers in<br />

the Arab and Muslim world. It serves also as an important element in recruiting and<br />

creating more anti-American, anti-Western, and anti-Jewish feelings among much<br />

wider circles of Arabs and Muslims. The war is also a source for apocalyptic visions<br />

for many Muslim youngsters, who express their views freely through the “virtual<br />

global jihad” of the Internet.<br />

Many of these supporters look at al-Qa’ida and the Taliban, as “those who raise the<br />

black banners” (Ashab al-rayat al-sud), that would come from the East on the eve of<br />

the Islamic victory and proclaim the end of the world, to pave the way for the<br />

appearance of the Mah<strong>di</strong>. The longest article on this topic, based on many Islamist<br />

sources, was posted on the net in March 9 th 2003, by its author Osama Azzam. 55 The<br />

author based his consequences on primary sacred Islamic sources, but also on the<br />

writings of contemporary scholars, mainly Abu Qutadah al-F<strong>il</strong>astini—one of the<br />

lea<strong>di</strong>ng scholars of global jihad in the Arab world and Europe—and his famous book<br />

Ma`alim Al-Tai’fah al-Mansurah (Characteristics of the secured community). 56<br />

Azzam’s main conclusions are:<br />

1. We are facing the coming end of the world:<br />

“Following the above said, is there anyone that st<strong>il</strong>l doubts that we are approaching<br />

the end of the world? Does anyone think that the hour is far? We are on the eve of<br />

the total <strong>di</strong>smantling that would be followed by our clear victory”.<br />

2. The characteristics of “the owners of the black banners and the secured<br />

community” are identical to al-Qa’ida and the Taliban:<br />

55 Osama Azzam, Hal Taliban wal-Qa’idah hum Ashab al-Rayat al-Sud? 9 March 2003. See on-line in:<br />

www.dawh.net/vb/showthread.threa<strong>di</strong>d?php=12125<br />

56 See on-line in: http://www.tawhed.ws/r?i=733<br />

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“I have no doubt that the leaders of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n of al-Qa’ida, and the Taliban are<br />

the owners of the black banners who w<strong>il</strong>l assist the Mah<strong>di</strong>.”<br />

The reader should decide whom to support -- al-Qa’ida, Taliban, and the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n?<br />

The Arab and Muslim governments and their clerics and Islamic establishments,<br />

which insist on naming themselves Muslims? Or the Crusader West and the enemies<br />

of Allah on earth.<br />

“Who is going to support the Mah<strong>di</strong> except these men and clerics, and their<br />

followers? After this war, which has no precedence in human history and in the fight<br />

between the community of the believers and the Dev<strong>il</strong> and its followers, does anyone<br />

doubt that these are the days of the Mah<strong>di</strong>?”<br />

Another platform for these apocalyptic views that attracts many Islamic youngsters<br />

these days is an on-line forum of “the Jinn and the Demons” 57 It includes a special<br />

sector for interpretations of dreams and visions. 58 The forum is full of apocalyptic<br />

visions that result from the war in Iraq and the growing Anti-American feelings in<br />

the Arab world. Many of these visions deal with the end of the United States, as the<br />

Sau<strong>di</strong> supervisor of the sector wrote:<br />

These visions and their alike, of which many were sent to me, propagate the<br />

destruction of this ev<strong>il</strong> country and the punishments, <strong>di</strong>sasters, and <strong>di</strong>smantling, that<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l occur there. This is the way Allah deals with oppressors…. The punishment of<br />

this super oppressor is very close. We ask Allah to heal the hearts of the believers<br />

from its influence, and grant the Muslims all of its finance and equipment as booty.<br />

The apocalyptic visions seemed to be denied by Salafi scholars of al-Qa’ida. In an<br />

unsigned article published in what has been al-Qa’ida’s main web site in the past—<br />

The Center for Islamic Stu<strong>di</strong>es and Research—in February 2003, there was an attempt<br />

to <strong>di</strong>squalify these ideas. The article—“Allah has not assigned our nation to know the<br />

57 Muntada al-Jinn wal-`Afarit:<br />

http://www.jazanvoice.net/vb/index.php?s=d6e3962ff3363e10e6ffa799fdc8e284<br />

58 See:<br />

http://www.jazanvoice.net/vb/forum<strong>di</strong>splay.php?s=09676bd441afa83467c79a96220906c1&forumid=32<br />

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person of the Mah<strong>di</strong> prior to his appearance” 59 —criticized those who were looking<br />

for the Mah<strong>di</strong> to establish the Islamic State, but in the meantime do nothing to<br />

promote its establishing. Those that believe in this Islamic principle “have fallen into<br />

a lot of exaggerations… and based their religion on false issues, unt<strong>il</strong> their religion<br />

turned feebler than the nest of a spider.” Moreover, the anonymous author who<br />

officially wrote on behalf of al-Qa’ida, attacked the theories of “the Black Banners that<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l appear from the East”, as based on very weak Ha<strong>di</strong>th stories. His main source of<br />

support was Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzi of the 14 th Century, one of the lea<strong>di</strong>ng authorities<br />

for the Wahhabi and Salafi doctrines. In general, some Islamic scholars throughout<br />

the centuries—the most prominent of them was famous historian Ibn Khaldun—have<br />

argued that the Mah<strong>di</strong> was a myth and superstition. Nonetheless, most Muslims<br />

throughout history have accepted the idea of an eschatological <strong>del</strong>iverer known as<br />

the Mah<strong>di</strong>.<br />

The article by al-Qa’ida mentioned the name of Osama bin Laden regar<strong>di</strong>ng these<br />

false theories only once, but his message was clear:<br />

We recommend our brothers not to twist the texts and mix the weak and the well-<br />

based [Ha<strong>di</strong>th], in order to make them suit reality. We also recommend all our<br />

brothers to act and say what might benefit the nation… You should support the jihad<br />

against Allah’s enemies rather than harm the jihad and the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n by nonsense<br />

ideas, which have no benefit.<br />

Yet, this opposition is perceived as an attempt to prevent the glorification of persons<br />

not the ideas.<br />

The issue of such apocalyptic visions and the sense of an Armageddon might be<br />

natural on the eve and during the war in Iraq and the jihad insurgency there. This<br />

war is perceived by many in the Arab and Muslim world, primar<strong>il</strong>y youngsters<br />

whose knowledge of Islam is quite poor, as global attack against Islam and integral<br />

59 The Center for Islamic Stu<strong>di</strong>es and Research, Nahnu Ummah lam yukallifna Allah bi-ma`rifat al-Mah<strong>di</strong> qabla<br />

khurujihi, February 2003. See on-line in:<br />

www.conrado.net/_vit_inf/print.php?id=989&ty=pr&img=no (the addresses of this web site changes<br />

frequently. This address was valid in 2003.<br />

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part of a global conspiracy. The expectations from Bin Laden to launch further<br />

attacks by al-Qa’ida, and on American so<strong>il</strong>, are enormous. The search for a new Salah<br />

al-Din al-Ayyubi to confront the Crusaders is playing an important role for Arab<br />

Islamists. Yet, the more interesting issue is the denial of such perceptions by Bin<br />

Laden and al-Qa’ida. The denial might be first of all a result of the pure Wahhabi<br />

nature of the Sau<strong>di</strong> element of the organization. Another reason could be the<br />

personality of Bin Laden, who has not made so far any attempt to create around him<br />

an image of an Islamic savior. The idea of al-Qa’ida is to establish solid solidarity of a<br />

new generation, front, or movements, which are not dependent upon in<strong>di</strong>viduals or<br />

miracles but on a united strategy and the hard work and the struggle of a<br />

community.<br />

The idea of the Mah<strong>di</strong> has not <strong>di</strong>ed yet. Many books speculating on the Mah<strong>di</strong>, and<br />

precisely when he w<strong>il</strong>l emerge to <strong>del</strong>iver the Islamic community from its <strong>di</strong>re straits,<br />

have been published in the Sunni Arab world in the last several decades, most of<br />

them since 1979—the date not only of the Islamic Revolution in Iran but also of the<br />

abortive attempt to overthrow the Sau<strong>di</strong> regime.<br />

11. <strong>Jihad</strong>i Apocalyptic Discourse<br />

In the past four years that followed the September 11 attacks, the collapse of the<br />

Taliban in Afghanistan, the declaration of a global war against <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism, and<br />

throughout the American occupation of Iraq on one hand, and the <strong>Jihad</strong>i Sunni<br />

insurgency there on the other, there was a major development in apocalyptic <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

<strong>di</strong>scourse. <strong>Jihad</strong>i scholars and sympathizers were viewing the historic moment as<br />

clear signs for the start of the process that would lead to the Day of Judgment or<br />

Resurrection, with all the apocalyptic rituals that should precede it accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the<br />

Islamic belief. The tra<strong>di</strong>tional Islamic terms of the Dulab—circle of a century between<br />

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each Mah<strong>di</strong>; The Mah<strong>di</strong>; Mujad<strong>di</strong>d al-Zaman—the person who renews the apocalyptic<br />

signs; Al-Masih al-Dajjal—the false Messiah or Anti-Christ that would appear before<br />

the Day of Resurrection; Al-Rayat al-Sud—the black flags that w<strong>il</strong>l come to fight from<br />

Khorasan in the East; Armageddon; Lot of Ru’yah—visions; Ahlam—dreams; all these<br />

terms became commonly used in the <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums. We should also bear in mind that<br />

all this started only a short wh<strong>il</strong>e after the M<strong>il</strong>lennium of the year 2000, and<br />

apocalyptic visions that swept the whole world, either by religious emotions, or the<br />

fear of the global collapse of the computer systems.<br />

Quite a lot of <strong>Jihad</strong>ists published in the <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums their dreams and visions of the<br />

Salaf, the Prophet, historic events from early Islamic history, and all kind of other<br />

visions, asking for solutions, interpretations, and explanations that would prove that<br />

Bin Laden, Zarqawi, al-Qa’ida, modern jihad, the September 11 attacks and other<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorist operations, are all signs of the coming apocalypse. One Sau<strong>di</strong><br />

scholar—Abu Bashir al-Naj<strong>di</strong>—became the “leader” of the interpreters of <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

visions.<br />

There are even several Islamist web sites and sections in Islamist forums, which are<br />

de<strong>di</strong>cated to dreams and visions and thus, promoting the sense of the Apocalypse.<br />

All of them are related to al-Qa’ida, global jihad and the rise of <strong>Jihad</strong>i “forces” to<br />

confront the “Ev<strong>il</strong> West.” Two of the more popular of these web sites are these<br />

days—the “forum of Hermageddon” 60 and the web site and forums of the “Charms<br />

and Wars.” 61 The phenomenon in general is interesting from another aspect, which is<br />

the spread of apocalyptic visions, even though within the Islamic doctrines, by<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafis, primar<strong>il</strong>y Sau<strong>di</strong> supporters of global jihad who were educated by a<br />

Wahhabi educational system. Wahhabis have always used to fight many of these<br />

apocalyptic visions, fearing the deviant effect they might spread. Islamist<br />

m<strong>il</strong>lenarianism in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia around the year 1400H—1978—was one of the<br />

reasons for the seize of the Ka`bah by Juhayman al-`Utaybi and his group of<br />

followers, which caused a trauma in the kingdom. Yet, the apocalyptic writings of<br />

60 See Muntada Hermageddon: http://hrmageddon.com/vb/index.php<br />

61 See Muntada al-Malahem wal-Fitan: http://alfetn.net/vb3/index.php?<br />

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Al-`Utaybi found a respected place in the largest “library” of <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi in the web<br />

site of Abu Muhammad al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si. 62 The `Utaybi affair is also used as a legitimate<br />

fight against the “apostate Sau<strong>di</strong> kingdom.” Al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si is one of the lea<strong>di</strong>ng <strong>Jihad</strong>i-<br />

Salafi scholars to attack the Sau<strong>di</strong> apostasy and his fundamental book Al-Kawashef al-<br />

Jaliyyah fi Kufr al-Dawlah al-Su`u<strong>di</strong>yyah—The Clear Signs of the Apostasy of the Sau<strong>di</strong><br />

State—is very popular among supporters of global jihad. 63 In his analysis of the<br />

`Utaybi affair in this book, Al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si forgave `Utaybi and his group, which he<br />

admitted to know them personally. He described them as “naïve and miserable<br />

people,” who just believed in the idea that “Muhammad bin Abdallah al-Qahtani<br />

was the Mah<strong>di</strong> and `Utaybi had just planned to declare his loyalty to him accor<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

to the Islamic doctrines.”<br />

The apocalyptic aspirations of supporters of global jihad, especially as they appear in<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i web sites and forums, are all linked to al-Qa’ida, Osama bin Laden, the “new<br />

Crusaders,” the wish to reconstruct the victory of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, and the use<br />

of WMD. There is also a yearning for creating symmetric war between the Muslim<br />

world and the West. Between the lines one could sense that the equality and<br />

symmetry between the two civ<strong>il</strong>izations was the ultimate target in <strong>del</strong>eting the sense<br />

of Muslim hum<strong>il</strong>iation by the West. Another element to notice here was the eager<br />

search for Islamic heroes and war heritage, which would renew the spirit of the<br />

Salaf—the first generation of Muslims and the companions of the Prophet. It was not<br />

just a result of Islamic influence or religious sentiments, but also a result of social<br />

factors and segments of Arab culture.<br />

One of the principal books that reflects these apocalyptic aspirations was written by<br />

the Sau<strong>di</strong> scholar Abu Jandal al-Az<strong>di</strong>—Fares bin Shawwal al-Zahrani—one of the<br />

lea<strong>di</strong>ng younger scholars of al-Qa’ida in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia, under the title “Bin Laden –<br />

the Renovate of Times and Oppressor of the Americans,” in 606 pages. 64 The book is<br />

62 See: http://www.tawhed.ws/a?i=90 It should be noted that most of his writings were posted on this site in<br />

2005.<br />

63 The book has been downloaded from the Internet 53039 times.<br />

64 Fares bin Shawwal al-Zahrani, Osama Bin Laden Mujad<strong>di</strong>d al-Zaman wa-Qaher al-Amrikan. See the book on-line<br />

in: www.tawhed.ws/r?i=972<br />

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using terms, superlatives, and perceptions that place Bin Laden in a line with the<br />

greatest Islamic scholars of history, such as Ibn Taymiyyah, Muhammad bin Abd al-<br />

Wahhab, or Hasan al-Bana, even though Bin Laden is far from being a cleric or<br />

scholar. Yet, his ab<strong>il</strong>ity to create such a tremendous turning point in Islamic history<br />

makes him a can<strong>di</strong>date for such a position in the eyes of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i Salafists.<br />

From time to time we can see in <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums persistent posts about the connection<br />

between al-Qa’ida and recently the Taliban too to the Islamic prophecies of the<br />

Apocalypse. In a recent one from March 6 th 2006, the author is trying to prove<br />

through a very deta<strong>il</strong>ed analysis of the Islamic prophecies and tra<strong>di</strong>tions on the issue<br />

and the present confrontation between the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n and the West, that we are<br />

witnessing the signs of the Apocalypse 65 -- Osama’s army is the army of the Mah<strong>di</strong>.<br />

This army w<strong>il</strong>l conquer Iraq, Syria, and Palestine—Bayt al-Maq<strong>di</strong>s—and w<strong>il</strong>l give the<br />

authority to the Mah<strong>di</strong>, then to Jesus/Issa and from here the defeat of the enemy—Al-<br />

Dajjal—is secured. No one in the forum opposed his analysis.<br />

One of the enthusiastic supporters of engaging in looking for apocalyptic signs, and<br />

on a permanent basis, is the Sau<strong>di</strong> Sheikh Sulayman al-`Alawan, another one of the<br />

lea<strong>di</strong>ng Sau<strong>di</strong> clerics in supporting global jihad. In one of his articles titled “The<br />

Disputes over the Mah<strong>di</strong>, which was also viewed as a Fatwa, he encouraged the<br />

mujahed<strong>di</strong>n to deal with the subject. 66<br />

Dealing with [the issue of] the Mah<strong>di</strong> and the signs of the hour—a`lam al-Sa`ah—is<br />

one of the most important elements to encourage innovative effort of thinking—<br />

Ijtihad—and to sa<strong>il</strong> on the boat of salvation… It is the best thing to do in order to<br />

spread religion, to prepare the soul for meeting Allah, and to promote the Divine<br />

Law.<br />

The <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi encouragement in ad<strong>di</strong>tion to the sense of a historic moment, plus<br />

the great expectations created by al-Qa’ida, has brought about a greenhouse for<br />

65 See on-line in: http://www.alhesbah.org/v/showthread.php?t=56593<br />

66 Sulayman bin Naser al-`Alawan, Al-Naza`at fi al-Mah<strong>di</strong>, published in 23 January 2003 on his web site www.alalwan.org<br />

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apocalyptic views. The ongoing <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency in Iraq, Afghanistan, and<br />

Chechnya, and worldwide <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism, give rise to this sense.<br />

12. <strong>Jihad</strong>i perceptions of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)<br />

In recent years, al-Qa’ida and aff<strong>il</strong>iated groups have issued only a few<br />

pronouncements in which they threatened the use of WMD. The first <strong>di</strong>rect reference<br />

appeared on December 26, 2002. Abu Shihab al-Kandahar, the then moderator of the<br />

Islamist Internet forum al-mojahedoon.net, published a short article titled “Nuclear<br />

War is the Solution for the Destruction of the United States.”<br />

The article could be viewed as a simple threat, exploiting a number of rumors from<br />

various sources. It might have also been <strong>del</strong>iberate <strong>di</strong>sinformation regar<strong>di</strong>ng al-<br />

Qa’ida possession of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. Or, it could be a case<br />

of propaganda aimed at encouraging Islamists. Regardless of its ultimate aim, al-<br />

Kandahari’s article marked the first time that such a threat had been publicly issued<br />

by supporters of al-Qa’ida, or at least by a figure known to have been close to the<br />

propaganda apparatus of <strong>Global</strong> jihad.<br />

The article was short and lacked the sweeping theoretical elements typical of the<br />

writings of Islamist scholars of jihad against the United States or the West. Yet, even<br />

though this could be a false alarm, it <strong>di</strong>d seem to embody another stage in the<br />

escalation of the tone of al-Qa’ida’s propaganda. As such, it could raise the<br />

expectations of Islamists for an apocalyptic “mega-operation” using WMD against<br />

the United States or Russia.<br />

Thus far, the main modus operan<strong>di</strong> of al-Qa’ida has been suicide or martyrdom<br />

operations. Martyrdom attacks are not only a tactical tool of terrorism; they have also<br />

played a central role in the indoctrination of al-Qa’ida recruits. Over the past decade,<br />

the propaganda machinery of al-Qa’ida and global jihad has kept asking the question<br />

posed by one of their adherents in an article titled “Has the <strong>Global</strong> Crusader Alliance<br />

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Learned the Lessons of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n?” The author wrote: “We are really puzzled to<br />

see the Americans and their followers in the Western world think that they are able<br />

to confront people who wish to <strong>di</strong>e more than they [the Americans] want to live.”<br />

This idea of self-sacrifice has since been reinforced as the phenomenon of suicide<br />

operations has spread across many parts of the world, not to mention by the<br />

worldwide increase of support of Muslim publics for the suicide attacks against<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>ians in Israel.<br />

It is significant to note that this method, which was once controversial among Islamic<br />

clerics and scholars, enjoys growing support within religious and political<br />

communities alike. Thus far, in fact, it seems that ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam’s focus has been not<br />

on mass-k<strong>il</strong>lings, but primar<strong>il</strong>y on self-sacrifice and on the proliferation of its attacks<br />

to <strong>di</strong>fferent regions and places across the globe. The focus on personal martyrdom<br />

and suicide attacks among the groups that adhere to the culture of <strong>Global</strong> jihad —<br />

inclu<strong>di</strong>ng al-Qa’ida, as well as groups with local and national aspirations, such as the<br />

Chechen Islamists and the Arab volunteers there, Kashmiri groups, the Kur<strong>di</strong>sh<br />

Ansar al-Islam, or the Palestinian Hamas and Islamic <strong>Jihad</strong> (PIJ)—might explain why<br />

these groups have so far refrained from any large-scale use of WMD. Very rarely do<br />

clerics, scholars, or Islamist intellectuals who supply the ideological and doctrinal<br />

support for the culture of <strong>Global</strong> jihad, mention the issue of WMD. Given the central<br />

role played by this ideological network, the relative absence of a <strong>di</strong>scussion over<br />

WMD in the past is significant.<br />

13. Shaykh Nasser al-Fahd’s Fatwa on WMD<br />

Some recent Islamist pronouncements in<strong>di</strong>cate that this past emphasis on personal<br />

sacrifice and martyrdom operations may be changing to include increased demand<br />

to acquire and use WMD. On May 21, 2003, the Sau<strong>di</strong> Shaykh Nasser bin Hamad al-<br />

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Fahd published the first fatwa on the use of WMD. The author is 40 years old, and<br />

among the younger lea<strong>di</strong>ng clerics of the Sau<strong>di</strong> Islamist opposition that support the<br />

culture of <strong>Global</strong> jihad, and the m<strong>il</strong>itant struggle against the West. To date, Shaykh al-<br />

Fahd has published dozens of m<strong>il</strong>itant books and articles, some of which are viewed<br />

by the followers of <strong>Global</strong> jihad as religious rulings that legitimate the fight against<br />

the United States.<br />

Because of his preaching against the Sau<strong>di</strong> monarchy, Shaykh al-Fahd was arrested in<br />

June 2003 by the Sau<strong>di</strong> authorities and is st<strong>il</strong>l imprisoned without trial. Later on he<br />

was forced, along with two of his colleagues, to publicly renounce several of his<br />

rulings against the Sau<strong>di</strong> government. In January 2005 he rescinded from prison his<br />

former renunciation through his supporters over Islamist Internet forums. Shaykh al-<br />

Fahd has been at the forefront of a new effort to rethink the strategy of asymmetric<br />

warfare shared by many Islamists. For example, on September 21, 2002 al-Fahd<br />

published an article titled “The Divine Verses about the September Attack” in which<br />

he praised the execution of the 9/11 attacks, especially for its technical sophistication<br />

and use of planes. One of his arguments was that the 9/11 attacks were an air battle<br />

or “dogfight” of sorts. “If the Americans are using F-15 or Tornado [and they are<br />

allowed], then if the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n used Boeing or AirBus are they not allowed?”<br />

Shaykh al-Fahd has repeatedly used such analogy with the West to provide Islamic<br />

legal justification for terrorist tactics in his other writings. When asked, for example,<br />

by an anonymous person whether the use of WMD is allowed, his answer was<br />

straightforward: ‘yes’, it is allowed:<br />

If the Muslims could defeat the infi<strong>del</strong>s only by using these kinds of weapons, it is<br />

allowed to use them even if they k<strong>il</strong>l them all, and destroy their crops and cattle.<br />

Following the answer, Shaykh al-Fahd wrote a long and deta<strong>il</strong>ed memorandum on<br />

the relevant Islamic sources that he used as the basis for his ruling. First, he<br />

<strong>di</strong>squalified any terms of international law used by the West, since they are not part<br />

of the Islamic <strong>di</strong>vine law. Second, he claimed that those countries that lead the<br />

campaign against the use of WMD—the United States and the United Kingdom—<br />

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have already used WMD in the past against their enemies, not to mention that they,<br />

plus “the Jews,” possess these weapons.<br />

Third, he based his arguments on the saying of the Prophet in the Ha<strong>di</strong>th: “Allah has<br />

ordered you to do everything perfectly. Hence, if you k<strong>il</strong>l, do it perfectly, and if you<br />

slaughter, do it perfectly. Everyone should sharpen his blade and ease his slaughter.”<br />

He also relied on another saying of the Prophet: “If you are ordered to do<br />

something—do it accor<strong>di</strong>ng to your best ab<strong>il</strong>ity.” In al-Fahd’s view, this principle is<br />

essential: The Muslims should act accor<strong>di</strong>ng to their ab<strong>il</strong>ities. If there is no other way<br />

the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n can defeat the enemy, then they should k<strong>il</strong>l them, all of them, by every<br />

means possible. This principle is valid even if they have to k<strong>il</strong>l women and ch<strong>il</strong>dren,<br />

or even Muslims.<br />

In al-Fahd’s eyes, the principles of using WMD are <strong>di</strong>vided into two categories. The<br />

first category concerns the general acceptance of their use in the case of jihad. The<br />

second category concerns the legitimacy of the use of WMD in a certain period<br />

against a certain enemy—an enemy that, in al-Fahd’s eyes, clearly means the Goliath<br />

the United States.<br />

One controversial issue among Sau<strong>di</strong> scholars following the attacks against “infi<strong>del</strong>s”<br />

in Riyadh in May and November 2003, and the attacks in Istanbul in November<br />

2003—not to mention the murderous ongoing attacks in Iraq—has been the fact that<br />

innocent Muslims are also being k<strong>il</strong>led by these attacks. The case is also controversial<br />

with regard to suicide operations. Al-Fahd unambiguously believes, however, that if<br />

the k<strong>il</strong>ling of Muslims is necessary and there is no other choice, then it is permissible.<br />

In his view, which is based on previous rulings of Islamic scholars such as the<br />

fourteenth century theologian Ibn Taymiyyah, there are no limits at all to using<br />

WMD against the Western “infi<strong>del</strong>s.”<br />

The ruling of Shaykh Nasser al-Fahd set a precedent in the Islamist debate on the use<br />

of WMD. Since this was an answer to a question by an anonymous person, we cannot<br />

know if the question was a real one, or whether it was implanted by the Shaykh or<br />

any other element linked to al-Qa’ida. Yet, the clear acceptance of the use of WMD is<br />

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very significant.<br />

It is interesting to look also at the timing of the ruling by Shaykh Naser al-Fahd.<br />

Taken together with the declarations issued by Ayman Zawahiri, the ruling might<br />

constitute a campaign of threats or <strong>di</strong>sinformation. Such a link, if it indeed<br />

constitutes a carefully planned campaign, does not necessar<strong>il</strong>y mean that al-Qa’ida is<br />

already planning such an attack by using WMD, or that it has already acquired such<br />

weapons. Were al-Qa’ida or any aff<strong>il</strong>iated Islamist group planning to use WMD,<br />

however, they have now received the necessary endorsement to do so from an<br />

Islamic point of view.<br />

14. The Islamist Reaction to Shaykh al-Fahd<br />

Any <strong>di</strong>spute or <strong>di</strong>scussion <strong>di</strong>d not accompany Shaykh al-Fahd’s ruling. In fact, those<br />

who follow the many ra<strong>di</strong>cal <strong>Jihad</strong>i websites, forums, and chat rooms—the main<br />

arena of the <strong>di</strong>scourse for ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamists—may well have been surprised by the<br />

absence of any coherent debate on WMD of any kind among Islamists. In some cases,<br />

Islamists expressed their hopes and desires that al-Qa’ida use chemical, biological,<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological or nuclear weapons (CBRN) against the West. These expressions,<br />

however, are more reminiscent of the apocalyptic visions aroused by Bin Laden, the<br />

fall of Saddam Hussein, the occupation of Iraq, and the Islamist insurgency there.<br />

Some Islamists described WMD as “Doomsday” weapons that would accompany the<br />

end of the world. Moreover, to date neither Bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, nor any<br />

other lea<strong>di</strong>ng figure of al-Qa’ida has <strong>di</strong>rectly mentioned such WMD threats—even<br />

though these in<strong>di</strong>viduals can publicize their worldviews and doctrines with virtually<br />

no limits, given that their first au<strong>di</strong>ence is not the West, but the Islamic world.<br />

Since the ruling of Shaykh al-Fahd in May 2003, al-Qa’ida and aff<strong>il</strong>iated groups carried<br />

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out major terrorist operations in various places. These include attacks in Riyadh,<br />

Istanbul, Casablanca, Madrid, London and twice in Egypt/Sinai, in ad<strong>di</strong>tion to<br />

numerous attacks against the American and allied troops in Iraq, and against the<br />

Iraqi Shi’is and Iraqi officials of the new elected regime. Most of these operations<br />

were suicide attacks, with the sole exception of the Madrid bombings, where remote<br />

controlled devices were used. M<strong>il</strong>lions of Islamist supporters, as well as Western<br />

security and intelligence services, anticipated a “Mega Attack” on Christmas and<br />

New Year 2003. St<strong>il</strong>l, the Islamist <strong>di</strong>scourse on the topic has fa<strong>il</strong>ed to mention even in<br />

one word the use of WMD against the United States or the West.<br />

The strongest evidence of the relatively low regard for WMD within Islamist ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

<strong>di</strong>scourse is the m<strong>il</strong>itary manuals that are <strong>di</strong>stributed on the Internet by various<br />

global <strong>Jihad</strong>ist groups. In the Arabic-language manuals or <strong>di</strong>rectories written by<br />

Islamists, or in those translated from other languages to Arabic, only a handful of<br />

references in<strong>di</strong>cate planning for the use of such weapons.<br />

In the instances where the manuals do refer to WMD, the emphasis is on the use of<br />

chemical weapons, which at any rate are easy to obtain and can be handled with<br />

relative ease, even in home laboratories. Indeed, Islamist web sites contain a rather<br />

large number of instructions on how to make homemade bombs using chemicals.<br />

Yet, we should ask ourselves whether such chemical bombs, as dangerous as they<br />

may be, fall under the category of WMD. Ultimately, the ab<strong>il</strong>ity of Islamist terrorist<br />

groups to k<strong>il</strong>l hundreds of people by conventional means through martyrdom<br />

operations might be more attractive to them, as they are able to demonstrate their<br />

heroism.<br />

One m<strong>il</strong>itary-related Islamist web site, which was shut down in February 2004,<br />

contained information on how to develop weapons and ammunition (Mawqi` al-<br />

aslihah wal-dhakhaer) 7 Even on this web site, however, references to WMD were rare.<br />

In October 2005 appeared in several <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums a document in 80 pages with a<br />

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deta<strong>il</strong>ed “encyclope<strong>di</strong>a” on how to bu<strong>il</strong>d a nuclear bomb. 67 The document created lot<br />

of enthusiastic responses, but remained as kind of “wishful thinking” that could not<br />

use a real basis for developing such a weapon at home.<br />

15. Abu Mus’ab al-Suri and “The Call for Islamist <strong>Global</strong> Resistance”<br />

In December 2004, a new attitude about asymmetric warfare has emerged in the<br />

Islamist <strong>di</strong>scourse, one that challenges the <strong>Global</strong> jihad’s emphasis on “heroism” and<br />

its relative lack of emphasis on acquiring and using WMD. Mustafa Sit-Maryam—<br />

AKA Omar Abd al-Hakim, but better known as Abu Mus’ab al-Suri—a former<br />

lea<strong>di</strong>ng trainer and scholar of al-Qa’ida, published two significant documents calling<br />

for a new organization of <strong>Global</strong> jihad: “The Islamist <strong>Global</strong> Resistance.” One was a 9-<br />

page letter published in December 2004, and the other was a huge book totaling 1600<br />

pages about the strategy of <strong>Global</strong> jihad.<br />

In many ways, Al-Suri elaborated on the fam<strong>il</strong>iar lines of Islamist criticism of al-<br />

Qa’ida and its aff<strong>il</strong>iated groups, primar<strong>il</strong>y in the Iraqi arena. Al-Suri in fact returns to<br />

the original <strong>Jihad</strong>i doctrines of Abdallah Azzam, the spiritual mentor of al-Qa’ida,<br />

and challenges some of the strategies that have been adopted by the new generation<br />

of jiha<strong>di</strong>sts, saying that they prefer to “jump” into holy war without first completing<br />

the long stage of ideological indoctrination (Tarbiyyah). Al-Suri also uses the same<br />

term that Azzam <strong>di</strong>d—“the solid base”—to define the mo<strong>del</strong> of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i group and,<br />

like Azzam, he emphasizes the quality of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, not their quantity.<br />

In his open letter to the State Department, Al-Suri talks at length about the<br />

importance of using WMD against the United States as the only means to fight it<br />

from a point of equality. He even criticizes Osama bin Laden for not using WMD in<br />

67 See on-line in: http://alfirdaws.org/forums/showthread.php?t=5268&page=1&pp=10<br />

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the September 11 attacks: “If I were consulted in the case of that operation I would<br />

advise the use of planes in flights from outside the U.S. that would carry WMD.<br />

Hitting the U.S. with WMD was and is st<strong>il</strong>l very complicated. Yet, it is possible after<br />

all, with Allah’s help, and more important than being possible—it is vital.” Al-Suri<br />

states, “the Muslim resistance elements [must] seriously consider this <strong>di</strong>fficult yet<br />

vital <strong>di</strong>rection.” Al-Suri also surprises his readers by sen<strong>di</strong>ng requests to North<br />

Korea and Iran to continue developing their nuclear projects. It is most unlikely for a<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi scholar to hint at possible cooperation with countries like Shiite Iran or<br />

Stalinist North Korea, both of which are generally regarded as infi<strong>del</strong> regimes.<br />

However, Al-Suri seems to advise that <strong>Jihad</strong>i Sunni readers should cooperate with<br />

the dev<strong>il</strong> to defeat the “bigger dev<strong>il</strong>.”<br />

Al-Suri does not see much benefit from the guerr<strong>il</strong>la warfare waged against the U.S.<br />

by al-Qa’ida in Iraq. Hence, “the ultimate choice is the destruction of the United States<br />

by operations of strategic symmetry through weapons of mass destruction, namely<br />

nuclear, chemical, or biological means, if the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n can achieve it with the help<br />

of those who possess them or through buying them.” One other option, he says, is by<br />

“the production of basic nuclear bombs, known as “<strong>di</strong>rty bombs.’”<br />

The focus on the use of WMD as the “ultimate choice” of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n is a<br />

significant feature in Al-Suri’s book, too. In about 100 pages of the book, Al-Suri<br />

sketches his <strong>Jihad</strong>i m<strong>il</strong>itary strategy, which accor<strong>di</strong>ng to him is the core of the book.<br />

One of his most significant recommendations is the need to <strong>di</strong>vide the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n<br />

into four <strong>di</strong>fferent kinds of groups: Squads of popular resistance (al-Muqawamah al-<br />

Sha`biyyah) with limited training and fac<strong>il</strong>ities, m<strong>il</strong>itary squads (al-Saraya al-<br />

`Askariyyah al-`Ammah) with limited training in light weapons, and squads of quality<br />

resistance (al-Muqawamah al-Naw`iyyah), which are well-trained for both terrorist<br />

operations and guerr<strong>il</strong>la warfare.<br />

The fourth type of squad is for strategic operations (al-`Amaliyyat al-Istratijiyyah).<br />

Members who fully understand the strategic goals of the resistance should command<br />

these elite squads. They should have plenty of financial support and good<br />

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knowledge of using WMD “when there is a need to counter attack or to achieve<br />

strategic symmetry with the United States.”<br />

Abu Mus’ab al-Suri’s pronouncement on WMD marks a new phase in the overall<br />

development of the Islamist <strong>di</strong>scourse on the issue. There is a question whether his<br />

book is intended merely as a platform for better-organized global jihad, or if there is<br />

already an organization or group behind him. Yet, his focus on well-planned,<br />

strategic operations should be noted. His best example is the Madrid bombings in<br />

March 11 2004, in which one operation by a small squad of operatives created a<br />

larger strategic effect across Europe.<br />

The question that we should ask ourselves is “why are there so few references to<br />

WMD within the Islamist <strong>di</strong>scourse of al-Qa’ida or related groups?” Although there is<br />

no single, satisfying explanation, several assessments can be made:<br />

• WMD <strong>di</strong>d receive some attention prior to October-November 2001, when<br />

Afghanistan, under the Taliban, served as a greenhouse and safe haven for al-<br />

Qa’ida and other Islamist groups. Unt<strong>il</strong> that time, al-Qa’ida maintained better<br />

relations with regimes and scientists involved in developing WMD such as<br />

Pakistan, Sudan, the Islamic republics of Central Asia, and perhaps with Iraq.<br />

After November 2001, however, most of the al-Qa’ida fac<strong>il</strong>ities in Afghanistan<br />

were destroyed or seized by the United States or Pakistan under President<br />

Musharraf, and the Islamist forces were pushed into certain areas in East<br />

Afghanistan. It is possible that the culture of <strong>Global</strong> jihad embraced “heroism”<br />

and the tactics of martyrdom operations as a result of these setbacks.<br />

• When they had a base in Afghanistan, al-Qa’ida’s attempt to acquire CBRN<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>ities was handled in secret by a small group of operatives, the vast<br />

majority of which <strong>di</strong>d not possess the capab<strong>il</strong>ities of dealing with CBRN,<br />

except for crude homemade bombs. Due to the loss of their Afghan safe<br />

haven, and due to the <strong>di</strong>fficulties of handling such weapons in occupied Iraq,<br />

only one arena remains where such weapons can be handled—namely, among<br />

Muslim communities in the West, especially in Europe.<br />

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• In many of the Islamist writings, the term “WMD” refers to a broad array of<br />

social and moral <strong>di</strong>seases associated with the West, such as AIDS, cigarette<br />

smoking and drug use. It is not presented as part of the Islamist struggle, but<br />

rather as a term denoting the destructive <strong>di</strong>seases that w<strong>il</strong>l eventually ruin the<br />

Western societies from inside.<br />

Following the above analysis, we should ask ourselves whether or not the threat<br />

posed by Islamist terrorist groups acquiring and using CBRN or WMD is real.<br />

Before the War in Iraq, much information about attempts by al-Qa’ida to<br />

develop such ab<strong>il</strong>ity was <strong>di</strong>sseminated. The American insistence that Saddam<br />

Hussein’s Iraq was developing such weapons, and the linkage between Iraq<br />

and al-Qa’ida that the administration claimed existed helped to inflate the<br />

image of an active threat. In the past year, meanwh<strong>il</strong>e, some terrorism experts<br />

have become more skeptical about the extent to which a CBRN threat<br />

emanates from these groups. They cite four main factors:<br />

• The occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq prevented the continuance of earlier<br />

attempts by Islamist groups to develop or acquire such weapons.<br />

• Islamist scholars, clerics, intellectuals, and even most or<strong>di</strong>nary Islamist<br />

extremists seem to refrain from supporting the use of WMD by Islamist<br />

groups, fearing the consequences of such use for the entire Muslim world.<br />

• Al-Qa’ida and aff<strong>il</strong>iated groups, as well as Islamist scholars tend to focus their<br />

ideology and doctrines on self-sacrifice and technical sophistication, and<br />

hence they adopt terrorist tactics like suicide operations. So far, the world has<br />

no answer to the threat of martyrdom operations.<br />

• Martyrdom operations need no technical training at all and perfectly suit the<br />

relative lack of technical infrastructure ava<strong>il</strong>able to the Islamists in the post-<br />

9/11 era. Islamists also use the idea of martyrdom for the purpose of<br />

indoctrinating their ranks and creating the mythology in the minds of Muslim<br />

youngsters that the battle against America is a glorious and heroic one, sim<strong>il</strong>ar<br />

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to David’s fight against Goliath.<br />

If our main source of assessment would be the mind of the present generation of<br />

Islamists, mo<strong>del</strong>ed by al-Qa’ida, the threat of an imme<strong>di</strong>ate use of WMD is of<br />

low feasib<strong>il</strong>ity. Yet, we should bear in mind two other factors:<br />

• Al-Qa’ida is mutating on the background of the Iraqi scene, and we might face<br />

a new generation of Islamists, who are not part of “the Afghan Alumni” but<br />

are “Iraqi Alumni.” The war and continuing insurgency in Iraq have possibly<br />

improved the ab<strong>il</strong>ities of al-Qa’ida, as well as of other groups such as the<br />

Algerians, or the Jordan-influenced Tawhid groups, to recruit a new<br />

generation of operatives from among Muslim communities in Europe. This<br />

new generation of recruits is not necessar<strong>il</strong>y under the control of Sau<strong>di</strong> clerics<br />

or scholars, and might reveal itself to possess fewer reservations about the<br />

acquisition and use of CBRN or WMD. Based on the Madrid bombings,<br />

perhaps this new generation w<strong>il</strong>l also be less w<strong>il</strong>ling to carry out martyrdom<br />

operations.<br />

• A new generation of Islamists or Islamist groups might be more w<strong>il</strong>ling to<br />

cooperate with non-Islamic groups on one hand, or with Iran and Shiite<br />

groups such as Hizballah, on the other. Al-Suri hints to such a possib<strong>il</strong>ity in<br />

his book, and even points to North Korea as a possible strategic partner.<br />

Ad<strong>di</strong>tionally, a new generation of Islamist scholars might follow the fatwa of<br />

Shaykh al-Fahd or the book of Abu Mus’ab al-Suri, and encourage the use of<br />

such weapons if and when the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n find they have no other alternative.<br />

These developments could accelerate attempts made by Islamist groups to acquire<br />

and use WMD, although it is unclear how feasible this w<strong>il</strong>l be in the imme<strong>di</strong>ate term.<br />

We should, therefore, bear in mind that the w<strong>il</strong>l might be there, but the fac<strong>il</strong>ities and<br />

ab<strong>il</strong>ities, so far, are not.<br />

The view of WMD as a “Doom Day” weapon is an integral part of the apocalyptic<br />

aspirations of the “au<strong>di</strong>ence” of global jihad, but not necessar<strong>il</strong>y of its clerics or<br />

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scholars. Yet, it seems that the decision to use such weapons, whether nuclear,<br />

biological, or more probably chemical, would not be necessar<strong>il</strong>y subjected to<br />

religious rulings or authorization by lea<strong>di</strong>ng Salafi clerics. In ad<strong>di</strong>tion to operational<br />

calculations or considerations, it might also be a result of the effect of apocalyptic<br />

expectations. These expectations slowly increase with the ongoing insurgency in Iraq<br />

and the threats made by Bin Laden or Zawahiri. In the past year there is an escalation<br />

of these threats, which creates among the supporters of global jihad a sense of a close<br />

“explosion” in the field, either in Iraq, Europe, or the United States. This sense<br />

receives apocalyptic form, whether it is accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the Islamic prophecies and<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>tions, or not.<br />

We should also note that we can cautiously say that the effect of religiously based<br />

debates among <strong>Jihad</strong>i scholars or between scholars and Islamic institutions is<br />

weakening. Supporters of global jihad, especially those that have access to the<br />

Internet, are more “thirsty” to watch video clips that document behea<strong>di</strong>ng,<br />

bombings, or terrorism against their various “enemies” rather than to read<br />

innovative Islamic rulings. Hence, a sense of apocalyptic aspirations, Islamist or of<br />

another type, linked to in<strong>di</strong>vidual “can<strong>di</strong>dates” for Mah<strong>di</strong>sm, might increase. So far<br />

it seems that leaders such as Bin Laden or Zawahiri do not encourage such a<br />

development. There is no sign that might show that they perceive themselves as<br />

future Khalifah or even that they might lead a Kh<strong>il</strong>afah. This is typical to Sunni ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

leaders or scholars. Hasan al-Bana or Sayyed Qutb <strong>di</strong>d not do it either. But, al-Qa’ida<br />

is mutating and on the margins of <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafiyyah there might emerge in<strong>di</strong>viduals<br />

or groups that might develop into a new Juhayman al-`Utaybi. The “thirst” for a<br />

Mah<strong>di</strong> is there, as a result of many factors. Such a self-portrayed Mah<strong>di</strong> might decide<br />

to use non-conventional means, but his chances to become an influential leader of the<br />

“mainstream” <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafiyyah are very low.<br />

An important question to note here is how far a sense of the Apocalypse is driving<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>ists to act now, and not to “wait for the Mah<strong>di</strong> to appear.” This is a significant<br />

question on the ground of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i line of Arab volunteers to the insurgency in Iraq,<br />

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as well as the reasons that drove 19 Arabs to carry out the September 11 attacks.<br />

Before dealing with the possible effect of apocalyptic visions on the use of WMD, we<br />

should look for these visions regar<strong>di</strong>ng suicide terrorism, blind <strong>di</strong>scipline that drives<br />

Sunni <strong>Jihad</strong>ists to mass k<strong>il</strong>lings of Shi`is, or the growing hatred and demonization of<br />

the “enemy,” whoever he is. One of the significant factors of this growing w<strong>il</strong>lingness<br />

might be the visually effect of horrors as reflected through the Internet. Bloody video<br />

clips, demonized graffiti, or the total freedom of speech on this me<strong>di</strong>um, has a<br />

growing effect too. Here again, the Islamic nature or rules of the Apocalypse are<br />

secondary to the power of the demonization.<br />

16. <strong>Jihad</strong>i use of the Internet – the Open University for <strong>Jihad</strong><br />

The main platform for developing and pushing the culture of global jihad forward is<br />

in recent years, the Internet. There are several main reasons why <strong>Jihad</strong>i movements,<br />

groups, clerics, and scholars, turned the Internet into their main, and sometimes<br />

only, vehicle for propaganda, indoctrination, publicity, and teaching of their<br />

messages. Besides the known advantages of this me<strong>di</strong>um of communication, several<br />

factors should be noted:<br />

• Most Arab and Muslim countries face oppositions that are oppressed and<br />

groups that are persecuted, rendering the Internet their only alternative to<br />

spread their messages. Citizens and groups are prevented from freely<br />

publishing books and newspapers, or from giving open lectures. Moreover, in<br />

most Arab and Muslim countries they have no access to the tra<strong>di</strong>tional means<br />

of Islamic religious indoctrination, such as mosques, Friday sermons, religious<br />

universities and colleges, or religious ceremonies.<br />

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• The nature of the <strong>Jihad</strong>ist ideology and doctrines, as well as the core of <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

mission is to create a global solidarity and brotherhood. To that end the<br />

Internet is nowadays the best means to promote this goal cheaply and rapidly,<br />

wh<strong>il</strong>e reaching the broadest possible au<strong>di</strong>ence.<br />

• The Internet is the best means ava<strong>il</strong>able today to create a spectrum of<br />

doctrines, new interpretations, and a multitude of new groups, but also to<br />

create an image of a large volume of activity.<br />

• The Internet is intensively surfed and read by the global me<strong>di</strong>a. Every <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

event or message is instantly exposed to the world, circulated by news<br />

agencies, and cited in Muslim countries, whose populations do not read<br />

Arabic.<br />

• The past decade, has witnessed a heightened significance and weight of this<br />

me<strong>di</strong>um in the eyes of <strong>Jihad</strong>is, due to a number of highly important events.<br />

These include the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent global war on terrorism; the<br />

occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq; <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorist operations all over the<br />

globe; the image of a global clash of religions and civ<strong>il</strong>izations; and the rise of<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism as a global strategic factor in the West. There is a growing<br />

dynamic in the mutual relationship between the <strong>Jihad</strong>i groups that use the<br />

Internet and the global me<strong>di</strong>a.<br />

• The strategy of the global <strong>Jihad</strong>i doctrines is to target the Arab and Muslim<br />

youth—the largest, most educated—and in terms of the Internet—most<br />

connected segment of Muslim societies. Besides, the use of the Internet for<br />

various goals, and the access to it in many Arab and Muslim countries is<br />

growing rapidly, alongside the growing development of education in many of<br />

these publics, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng of females.<br />

Most importantly for the purposes of understan<strong>di</strong>ng the <strong>Jihad</strong>i mindset is the fact<br />

that these groups are above all targeting their own societies and not Western regimes<br />

and their citizens. The Internet may be used to intimidate Western publics, knowing<br />

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the au<strong>di</strong>ences’ wide exposure to the global me<strong>di</strong>a and the huge effect that exposure<br />

has upon the sense of security in the West. <strong>Jihad</strong>is know that the wi<strong>del</strong>y circulated<br />

video clips of beheaded foreigners and Muslims in Iraq terrorize Western publics.<br />

Even so, the main reason why <strong>Jihad</strong>is circulate these clips, photos, au<strong>di</strong>o material,<br />

books, articles, or m<strong>il</strong>itary manuals, is to indoctrinate their own Arab and Muslim<br />

au<strong>di</strong>ences; plant feelings of pride, a sense of belonging, and a new identity in their<br />

minds; and recruit their support. The Internet provides by far the best means to<br />

achieve the desired goal of virtual nation bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng of the Muslim nation—Ummah—<br />

an aspiration anchored in the doctrines of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i-Salafi currents. In other words,<br />

the Internet is the global Open University for jihad.<br />

One of the documents of indoctrination published in 2003 and recently re-circulated<br />

by the <strong>Global</strong> Islamic Me<strong>di</strong>a Front (GIMF) 68 is talking about the nature of the<br />

university of global jihad. 69 The author, nicknamed Ahmad al-Wathiq bi-Allah,<br />

deputy <strong>di</strong>rector of GIMF, presents al-Qa’ida as an “organization, state, and<br />

university”:<br />

Since the operation of USS Cole [November 2000] and the glorious events of<br />

Manhattan [September 2001] unt<strong>il</strong> the present events of this blessed month<br />

[Ramadan 2005] hundreds of Muslims from all over the world join this global <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

university, in which they study all the stu<strong>di</strong>es of the jihad, its rules and kinds… This<br />

is a non-central university, with no geographic borders, which has its presence<br />

everywhere and each person zealous for his religion and nation can join it… This<br />

university has its own presidency, whose role is to incite, guide, indoctrinate, and<br />

encourage the awareness of the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n. Its presidency is the leadership of the<br />

mujahed<strong>di</strong>n headed by Osama bin Laden… The university includes several faculties,<br />

among them for electronic jihad, martyrdom, and the technology of side bombs and<br />

car bombs.”<br />

68 An organ of Al-Qaeda and global <strong>Jihad</strong> with a growing intensive virtual activity in the past year.<br />

69 The article was published in most of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums. See on-line in:<br />

http://www.al-farouq.com/vb/showthread.php?t=2682<br />

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The article bears propagan<strong>di</strong>st overtones, but it clearly summarizes the<br />

indoctrinative nature of global jihad, and thus, the center of gravity of this<br />

phenomenon, i.e. the Muslim au<strong>di</strong>ence. If this is the main au<strong>di</strong>ence then there is<br />

almost no room for <strong>di</strong>sinformation. An intensive rea<strong>di</strong>ng of these web sites, and<br />

especially of the most ra<strong>di</strong>cal 15-25 <strong>Jihad</strong>i forums 70 and dozens of message groups,<br />

reveals the highly serious approach and attitude of their participants, i.e., those who<br />

are targeted by this global indoctrination. In some Muslim communities in the West,<br />

but especially in the Arab world, we can trace a growing role of this indoctrination in<br />

the w<strong>il</strong>lingness to support, justify, and volunteer to join <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorist groups. Since<br />

2001, these <strong>Jihad</strong>i web sites have gradually replaced the old Madrassa as a tool of<br />

recruiting the first generation of <strong>Jihad</strong>is in the 1980-90s. The Internet in fact, has<br />

become one global madrassa.<br />

Another recent publication by GIMF—an analysis of the global strategy of al-Qa’ida<br />

—is even more lucid. Under the title “al-Qa’ida’s War is Economic not M<strong>il</strong>itary,” 71 the<br />

author, a Sau<strong>di</strong> scholar and supporter of global jihad, analyzes the significant role<br />

that indoctrination plays in the global movement:<br />

We should <strong>di</strong>rect some of these efforts to other targets that could serve another goal,<br />

namely to promote the glory of the Muslims, especially among the youth, who are<br />

swimming in the oceans of pleasures and lust. Those youth are in fact unused petrol,<br />

wh<strong>il</strong>e many efforts are de<strong>di</strong>cated to confront those clerics who are selling their minds<br />

to the <strong>di</strong>ctatorships, and who are useless too. These moral attacks would have a<br />

tremendous impact on the souls of the defeated youth.<br />

Many idle youngsters were motivated to join the jihad by a photo or a video such as<br />

of the USS Cole, or Badr al-Riyadh, or by watching the crash of the planes into the<br />

high bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ngs. Those youngsters, even though they were not fully aware of the<br />

impact of the attacks upon them, turned their minds and bo<strong>di</strong>es towards the jihad.<br />

70 The number varies since these forums are often closed by security services, Western hosting companies, or as a<br />

result of technical problems, and reappear in other addresses.<br />

71 Abu Mus`ab al-Naj<strong>di</strong>, Ma`rakat al-Qaeda – Ma`rakah Iqtisa<strong>di</strong>yyah la `Askariyyah, 3 October 2005. See on-line in:<br />

http://www.al-farouq.com/vb/showthread.php?t=3383<br />

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Here comes the role of indoctrination and developing the thinking of these people. It<br />

is a mistake to leave these youngsters with their superficial understan<strong>di</strong>ng of the<br />

nature of the war.<br />

Whoever listens to the calls of Osama bin Laden senses in his words his care for the<br />

indoctrination of the supporters of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i current, like for example in the Gulf<br />

States, in order to target the o<strong>il</strong> fields. The Sheikh, I think, could <strong>di</strong>rect the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n<br />

through personal secret messages. However, he wanted the indoctrination to be<br />

public, in order that the crowds of people, who wait for his speeches through the TV<br />

channels or the Internet, would internalize his targets and follow them. If these<br />

messages would be clandestine and then the o<strong>il</strong> field would be attacked, the masses<br />

of sympathizers might not approve it and might even turn to the opposite side and<br />

withdraw their support. Public statements by the Sheikh or the many videos of the<br />

mujahed<strong>di</strong>n can avoid such a negative impact of such an attack.<br />

In the final analysis the culture of modern global jihad must use open indoctrination<br />

in order to sustain and broaden its au<strong>di</strong>ence in general, and its younger generations<br />

in particular. Open indoctrination is incompatible with <strong>di</strong>sinformation. Therefore,<br />

even though we should be selective and careful in our selection of which information<br />

on <strong>Jihad</strong>i web sites we follow, once we have established the authenticity of a <strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

web site, we can be reasonably certain that the words we read from their lips are<br />

cre<strong>di</strong>ble. The <strong>Jihad</strong>ist instigators cannot allow themselves to mislead the “Solid<br />

Base”— al-Qa’ida al-Sulbah—the base of the future pioneering <strong>Jihad</strong>i generations.<br />

Furthermore, we should understand the role of jihad played by the present<br />

ideological umbrella of global jihad. This role is not merely one of terrorism but, and<br />

perhaps more importantly so, a crucial p<strong>il</strong>lar in the current solidarity among Arabs<br />

and Muslims, as well as in the nation bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng process of the future Muslim<br />

Caliphate. In Apr<strong>il</strong> 1988, Dr. Abdallah Azzam, the spiritual father of modern global<br />

jihad, wrote so very clearly in the article in which he established the idea of al-<br />

Qa’ida: 72<br />

72 Abdallah Azzam, “Al-Qa`idah al-Sulbah,” Al-<strong>Jihad</strong> (Afghanistan), No. 41 (Apr<strong>il</strong> 1988), pp. 46-49.<br />

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“The Islamic society cannot be established without an Islamic movement that goes<br />

through the fire of tests. Its members need to mature in the fire of trials. This<br />

movement w<strong>il</strong>l represent the spark that ignites the potential of the nation. It w<strong>il</strong>l<br />

carry out a long jihad in which the Islamic movement w<strong>il</strong>l provide the leadership,<br />

and the spiritual guidance. The long jihad w<strong>il</strong>l bring people’s qualities to the fore and<br />

highlight their potentials. It w<strong>il</strong>l define their positions and have their leaders assume<br />

their roles, to <strong>di</strong>rect the march and channel it…<br />

Hol<strong>di</strong>ng of arms by the group of believers before having undergone this long<br />

educating training—Tarbiyyah—is forbidden, because those carrying arms could turn<br />

into ban<strong>di</strong>ts that might threaten people’s security and do not let them live in peace.”<br />

The long jihad with which the West—and indeed much of the world—is currently<br />

facing uses the Internet to provide both <strong>Jihad</strong>ists and us, a wide spectrum of<br />

<strong>di</strong>versified information. Western intelligence and security analysts can learn more<br />

about the culture of jihad by rea<strong>di</strong>ng the lips of <strong>Jihad</strong>i clerics, scholars, operatives,<br />

commanders, leaders, and above all their growing au<strong>di</strong>ence. Improving their ab<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

to do so and above all in the original language must be our priority.<br />

Conclusion<br />

During the middle ages and later periods, Muslims tended to view the campaigns of<br />

Christian Crusaders as something akin to their own jihad —that is, as a clearly<br />

spiritual duty that <strong>di</strong>d not <strong>di</strong>stinguish between religion and politics. The perception<br />

of the Crusader era as a triumphant phase in Islamic history has been revived and<br />

emphasized in the last few decades by Islamist movements. When Bin Laden named<br />

his front “World Islamic Front for the jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders”, his<br />

meaning was clear to the entire Muslim World. Furthermore, such language<br />

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provided both his imme<strong>di</strong>ate followers and wider Islamic circles with hope for a<br />

better and victorious future and a sense of the apocalypse. By exploiting feelings of<br />

hatred developed mainly on social and economic grounds, Bin Laden and al-Qa’ida<br />

also succeeded in convincing many Muslims that their future lay in terrorizing the<br />

West. The American occupation of Iraq and recently the sense by many Arab Sunnis<br />

of a forthcoming threat by Iran, added to the sense of the apocalypse the Sunni-Shi`i<br />

conflict as well. This conflict is in turn another renewal of past Islamic history.<br />

The root of the Islamist violence lies in the inab<strong>il</strong>ity of many Muslims to cope with<br />

Western modernization. Islamic fundamentalism is in many ways a search for the<br />

glorious past of Islam, in the middle ages, and the ideal mo<strong>del</strong> of the first generation<br />

of Muslim history: the Salaf al-Saleh. The ra<strong>di</strong>calization of this phenomenon lies in the<br />

pursuit of an imme<strong>di</strong>ate renewal of this glorious past, based on great expectations<br />

developed since September 11 attacks. The continuous sense of retreat felt by many<br />

Muslims during the second half of the twentieth century brought impatience that led<br />

to support for violence. Over the past few years, the doctrine of long-term social<br />

revolution—expounded by the Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab World and by<br />

Jama`at-I-Islam in In<strong>di</strong>a and the non-Arab Muslim World—lost much of its appeal<br />

for these Muslims. They were searching for an imme<strong>di</strong>ate improvement in their<br />

social con<strong>di</strong>tions, and therefore rea<strong>di</strong>ly adopted the notions of the culture of global<br />

jihad as a clash between civ<strong>il</strong>izations.<br />

The current trend among Islamist groups is to move away from terrorism that is<br />

confined to their in<strong>di</strong>vidual countries and <strong>di</strong>rected against the “heretic” regimes that<br />

persecute them, and toward operations that are global in scope. This trend is rooted<br />

in two organizationally <strong>di</strong>stinct—yet ideologically connected—events of the previous<br />

decade. One was the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993. The second was the<br />

participation of Islamist volunteers in conflicts in Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo,<br />

Chechnya, Kashmir, and Dagestan throughout the 1990s. These two lines eventually<br />

merged through the establishment of an international Islamist front in Afghanistan.<br />

This union was also soli<strong>di</strong>fied by the oppression and violence that Islamists<br />

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experienced under various Arab regimes, which created a camp of Islamist refugees<br />

who could no longer act in their homelands. In one sense, then, they were forced to<br />

pursue the new route of global terrorism. When they lost Afghanistan in December<br />

2001, they moved to Iraq in 2003, and started the intensive indoctrination through the<br />

Internet since then, in the rest of the Arab and Muslim world.<br />

This global phenomenon has been exacerbated by a relatively old process, one that<br />

actually accelerates in the coming years: the ra<strong>di</strong>calization of Muslim, primar<strong>il</strong>y Arab<br />

immigrants in the West. This process is largely a consequence of the alienation that<br />

many second- and third-generation Muslim immigrants feel within Western<br />

societies, whether due to irreconc<strong>il</strong>able values, quashed expectations, or other<br />

factors. One result of this process has been the rapid development of an Islamic<br />

activist infrastructure within Western democracies, such that any number of<br />

organizations in Europe and the United States could serve as the logistical and<br />

financial backbone of Islamist terrorist groups.<br />

This problem of social alienation among younger Muslims merits a study of its own.<br />

In short, though, any solution w<strong>il</strong>l require a better understan<strong>di</strong>ng in the West of the<br />

roots of Islamist violence as part of the culture of global jihad. The antiterrorism steps<br />

currently being taken by the United States and other Western countries—such as new<br />

legislation, better cooperation in the intelligence field, encouragement of<br />

counterterrorism efforts by Arab and Muslim states, and extra<strong>di</strong>tion of arrested<br />

terrorists—are all important. Yet, these measures do not address the fundamental<br />

causes of the problem, and may even enhance the notion that the Islamist struggle is<br />

an ideological global clash between civ<strong>il</strong>izations.<br />

The September 11 attacks and the war against Islamist terrorism pave the way for<br />

new ideological interpretations among <strong>Jihad</strong>i scholars, clerics, and groups, and<br />

produce new methods of dealing with the facts in light of Islamic constants. Islamist<br />

groups and Muslim intellectuals that determine this new vision publish fresh stu<strong>di</strong>es<br />

and <strong>di</strong>ssertations. Formerly, the general vision and intellectual <strong>di</strong>ssertations by<br />

Islamist groups were limited in scope to their regional problems. For example, the<br />

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Islamist groups in Egypt and Algeria used to focus on ways of rebelling against the<br />

governing regimes and ways of respon<strong>di</strong>ng to violators of Islam. In the Palestinian<br />

arena and Kashmir the visions and related stu<strong>di</strong>es were focused on fighting<br />

occupation, exhorting Muslims to fight for this goal, and expoun<strong>di</strong>ng the shari’a<br />

principles that governed this activity. Unlike that, the <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency in Iraq and<br />

lately the renewal of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i struggle in Afghanistan, produce a variety of wide-<br />

range doctrines, debates, and indoctrinative principles, which are shared by a rapidly<br />

growing class of supporters of global jihad through the Internet.<br />

Add to this the sense of alienation that preva<strong>il</strong>s in the ranks of many intellectuals in<br />

the Arab and Muslim worlds. All this might cause the Islamist movements to<br />

rearrange their action strategies in line with Islamic constants. They w<strong>il</strong>l deal with<br />

the facts but without giving up their ideological constants, abandoning the defense of<br />

oppressed Muslims, or giving up their sanctities regardless of the sacrifices that<br />

might be required. They might do so without reckless zeal in areas and situations<br />

where calmness, sobriety, and wisdom are better qualities in working and making<br />

decisions. This is especially important when one remembers that the objective of the<br />

war against terrorism is viewed by the Islamists as aimed to destroy every Islamist<br />

activity and to lure the Islamists into battles where they can be eliminated, prior to<br />

weakening Islamist groups everywhere and decisively destroying their capab<strong>il</strong>ities.<br />

An important consequence of the war against Islamist terrorism, primar<strong>il</strong>y in Iraq,<br />

and a corner-stone in the <strong>Jihad</strong>i strategy is the shift of terrorist activity back to the<br />

Arab World and the Middle East. Despite the global nature of the Islamist<br />

phenomenon in recent years, their ideal remained the establishment of what they<br />

perceive as the true Islamic state in the heart of the Muslim world. The hard core of<br />

the global jihad movement is composed primar<strong>il</strong>y of Arab Islamists, and the lost of the<br />

Afghan base brought them back to square one: their homeland. The American<br />

occupation in Iraq added to the shift. Dr. Ayman Zawahiri, the Egyptian right-hand<br />

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of Bin Laden, has written about it in his book of memoirs, 73 published in December<br />

2001:<br />

Victory by the armies cannot be achieved unless the infantry occupies the territory.<br />

Likewise, victory for the Islamic movements against the world alliance cannot be<br />

attained unless these movements possess an Islamic base in the heart of the Arab<br />

region… mob<strong>il</strong>izing and arming the nation w<strong>il</strong>l be up in the air, without any tangible<br />

results, unt<strong>il</strong> a fundamentalist state is established in the region… the establishment of<br />

a Muslim state in the heart of the Islamic world is not an easy or close target.<br />

However, it is the hope of the Muslim nation to restore its fallen caliphate and regain<br />

its lost glory…<br />

Zawahiri goes on to set a new mode of activity for the Islamist groups, which might<br />

be an outcome of the lesson that they learned from their past fa<strong>il</strong>ure in the Arab<br />

world:<br />

The jihad movement must come closer to the masses, defend their honor, fend off<br />

injustice, and lead them to the path of guidance and victory. It must step forward in<br />

the arena of sacrifice and excel to get its message across in a way that makes the right<br />

accessible to all seekers and that makes access to the origin and facts of religion<br />

simple and free of the complexities of terminology and the intricacies of composition.<br />

The jihad movement must de<strong>di</strong>cate one of its wings to work with the masses, preach,<br />

provide services for the Muslim people, and share their concerns through all<br />

ava<strong>il</strong>able avenues for charity and educational work. We must not leave a single area<br />

unoccupied. We must win the people's confidence, respect, and affection. The people<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l not love us unless they felt that we love them, care about them, and are ready to<br />

defend them…<br />

73 The book, Fursan tahta Rayat al-Nabi (Knights under the Prophet’s Banner), was published in eleven parts by<br />

the Sau<strong>di</strong>-owned London-based Al-Sharq al-Awsat, between 2-12 December 2001<br />

(www.assharqalawsat.com/pcda<strong>il</strong>y/pcstatic/ny-attack/zawahri.html). Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the paper the manuscript<br />

was smuggled from Afghanistan. The paper named it “The last w<strong>il</strong>l”, referring to the possib<strong>il</strong>ity that the book<br />

was the last work of Zawahiri and a w<strong>il</strong>l for the coming generations. Exerpts from the book were translated to<br />

English by FBIS (Document No. FBIS-NES-2002-0108, date: 1/10/02).<br />

Zawahiri wrote in the opening chapter: “I have also written this book to perform my duty to our generation and<br />

the generations that w<strong>il</strong>l follow. Perhaps I w<strong>il</strong>l not be able to write more amid all these worrying circumstances<br />

and changing con<strong>di</strong>tions.”<br />

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In short, in waging the battle the jihad movement must be in the middle, or ahead, of<br />

the nation. It must be extremely careful not to get isolated from its nation or engage<br />

the government in the battle of the elite against the authority… We must not blame<br />

the nation for not respon<strong>di</strong>ng or not living up to the task. Instead, we must blame<br />

ourselves for fa<strong>il</strong>ing to <strong>del</strong>iver the message, show compassion, and sacrifice…<br />

Liberating the Muslim nation, confronting the enemies of Islam, and launching jihad<br />

against them require a Muslim authority, established on a Muslim land that raises<br />

the banner of jihad and rallies the Muslims around it. Without achieving this goal our<br />

actions w<strong>il</strong>l mean nothing more than mere and repeated <strong>di</strong>sturbances that w<strong>il</strong>l not<br />

lead to the aspired goal, which is the restoration of the caliphate and the <strong>di</strong>smissal of<br />

the invaders from the land of Islam.<br />

This goal must remain the basic objective of the Islamic jihad movement, regardless of<br />

the sacrifices and the time involved.<br />

A good and even “doubled” reason to return to the Arab world, revealed in<br />

Zawahiri’s words, is the Israeli-Palestinian conflict:<br />

The jihad movement's opportunity to lead the nation toward jihad to liberate Palestine<br />

is now doubled. All the secular currents that paid lip service to the issue of Palestine<br />

and competed with the Islamic movement to lead the nation in this regard are now<br />

exposed before the Muslim nation following their recognition of Israel's existence<br />

and adoption of negotiations and compliance with the international resolutions to<br />

liberate what is left, or permitted by Israel, of Palestine. These currents <strong>di</strong>ffer among<br />

themselves on the amount of crumbs thrown by Israel to the Muslims and the Arabs.<br />

The fact that must be acknowledged is that the issue of Palestine is the cause that has<br />

been firing up the feelings of the Muslim nation from Morocco to Indonesia for the<br />

past 50 years. In ad<strong>di</strong>tion, it is a rallying point for all the Arabs, be they believers or<br />

non-believers, good or ev<strong>il</strong>.<br />

As it seems so far, the phenomenon of the global jihad movement is not likely to<br />

reach the end of its way. It is capable of adjusting to arranging its ranks, groups, and<br />

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fronts, and moving its activity to other parts of the world, probably back to the<br />

Middle East on one hand, and to Muslim communities in the West, on the other. The<br />

global earthquake of September 11 attacks in the United States, and the global war<br />

against terrorism, <strong>di</strong>d not actually change the roots of Islamist rage, that feeds this<br />

phenomenon and its violent expressions, and encourages Muslim publics to support,<br />

if not Islamist terrorism at least the ideas that it represents.<br />

Five years after the September 11 attacks—the turning point of global terrorism—TV<br />

channels, newspapers and journals, are inundated with reports, articles, op-eds,<br />

analysises, speeches, and other forms of assessments, on the current status of al-<br />

Qa’ida. Their various authors provide their opinions whether al-Qa’ida is declining, is<br />

increasing its power, is on the eve of its demise, or is unabatedly promoting its<br />

threatening capab<strong>il</strong>ities on a global scale. The conclusions of these assessments are<br />

oftentimes contra<strong>di</strong>ctory, leaving the Western public confused as to how it should<br />

regard the last five years of global <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism.<br />

Naturally, Western lea<strong>di</strong>ng elements in the fight against <strong>Jihad</strong>i terrorism are<br />

interested in portraying the threat and image of al-Qa’ida and global jihad as one in<br />

decline. They point at various successes such as the thwarting of terrorist plots and<br />

other operations; the k<strong>il</strong>ling and capturing of several senior al-Qa’ida operatives;<br />

improved cooperation in the field of global counter-terrorism; and a growing<br />

awareness among the society in many countries to the needs of tighter security<br />

measures. Western leaders also tend to belittle the role of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i insurgency in<br />

Iraq, Afghanistan, or Somalia, in affecting Western security. Some underestimate and<br />

misjudge the adaptive capab<strong>il</strong>ity and dynamism of global jihad, arguing that the<br />

targets of global jihad are static and independent of developments in certain regions.<br />

Furthermore, some Western leaders tend to point at the slow but positive advance of<br />

the democratic process in Middle Eastern countries, referring to general elections in<br />

Iraq, Egypt, and the Palestinian Authority (PA), municipal elections in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia,<br />

as well as to changes in the status of women in the Gulf States, and the “white<br />

revolution” that helped oust Syria out of Lebanon. They tend, however, to keep s<strong>il</strong>ent<br />

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as to the implications of the victory of the Islamic Hamas in the January 2006<br />

elections in the PA, the growth of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, whose possible<br />

triumph was blocked only through governmental oppression during the run-up to<br />

the elections in November 2005; or the increasingly anarchic situation following the<br />

democratic process in Iraq. Only recently, in the attempt to separate Iraqi Kur<strong>di</strong>stan<br />

from the rest of the country, whose president is a fellow nationalist Kurd, the<br />

Kur<strong>di</strong>sh autonomous government abolished the Iraqi flag in its territories.<br />

Reality since 9/11 suggests that in the past five years al-Qa’ida has managed to either<br />

initiate or inspire fatal terrorist attacks throughout the world. These attacks included<br />

several hundreds of suicide operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, Sinai, Jordan, In<strong>di</strong>a,<br />

Indonesia, Kenya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Europe. Western counter-terrorism<br />

successes notwithstan<strong>di</strong>ng these attacks, as well as a multitude of fo<strong>il</strong>ed attempts are<br />

clear evidence that al-Qa’ida and its aff<strong>il</strong>iates, as well as more loosely aff<strong>il</strong>iated local<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>ist initiatives, are st<strong>il</strong>l capable of planning and executing major attacks.<br />

Moreover, the recently uncovered plot in the United Kingdom involving attacks on<br />

international aviation, shows that some of the planned operations are at least as, if<br />

not more sophisticated than the September 11 attacks. As a result of these ongoing<br />

threats, issues and terms such as immigration, “home-growing <strong>Jihad</strong>ists,”<br />

”prof<strong>il</strong>ing,” “red alerts,” suicide bombings, charities, money-laundering, or “clash of<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>izations and religions,” have firmly penetrated Western life and the vocabulary<br />

of Western <strong>di</strong>scourse.<br />

Moreover, global jihad has clearly won the battle over the Internet. As a means of<br />

indoctrination, al-Qa’ida and its aff<strong>il</strong>iates dominate this me<strong>di</strong>um, wh<strong>il</strong>e the West and<br />

the Muslim world have so far fa<strong>il</strong>ed to devise and affect a serious “counter-<strong>Jihad</strong>i”<br />

response. On a da<strong>il</strong>y basis the entire Western me<strong>di</strong>a community is swimming in the<br />

sea of <strong>Jihad</strong>i web sites. The <strong>Jihad</strong>i response is swift, technologically advanced, highly<br />

adaptive to changing situations, and consumed by the Western me<strong>di</strong>a as a serious<br />

source of information. The most significant role of the <strong>Jihad</strong>i Internet is that of “the<br />

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open university for jihad stu<strong>di</strong>es,” the most effective means of <strong>Jihad</strong>i indoctrination<br />

and inspiration.<br />

Ad<strong>di</strong>ng to these setbacks is the fa<strong>il</strong>ure by the United States and its allies to<br />

apprehend the genuine leadership of al-Qa’ida, which in the fall of 2006, not only<br />

remains at large, but also manages to hotwire the apocalyptic senses of their<br />

followers by means of frequent airing of au<strong>di</strong>o and video cassettes. The <strong>di</strong>stribution<br />

of these tapes has helped al-Qa’ida gain the popularity of a rock band, revered both<br />

by its supporters as well as by the Western me<strong>di</strong>a. Between July and mid-September<br />

2006 alone, Ayman Zawahiri himself has “posted” four tapes out of a total of 27 tapes<br />

posted since September 2001. This means of communication with both the supporters<br />

of global jihad and Western publics and governments, provides al-Qa’ida and<br />

especially its two leaders, with a wealth of power, exercised with what seems to be a<br />

soaring level of self confidence. A close examination and analysis of all the tapes<br />

released by Osama bin Laden and Ayman Zawahiri in the past five years, strongly<br />

suggests that their self confidence has developed tremendously in that period. In the<br />

past three years these two al-Qa’ida leaders, and especially Zawahiri, have portrayed<br />

themselves as respected scholars who talk to their “citizens” like pseudo Prime<br />

Ministers. An ad<strong>di</strong>tional example of al-Qa’ida’s domination of the realm of the me<strong>di</strong>a<br />

were the large number of tapes featuring Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi in the period of<br />

2003-mid-2006, and the thousands of video clips from Iraq, Chechnya, Afghanistan,<br />

and elsewhere, documenting almost every terrorist operation. These releases in<strong>di</strong>cate<br />

that the propaganda and indoctrination machinery of al-Qa’ida, which is initiated by<br />

a very small number of people, is well-o<strong>il</strong>ed and highly effective.<br />

The vast body of assessments on the state of al-Qa’ida also features some experts who<br />

attempt to find the “golden path,” claiming that five years since 9-11; al-Qa’ida has<br />

mutated and is weaker as an organization or terrorist group, but much stronger as a<br />

source of inspiration and as an ideology. <strong>Jihad</strong>is traveling to Iraq to explode<br />

themselves, “home-grown immigrants” carrying out terrorist operations in Europe,<br />

or activists of <strong>Jihad</strong>i political subversion active in the Arab and Muslim world, have<br />

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not been recruited by al-Qa’ida. They “recruited” themselves to the service of global<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>i ideology. The vast majority of them undergo virtual mental, indoctrinational,<br />

and practical training through the Internet, not in training camps in Afghanistan or<br />

madrassas in Pakistan.<br />

Furthermore, the ideological and doctrinal developments, which affect a growing<br />

number of youngsters, are not necessar<strong>il</strong>y inspired merely by religious<br />

interpretations, but are also influenced by socio-political developments, taking place<br />

primar<strong>il</strong>y within the Arab world. On the other end—among Western societies—there<br />

is a growing sense that a clash with Muslim communities is inevitable, which results<br />

among other things in stronger support for harsher means of security, even at the<br />

price of certain limitations on civ<strong>il</strong> liberties.<br />

Generally speaking, during the past five years, al-Qa’ida seems to have slowly<br />

expanded as source of support and appeal from among larger segments of Islamic,<br />

primar<strong>il</strong>y Arab, societies. Its organizational power, meanwh<strong>il</strong>e, has not declined<br />

significantly. But, its probably biggest success does not lie in its survival, but in the<br />

development of the culture of global jihad as a kind of entity by itself. This kind of<br />

entity is the main framework of strategy and ideology, which is independent of any<br />

persons or in<strong>di</strong>viduals, nor a certain terrorist operation. Around this culture emerged<br />

within just 10-20 years a community. This community, which is global too, is st<strong>il</strong>l a<br />

minority in the entire Muslim world, but manages to gather around its strategy and<br />

ideology a growing number of supporters, whose sense of the apocalypse on one<br />

hand, and oppression on the other, assists in promoting its targets, at least in the<br />

meantime.<br />

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La nuova al-Qa’ida : tra <strong>di</strong>ssoluzione e rinascita<br />

Introduzione<br />

Andrea Plebani<br />

Cos’è al-Qa’ida. Rispondere a questo interrogativo rappresenta un elemento<br />

in<strong>di</strong>spensab<strong>il</strong>e per comprendere l’attuale fase storica e contribuire alla fine <strong>del</strong>lo<br />

scontro che lacera <strong>il</strong> sistema internazionale; eppure, a cinque anni dall’attentato che<br />

ha scosso le fondamenta <strong>del</strong> mondo occidentale, al-Qa’ida rimane ancora avvolta da<br />

un alone <strong>di</strong> mistero.<br />

Comprendere la reale natura, l’ideologia e la struttura che la contrad<strong>di</strong>stinguono,<br />

così come le modalità attraverso cui essa è riuscita ad assurgere al rango <strong>di</strong> principale<br />

nemico <strong>del</strong>l’unica superpotenza rimasta non rappresenta un mero esercizio<br />

accademico, ma costituisce un elemento fondamentale per elaborare una strategia in<br />

grado <strong>di</strong> porre fine alla minaccia che essa rappresenta.<br />

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Questo saggio non può avere la pretesa <strong>di</strong> fornire la risposta ultima e definitiva<br />

all’interrogativo che ne ha aperto la trattazione, ma si prefigge l’obiettivo <strong>di</strong> fornire<br />

una visione <strong>di</strong> insieme <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> al-Qa’ida, in grado <strong>di</strong> collegare tra loro gli<br />

elementi storici, ideologici e strutturali che hanno portato questa realtà a <strong>di</strong>venire<br />

uno dei principali attori <strong>del</strong>l’attuale sistema internazionale e a prevederne le possib<strong>il</strong>i<br />

strategie future.<br />

1. Al-Qa’ida: tra piano materiale e ideologico<br />

Gruppo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta, network operante su scala globale, realtà guida <strong>del</strong> campo<br />

islamista ra<strong>di</strong>cale, organizzazione terroristica. Questi sono solo alcuni dei termini più<br />

comunemente impiegati per definire al-Qa’ida. Eppure, nessuno <strong>di</strong> essi pare essere in<br />

grado <strong>di</strong> definire compiutamente questa realtà.<br />

Le tesi in merito alla reale natura <strong>di</strong> questo <strong>fenomeno</strong> sono molteplici e variano dalla<br />

ormai superata concezione <strong>di</strong> un movimento strutturato attorno a una ristretta<br />

leadership posta al centro <strong>di</strong> un complesso sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni che avvolgerebbero<br />

l’intero scenario internazionale, alla più recente, e <strong>di</strong>ametralmente opposta, posizione<br />

che vede in al-Qa’ida niente più che una semplice sigla, un brand <strong>di</strong> successo che<br />

permetterebbe alle realtà che decidessero <strong>di</strong> adottarlo <strong>di</strong> godere <strong>di</strong> una visib<strong>il</strong>ità<br />

senza paragoni, e <strong>di</strong> assurgere così al ruolo <strong>di</strong> attori <strong>di</strong> primo piano <strong>del</strong> complesso<br />

scenario post-post Guerra Fredda.<br />

Già <strong>il</strong> fatto che da più parti si affermi che l’attuale conflitto possa essere visto come<br />

una sorta <strong>di</strong> rie<strong>di</strong>zione <strong>del</strong>lo scontro che ha opposto Stati Uniti e Unione Sovietica<br />

fornisce una chiara visione <strong>di</strong> quanto questo <strong>fenomeno</strong> sia poco conosciuto.<br />

Senza considerare l’enorme <strong>di</strong>vario tecnologico e operativo che separa i due attuali<br />

“contendenti” e l’estrema complessità <strong>del</strong>la realtà qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta (ora non più riconducib<strong>il</strong>e<br />

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a un polo decisionale unitario definito né legato ad una specifica realtà territoriale), la<br />

stessa ignoranza che circonda uno dei due attori costituisce uno degli elementi<br />

principali che impe<strong>di</strong>scono anche <strong>il</strong> semplice accostamento dei due perio<strong>di</strong> storici.<br />

Benché durante gli anni <strong>del</strong>la Guerra Fredda <strong>il</strong> mondo sia stato vicino come non mai<br />

allo scoppio <strong>di</strong> un conflitto che avrebbe potuto potenzialmente tradursi nella mutual<br />

assured destruction dei due contendenti, la conoscenza <strong>del</strong>le capacità, <strong>del</strong>le strutture e<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’impianto ideologico <strong>del</strong>l’avversario garantiva, <strong>di</strong> fatto, solide basi su cui operare<br />

le proprie scelte strategiche. Si trattava, in sostanza, <strong>di</strong> un mondo pur sempre in<br />

transizione e soggetto a profonde mo<strong>di</strong>fiche, ma dalle “regole” ben definite, che <strong>il</strong><br />

conflitto o<strong>di</strong>erno non contempla.<br />

La peculiarità strutturale <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, <strong>il</strong> suo porsi al centro <strong>di</strong> un sistema con<br />

fondamenta poste tanto nel mondo materiale che sul piano ideologico-religioso e la<br />

sua stessa natura multiforme ed estremamente flessib<strong>il</strong>e impe<strong>di</strong>scono <strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>ineare in<br />

maniera precisa e chiara <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> e, <strong>di</strong> conseguenza, <strong>di</strong> definire con chiarezza la<br />

strategia da adottare. In sostanza, viene a mancare quella conoscenza <strong>del</strong>l’avversario<br />

che era stata un fattore determinante e caratterizzante <strong>del</strong>la Guerra Fredda. Basti<br />

pensare al <strong>di</strong>battito sorto in merito alle reali capacità <strong>del</strong> movimento, alla sua<br />

struttura o alla apparentemente semplice questione relativa alla sua denominazione.<br />

Benché <strong>di</strong> fatti <strong>il</strong> termine al-Qa’ida sia ormai <strong>di</strong> uso comune e associato senza dubbio<br />

alcuno all’organizzazione guidata da Osama bin Laden, esso parrebbe rappresentare<br />

più uno strumento da noi adottato per definire una realtà sfuggente e dai contorni<br />

tutt’altro che definiti, che <strong>il</strong> nome prescelto dal movimento stesso.<br />

Le stesse ra<strong>di</strong>ci <strong>del</strong> termine non contribuiscono a gettar maggior luce sulla questione:<br />

se da una parte infatti esso rimane ancorato al piano materiale, rimandando al<br />

concetto <strong>di</strong> “base”, “casa” o “fondamenta”, dall’altra esso può designare anche una<br />

serie <strong>di</strong> principi, massime e regole. Lo stesso Jason Burke 74 in<strong>di</strong>ca come esso venisse<br />

usato negli anni <strong>del</strong>la battaglia in Afghanistan sia nella sua accezione più materiale -<br />

per in<strong>di</strong>care le basi operative da cui prendevano avvio gli attacchi agli avamposti<br />

74 Si veda Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda: the true story of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam, Londra, 2004<br />

113


sovietici - che in quella più legata al piano ideologico, come <strong>di</strong>mostra l’uso fattone,<br />

nel corso <strong>di</strong> uno dei suoi più famosi <strong>di</strong>scorsi, da Abdullah Azzam per sottolineare<br />

come fosse necessario creare un’avanguar<strong>di</strong>a <strong>di</strong> credenti che si ponesse alla guida <strong>del</strong><br />

moto <strong>di</strong> rinnovamento mirante a scuotere l’intero mondo musulmano.<br />

Every principle needs a vanguard to carry it forward and [to] put up with<br />

heavy tasks and enormous sacrifices. There is no ideology, neither earthly<br />

nor heavenly, that does not require […] a vanguard that gives everything<br />

it possesses in order to achieve victory. […] It carries the flag all along the<br />

sheer, endless and <strong>di</strong>fficult path unt<strong>il</strong> it reaches its destination in the<br />

reality of life, since Allah has destined that it should make it and manifest<br />

itself. This vanguard constitutes the strong foundation (al-qaeda al-sulbah)<br />

for the expected society 75 .<br />

Le parole <strong>di</strong> Azzam aprono uno spiraglio su una <strong>del</strong>le molteplici sfaccettature <strong>del</strong><br />

mosaico qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta. Ancor prima che un’organizzazione terroristica operante su scala<br />

globale, al-Qa’ida è la trasposizione materiale <strong>di</strong> una corrente che, muovendo le<br />

proprie basi dal pensiero dai padri fondatori <strong>del</strong> fondamentalismo islamico e dalla<br />

necessità <strong>di</strong> riformare profondamente, sulla base <strong>del</strong>la purezza <strong>del</strong> messaggio<br />

profetico, l’intero sistema islamico, si è progressivamente tradotta nel più totale<br />

rifiuto <strong>del</strong>la via moderata da essi propugnata, per abbracciare come unica soluzione<br />

lo scontro <strong>di</strong>retto contro i nemici che mirano a <strong>di</strong>videre e annientare l’intera ummah.<br />

Al-Qa’ida non costituisce quin<strong>di</strong> che l’avanguar<strong>di</strong>a e <strong>il</strong> principale alfiere <strong>di</strong> una<br />

corrente interna al composito fronte fondamentalista. Essa non rappresenta nella<br />

maniera più assoluta le posizioni <strong>del</strong>l’intera ummah, né <strong>del</strong> complesso campo<br />

fondamentalista, e non detiene, inoltre, neppure <strong>il</strong> “monopolio ideologico” sulla<br />

corrente islamica “ra<strong>di</strong>cale” ( realtà da sempre tutt’altro che monolitica e segnata da<br />

profonde <strong>di</strong>visioni interne), pur essendone ormai <strong>di</strong>ventata l’emblema e la principale<br />

rappresentante.<br />

75 Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, New York, 2002, pp. 4-5<br />

114


Comprendere questo fattore è fondamentale per giungere all’elaborazione <strong>di</strong> una<br />

strategia in grado <strong>di</strong> contrastare efficacemente <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> al-Qa’ida.<br />

Impostare l’attuale fase storica come uno scontro inevitab<strong>il</strong>e che contrappone <strong>il</strong><br />

mondo occidentale al “terrorismo internazionale” e al cosiddetto “Asse <strong>del</strong> Male”<br />

non può che avvicinare lo “scontro <strong>di</strong> civ<strong>il</strong>tà” prospettato da Samuel Huntington 76 e<br />

teorizzato dallo stesso Sayyid Qutb – l’ideologo universalmente riconosciuto come<br />

padre <strong>del</strong> ra<strong>di</strong>calismo islamico – che affermava che <strong>il</strong> mondo fosse <strong>di</strong>viso in due<br />

blocchi contrapposti e inconc<strong>il</strong>iab<strong>il</strong>i: dar al-Islam e dar al-Harb 77 .<br />

“Although branded a ‘War against Terrorism’ by the US, the fight is<br />

against a ra<strong>di</strong>cal ideology producing Muslim youth w<strong>il</strong>ling to k<strong>il</strong>l and <strong>di</strong>e<br />

and wealthy Muslims w<strong>il</strong>ling to support and suffer incarceration. For the<br />

al-Qa’ida umbrella […] the fight is against a civ<strong>il</strong>ization. The reality is that,<br />

it is a fight between the vast majority of progressive Muslims and the<br />

miniscule percentage of Ra<strong>di</strong>cal Muslims. It is not a clash of civ<strong>il</strong>ization<br />

but a clash among civ<strong>il</strong>izations – a fight that must essentially be fought<br />

within the Muslim world” 78 .<br />

Alla luce <strong>di</strong> tali considerazioni, la cosiddetta guerra al terrorismo non può più essere<br />

orientata esclusivamente alla <strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>del</strong>le cellule operative e <strong>di</strong> sostegno <strong>di</strong> al-<br />

Qa’ida, ma colpire duramente le tesi e le basi ideologiche <strong>del</strong> movimento per scalfirne<br />

la legittimità agli occhi dei suoi sostenitori e limitarne l’appeal sulle fasce più<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>mente raggiungib<strong>il</strong>i dal suo messaggio.<br />

“By only attacking the terrorist cells that are planning and preparing<br />

attacks, you can never destroy a terrorist organization. Terrorists,<br />

especially the al-Qa’ida brand of terrorists, have a very high capacity for<br />

replenishing human losses. In order to fight terrorism, it is very<br />

important, in parallel with the strategy of targeting al-Qa’ida operation<br />

76 Si veda Samuel Huntington, The clash of civ<strong>il</strong>ization and remaking of world order, 1996<br />

77 Con <strong>il</strong> primo termine si in<strong>di</strong>cano quei territory sottoposti al controllo <strong>del</strong>l’Islam. Con <strong>il</strong> secondo, le aree non<br />

poste sotto tale dominio e quin<strong>di</strong> potenzialmente “aperte alla guerra”.<br />

78 Rohan Gunaratna, The rise and decline of al Qaeda, Statement to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks<br />

upon the United States, 9 luglio 2003, p. 9<br />

115


cells, to attack their ideological bases. If one only targets the operational<br />

infrastructure and does not target the ideological motivation, then<br />

certainly these organizations w<strong>il</strong>l survive. That means we w<strong>il</strong>l have to<br />

fight terrorism for another hundred years” 79 .<br />

La lotta “sul campo” all’organizzazione guidata da Osama bin Laden è infatti<br />

sicuramente fondamentale per porre fine a questa minaccia ma non può costituire<br />

che una parte <strong>del</strong>le misure da adottarsi; <strong>il</strong> confronto e la demolizione <strong>del</strong>le basi<br />

ideologiche che sono alla base <strong>del</strong> movimento qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta rappresentano parimenti un<br />

elemento imprescin<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>e per debellare questa realtà che è riuscita a sopravvivere<br />

all’impressionante serie <strong>di</strong> contromisure adottate.<br />

Nonostante la campagna scatenata contro l’organizzazione abbia coinvolto l’intera<br />

comunità internazionale e si sia tradotta in un formidab<strong>il</strong>e impegno sotto <strong>il</strong> prof<strong>il</strong>o<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itare, economico e politico, la minaccia al mondo occidentale rimane ancora<br />

altissima e ben lungi dall’esaurirsi in un orizzonte <strong>di</strong> breve periodo. La caduta <strong>del</strong><br />

santuario afgano, la cattura e l’uccisione <strong>di</strong> molti tra i più importanti esponenti<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e le imponenti contromisure adottate, pur essendo riuscite a<br />

<strong>di</strong>minuire notevolmente le capacità operative <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, non si sono tradotte in una<br />

sostanziale <strong>di</strong>minuzione degli attacchi ad essa più o meno <strong>di</strong>rettamente riconducib<strong>il</strong>i<br />

(si veda Fig. 1).<br />

1<br />

1998<br />

0<br />

1999<br />

1<br />

2000<br />

1<br />

2001<br />

9<br />

2002<br />

Fig1. Attacchi perpetrati da al-Qa’ida e dalle organizzazioni ad essa aff<strong>il</strong>iate 80 - Gennaio 1998-Maggio 2006<br />

79 Rohan Gunaratna in Al Qaeda Now. Understan<strong>di</strong>ng today’s terrorists, Karen J. Greenberg, Cambridge, 2005, p. 43<br />

80 Fonte: Intel Center, <strong>Jihad</strong>i Ops Tempo Statistics (JOTS), 19 Maggio 2006, p. 7, http://www.intelcenter.com/JOTS-<br />

PUB-v1-4.pdf . Per una analisi più analitica degli attentati riconducib<strong>il</strong>i ad al-Qaida e alle realtà ad essa aff<strong>il</strong>iate si<br />

116<br />

8<br />

2003<br />

20<br />

2004<br />

10<br />

2005<br />

4<br />

2006<br />

20<br />

15<br />

10<br />

5<br />

0


Cosa ancora più importante, benché la quasi totalità degli analisti sia sostanzialmente<br />

concorde nell’affermare che l’organizzazione abbia subito danni tali da limitare in<br />

maniera determinante l’effettivo controllo <strong>del</strong>la leadership sul movimento, esso pare<br />

essere riuscito ad adattarsi al nuovo e mutato contesto, abbandonando la<br />

“tra<strong>di</strong>zionale” struttura, a favore <strong>di</strong> una realtà strutturata su base orizzontale, su cui<br />

la “leadership storica” avrebbe un controllo limitato.<br />

Sarebbe quin<strong>di</strong> sorto un nuovo organismo, non più fondato e basato esclusivamente<br />

sul nucleo storico <strong>del</strong> movimento ma sul contributo garantito da una serie <strong>di</strong> attori<br />

dotati <strong>di</strong> ampia autonomia, che, in molti casi, manterrebbero con l’organizzazione<br />

madre solo un legame <strong>di</strong> aff<strong>il</strong>iazione e non <strong>di</strong> reale subor<strong>di</strong>nazione. Si tratterebbe, in<br />

sostanza, <strong>del</strong>l’affermazione <strong>di</strong> un nuovo <strong>fenomeno</strong> che solo parzialmente<br />

risponderebbe alla caratteristiche <strong>del</strong>la “vecchia” al-Qa’ida e che sarebbe invece<br />

maggiormente basato su un rapporto simbiotico che legherebbe le singole realtà<br />

locali all’organizzazione “madre”. Questo sodalizio garantirebbe alle singole<br />

organizzazioni la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> sfruttare <strong>il</strong> brand qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta e la sua eccezionale<br />

visib<strong>il</strong>ità, e ad al-Qa’ida le forze operative necessarie per portare a compimento quegli<br />

attacchi che essa potrebbe non essere più in grado <strong>di</strong> condurre <strong>di</strong>rettamente.<br />

Esaminare esclusivamente la conformazione attuale <strong>del</strong> movimento fornirebbe però<br />

un’analisi parziale <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione. Come già precedentemente sottolineato, <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> al-Qa’ida si estende ben al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>la sua semplice struttura, giungendo a<br />

toccare <strong>il</strong> complesso sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni facenti capo alla sua leadership e <strong>il</strong> ruolo<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione all’interno <strong>del</strong>l’eterogeneo scenario islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale. Per<br />

rispondere alla domanda che ha aperto questo saggio, occorre quin<strong>di</strong> prendere in<br />

esame le principali tappe <strong>del</strong>la storia <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, muovendosi dalle peculiari<br />

con<strong>di</strong>zioni esistenti in Afghanistan negli anni ’80 (che ne hanno permesso la graduale<br />

formazione), passando attraverso <strong>il</strong> fondamentale ruolo giocato <strong>del</strong> Sudan e<br />

nuovamente <strong>del</strong>l’Afghanistan nel consolidamento e nell’ascesa <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione<br />

nel decennio successivo, e, infine, analizzando la complessa fase attuale <strong>del</strong><br />

consulti <strong>il</strong> Terrorism Knowledge Base <strong>del</strong> MIPT (Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism),<br />

http://www.tkb.org/<br />

117


movimento, impegnato in un <strong>del</strong>icato processo <strong>di</strong> rinascita e sempre più orientato a<br />

trasformare Iraq e Afghanistan nelle nuove basi operative da cui far ripartire <strong>il</strong><br />

richiamo al jihad su scala globale.<br />

2. La storia<br />

Al-Qa’ida nasce storicamente in Afghanistan durante <strong>il</strong> jihad intrapreso contro le<br />

forze sovietiche che avevano occupato <strong>il</strong> Paese. Eppure, questa realtà, sorta<br />

all’interno <strong>del</strong> complesso mondo dei volontari afgani e legata in maniera inscin<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>e<br />

alla figura <strong>di</strong> Osama bin Laden, si struttura in maniera compiuta solo in un secondo<br />

momento, dopo essersi consolidata e ampliata in Sudan ed essere tornata a calcare <strong>il</strong><br />

suolo afgano nella seconda metà degli anni ’90.<br />

È in questo momento che nasce l’organizzazione terroristica capace <strong>di</strong> portare a<br />

compimento gli attacchi <strong>del</strong>l’11/9 e <strong>di</strong> proporsi come nuova antagonista <strong>del</strong> sistema<br />

<strong>di</strong> sicurezza sorto sulle ceneri <strong>del</strong> periodo post Guerra Fredda. È <strong>di</strong> questa<br />

organizzazione profondamente ra<strong>di</strong>cata nella regione <strong>del</strong>l’Hindu Kush e <strong>del</strong><br />

Khorasan – eppure in nessun modo ad essa circoscritta – che è figlia la “nuova” al-<br />

Qa’ida sopravvissuta all’operazione Enduring Freedom e evolutasi nella complessa<br />

realtà attuale.<br />

Comprendere le modalità attraverso cui l’organizzazione fondata da Bin Laden si sia<br />

strutturata nel tempo <strong>di</strong>viene quin<strong>di</strong> fondamentale per capire la nuova realtà<br />

qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta e le sue principali caratteristiche.<br />

118


2.1 Le origini <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida<br />

2.1.1 L’Afghanistan quale culla <strong>del</strong> movimento qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

Il ruolo giocato dall’Afghanistan nell’ascesa <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida è stato senza alcun dubbio<br />

fondamentale. Questo Paese non ha dato solamente i natali all’organizzazione ma ha<br />

rappresentato anche un campo <strong>di</strong> addestramento eccezionale per <strong>il</strong> movimento,<br />

ponendolo <strong>di</strong> fronte ad un formidab<strong>il</strong>e schieramento <strong>di</strong> forze ritenute tra le meglio<br />

addestrate ed equipaggiate <strong>del</strong> mondo e affinandone le tecniche <strong>di</strong> guerriglia.<br />

L’Afghanistan è stato però molto più che un semplice “training ground”. Per quasi<br />

un decennio esso è stato <strong>il</strong> principale campo <strong>di</strong> battaglia che ha visto contrapporsi<br />

forze musulmane a invasori “infe<strong>del</strong>i” e, come tale, ha acquisito una visib<strong>il</strong>ità e<br />

un’importanza eccezionali per l’intera ummah.<br />

Esso <strong>di</strong>venne l’epicentro <strong>di</strong> una nuova chiamata alle armi che investì l’intero mondo<br />

musulmano. Decine <strong>di</strong> migliaia <strong>di</strong> giovani, rispondendo a questo appello,<br />

abbandonarono i loro Paesi, spesso senza alcuna preparazione e addestramento<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itare, per contribuire alla riconquista <strong>del</strong>l’ennesima provincia <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico<br />

caduta in mani nemiche.<br />

Soprattutto, l’Afghanistan finì col rappresentare <strong>il</strong> principale punto <strong>di</strong> incontro <strong>di</strong><br />

coloro che, abbandonato <strong>il</strong> proprio Paese per le forti pressioni a cui i <strong>di</strong>versi<br />

movimenti fondamentalisti erano sottoposti o per la volontà <strong>di</strong> lottare per un ideale<br />

che trascendesse una realtà nella quale non si riconoscevano, avevano deciso <strong>di</strong><br />

abbracciare la causa jiha<strong>di</strong>sta. Provenienti da movimenti, organizzazioni e realtà<br />

spesso estremamente <strong>di</strong>fferenti (e talvolta in aperto conflitto) tra loro, questi guerrieri<br />

sperimentarono sulla propria pelle le privazioni e gli orrori <strong>del</strong>la guerra, rinsaldando<br />

o creando ex nih<strong>il</strong>o forti legami <strong>di</strong> fratellanza in grado <strong>di</strong> superare barriere<br />

linguistiche, etniche ed ideologiche.<br />

119


Nacque in questo contesto la composita ed estremamente eterogenea realtà dei<br />

“volontari afgani”, all’interno <strong>del</strong>la quale al-Qa’ida avrebbe ampiamente attinto sia<br />

per consolidare i propri ranghi, che per garantire <strong>il</strong> necessario supporto economico,<br />

logistico, e operativo alle proprie attività terroristiche.<br />

Questo processo non avvenne però imme<strong>di</strong>atamente. Identificare al-Qa’ida con <strong>il</strong><br />

composito <strong>fenomeno</strong> sopra <strong>del</strong>ineato significherebbe interpretare erroneamente <strong>il</strong><br />

peso e la natura <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione fondata da Osama bin Laden. Essa è infatti <strong>il</strong><br />

risultato <strong>di</strong> una complessa serie <strong>di</strong> avvenimenti e relazioni la cui creazione può essere<br />

fatta risalire al periodo <strong>del</strong> conflitto afgano, ma che si strutturarono e consolidarono<br />

in una realtà definita solo in un secondo momento.<br />

A pochi anni dallo scoppio <strong>del</strong> conflitto contro le truppe sovietiche, Osama bin<br />

Laden ricopriva ancora un ruolo marginale all’interno <strong>del</strong> complesso scenario<br />

afgano. Giunto nel Paese al seguito <strong>di</strong> Abdullah Azzam - suo mentore, nonché figura<br />

guida <strong>del</strong> jihad afgano e fondatore <strong>del</strong> Mekhtab al-Khadamat 81 (l’organizzazione<br />

preposta al raccoglimento <strong>di</strong> fon<strong>di</strong> da destinare al conflitto in Afghanistan e al<br />

reclutamento <strong>di</strong> volontari provenienti dall’intera ummah) – egli agì, soprattutto nei<br />

primi anni, come fund raiser per sostenere la lotta dei mujahiddeen .<br />

Bin Laden mise al servizio <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione i suoi contatti con alcune <strong>del</strong>le<br />

principali casate sau<strong>di</strong>te riuscendo a garantire un ingente flusso <strong>di</strong> donazioni<br />

tradottesi – tra l’altro - nella fondazione <strong>di</strong> una serie <strong>di</strong> centri <strong>di</strong> addestramento,<br />

rifornimento e aggregazione per i mujahiddeen che avrebbero combattuto contro le<br />

forze sovietiche. Il primo <strong>di</strong> tali complessi, <strong>il</strong> Beit al-Ansar, rappresentò la pietra <strong>di</strong><br />

posa <strong>di</strong> un sistema che si sarebbe ben presto esteso al <strong>di</strong> fuori <strong>del</strong>la città chiave <strong>di</strong><br />

Peshawar e che si sarebbe rivelato determinante per la formazione e l’ascesa <strong>di</strong> al-<br />

Qa’ida, fornendo assistenza e addestramento a un numero impressionante <strong>di</strong><br />

volontari.<br />

Stimare in maniera precisa <strong>il</strong> numero <strong>di</strong> guerriglieri che fruirono dei servizi garantiti<br />

dal Mekhtab al-Khadamat è impresa pressoché impossib<strong>il</strong>e. Le analisi sino ad ora<br />

81 Si veda Kenneth Katzman, Al Qaeda: Prof<strong>il</strong>e and Threat Assessment, CRS Report for Congress, 17 Agosto 2005, p. 2<br />

120


condotte variano notevolmente e <strong>del</strong>ineano un intervallo che comprenderebbe un<br />

numero <strong>di</strong> guerrieri incluso tra le 25.000 e le 250.000 unità 82 . Ciò che è certo però è<br />

che l’organizzazione <strong>di</strong>venne un vero punto <strong>di</strong> riferimento per i volontari stranieri<br />

accorsi nel Paese ricoprendo un ruolo determinante sia nel corso <strong>del</strong> conflitto che<br />

negli anni imme<strong>di</strong>atamente successivi.<br />

È in quegli anni che <strong>il</strong> futuro leader <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida conobbe e instaurò forti legami con<br />

alcuni tra i principali esponenti <strong>del</strong>la resistenza afgana, quali Burhanud<strong>di</strong>n Rabbani e<br />

Ahmed Shah Masood (Jamaat-i-Islami), Abdul Rasool Sayaf (Itehar-i-Islami) e<br />

Gu<strong>il</strong>bud<strong>di</strong>n Hekmatyar (leader <strong>del</strong> movimento Hizb-i-Islami vicino al servizi <strong>di</strong><br />

intelligence pakistani) ma anche e, soprattutto, alcune tra le più importanti<br />

personalità <strong>del</strong> complesso movimento fondamentalista internazionale ed egiziano,<br />

come lo sheikh cieco Ab<strong>del</strong> Omar Rahman e Ayman al Zawahiri 83 .<br />

L’incontro con Ayman al Zawahiri costituisce uno dei momenti fondamentali <strong>del</strong>la<br />

storia <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida poiché segna l’inizio <strong>di</strong> un percorso che porterà Osama bin Laden<br />

ad assumere una posizione sempre più antitetica rispetto a quella <strong>di</strong> Abdullah<br />

Azzam, in un momento estremamente critico per le sorti <strong>del</strong> conflitto afgano legato al<br />

progressivo ritiro <strong>del</strong>le forze sovietiche nel febbraio 1989. La presenza degli<br />

“infe<strong>del</strong>i” aveva infatti rappresentato <strong>il</strong> vero collante che aveva mantenuto unite le<br />

<strong>di</strong>verse fazioni afgane contrapposte. Con la partenza <strong>del</strong> contingente sovietico veniva<br />

meno <strong>il</strong> principale motivo che era stato alla base <strong>del</strong>la creazione <strong>del</strong>la composita<br />

coalizione e riemergevano quin<strong>di</strong> le profonde fratture interne.<br />

Questa situazione si ripropose, sebbene in toni minori, anche all’interno <strong>del</strong>la<br />

complessa realtà facente capo alla Mekhtab al-Khadamat. La partenza <strong>del</strong>l’invasore<br />

poneva <strong>di</strong> fatto la questione relativa al futuro <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione, che aveva assunto<br />

una posizione <strong>di</strong> primo piano all’interno <strong>del</strong> composito panorama jiha<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

internazionale. In particolare, emerse sempre più <strong>il</strong> dualismo tra <strong>il</strong> leader<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’associazione, Abdullah Azzam, e <strong>il</strong> suo vecchio <strong>di</strong>scepolo, compagno e<br />

82 Si veda Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, New York, 2002, p. 28 e Peter. L. Bergen, Holy War Inc: Inside the Secret<br />

World of Osama Bin Laden, New York, 2001, p. 45<br />

83 Stefan Aubrey, The new <strong>di</strong>mension of international terrorism, Zurigo, 2004, p. 149<br />

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successore designato, Osama bin Laden, ormai <strong>di</strong>venuto una figura <strong>di</strong> primo piano<br />

nel complesso panorama afgano, sempre più legato alle ra<strong>di</strong>cali posizioni <strong>di</strong> Ayman<br />

al Zawahiri.<br />

A <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta, Azzam intendeva concentrare le future attività<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione più verso scopi <strong>di</strong>fensivi che offensivi, impiegandola come forza<br />

<strong>di</strong> reazione rapida in grado <strong>di</strong> sostenere i musulmani perseguitati nelle <strong>di</strong>verse aree<br />

<strong>del</strong> pianeta, in primo luogo in Palestina. Soprattutto, egli si opponeva strenuamente<br />

all’impiego <strong>di</strong> tattiche terroristiche (aveva a tal proposito affermato esplicitamente<br />

come tali pratiche fossero inconc<strong>il</strong>iab<strong>il</strong>i con la legge islamica ) e all’estensione <strong>del</strong><br />

jihad afgano ai regimi “apostati” sostenuti dall’Occidente.<br />

“Azzam focused almost exclusively on the Afghan war against Russians<br />

and opposed meddling in the internal affairs of Arab and Muslim<br />

countries, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng Afghanistan. He also eschewed terrorism, targeting<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>ians, and taking jihad global, stating that unless <strong>di</strong>rected into the right<br />

path, jiha<strong>di</strong>s could turn into ban<strong>di</strong>ts that might threaten people’s security<br />

and would not let them live in peace” 84<br />

Sicuramente, le posizioni <strong>di</strong> Azzam erano dettate dagli stretti legami intessuti con la<br />

casa regnante sau<strong>di</strong>ta – sua principale “sponsor” e sostenitrice - ma esse<br />

sottendevano anche l’adesione a una visione <strong>del</strong>l’Islam più legata alla tra<strong>di</strong>zione e<br />

alla “via moderata” <strong>del</strong>l’Associazione dei Fratelli Musulmani e meno propensa ad<br />

abbracciare la visione ra<strong>di</strong>cale ed estremista sorta in particolar modo all’interno <strong>del</strong><br />

complesso mosaico egiziano.<br />

L’attentato che <strong>il</strong> 24 novembre 1989 causò la morte <strong>di</strong> Azzam pose fine alla contesa<br />

che si andava <strong>del</strong>ineando sempre più chiaramente con Osama bin Laden e segnò <strong>di</strong><br />

fatto l’ascesa <strong>di</strong> quest’ultimo e dei suoi fe<strong>del</strong>issimi alla guida <strong>del</strong> Mekhtab al-<br />

Khadamat. Benché questo risultato rappresentasse una grande vittoria per la fazione<br />

<strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta, esso avvenne in un momento estremamente complesso <strong>del</strong><br />

conflitto afgano.<br />

84 Fawaz A. Gerges, The Far Enemy. Why jihad went global, Cambridge, 2005, p. 136<br />

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La ripresa dei conflitti interni alla resistenza non si tradusse infatti solamente in un<br />

rallentamento <strong>del</strong>la campagna contro le forze facenti capo al governo f<strong>il</strong>o-sovietico <strong>di</strong><br />

Muhammad Najibullah, ma nello scoppio <strong>di</strong> vere e proprie faide e nella progressiva<br />

marginalizzazione dei volontari accorsi da tutto <strong>il</strong> mondo musulmano. Molti <strong>di</strong> loro<br />

posero fine alla loro esperienza in Afghanistan e fecero ritorno ai propri Paesi<br />

d’origine. Tra essi vi era lo stesso Osama bin Laden.<br />

2.1.2 Le brevi parentesi sau<strong>di</strong>ta e pakistana<br />

Benché l’accoglienza riservatagli in patria fosse inizialmente estremamente positiva,<br />

<strong>il</strong> sodalizio con la famiglia regnante sau<strong>di</strong>ta era però destinato a un rapido declino.<br />

L’invasione irachena <strong>del</strong> Kuwait nell’agosto 1990 e la richiesta <strong>di</strong> intervento <strong>di</strong> forze<br />

statunitensi a <strong>di</strong>fesa <strong>del</strong> Regno formalizzata dalla casata regnante segnarono la<br />

formazione <strong>di</strong> un’insanab<strong>il</strong>e rottura. La permanenza <strong>di</strong> truppe “infe<strong>del</strong>i” sul<br />

territorio sau<strong>di</strong>ta anche alla fine <strong>del</strong>la fase più intensa <strong>del</strong>l’operazione “Desert<br />

Storm” costituiva una con<strong>di</strong>zione inaccettab<strong>il</strong>e per Osama bin Laden che denunciò<br />

apertamente la condotta <strong>del</strong>la leadership <strong>del</strong> Paese, rendendolo <strong>di</strong> fatto uno dei<br />

principali oppositori <strong>del</strong> regime. La rottura con l’establishment sau<strong>di</strong>ta fu quin<strong>di</strong><br />

inevitab<strong>il</strong>e, così come <strong>il</strong> suo “allontanamento” alla volta <strong>del</strong> Pakistan 85 .<br />

L’esperienza pakistana fu però <strong>di</strong> breve durata. Benché <strong>il</strong> peso <strong>del</strong> Mekhtab al-<br />

Khadamat fosse ancora notevole, gli stretti legami intessuti ai tempi <strong>del</strong>la guerra<br />

afgana con l’Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI) si erano fatti sempre più lab<strong>il</strong>i e non<br />

poterono garantire a lungo l’intoccab<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta, anche a causa <strong>del</strong>la sua<br />

posizione fortemente ost<strong>il</strong>e a Benazir Bhutto, allora alla guida <strong>del</strong> Paese, e degli<br />

stretti legami che univano Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta e Pakistan. Proprio nel momento in cui<br />

pareva che <strong>il</strong> cerchio attorno ad Osama bin Laden si stesse per chiudere<br />

85 In realtà al leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta, al quale era stata revocata la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> abbandonare <strong>il</strong> Paese, era stata concessa<br />

una deroga in modo da permettergli <strong>di</strong> raggiungere l’Afghanistan per fungere da me<strong>di</strong>atore tra tra le <strong>di</strong>verse<br />

fazioni che in lotta. Bin Laden però decise <strong>di</strong> non tornare in patria e <strong>di</strong> recarsi in Pakistan<br />

123


inesorab<strong>il</strong>mente, Hasan al-Turabi, la guida spirituale <strong>del</strong> Fronte Nazionale Islamico<br />

(FNI), salito al potere in Sudan nel 1989, presentò al movimento l’unica via d’uscita<br />

esperib<strong>il</strong>e al momento: la trasposizione <strong>del</strong>la sua guida e <strong>di</strong> gran parte dei suoi più<br />

stretti collaboratori nel Paese che si can<strong>di</strong>dava a <strong>di</strong>venire la nuova frontiera <strong>del</strong><br />

composito movimento fondamentalista internazionale.<br />

2.1.3 L’es<strong>il</strong>io sudanese<br />

La “cattività sudanese” si rivelò ben presto molto più che una semplice tappa<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’esodo <strong>di</strong> bin Laden. La presenza <strong>di</strong> Omar al-Bashir e <strong>di</strong> Hasan al-Turabi garantì<br />

infatti al leader arabo <strong>il</strong> sostegno necessario per riorganizzare le f<strong>il</strong>a <strong>del</strong>la propria<br />

organizzazione e, soprattutto, gli permise <strong>di</strong> allargare la propria rete <strong>di</strong> contatti. La<br />

salita al potere <strong>del</strong> FNI aveva infatti favorito l’afflusso nel Paese <strong>di</strong> molteplici gruppi<br />

islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali in fuga o alla ricerca <strong>di</strong> una nuova base operativa e aveva anche<br />

permesso al movimento <strong>di</strong> fruire <strong>del</strong> supporto <strong>di</strong> realtà già fortemente ra<strong>di</strong>cate nello<br />

scenario internazionale come Hezbollah o alcune componenti <strong>del</strong> complesso mosaico<br />

iraniano 86 . Questo periodo segnò quin<strong>di</strong> un momento cruciale nel processo <strong>di</strong><br />

formazione <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, permettendo alla leadership <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione <strong>di</strong><br />

estendere i propri contatti ben oltre Pakistan, Afghanistan e regione me<strong>di</strong>orientale e<br />

instaurando nuovi legami - e spesso veri e propri rapporti <strong>di</strong> collaborazione - con<br />

attivisti algerini e tunisini, ma anche tagiki, ceceni e azeri, oltre che giordani ed<br />

eritrei 87 .<br />

L’importanza <strong>del</strong> periodo sudanese non è però legata esclusivamente alla sua<br />

centralità all’interno <strong>del</strong>lo scenario islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale. Il Paese <strong>di</strong>venne infatti <strong>il</strong> centro<br />

<strong>di</strong> un vasto complesso <strong>di</strong> società e compagnie 88 nate per finanziare le attività <strong>del</strong><br />

86 Rohan Gunaratna, The rise and decline of al Qaeda, Statement to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks<br />

upon the United States, 9 luglio 2003, p. 2<br />

87 Stefan Aubrey, The new <strong>di</strong>mension of international terrorism, Zurigo, 2004, p. 150<br />

88 Si veda D. P. Sharma, The New Terrorism: Islamist International, New Dehli, 2005, pp. 123-124<br />

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movimento guidato da bin Laden e per <strong>di</strong>versificarne gli investimenti in un<br />

momento particolarmente <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e per <strong>il</strong> leader arabo, sempre più ostracizzato<br />

dall’establishment sau<strong>di</strong>ta.<br />

Non solo, esso fornì all’organizzazione la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> instaurare con <strong>il</strong> governo<br />

sudanese un particolare rapporto <strong>di</strong> collaborazione che si sarebbe poi manifestato<br />

più compiutamente in Afghanistan: in cambio <strong>del</strong>la protezione e <strong>del</strong>la libertà<br />

d’azione concessa all’organizzazione, la leadership <strong>del</strong> Paese poté contare su una<br />

massiccia campagna <strong>di</strong> investimenti a suo favore sia <strong>di</strong>retti che in<strong>di</strong>retti e sul suo<br />

sostegno nella campagna avviata contro le m<strong>il</strong>izie cristiane nel sud <strong>del</strong> Paese.<br />

“Bin Laden […] within two years of his arrival in the country, had spent<br />

ten of m<strong>il</strong>lions of dollars bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng a highway across the desert from<br />

Khartoum to Port Sudan, contributing to a new airport for Khartoum and<br />

keeping al-Turabi’s administration financially afloat during a series of<br />

foreign exchange crises that threatened to leave the country without<br />

fuel” 89<br />

In questo modo <strong>il</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta riuscì a consolidare le basi economiche <strong>del</strong>la propria<br />

organizzazione e a <strong>di</strong>sporre <strong>di</strong> risorse sufficienti per addestrare, armare e finanziare<br />

altre realtà legandole alla propria causa.<br />

"Wh<strong>il</strong>e in Sudan, Osama played a dual role, as both terrorist and<br />

businessman. In keeping with Sudan’s clandestine support for Islamist<br />

movements around the world, he bu<strong>il</strong>t a parallel organization to augment<br />

Khartoum’s efforts. After establishing links with about twenty Islamists<br />

groups engaged in guerr<strong>il</strong>la warfare and terrorism, he supported them<br />

with funds, training and weapons” 90 .<br />

La crescente attenzione posta sul Sudan non si tradusse però in una per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>di</strong><br />

importanza <strong>del</strong> fronte afgano e pakistano. Benché <strong>il</strong> centro operativo ed esecutivo <strong>del</strong><br />

composito movimento guidato da bin Laden si fosse <strong>di</strong> fatto trasferito nel Paese<br />

89 Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda: the true story of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam, Londra, 2004, p. 145<br />

90 Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, New York, 2002, p. 41<br />

125


guidato da al-Turabi e al-Bashir, le strutture <strong>di</strong> supporto e i centri <strong>di</strong> addestramento<br />

<strong>di</strong>slocati in Afghanistan e Pakistan continuarono a ricoprire un ruolo <strong>di</strong> primo piano,<br />

garantendo al leader <strong>il</strong> mantenimento <strong>di</strong> un’importante testa <strong>di</strong> ponte che si sarebbe<br />

rivelata fondamentale nel prosieguo <strong>del</strong> proprio programma.<br />

La crescente attività <strong>del</strong> movimento in Sudan – e soprattutto gli in<strong>di</strong>zi che lo<br />

collegavano in vario modo al fallito attentato ai danni <strong>del</strong> presidente egiziano Hosni<br />

Mubarak ad Ad<strong>di</strong>s Abeba nel giugno 1995 – attirò infatti sul Paese la condanna <strong>di</strong> un<br />

ampio fronte internazionale guidato dagli Stati Uniti che intensificarono<br />

notevolmente le proprie pressioni in modo da porre fine alla minaccia costituita da<br />

uno stato che si apprestava a <strong>di</strong>venire la base <strong>del</strong> fronte internazionale <strong>del</strong> terrore.<br />

Questa situazione spinse la leadership sudanese a revocare <strong>il</strong> proprio supporto ad<br />

Osama bin Laden che decise quin<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> partire alla volta <strong>del</strong>l’Afghanistan per<br />

ricostruire, questa volta su scala molto più ampia, <strong>il</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni e interessi<br />

creato in Sudan.<br />

2.2. Consolidamento, ascesa e caduta: <strong>il</strong> ritorno in Afghanistan<br />

La per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>del</strong> santuario sudanese aveva rappresentato un duro colpo per i progetti<br />

<strong>di</strong> Bin Laden. L’espulsione <strong>del</strong> movimento – coincisa con <strong>il</strong> definitivo tramonto <strong>di</strong> al-<br />

Turabi e lo spostamento degli equ<strong>il</strong>ibri <strong>di</strong> potere interni a favore <strong>del</strong>l’altro uomo<br />

forte <strong>del</strong> regime, Omar al-Bashir – non aveva solo privato l’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> una<br />

base sicura da cui poter progettare le proprie attività e continuare l’addestramento<br />

dei volontari, ma aveva <strong>di</strong> fatto vanificato gli sforzi fatti in quegli anni per garantire<br />

al movimento solide basi economiche.<br />

“Bin Laden’s departure from Sudan marked a setback for him. The Sau<strong>di</strong><br />

government had frozen his assets three years earlier, and the Sudanese<br />

126


government expropriated his assets there after he left Sudan. The financial<br />

stresses contributed to strained relations with some of his associates, who<br />

used the move back to Afghanistan as an occasion to break from al-<br />

Qa’ida” 91 .<br />

Le ingenti risorse finanziarie <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione avevano da sempre rappresentato<br />

uno dei principali motivi alla base <strong>del</strong> suo successo. Le ristrettezze economiche nelle<br />

quali si trovava ad operare Bin Laden rischiavano quin<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> influire negativamente<br />

sulla rete <strong>di</strong> contatti e relazioni consolidatasi nel corso <strong>del</strong>la sua permanenza in<br />

Sudan e <strong>di</strong> minare la coesione <strong>del</strong> gruppo <strong>di</strong> fe<strong>del</strong>issimi che lo avevano seguito. Non<br />

solo, gli anni seguiti alla sua partenza dall’Afghanistan ne avevano profondamente<br />

mo<strong>di</strong>ficato gli equ<strong>il</strong>ibri <strong>di</strong> potere interni: la lotta per la supremazia sul Paese era<br />

tutt’altro che cessata con la partenza dei sovietici e la caduta <strong>di</strong> Muhammad<br />

Najibullah nell’apr<strong>il</strong>e <strong>del</strong> 1992, e nuovi attori si erano prepotentemente inseriti nel<br />

complesso sistema afgano.<br />

Isolato, privo <strong>del</strong>le risorse economiche che ne avevano fatto una <strong>del</strong>le personalità<br />

chiave <strong>del</strong> jihad afgano e alle prese con un ambiente tutt’altro che favorevole, Bin<br />

Laden si trovava in una situazione ancora più critica <strong>di</strong> quella che lo aveva spinto a<br />

muoversi alla volta <strong>di</strong> Khartoum.<br />

Eppure, l’Afghanistan, così come aveva segnato l’ascesa <strong>di</strong> Bin Laden negli anni ’80,<br />

<strong>di</strong>venne <strong>il</strong> luogo dove al-Qa’ida avrebbe trovato la sua definitiva consacrazione.<br />

Benché in una situazione estremamente complessa, <strong>il</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta non era<br />

totalmente privo <strong>di</strong> risorse: sebbene <strong>il</strong> Sudan fosse <strong>di</strong>ventato <strong>il</strong> centro <strong>del</strong>le attività<br />

economiche <strong>del</strong> movimento, i canali <strong>di</strong> finanziamento creati ai tempi <strong>del</strong> conflitto<br />

afgano erano ancora attivi. Egli godeva, inoltre, ancora <strong>di</strong> un forte sostegno nella<br />

zona tribale ai confini con <strong>il</strong> Pakistan e poteva contare sugli stretti legami intessuti ai<br />

tempi <strong>del</strong> jihad afgano con alcuni dei principali capi dei mujahiddeen.<br />

91 The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Overview of the Enemy, Staff Statement<br />

No.15, Agosto 2005, p. 6,<br />

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Soprattutto però, <strong>il</strong> ritorno <strong>di</strong> Bin Laden aveva preceduto <strong>di</strong> pochi mesi la definitiva<br />

ascesa <strong>del</strong> movimento dei Talebani che, nel settembre 1996, erano riusciti ad<br />

occupare Kabul e Jalalabad, portando a compimento la conquista <strong>del</strong>la quasi totalità<br />

<strong>del</strong> Paese. La vittoria dei Talebani, unita al forte sostegno <strong>di</strong> cui essi godevano ad<br />

Islamabad, poneva <strong>di</strong> fatto al centro <strong>del</strong> complesso ed eterogeneo sistema afgano una<br />

leadership che, benché non potesse mantenere l’assoluto controllo sull’intero<br />

territorio, era in grado <strong>di</strong> limitare la spirale <strong>di</strong> violenze che aveva sconvolto <strong>il</strong> Paese<br />

nell’ultimo decennio.<br />

E una leadership forte, ma al tempo stesso interessata alla creazione <strong>di</strong> un sistema<br />

logistico e operativo in grado <strong>di</strong> consolidare la sua presa sul paese e <strong>di</strong> contrastare le<br />

ultime sacche <strong>di</strong> resistenza, era ciò <strong>di</strong> cui Bin Laden aveva bisogno per avviare un<br />

rapporto <strong>di</strong> collaborazione qualitativamente superiore a quello che lo aveva legato<br />

all’establishment sudanese.<br />

Ovviamente, questo processo non fu imme<strong>di</strong>ato. Il ritorno <strong>di</strong> Bin Laden era infatti<br />

visto da alcuni dei principali esponenti dei Talebani con sospetto, e le relazioni tra i<br />

due schieramenti non furono sin dal principio improntate alla massima<br />

cooperazione. Eppure, la forte personalità <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta, e gli efficaci argomenti<br />

<strong>di</strong> cui poteva <strong>di</strong>sporre, gli garantirono nel giro <strong>di</strong> pochi mesi una salda alleanza con <strong>il</strong><br />

leader dei Talebani, <strong>il</strong> Mullah Omar, che non sarebbe mai venuto meno agli impegni<br />

assunti anche nei momenti più <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

L’importanza <strong>del</strong>la base afgana per <strong>il</strong> movimento guidato da Bin Laden può essere<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>mente compresa esaminando una lettera scritta da Ayman al-Zawahiri ad un suo<br />

sottoposto nel maggio <strong>del</strong> 2001 che, attraverso l’impiego <strong>di</strong> un linguaggio in co<strong>di</strong>ce,<br />

evidenziava le con<strong>di</strong>zioni estremamente positive che <strong>il</strong> Paese poteva garantire, la fine<br />

<strong>del</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e periodo coinciso con l’espulsione <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione dal Sudan e la<br />

definitiva sconfitta dei movimenti islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali operanti sul suolo egiziano :<br />

“The most important step was starting the school [al-Qa’ida], the<br />

programs of which have been started. We have also provided the teachers<br />

[mujahedeen] with means of conducting profitable trade [jihad] as much as<br />

128


we could. […] As you know the situation below in the v<strong>il</strong>lage [Egypt] has<br />

become bad for traders [jiha<strong>di</strong>s]. Our Upper Egyptian relatives [Islamic<br />

Group] have left the market, and we are suffering from international<br />

monopolies [ hunted by Western and intelligence services]. Conflicts take<br />

place between us for trivial reasons, due to scarcity of resources. We are<br />

<strong>di</strong>spersed over various cities. However, God had mercy on us when the<br />

Omar Brothers Company [the Taliban] here opened the market for traders<br />

and provided them with an opportunity to reorganize, may God reward<br />

them. Among the benefits of residence here is that traders from all over<br />

gather in one place under one company, which increases fam<strong>il</strong>iarity and<br />

cooperation among them” 92 .<br />

Benché <strong>di</strong> fatto la sopravvivenza <strong>del</strong> movimento continuasse a <strong>di</strong>pendere – così<br />

come avvenuto in Sudan – dal sostegno <strong>del</strong>la leadership al potere, la profonda<br />

conoscenza <strong>del</strong> territorio, gli stretti legami intessuti da Bin Laden con importanti<br />

fazioni afgane e <strong>il</strong> mito che iniziava a circondare la figura <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta<br />

garantirono al movimento margini <strong>di</strong> manovra <strong>di</strong> molto superiori a quelli concessi<br />

dal regime <strong>di</strong> Khartoum:<br />

“Bin Laden eventually enjoyed a strong financial position in Afghanistan,<br />

thanks to Sau<strong>di</strong> and other financiers associated with the Golden Chain.<br />

Through his relation with Mullah Omar – and the monetary and other<br />

benefits that it brought the Taliban – Bin Laden was able to circumvent<br />

restrictions[…]. Bin Laden appeared to have in Afghanistan a freedom of<br />

movement that he had lacked in Sudan. Al-Qa’ida members could travel<br />

freely within the country, enter and exit it without visas or any<br />

immigration procedures, purchase and import vehicles and weapons, and<br />

enjoy the use of official Afghan Ministry of Defence license plates. Al-<br />

92 Fawaz A. Gerges, The Far Enemy. Why jihad went global, Cambridge, 2005, pp. 171-172.<br />

Jason Burke fornisce un’interpretazione <strong>del</strong>la missiva leggermente <strong>di</strong>fferente, identificando i termini “below in<br />

the v<strong>il</strong>lage” e “Upper Egyptian relatives” non con i gruppi islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali che avevano le loro basi operative<br />

nell’Alto Egitto, ma con <strong>il</strong> regime sudanese che aveva revocato <strong>il</strong> proprio sostegno al movimento guidato da Bin<br />

Laden. (Si veda Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda: the true story of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam, Londra, 2004, p. 9)<br />

129


Qa’ida also used the Afghan state-owned Ariana airlines to courier money<br />

into the country” 93 .<br />

Questa situazione permise al leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>di</strong> riattivare pienamente la rete logistica<br />

e <strong>il</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> campi <strong>di</strong> reclutamento e addestramento creati durante <strong>il</strong> jihad afgano.<br />

Non solo, grazie alla liberta <strong>di</strong> azione concessagli, Bin Laden poté estendere questo<br />

sistema all’intero Afghanistan, in modo da consentire ad un numero sempre più<br />

elevato <strong>di</strong> volontari <strong>di</strong> fluire nel Paese e da trasformarlo nuovamente nel principale<br />

punto <strong>di</strong> riferimento <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale internazionale.<br />

“The alliance with the Taliban provided al-Qa’ida a sanctuary in which to<br />

train and indoctrinate fighters and terrorists, import weapons, forge ties<br />

with other jihad groups and leaders, and plot and staff terrorist schemes.<br />

Wh<strong>il</strong>e Bin Laden maintained his own al-Qa’ida guesthouses and camps for<br />

vetting and training recruits, he also provided support to and benefited<br />

from the broad infrastructure of such fac<strong>il</strong>ities Afghanistan made<br />

ava<strong>il</strong>able to the global network of Islamist movements. U.S. intelligence<br />

estimates put the total number of fighters who underwent instruction in<br />

Bin Laden-supported camps in Afghanistan from 1996 through 9/11 at<br />

10.000 to 20.000” 94 .<br />

L’obiettivo principe <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta non era tanto creare un vero e proprio esercito<br />

alle sue <strong>di</strong>rette <strong>di</strong>pendenze – fattore che, tra l’altro, avrebbe rischiato <strong>di</strong> alienargli le<br />

simpatie dei nuovi leader <strong>del</strong> Paese – ma rafforzare i legami intessuti con le<br />

organizzazioni islamiche ra<strong>di</strong>cali con le quali era entrato in contatto, così da creare<br />

un network potenzialmente in grado <strong>di</strong> agire in ogni angolo <strong>del</strong> globo. Per questo<br />

motivo, <strong>del</strong>le migliaia <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>itanti passati attraverso i campi <strong>di</strong> addestramento afgani<br />

solo un numero estremamente ridotto entrò a far parte dei ranghi <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida. Al-<br />

Qa’ida era e doveva rimanere un movimento d’avanguar<strong>di</strong>a in grado <strong>di</strong> adattarsi alle<br />

93 The 9/11 Commission Report, 2004, p. 66<br />

94 The 9/11 Commission Report, 2004, pp. 66-67<br />

130


mo<strong>di</strong>fiche <strong>del</strong>l’ambiente nel quale si trovava a operare e <strong>di</strong> porsi al centro <strong>del</strong>la<br />

complessa ed eterogenea galassia <strong>di</strong> movimenti islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali.<br />

La graduale ascesa <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione spinse <strong>il</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta ad abbandonare <strong>il</strong><br />

sistema decisionale e organizzativo sino ad allora ut<strong>il</strong>izzato 95 a favore <strong>di</strong> una<br />

struttura più definita (si veda Fig. 2), in grado <strong>di</strong> rispondere alle nuove esigenze <strong>di</strong><br />

una realtà in costante espansione, e <strong>di</strong> mantenere al tempo stesso un grado <strong>di</strong><br />

flessib<strong>il</strong>ità sufficiente per permetterle <strong>di</strong> adeguarsi a scenari e teatri <strong>di</strong> azione<br />

<strong>di</strong>fferenti e in continua evoluzione.<br />

Bin Laden continuò a ricoprire un ruolo <strong>di</strong> primo piano, ponendosi a capo <strong>di</strong> una<br />

struttura piramidale che vedeva nel leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta la chiave <strong>di</strong> volta <strong>del</strong>l’intero<br />

sistema (amir). Subito al <strong>di</strong> sotto <strong>del</strong>la guida suprema si collocava un ristretto<br />

consiglio (majlis al shura) composto dai suoi più stretti e fidati collaboratori e <strong>di</strong>viso in<br />

quattro sezioni <strong>di</strong>stinte, ognuna responsab<strong>il</strong>e <strong>di</strong> una particolare ambito (m<strong>il</strong>itare,<br />

religioso, finanziario e me<strong>di</strong>atico). Questo consiglio rispondeva <strong>di</strong>rettamente all’amir<br />

e aveva <strong>il</strong> compito <strong>di</strong> trasmettergli le informazioni principali e <strong>di</strong> valutare con lui le<br />

iniziative da intraprendere.<br />

Al <strong>di</strong> sotto <strong>di</strong> questa struttura si collocavano i quadri <strong>di</strong> livello più basso affiancati<br />

dalla cosiddetta Brigata 55, un corpo m<strong>il</strong>itare posto a sostegno <strong>del</strong>le forze talebane<br />

nella lotta che contrapponeva <strong>il</strong> regime alle truppe <strong>del</strong>l’Alleanza <strong>del</strong> Nord.<br />

95 Prima <strong>del</strong>la “ristrutturazione” <strong>del</strong> movimento, al-Qaida, più che una vera e propria organizzazione strutturata,<br />

era una realtà che si potrebbe definire “Osama bin Laden-centrica”. Il leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta rappresentava l’unico vero<br />

polo decisionale <strong>del</strong> movimento, circondato da una rete <strong>di</strong> collaboratori molto flessib<strong>il</strong>e e non strutturata come<br />

quella realizzata nella seconda metà degli anni ’90. Questo mo<strong>del</strong>lo aveva potuto funzionare fino a che <strong>il</strong><br />

movimento non era <strong>di</strong>venuto una realtà talmente ramificata e complessa da richiedere un sistema organizzativo<br />

più definito e strutturato, in grado <strong>di</strong> rispondere all’aumento esponenziale degli imput provenienti dall’ambiente<br />

e - al tempo stesso - <strong>di</strong> salvaguardare la centralità <strong>di</strong> Bin Laden all’interno <strong>del</strong> sistema.<br />

131


Comitato religioso<br />

Comitato finanziario<br />

AMIR<br />

Majlis al shura<br />

Comitato m<strong>il</strong>itare<br />

Fig. 2. Struttura organizzativa <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida in Afghanistan: 1996-2001 96<br />

Comitato me<strong>di</strong>atico<br />

La riforma strutturale <strong>del</strong> movimento non interessò solamente <strong>il</strong> sistema decisionale<br />

e organizzativo. Così come avvenuto per la gestione interna <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione,<br />

anche <strong>il</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni intessute con i <strong>di</strong>versi gruppi islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali operanti in<br />

vari angoli <strong>del</strong> globo e nominalmente in<strong>di</strong>pendenti da al-Qa’ida - ma ad essa<br />

<strong>di</strong>rettamente o in<strong>di</strong>rettamente aff<strong>il</strong>iati – venne ridefinito.<br />

La struttura orizzontale e informale sino ad allora impiegata venne sostituita da un<br />

sistema più strutturato e definito, concretizzatosi nel Fronte Islamico Mon<strong>di</strong>ale per <strong>il</strong><br />

<strong>Jihad</strong> contro gli Ebrei e i Crociati, la cui creazione venne comunicata <strong>il</strong> 23 febbraio <strong>del</strong><br />

1998.<br />

Questa <strong>di</strong>chiarazione, sebbene non abbia avuto effetti particolarmente r<strong>il</strong>evanti sulla<br />

conformazione <strong>del</strong> complesso movimento islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale internazionale 97 ,<br />

rappresentò un momento <strong>di</strong> eccezionale importanza per al-Qa’ida, poiché segnò la<br />

definitiva fusione <strong>del</strong> movimento con l’organizzazione guidata da Ayman al-<br />

Zawahiri e poiché pose <strong>di</strong> fatto <strong>il</strong> movimento, e Bin Laden stesso, al centro <strong>di</strong> una<br />

coalizione mirante a <strong>di</strong>venire <strong>il</strong> polo <strong>di</strong> aggregazione <strong>del</strong>la eterogenea galassia<br />

islamista internazionale.<br />

96 Per ulteriori informazioni si veda Stefan Aubrey, The new <strong>di</strong>mension of international terrorism, Zurigo, 2004, p. 152<br />

e Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, New York, 2002<br />

97 Essa venne firmata infatti, oltre che da Osama bin Laden, da Ayman al-Zawahiri (organizzazione egiziana al-<br />

<strong>Jihad</strong>), da Munir Hamza ( segretario <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione degli ulema [Pakistan]), da Fazlur Rahman Khal<strong>il</strong> (amir<br />

<strong>di</strong> Harakat al-ansar [Pakistan]), dallo sheikh ‘Abd al-Salam Muhammad Khan (amir <strong>di</strong> Harakat al-jihad<br />

[Bangladesh]) e da Abu Yassir Rifa‘i Ahmad Taha (membro <strong>del</strong> consiglio <strong>di</strong> al-Jama‘a al-Islamiyya [Egitto])<br />

132


È fondamentale però non interpretare erroneamente questo momento: benché <strong>di</strong><br />

fatto esso segni la definitiva consacrazione <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida all’interno <strong>del</strong> campo<br />

fondamentalista internazionale e denoti un significativo rafforzamento <strong>del</strong>le<br />

relazioni intessute dall’organizzazione con le altre realtà cofirmatarie <strong>del</strong>la<br />

<strong>di</strong>chiarazione, la flessib<strong>il</strong>ità relativa al tipo e al grado <strong>di</strong> cooperazione con i gruppi<br />

“esterni” continuò a rimanere l’elemento fondante e caratterizzante <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida.<br />

Fe<strong>del</strong>e al proprio ruolo <strong>di</strong> avanguar<strong>di</strong>a e all’impianto ideologico che già Abdullah<br />

Azzam aveva tratteggiato, in nessun momento essa volle imporre la propria guida<br />

all’intero campo fondamentalista, preferendo riconoscersi in un sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni<br />

identificab<strong>il</strong>e con <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> primus inter pares.<br />

La <strong>di</strong>chiarazione <strong>del</strong> febbraio 1998 non ha però avuto importanti risvolti solo per <strong>il</strong><br />

sistema <strong>di</strong> relazioni “esterne” <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida; essa ha sottolineato nuovamente la ferrea<br />

volontà <strong>del</strong> movimento <strong>di</strong> muovere guerra al “nemico <strong>di</strong>stante” - gli Stati Uniti e i<br />

suoi alleati – in<strong>di</strong>cato come principale sostenitore dei regimi apostati responsab<strong>il</strong>i<br />

<strong>del</strong>la persecuzione e <strong>del</strong>la <strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>del</strong>le cellule islamiche ra<strong>di</strong>cali operanti sul<br />

loro territorio.<br />

Questa <strong>di</strong>chiarazione costituisce, inoltre, un passo in avanti rispetto alla Dichiarazione<br />

<strong>di</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong> contro gli americani che occupano <strong>il</strong> Paese dei due luoghi santi (Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta) <strong>del</strong><br />

23 agosto 1996 98 . In essa Bin Laden non si limita a chiedere che <strong>il</strong> popolo musulmano<br />

imbracci le armi per scacciare gli infe<strong>del</strong>i dalla Penisola Arabica e dagli altri territori<br />

occupati ma, dopo aver in<strong>di</strong>cato i principali crimini <strong>di</strong> cui si sono macchiati gli<br />

americani e i loro alleati, esorta l’intera ummah a colpirli ovunque si trovino, siano<br />

essi m<strong>il</strong>itari o civ<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

“[…] Tutti questi avvenimenti e crimini da parte degli americani,<br />

costituiscono una vera <strong>di</strong>chiarazione <strong>di</strong> guerra contro Dio ed <strong>il</strong> Suo<br />

Profeta. […] Perciò, conformemente all’or<strong>di</strong>ne <strong>di</strong> Dio, ren<strong>di</strong>amo pubblico<br />

a tutti i musulmani <strong>il</strong> seguente responso. Uccidere gli americani e i loro<br />

98 Si veda G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel, Al-Qaeda: i testi. Scritti <strong>di</strong> Osama bin Laden, ´Abdallah ´Azzam, Ayman al-Zawahiri e Abu<br />

Mus´ab al-Zarqawi, Roma, 2006, pp. 37-43<br />

133


alleati, siano essi civ<strong>il</strong>i o m<strong>il</strong>itari, è un dovere che si impone ad ogni<br />

musulmano che sia in grado, in qualsiasi Paese in cui ritroverà, e questo<br />

fino al momento in cui saranno liberate dal loro influsso la moschea al-<br />

Aqsa e la grande moschea <strong>del</strong>la Mecca, e fino a che i loro eserciti non<br />

saranno fuori da ogni territorio musulmano, con le mani paralizzate, le ali<br />

spezzate, incapaci <strong>di</strong> minacciare un solo musulmano. […] Chiamiamo, se<br />

Dio lo permette, ogni musulmano credente e desideroso <strong>di</strong> essere<br />

ricompensato da Lui a ottemperare all’or<strong>di</strong>ne <strong>di</strong> Dio e ad uccidere gli<br />

americani e a saccheggiare i loro beni, ovunque si trovino e in ogni<br />

momento” 99 .<br />

Con questa <strong>di</strong>chiarazione Bin Laden forzava agli estremi <strong>il</strong> concetto <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>visione tra<br />

dar al-Islam e dar al-Harb e rompeva chiaramente con l’interpretazione classica <strong>del</strong><br />

jihad armato – sino ad allora legato ad una specifica <strong>di</strong>mensione territoriale –<br />

trasformandolo in una lotta da estendersi all’intero pianeta.<br />

Si trattava <strong>di</strong> una svolta dottrinale <strong>di</strong> portata epocale ma, soprattutto, <strong>del</strong> guanto <strong>di</strong><br />

sfida lanciato da Bin Laden al mondo occidentale, che <strong>di</strong> lì a poco avrebbe<br />

sperimentato quanto le parole <strong>del</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta non fossero minacce vuote prive <strong>di</strong><br />

alcun fondamento ma l’inizio <strong>di</strong> una campagna che avrebbe segnato in maniera<br />

in<strong>del</strong>eb<strong>il</strong>e la storia <strong>del</strong> XXI secolo.<br />

Il 7 agosto 1998 le ambasciate americane <strong>di</strong> Nairobi (Kenya) e Dar es-Salaam<br />

(Tanzania) vennero colpite da due attacchi suici<strong>di</strong> condotti quasi simultaneamente,<br />

causando la morte <strong>di</strong> 252 persone (tra cui do<strong>di</strong>ci citta<strong>di</strong>ni statunitensi) e circa 5.000<br />

feriti. Senza tralasciare <strong>il</strong> pesante tributo richiesto in termini <strong>di</strong> vite umane, questi<br />

attacchi evidenziarono imme<strong>di</strong>atamente quanto <strong>il</strong> dato simbolico e scenico ricoprisse<br />

un peso determinante per al-Qa’ida: gli attentati erano stati portati a compimento <strong>il</strong><br />

giorno <strong>del</strong>l’ottavo anniversario <strong>del</strong> <strong>di</strong>slocamento <strong>del</strong>le truppe statunitensi in Arabia<br />

Sau<strong>di</strong>ta nell’ambito <strong>del</strong>l’operazione Desert Shield, avevano colpito due obiettivi<br />

99 G<strong>il</strong>les Kepel, Al-Qaeda: i testi. Scritti <strong>di</strong> Osama bin Laden, ´Abdallah ´Azzam, Ayman al-Zawahiri e Abu Mus´ab al-<br />

Zarqawi, Roma, 2006, pp. 49-52<br />

134


lontani migliaia <strong>di</strong> ch<strong>il</strong>ometri a <strong>di</strong>stanza <strong>di</strong> pochi minuti l’uno dall’altro - quasi a<br />

sottolineare le elevate capacità operative <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida e l’impotenza <strong>del</strong> sistema<br />

<strong>di</strong>fensivo statunitense – e, fattore tutt’altro che trascurab<strong>il</strong>e, erano stati realizzati<br />

ricorrendo a commando suici<strong>di</strong> perfettamente consapevoli <strong>del</strong> prezzo che la loro<br />

missione avrebbe comportato.<br />

La reazione statunitense, concretizzatasi nella <strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>di</strong> una fabbrica<br />

farmaceutica sudanese sospettata <strong>di</strong> essere collegata a Bin Laden e le misure<br />

economiche prese dall’amministrazione americana per congelare i depositi bancari<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e impe<strong>di</strong>re che qualsiasi compagnia statunitense entrasse in<br />

affari con <strong>il</strong> leader sau<strong>di</strong>ta non influirono in alcun modo sulle capacità<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione. Il 12 ottobre <strong>del</strong> 2000, nel porto <strong>di</strong> Aden (Yemen), un attacco<br />

suicida colpì l’incrociatore USS Cole causando la morte <strong>di</strong> 17 marinai e <strong>il</strong> ferimento <strong>di</strong><br />

39. Era <strong>il</strong> prelu<strong>di</strong>o agli eventi <strong>del</strong>l’11 settembre 2001.<br />

3. Al-Qa’ida dopo l’11 settembre 2001<br />

3.1 La controffensiva e la trasformazione <strong>del</strong> movimento<br />

L’11 settembre 2001 ha rappresentato una svolta eccezionale per al-Qa’ida, mostrando<br />

al mondo intero le reali capacità <strong>del</strong> movimento. Non più attore marginale, o<br />

quantomeno secondario, al-Qa’ida è stata proiettata al centro <strong>del</strong> complesso scenario<br />

internazionale, occupando, in un certo qual modo, <strong>il</strong> vacuum lasciato dalla<br />

<strong>di</strong>ssoluzione <strong>del</strong> sistema sovietico e <strong>di</strong>venendo – assieme agli Stati facenti parte <strong>del</strong><br />

cosiddetto “Asse <strong>del</strong> Male” – la nuova vera minaccia alla “pax americana” seguita<br />

alla fine <strong>del</strong>la Guerra Fredda.<br />

135


Gli eventi <strong>del</strong>l’11 settembre hanno quin<strong>di</strong> trasformato al-Qa’ida – almeno a livello <strong>di</strong><br />

immagine – nella nemesi <strong>del</strong>la potenza statunitense, segnando l’apice <strong>del</strong>la parabola<br />

ascendente <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione.<br />

Questa prova <strong>di</strong> forza ha però richiesto un pesante tributo. La controffensiva<br />

scatenata dalle forze <strong>del</strong>la coalizione ha infatti investito <strong>di</strong>rettamente molte <strong>del</strong>le<br />

principali basi qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste, sancendo – in primis – la caduta <strong>del</strong> santuario afgano e<br />

traducendosi nella cattura o nell’uccisione <strong>di</strong> figure <strong>di</strong> primo piano <strong>del</strong> movimento<br />

(si veda la Fig. 3.1)<br />

Catturati<br />

Abu Faraj al-Libi – Senior Operational Manager<br />

Khalid Shaykh Muhammad – Senior al-Qa’ida External Operations<br />

Chief<br />

Riduran bin Isomud<strong>di</strong>n – Senior al-Qa’ida and Jemaah Islamiyah<br />

Operational Planner<br />

Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri – Al-Qa’ida Operational Chief for Arabian<br />

Peninsula<br />

Issa al-Hin<strong>di</strong> – Western al-Qa’ida Operative<br />

Abu Bakr al-Az<strong>di</strong> – Al-Qa’ida Operational Planner and Sau<strong>di</strong><br />

Arabian Cell Leader<br />

Abu Zubaydah – Al-Qa’ida -Associate Logistic Coor<strong>di</strong>nator<br />

Sharif al-Masri – Fac<strong>il</strong>itator and Operational Manager<br />

Mustafa Setmariam Nasar – <strong>Jihad</strong>ist Theorist<br />

Uccisi<br />

Mohammad Atef – Al-Qa’ida Deputy<br />

Hamza Rabla – Senior al-Qa’ida External Operations Chief<br />

Abu Hajir al-Naj<strong>di</strong> – Senior Operations Planner in the Persian Gulf<br />

Yusif al-Uyayri – Fac<strong>il</strong>itator and Propagan<strong>di</strong>st in Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia<br />

Abu- Musab al-Zarqawi – Al-Qa’ida Leader in Iraq<br />

Fig. 3.1 Principali esponenti <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida uccisi o catturati dall’11 settembre 2001 100<br />

100 Fonte: Al-Qaeda: the many faces of an islamist extremist threat, Report of the U.S. House Permanent Select<br />

Committee on Intelligence, giugno 2006, p. 9<br />

136


La per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>del</strong>le basi afgane (che avevano indubbiamente avuto un peso<br />

determinante nell’ascesa <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida) non si è però tradotta nell’annientamento<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e nella sua definitiva caduta. Sebbene la reazione m<strong>il</strong>itare seguita<br />

agli attacchi <strong>del</strong> 2001 sia <strong>di</strong> fatto riuscita a <strong>di</strong>struggere quasi completamente i<br />

profon<strong>di</strong> legami instaurati dal movimento con <strong>il</strong> tessuto politico, economico e sociale<br />

afgano, essa non è riuscita a infliggere <strong>il</strong> colpo <strong>di</strong> grazia ad al-Qa’ida che, pur avendo<br />

trovato nel Paese le con<strong>di</strong>zioni ideali per la propria ascesa, non si era mai<br />

autoconfinata al suo interno, né aveva mai rinunciato alla propria vocazione<br />

internazionale.<br />

Al contrario, proprio queste operazioni paiono aver accentuato ulteriormente questa<br />

sua caratteristica, traducendosi in una profonda trasformazione <strong>del</strong> sistema qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

e in una fortissima internazionalizzazione <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong>.<br />

La presa <strong>di</strong> Kabul da parte <strong>del</strong>le forze alleate non si è tradotta nella <strong>di</strong>ssoluzione <strong>del</strong><br />

movimento, né nel suo annientamento, ma in una sorta <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>spersione-<br />

<strong>di</strong>sseminazione. Sebbene braccati dalle forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza internazionali, molti<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itanti sono riusciti ad abbandonare <strong>il</strong> Paese e a trovare rifugio in aree non<br />

sottoposte al controllo <strong>di</strong>retto o in<strong>di</strong>retto <strong>del</strong>le forze statunitensi e dei loro alleati.<br />

Allo stesso modo i quadri <strong>di</strong>rettivi superstiti, sfruttando i forti legami intessuti con<br />

importanti realtà tribali (soprattutto lungo <strong>il</strong> confine tra Pakistan e Afghanistan) e <strong>il</strong><br />

network creato per collegare le principali organizzazioni islamiche ra<strong>di</strong>cali <strong>di</strong>slocate<br />

su scala globale, sono riusciti a evitare la cattura e a porre le basi per una rinascita <strong>del</strong><br />

movimento.<br />

Questa nuova <strong>di</strong>aspora ha sicuramente segnato la fine <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida così come<br />

strutturatasi in Afghanistan nella seconda metà degli anni ’90, ma ha favorito la<br />

formazione <strong>di</strong> una nuova e <strong>di</strong>fferente realtà sorta sulle sue ceneri.<br />

“The nearest thing to ‘al-Qa’ida’, as popularly understood, existed for a<br />

short period, between 1996 and 2001. Its base had been Afghanistan, and<br />

what I had seen at Tora Bora were the final scenes of its destruction. What<br />

137


we have currently is a broad and <strong>di</strong>verse movement of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islamic<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itancy” 101<br />

Eppure, sebbene non vi sia alcun dubbio che ci si trovi in presenza <strong>di</strong> un nuovo<br />

soggetto, non è possib<strong>il</strong>e affermare che le vestigia <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida siano semplicemente<br />

confluite all’interno <strong>del</strong> complesso scenario islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale internazionale. Molti<br />

elementi legano questa nuova realtà all’organizzazione fondata da Bin Laden, e<br />

proprio queste costanti fanno in modo che l’attuale fase possa essere vista come uno<br />

sta<strong>di</strong>o <strong>di</strong> un processo evolutivo più ampio e non come la semplice <strong>di</strong>ssoluzione <strong>del</strong><br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> al-Qa’ida.<br />

Benché fortemente limitata - almeno sotto <strong>il</strong> piano operativo e <strong>di</strong> gestione <strong>di</strong>retta - la<br />

leadership storica <strong>del</strong> movimento ha assunto, se possib<strong>il</strong>e, un ruolo ancora più<br />

importante sotto <strong>il</strong> prof<strong>il</strong>o ideologico e propagan<strong>di</strong>stico; Tora Bora e la continua fuga<br />

da allora intrapresa non ne hanno minimamente scalfito l’immagine e, anzi, hanno<br />

rafforzato ancor <strong>di</strong> più l’aura <strong>di</strong> inafferrab<strong>il</strong>ità e <strong>il</strong> mito che la circonda.<br />

Soprattutto, la <strong>di</strong>struzione <strong>del</strong>la base afgana pare essere coincisa con l’abbandono <strong>di</strong><br />

una connotazione territoriale ben definita e con la conseguente estensione <strong>del</strong>l’ombra<br />

qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta all’intero mondo musulmano: ben lungi dall’essere messa a tacere, la voce<br />

<strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida si è quin<strong>di</strong> paradossalmente rafforzata ed è riuscita a valicare quei<br />

confini geografici e sociali che ne avevano fatto una realtà leader <strong>di</strong> un “prodotto”<br />

importante, ma pur sempre <strong>di</strong> “nicchia”. La sconfitta in Afghanistan invece che<br />

segnare la fine <strong>del</strong> movimento lo ha quin<strong>di</strong> spinto ad aggre<strong>di</strong>re l’intero mercato.<br />

La riforma strutturale avviata nella seconda metà degli anni ’90 ha giocato in tal<br />

senso un ruolo fondamentale poiché ha favorito l’ascesa <strong>di</strong> nuovi esponenti<br />

potenzialmente in grado <strong>di</strong> portare avanti <strong>il</strong> progetto comune, anche nel caso in cui i<br />

principali centri decisionali dovessero venir meno e ha contribuito a intensificare la<br />

cooperazione con movimenti “esterni” ad al-Qa’ida considerati da molti analisti una<br />

minaccia potenzialmente superiore allo stesso nucleo storico <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione.<br />

101 Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda: the true story of ra<strong>di</strong>cal Islam, Londra, 2004, p. XXV<br />

138


“Although it [al-Qa’ida] has no resources to carry out theatrical or<br />

spectacular attacks, it has a clandestine network to move, experts,<br />

messages and money to associate groups. All in<strong>di</strong>cations are that al-Qa’ida<br />

is not deserting from the 1520-m<strong>il</strong>e long Pakistan-Afghanistan border but<br />

its leadership is actively and aggressively tasking its membership and<br />

ideologizing associate groups. From the centre of Afghanistan and<br />

Pakistan, al-Qa’ida’s technical experts and financiers, organizers of attacks<br />

and operatives are gravitating to lawless zones in Asia, Horn of Africa,<br />

Caucasus, Balkans and the Middle East widening the perimeter of the<br />

conflict.” 102<br />

La nuova al-Qa’ida mostra quin<strong>di</strong> forti elementi <strong>di</strong> continuità con l’organizzazione<br />

consolidatasi in Afghanistan ma, rispetto a essa, pare aver accentuato alcune<br />

caratteristiche che hanno contribuito a incrementarne notevolmente la vocazione<br />

internazionale e che ne hanno profondamente mo<strong>di</strong>ficato la struttura. Senza<br />

pretendere <strong>di</strong> sezionare un <strong>fenomeno</strong> caratterizzato proprio dalla sua complessità e<br />

dalla intersezione <strong>del</strong>le sue componenti, muovendo le basi dall’analisi <strong>del</strong>lo stato <strong>del</strong><br />

movimento fatta da Hoffman e da alcuni tra i maggiori analisti <strong>del</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> al-<br />

Qa’ida a livello internazionale 103 , è possib<strong>il</strong>e scomporre questa nuova realtà in tre<br />

macro elementi:<br />

a. Il “nocciolo duro” <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione. Formato dagli esponenti sopravissuti<br />

all’epurazione <strong>di</strong> questi anni, esso comprende, da una parte, Osama bin Laden<br />

e Ayman al-Zawahiri - la leadership storica <strong>del</strong> movimento impegnata<br />

attivamente a intensificare la propria propaganda e a in<strong>di</strong>care le future linee<br />

guida da adottarsi - dall’altro, i “fe<strong>del</strong>issimi” sopravvissuti alla caduta <strong>del</strong><br />

102 Rohan Gunaratna, The rise and decline of al Qaeda, Statement to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks<br />

upon the United States, 9 luglio 2003, p. 7<br />

103 Si vedano Bruce Hoffman, Combating al Qaeda and the M<strong>il</strong>itant Islamic Threat, Testimony presented to the House<br />

Armed Service Committee, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capab<strong>il</strong>ities, 16 febbraio<br />

2006; Bruce Hoffman, Lessons of 9/11, Testimony submitted for the Committee Record to the United States Joint<br />

September 11, 2001 Inquiry Staff of the House and Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, 8 ottobre 2001; Rohan<br />

Gunaratna, The rise and decline of al Qaeda, Statement to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the<br />

United States, 9 luglio 2003; Rohan Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, New York, 2002; Ph<strong>il</strong>ippe Errera, Three Circles of<br />

Threat, Survival, vol. 47, no. 1, Primavera 2005, pp. 71-88; Stefan Aubrey, The new <strong>di</strong>mension of international<br />

terrorism, Zurigo, 2004.<br />

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santuario afgano e alle successive operazioni e nuovi esponenti che hanno<br />

rapidamente scalato le gerarchie interne. Sebbene fortemente limitato dalle<br />

attuali circostanze, questo “nocciolo duro” eserciterebbe ancora un ruolo<br />

importante in termini <strong>di</strong> coor<strong>di</strong>namento, pianificazione e organizzazione <strong>di</strong><br />

attacchi condotti sotto l’egida qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta;<br />

b. Le organizzazioni aff<strong>il</strong>iate. Questa categoria include gran parte <strong>del</strong> network<br />

creato da Bin Laden sin dagli anni <strong>del</strong> jihad afgano, ma anche realtà <strong>di</strong> più<br />

recente aff<strong>il</strong>iazione (come l’organizzazione fondata da al-Zarqawi in Iraq) e<br />

comprende movimenti legati a vario titolo ad al-Qa’ida da accor<strong>di</strong> formali, da<br />

forme <strong>di</strong> cooperazione più o meno strette o da un più tenue legame dovuto<br />

alle attività <strong>di</strong> sostegno che Bin Laden aveva avviato già in Sudan con molti<br />

gruppi islamici ra<strong>di</strong>cali operanti in teatri estremamente <strong>di</strong>fferenti. Uno<br />

stu<strong>di</strong>o 104 pubblicato nel 2006 dalla RAND Corporation prende in esame i<br />

principali movimenti connessi ad al-Qa’ida, analizzandone <strong>il</strong> tipo e <strong>il</strong> grado <strong>di</strong><br />

aff<strong>il</strong>iazione attraverso l’in<strong>di</strong>viduazione <strong>di</strong> 12 criteri e valutandoli attraverso<br />

una scala compresa tra i valori 0-4 (0 inesistente, 1 possib<strong>il</strong>e, 2 probab<strong>il</strong>e, 3<br />

confermato, 4 confermato e tuttora esistente)<br />

104 RAND, Beyond al-Qaeda. The <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Jihad</strong>ist Movement, 2006, p. 79<br />

140


Fig. 3.2 Principali realtà aff<strong>il</strong>iate ad al-Qaida: tipo e grado <strong>di</strong> aff<strong>il</strong>iazione<br />

c. Realtà/in<strong>di</strong>vidui non <strong>di</strong>rettamente aff<strong>il</strong>iati ad al-Qa’ida, entrati però in<br />

contatto con le strutture o l’ideologia <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e “persuasi” da<br />

essa o dalla possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> sfruttarne <strong>il</strong> brand per incrementare <strong>il</strong> proprio<br />

peso politico e me<strong>di</strong>atico. Questa categoria <strong>del</strong>inea uno scenario<br />

estremamente complesso e <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>mente definib<strong>il</strong>e. Al suo interno possiamo<br />

in<strong>di</strong>viduare due sotto-categorie<br />

i) in<strong>di</strong>vidui o gruppi <strong>di</strong> in<strong>di</strong>vidui che hanno ricevuto addestramento<br />

(o qualche altra forma limitata <strong>di</strong> sostegno) da al-Qa’ida ma che non<br />

141


fanno parte <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione, e i cui legami con essa sono<br />

inesistenti o quantomeno estremamente lab<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

ii) in<strong>di</strong>vidui o gruppi <strong>di</strong> in<strong>di</strong>vidui che non hanno alcun <strong>di</strong>retto<br />

collegamento con l’organizzazione madre e i suoi aff<strong>il</strong>iati, ma che<br />

hanno deciso <strong>di</strong> perseguirne gli obiettivi e <strong>di</strong> ricalcarne le orme.<br />

La nuova al-Qa’ida costituisce quin<strong>di</strong> un soggetto ancora più complesso<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione consolidatasi in Afghanistan e tende a configurarsi come una<br />

galassia <strong>di</strong> realtà estremamente <strong>di</strong>fferenti tra loro, spesso solamente connesse da una<br />

comune (generica) ideologia o dalle potenzialità offerte dalla rete telematica.<br />

In particolar modo, sebbene sia opinione comune che le realtà facenti parte <strong>del</strong>le<br />

prime due categorie (a,b) – grazie all’esistenza <strong>di</strong> legami e strutture più o meno<br />

consolidate – rappresentino la minaccia più imme<strong>di</strong>ata nell’attuale fase storica, <strong>il</strong><br />

terzo gruppo (c) pare rappresentare, in un orizzonte <strong>di</strong> me<strong>di</strong>o-lungo periodo, una<br />

nuova importante sfida per <strong>il</strong> sistema <strong>di</strong> sicurezza internazionale. Sebbene infatti le<br />

realtà incluse in questa categoria non possano contare sui vantaggi correlati alla<br />

cooperazione con un network ben definito e su strutture consolidate, proprio per<br />

questo motivo esse tendono a sfuggire al monitoraggio dei servizi <strong>di</strong> sicurezza<br />

internazionali, costretti a confrontarsi con gruppi spesso molto ristretti e quin<strong>di</strong><br />

estremamente <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>i da in<strong>di</strong>viduare.<br />

Al momento attuale però <strong>il</strong> nucleo storico <strong>del</strong> movimento continua a rappresentare la<br />

principale minaccia da affrontare, anche alla luce <strong>del</strong> suo accresciuto peso me<strong>di</strong>atico<br />

e <strong>del</strong> suo ancora importante ruolo organizzativo e decisionale. Soprattutto, in<br />

mancanza <strong>di</strong> una leadership alternativa e <strong>di</strong> una figura in grado <strong>di</strong> unificare le<br />

<strong>di</strong>verse fazioni, esso rimane l’unica realtà in grado <strong>di</strong> mantenere un minimo <strong>di</strong><br />

coesione interna e <strong>di</strong> porre le basi per la rinascita <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione.<br />

Anche in tal senso va letta la decisione <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi <strong>di</strong> far confluire la sua<br />

organizzazione all’interno <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida e <strong>di</strong> accettare – seppure con la garanzia <strong>di</strong><br />

ampi margini <strong>di</strong> manovra – <strong>di</strong> ricoprire un ruolo teoricamente subor<strong>di</strong>nato alla<br />

leadership storica <strong>del</strong> movimento. Bin Laden e al-Zawahiri rimangono infatti, a<br />

142


tutt’ora, gli unici leader in grado <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>sporre <strong>del</strong> carisma e <strong>del</strong>la legittimità necessari<br />

per riunire i m<strong>il</strong>itanti <strong>di</strong>spersi e per creare un nuovo santuario da cui far ripartire la<br />

propria campagna. Sebbene l’organizzazione sia riuscita a sopravvivere e ad<br />

adattarsi al mutato contesto seguito alla per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>del</strong> santuario afgano,<br />

l’identificazione <strong>di</strong> un nuovo “safeheaven” rimane una priorità assoluta per<br />

contrastare le spinte <strong>di</strong>sgreganti interne e le forti pressioni esterne. In tal senso vanno<br />

letti i continui appelli all’intensificazione <strong>del</strong>la lotta in Afghanistan e, soprattutto, in<br />

Iraq: dall’esito <strong>del</strong>lo scontro <strong>di</strong>penderà infatti buona parte <strong>del</strong> futuro <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida<br />

come soggetto unitario.<br />

3.2 La ricerca <strong>di</strong> un nuovo Santuario<br />

Afghanistan<br />

Enduring Freedom avrebbe dovuto segnare la fine <strong>del</strong>la presa talebana nel Paese e, con<br />

essa, la definitiva <strong>di</strong>ssoluzione <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida. A <strong>di</strong>stanza <strong>di</strong> 5 anni dalla rapida<br />

conclusione <strong>del</strong>le operazioni belliche, entrambi questi obiettivi paiono ben lontani<br />

dall’essere raggiunti.<br />

I Talebani, dopo una prima fase nella quale tutto faceva sperare in una loro definitiva<br />

eliminazione, sono tornati a contendere <strong>il</strong> controllo <strong>del</strong> Paese a un governo centrale<br />

lacerato da profonde <strong>di</strong>visioni interne e non adeguatamente sostenuto dalla<br />

comunità internazionale. Dal canto suo, al-Qa’ida, pur avendo notevolmente ridotto<br />

la propria presenza nella regione, è riuscita a riunire i m<strong>il</strong>itanti sopravvissuti<br />

all’epurazione <strong>del</strong> 2001 nelle aree tribali al confine tra Afghanistan e Pakistan – da<br />

sempre roccaforti storiche <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione – e a intensificare le proprie azioni a<br />

sostegno <strong>del</strong>la battaglia ingaggiata dai Talebani.<br />

143


Proprio dalle Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) - aree a maggioranza<br />

Pashtun poste sul confine sud-orientale afgano (nominalmente sotto la giuris<strong>di</strong>zione<br />

<strong>di</strong> Islamabad ma da sempre caratterizzate da una fortissima in<strong>di</strong>pendenza) - è partita<br />

la riorganizzazione <strong>del</strong> movimento. I lab<strong>il</strong>i confini tra Pakistan e Afghanistan e i<br />

soli<strong>di</strong> legami con le principali tribù locali hanno permesso all’organizzazione <strong>di</strong><br />

riavviare i contatti con le cellule qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste <strong>di</strong>sperse nella regione e <strong>di</strong> rinnovare la<br />

propria alleanza con le forze talebane.<br />

Le Federally Administered Tribal Areas hanno quin<strong>di</strong> permesso ad al-Qa’ida <strong>di</strong><br />

riorganizzare le proprie f<strong>il</strong>a e <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>sporre <strong>di</strong> teste <strong>di</strong> ponte rivelatesi fondamentali per<br />

<strong>il</strong> suo ritorno in Afghanistan. I forti legami stretti con la componente tribale locale, la<br />

secolare in<strong>di</strong>pendenza <strong>di</strong> questa regione dal governo <strong>di</strong> Islamabad e l’estrema<br />

porosità dei confini che <strong>di</strong>vidono Pakistan e Afghanistan hanno permesso<br />

all’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> operare in un ambiente ideale, in grado <strong>di</strong> ostacolare<br />

pesantemente l’operato dei servizi <strong>di</strong> intelligence alleati ma anche <strong>di</strong> permettere<br />

all’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> sostenere attivamente l’insurrezione talebana.<br />

144


Benché vi siano in<strong>di</strong>cazioni che m<strong>il</strong>itanti qa’i<strong>di</strong>sti operino a stretto contatto con le<br />

m<strong>il</strong>izie talebane sui campi <strong>di</strong> battaglia 105 , al-Qa’ida pare giocare un ruolo<br />

fondamentale non tanto per <strong>il</strong> sostegno <strong>di</strong>retto alle operazioni m<strong>il</strong>itari, quanto per<br />

l’apporto logistico e in termini <strong>di</strong> addestramento che ha <strong>di</strong>mostrato <strong>di</strong> poter<br />

garantire. In particolare, come <strong>di</strong>mostra <strong>il</strong> forte aumento <strong>di</strong> attentati suici<strong>di</strong> –<br />

tipologia <strong>di</strong> attacco sino ad ora sostanzialmente mai riscontrata nella tormentata<br />

storia afgana – l’adozione <strong>di</strong> tattiche <strong>di</strong> guerriglia impiegate con successo<br />

dall’insurrezione irachena contro le forze alleate e l’ut<strong>il</strong>izzo sempre più massiccio <strong>di</strong><br />

IEDs (improvised explosive devises), essa pare essere riuscita a creare un f<strong>il</strong>o <strong>di</strong>retto<br />

– almeno a livello <strong>di</strong> trasferimento <strong>di</strong> conoscenze - tra le due insurrezioni.<br />

“[…] evidence has surfaced that several Taliban leaders have travelled to<br />

Iraq in order to observe insurgent operations and <strong>di</strong>sseminate the<br />

knowledge they gain to their organizations in Afghanistan. […]In what<br />

are essentially educational exchanges, these trips are apparently designed<br />

to teach Taliban leaders more advanced explosive and urban warfare<br />

tactics being used by jiha<strong>di</strong>sts in Iraq. […] Wh<strong>il</strong>e it is unclear exactly how<br />

Taliban leaders are moving into and out of Iraq, one likely route may be<br />

the drug-smuggling networks originating from Baluchistan, a region of<br />

Pakistan bordering southern Afghanistan. […] Given the dramatic<br />

increase in the regional drug trade after the fall of the Taliban, the ab<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

of the Taliban and al-Qa’ida personnel to remain hidden wh<strong>il</strong>e traversing<br />

increasingly popular smuggling routes w<strong>il</strong>l likely lead to a greater<br />

increase in the number of these jiha<strong>di</strong>sts «educational exchanges»” 106 .<br />

Il ruolo giocato dalle regioni <strong>di</strong> confine tra Pakistan e Afghanistan ricopre quin<strong>di</strong> un<br />

ruolo fondamentale nel conflitto, anche perché i rapporti intessuti con i signori <strong>del</strong>la<br />

droga che gestiscono i traffici dal Paese possono rappresentare un importante valore<br />

aggiunto per la causa insurrezionista. Questo fattore non è sfuggito ai servizi <strong>di</strong><br />

105 Hekmat Karzai, Afghanistan and the <strong>Global</strong>isation of Terrorist Tactics, IDSS Commentaries (1/2006), 4 gennaio<br />

2006, p. 2<br />

106 Shawn Brimley, Tentacles of <strong>Jihad</strong>: Targeting Transnational Support Networks, Parameters, estate 2006, pp. 36-<br />

37<br />

145


intelligence alleati che hanno esercitato forti pressioni su Islamabad tradottesi, nel<br />

2004, in una massiccia offensiva nel Waziristan <strong>del</strong> nord e <strong>del</strong> sud volta a eliminare le<br />

basi e le strutture logistiche qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste e pro-talebane. Il <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e contesto operativo, la<br />

forte ost<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>del</strong>la popolazione e le ingenti per<strong>di</strong>te subite hanno però spinto<br />

Islamabad a porre fine alle operazioni e a scendere a patti con le forze<br />

antigovernative 107 , favorendo <strong>di</strong> fatto un ulteriore rafforzamento <strong>del</strong>l’insurrezione<br />

afgana.<br />

Come <strong>di</strong>mostrato dal massiccio attacco sferrato l’estate scorsa dalle forze talebane<br />

(poi sventato dalle truppe NATO) per ottenere <strong>il</strong> controllo <strong>del</strong>la città chiave <strong>di</strong><br />

Kandahar, la loro presa sul Paese è tutt’altro che scomparsa soprattutto nelle<br />

province meri<strong>di</strong>onali.<br />

“Taliban-led insurgency has become ever more daring and deadly in the<br />

southern and eastern parts of the country, wh<strong>il</strong>e exten<strong>di</strong>ng its presence all<br />

the way to the outskirts of Kabul. […] Meanwh<strong>il</strong>e, the effectiveness of the<br />

Taliban’s limited institutions and the ruthlessness of their retribution<br />

against ‘collaborators’ neutralized much of the Afghan population. […] In<br />

some areas, there is now a parallel Taliban state, and locals are<br />

increasingly turning to Taliban-run courts, which are seen as more<br />

effective and fair than the corrupt official system” 108 .<br />

L’Afghanistan rimane quin<strong>di</strong> uno degli avamposti principali <strong>del</strong>la “guerra al<br />

terrore”. Sottovalutare i sintomi <strong>del</strong>la rinascita talebana e non intensificare in<br />

maniera adeguata <strong>il</strong> sostegno economico e m<strong>il</strong>itare al governo centrale non può<br />

quin<strong>di</strong> che vanificare gli sforzi sino ad ora sostenuti e garantire ad al-Qa’ida<br />

l’occasione <strong>di</strong> riottenere un avamposto sicuro e in grado <strong>di</strong> influire pesantemente<br />

anche sulle sorti <strong>del</strong> conflitto iracheno.<br />

107 Si veda <strong>il</strong> rapporto <strong>del</strong>l’International Crisis Group, Pakistan’s tribal Areas: Appeasing the M<strong>il</strong>itants, 11 <strong>di</strong>cembre<br />

2006<br />

108 Barnett Rubin, Saving Afghanistan, Foreign Affaire, gennaio-febbraio 2007, p. 2-3<br />

146


Iraq<br />

Benché l’Afghanistan continui a ricoprire un obiettivo prioritario per al-Qa’ida, esso<br />

non rappresenta che una <strong>del</strong>le possib<strong>il</strong>i opzioni in<strong>di</strong>viduate dall’organizzazione per<br />

ricostituire un proprio santuario e far ripartire <strong>il</strong> proprio jihad su scala globale.<br />

In tale contesto, la totalità degli analisti è concorde nell’affermare che, sebbene al-<br />

Qa’ida continui ad operare attivamente su una pluralità <strong>di</strong> fronti <strong>di</strong>fferenti, l’Iraq<br />

rappresenti <strong>il</strong> vero obiettivo <strong>del</strong> movimento: la collocazione geografica, <strong>il</strong> peso storico<br />

e culturale così come l’estremamente critica situazione interna contribuiscono a farne<br />

una realtà potenzialmente in grado <strong>di</strong> ricoprire un ruolo ancora più determinante <strong>di</strong><br />

quello sostenuto dall’Afghanistan negli ultimi decenni.<br />

A <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>del</strong>lo scenario afgano che, sebbene <strong>di</strong> primaria importanza, rappresenta<br />

pur sempre una realtà ai margini <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico, l’Iraq è da sempre uno dei<br />

centri nevralgici <strong>del</strong>l’intera ummah, sia sotto <strong>il</strong> prof<strong>il</strong>o religioso, politico e culturale<br />

che sotto quello economico. Un’eventuale caduta <strong>di</strong> Baghdad (o, più realisticamente,<br />

<strong>di</strong> una parte significativa <strong>di</strong> territorio iracheno) nelle mani <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida segnerebbe<br />

una svolta <strong>di</strong> eccezionale importanza per la guerra al terrorismo, potenzialmente in<br />

grado <strong>di</strong> spostare significativamente gli equ<strong>il</strong>ibri <strong>del</strong>l’attuale conflitto a favore <strong>del</strong>la<br />

causa estremista.<br />

Inoltre, mantenendo la sua presenza in Iraq, al-Qa’ida non solo <strong>di</strong>mostra <strong>di</strong> poter<br />

tener testa alle forze statunitensi e ai suoi alleati ma si erge in un certo qual modo a<br />

unico reale <strong>di</strong>fensore dei <strong>di</strong>ritti <strong>del</strong>la “nazione araba”, e <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano in<br />

generale, incrementando ulteriormente <strong>il</strong> suo status all’interno <strong>del</strong>le frange più<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>cali <strong>del</strong>la popolazione araba, da sempre estremamente ost<strong>il</strong>e a qualsiasi forma <strong>di</strong><br />

ingerenza straniera e caratterizzata da forti legami <strong>di</strong> solidarietà, ere<strong>di</strong>tà <strong>del</strong><br />

panarabismo – esperimento fallito a livello politico, ma le cui basi sono pur sempre<br />

molto forti e ra<strong>di</strong>cate nella popolazione – e <strong>del</strong>la m<strong>il</strong>lenaria storia regionale.<br />

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“The war in Iraq[…]has broadened and deepened the pools of recruits for<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>st extremists in the Muslim world, by ‘demonstrating’ beyond Bin<br />

Laden’s w<strong>il</strong>dest dreams that the true American objective was to invade<br />

the land of Islam. […] Previous battlegrounds for al-Qa’ida types were on<br />

the periphery of the Arab world […]. With Iraq, these battlegrounds are<br />

now at the heart of the Arab Middle East. By fighting the invader, these<br />

terrorists strike a strong chord everywhere in the Arab world, even<br />

among those who, in Iraq, were indeed liberated as they were invaded. By<br />

casting the war in Iraq as a key stage in ‘the war on terror’, President Bush<br />

seemed once again to play into Bin Laden’s and Zarqawi’s agendas –<br />

especially given the fact that the war was seen by the world as a war of<br />

choice, not a war of necessity” 109<br />

Infine, <strong>il</strong> Paese pare rispondere perfettamente all’identikit <strong>del</strong>l’avamposto ideale<br />

tracciato da Ayman al Zawahiri, che, in un passaggio <strong>del</strong> suo scritto “Knights under<br />

the Prophet’s Banner”, afferma che l’instaurazione <strong>di</strong> una base qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta nel cuore <strong>del</strong><br />

mondo arabo rappresenti una precon<strong>di</strong>zione irrinunciab<strong>il</strong>e e da attuarsi a qualsiasi<br />

costo per la vittoria finale:<br />

“ «Victory for the Islamic movements against the world alliance cannot be<br />

attained unless these movements possess an Islamic base in the heart of<br />

the Arab region» He notes that mob<strong>il</strong>izing and arming the nation w<strong>il</strong>l not<br />

yeld tangible results unt<strong>il</strong> a fundamentalist base is established in the<br />

region: «The establishment of a Muslim state in the hearth of the Islamic<br />

world is not an easy or close target. However, it is the hope of the Muslim<br />

nation to restore its fallen caliphate and regain its lost glory… We must<br />

not despair of the repeated strikes and calamities. We must never lay<br />

down our arms no matter how much losses or sacrifices we endure. Let us<br />

start again after every strike, even if we had to begin from scratch» ” 110 .<br />

109 Ph<strong>il</strong>ippe Errera, Three Circles of Threat, Survival, vol. 47, no. 1, Primavera 2005, p 82<br />

110 Ayman al-Zawahiri, Knights under the Prophet’s Banner, in Ely Karmon, Al-Qa’ida and the War on Terror after the<br />

War in Iraq, Middle East Review of International Affairs,Vol. 10, No.1, Marzo 2006,p. 1<br />

148


Al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>l’eccezionale ruolo che la “presa” <strong>del</strong>l’Iraq potrebbe potenzialmente avere<br />

sui <strong>del</strong>icatissimi equ<strong>il</strong>ibri regionali e sulle sorti <strong>del</strong>l’attuale conflitto, uno dei fattori<br />

alla base <strong>del</strong>la campagna condotta da al-Qa’ida in Iraq è costituito dal <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e<br />

scenario interno, sempre più segnato da profonde fratture etnico-religiose e sull’orlo<br />

<strong>di</strong> una vera e propria guerra civ<strong>il</strong>e, che consente alle forze qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste <strong>di</strong> operare con<br />

ampi gra<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> autonomia e <strong>di</strong> mantenere sempre attiva la loro offensiva contro le<br />

truppe statunitensi (e loro alleati), rispondendo così al duplice obiettivo <strong>di</strong><br />

riorganizzare le proprie f<strong>il</strong>a e <strong>di</strong> continuare la lotta al far enemy.<br />

Proprio questo punto ha rappresentato, e rappresenta tutt’ora, uno dei fattori alla<br />

base <strong>del</strong> forte interesse qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta. Prima <strong>del</strong>la campagna anglo-statunitense volta a<br />

rovesciare <strong>il</strong> regime <strong>di</strong> Saddam Hussein, al-Qa’ida sembrava sull’orlo <strong>del</strong>la definitiva<br />

eliminazione: alcuni tra i principali esponenti erano stati uccisi o catturati, i suoi<br />

attivisti erano <strong>di</strong>spersi e braccati dalle forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza internazionali e numerosi<br />

attentati erano stati sventati grazie al rafforzamento <strong>del</strong>le misure <strong>di</strong> controllo e alla<br />

cooperazione dei servizi <strong>di</strong> intelligence <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>fferenti Paesi.<br />

Iraqi Freedom e le <strong>di</strong>fficoltà seguite alla prima fase <strong>di</strong> operazioni belliche hanno però<br />

mo<strong>di</strong>ficato sensib<strong>il</strong>mente la situazione, sottoponendo l’Amministrazione a fortissime<br />

pressioni interne ed esterne e permettendo all’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> invertire <strong>il</strong><br />

pericoloso trend sino ad allora instauratosi, caratterizzato dall’adozione <strong>di</strong> una tattica<br />

quasi totalmente <strong>di</strong>fensiva, dall’incapacità <strong>di</strong> implementare un’offensiva adeguata<br />

contro le forze alleate, e <strong>di</strong> riproporsi come l’unica realtà in grado <strong>di</strong> contrastare lo<br />

strapotere americano.<br />

“The crisis, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng increasing civ<strong>il</strong>ian casualties, the horror of the abuse<br />

of the Iraqi prisoners, and the cultural clash between occupier and<br />

occupied, is a welcome development for bin Laden and his associates,<br />

who have exploited it to justify their global jihad against America and its<br />

allies. The American war in Iraq was a God-sent opportunity for bin<br />

Laden and Zawahiri. America’s imperial endeavour has given them a<br />

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new opening to make inroads, if not into mainstream Arab hearts and<br />

minds, into a large pool of outraged Muslims from the Middle East and<br />

elsewhere and uprooted young European-born Muslims and who want to<br />

resist what they perceive as the U.S.-British onslaught on their<br />

coreligionists” 111<br />

Questo non significa però che l’Iraq sia ormai <strong>di</strong>venuto <strong>il</strong> “nuovo Afghanistan”, come<br />

<strong>di</strong>versi analisti hanno affermato. I punti <strong>di</strong> convergenza in chiave futura possono<br />

infatti essere molteplici, ma è necessario sottolineare come molte aree rimangano<br />

quasi <strong>del</strong> tutto estranee agli episo<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> violenza che insanguinano <strong>il</strong> Paese (si veda<br />

Fig. 3.3) e come <strong>il</strong> governo centrale – al pari <strong>del</strong>la stragrande maggioranza <strong>del</strong>le<br />

principali fazioni irachene - seppur fortemente limitato dalla crisi attuale e dalle<br />

profonde <strong>di</strong>visioni interne, sia tutt’altro che propenso a scendere a patti con<br />

l’organizzazione e a permetterle <strong>di</strong> instaurare un nuovo santuario sul proprio<br />

territorio.<br />

Figura 3.3 Numero <strong>di</strong> attacchi per provincia. 12 agosto – 10 novembre 2006 112<br />

Soprattutto, sebbene al-Qa’ida continui a rimanere, nonostante le ingenti per<strong>di</strong>te<br />

subite e l’uccisione Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, uno dei principali attori operanti nel<br />

Paese, <strong>il</strong> suo peso non può essere paragonab<strong>il</strong>e a quello detenuto dalle <strong>di</strong>verse m<strong>il</strong>izie<br />

111 Fawaz A. Gerges, The Iraq War: Planting the Seeds of al-Qaida’s Second Generation, 27 ottobre 2005, p. 2<br />

112 Measuring Stab<strong>il</strong>ity and Security in Iraq, report, novembre 2006, p. 21<br />

150


sorte negli ultimi anni né a quello <strong>del</strong>l’insurrezione interna <strong>di</strong> matrice sunnita 113 , che<br />

è riuscita a sottrarre a più riprese ampie porzioni <strong>di</strong> territorio al controllo<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’autorità centrale.<br />

A <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>di</strong> queste realtà, fortemente sostenute a livello popolare, al-Qa’ida<br />

continua a rimanere un <strong>fenomeno</strong> marcatamente “esterno” e come tale è percepita da<br />

gran parte <strong>del</strong>la popolazione. Sebbene le operazioni altamente spettacolari<br />

implementate dall’organizzazione abbiano senza alcun dubbio richiesto la<br />

cooperazione <strong>di</strong> elementi locali, a <strong>di</strong>stanza <strong>di</strong> quattro anni dalla sua progressiva<br />

ascesa nel Paese, i quadri <strong>di</strong>rigenti, così come buona parte <strong>del</strong>le forze operative,<br />

continuano a rimanere composti da guerriglieri stranieri.<br />

Proprio questo limite, che avrebbe potuto segnare – in un orizzonte <strong>di</strong> me<strong>di</strong>o-lungo<br />

periodo – la sostanziale sconfitta <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e la sua estromissione dallo<br />

scenario iracheno, ha <strong>di</strong> fatto rappresentato la causa principale <strong>del</strong>la peculiare<br />

strategia adottata da al-Zarqawi.<br />

Non potendo <strong>di</strong>sporre né <strong>di</strong> sufficiente sostegno popolare né <strong>di</strong> forze adeguate per<br />

conseguire autonomamente i propri obiettivi, e dovendo confrontarsi con <strong>il</strong> rischio<br />

sempre più elevato che l’insurrezione <strong>di</strong> matrice sunnita deponesse le armi a favore<br />

<strong>di</strong> una partecipazione <strong>di</strong>retta al nuovo sistema politico iracheno, al-Zarqawi avviò<br />

una campagna <strong>di</strong> operazioni cruente e attentati altamente spettacolari miranti a<br />

compensare l’incapacità <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> ricoprire un ruolo dominante sul<br />

territorio con un massiccia campagna volta a causare un fortissimo impatto<br />

me<strong>di</strong>atico.<br />

Questo modus operan<strong>di</strong>, <strong>di</strong>venuto nel corso degli ultimi anni uno dei “marchi <strong>di</strong><br />

fabbrica” più <strong>di</strong>stintivi <strong>del</strong>la strategia qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta, non è però rimasto fine a se stesso,<br />

ma è stato implementato in modo tale da avere un impatto <strong>di</strong>retto sul peculiare<br />

sistema iracheno, caratterizzato da una forte commistione <strong>di</strong> etnie, culture e<br />

113 Per una descrizione dei movimenti insurrezionalisti iracheni si veda Andrea Plebani, The Iraqi Challenge:<br />

Political Troubles, Insurgency and Economic Trends in The New Iraq: Stab<strong>il</strong>ization, Reconc<strong>il</strong>iation, Institution-Bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng<br />

and the Regional Scenario, Giugno 2006, Quaderno Ispi <strong>Global</strong> Watch, n. 36, pp. 24-52<br />

151


confessioni che, nei piani <strong>del</strong> leader giordano, se adeguatamente sollecitate,<br />

avrebbero potuto travolgere <strong>il</strong> Paese in una spirale <strong>di</strong> violenze senza fine.<br />

È in quest’ottica che vanno analizzati gli attentati perpetrati ai danni <strong>del</strong>la<br />

componente sciita <strong>del</strong>la popolazione: soffiare sulle braci <strong>del</strong>l’o<strong>di</strong>o mai sopito tra sciiti<br />

e sunniti e fomentare in questi ultimi la paura <strong>di</strong> rimanere relegati al ruolo <strong>di</strong><br />

comparse <strong>di</strong> un Iraq f<strong>il</strong>o iraniano e “Shi’a – led” rappresentava l’unica strategia<br />

esperib<strong>il</strong>e per ribaltare le con<strong>di</strong>zioni iniziali e favorire l’instaurazione <strong>di</strong> un ambiente<br />

non ost<strong>il</strong>e e ricettivo al messaggio jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

“Targeting [Shi’a] i religious, political and m<strong>il</strong>itary depth w<strong>il</strong>l provole<br />

them to show the Sunnis their rabies … and bare the teeth of the hidden<br />

rancor working in their breasts. If we succeed in dragging them into the<br />

arena of sectarian war, it w<strong>il</strong>l become possible to awaken the inattentive<br />

Sunnis as they feel imminent danger and annih<strong>il</strong>ating death at the hands<br />

of the Sabbeans [Shiites]” 114<br />

Il timore che la strategia adottata da al-Zarqawi in Iraq potesse tradursi<br />

nell’esplosione <strong>di</strong> una vera e propria fitna (guerra intestina) in grado <strong>di</strong> estendersi<br />

all’intero mondo musulmano spinse molteplici esponenti, sia esterni che interni al<br />

campo islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale 115 , a condannare duramente tali azioni che richiedevano un<br />

ingente tributo <strong>di</strong> sangue alla popolazione civ<strong>il</strong>e. La stessa leadership qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta si era<br />

schierata su posizioni sostanzialmente antitetiche a quelle <strong>del</strong> leader giordano (che<br />

era inoltre uno dei principali oppositori <strong>del</strong>la teoria <strong>del</strong>la primazia <strong>del</strong>la lotta al far<br />

enemy), sottolineando come fosse necessario che <strong>il</strong> popolo iracheno combattesse unito<br />

nella lotta contro le forze <strong>di</strong> occupazione e non cadesse preda <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>visioni interne.<br />

Sebbene queste <strong>di</strong>vergenze non fossero state completamente appianate, la leadership<br />

storica <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, alla luce <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>fficoltà nelle quali si trovava ad operare e al<br />

rischio <strong>di</strong> perdere la guida <strong>del</strong>la corrente islamica ra<strong>di</strong>cale (a favore magari <strong>del</strong><br />

114 Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, lettera r<strong>il</strong>asciata dalla Coalition Provisional Authority, 12 febbraio 2004, www.cpairaq.org/transcripts/20040212_zarqawi_full.html<br />

115 Lo stesso mentore <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi, Abu Muhammad al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si, criticò duramente e a più riprese la condotta <strong>del</strong><br />

leader giordano avviando una vera e propria <strong>di</strong>sputa con quest’ultimo. Si veda Ely Karmon, Al-Qa’ida and the War<br />

on Terror after the War in Iraq, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1, Marzo 2006, p. 7<br />

152


“nuovo Salah al-Din”, <strong>il</strong> leader <strong>di</strong> Hezbollah Hasan Nasrallah, o <strong>di</strong> altre nuove realtà<br />

emergenti) decise <strong>di</strong> accettare la proposta <strong>di</strong> fusione <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi, riconoscendo al<br />

leader giordano <strong>il</strong> ruolo <strong>di</strong> comandante in capo <strong>del</strong>le forze qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste nel Paese,<br />

sostenendo <strong>di</strong> fatto - almeno parzialmente – <strong>il</strong> suo modus operan<strong>di</strong> e dando vita a<br />

Tandhim Qa’idat al-Jihan fi B<strong>il</strong>ad al-Rafidayn 116 (AQI).<br />

“On December 27, 2004, bin Laden designated "honored comrade Abu<br />

Mus’ab al-Zarqawi" as the "commander [Amir] of al-Qa’ida organization<br />

in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates", and asked "the comrades in<br />

the organization" to obey him“ 117 .<br />

In questo modo al-Qa’ida, seppur attraverso la “scomoda” leadership <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi,<br />

riguadagnava un ruolo <strong>di</strong> primo piano in uno dei teatri <strong>di</strong> guerra più <strong>del</strong>icati e<br />

nevralgici <strong>del</strong> conflitto in corso e <strong>il</strong> leader giordano poteva riunire sotto la sua guida<br />

nuovi m<strong>il</strong>itanti, rispondendo così al pressante bisogno <strong>di</strong> aumentare gli effettivi sotto<br />

<strong>il</strong> suo <strong>di</strong>retto controllo.<br />

“During Zarqawi’s tenure as emir, AQI’s relationship with al-Qa’ida was a<br />

function of strategic convenience rather than doctrinal agreement. For al-<br />

Qa’ida, attaching its name to Zarqawi’s activities enabled it to maintain<br />

relevance even as its core forces were destroyed or on the run. Zarqawi,<br />

meanwh<strong>il</strong>e, used the al-Qa’ida brand to fac<strong>il</strong>itate recruiting” 118 .<br />

Questa decisione non pose però fine alla <strong>di</strong>sputa ideologica sulla liceità ( e sulla<br />

convenienza) o meno <strong>di</strong> colpire la popolazione sciita per rispondere agli obiettivi<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione. In una lettera <strong>del</strong> luglio 2005 inviata da Ayman al-Zawahiri al<br />

nuovo capo <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida in Iraq, emergono chiaramente le preoccupazioni relative alla<br />

convenienza <strong>di</strong> proseguire questa tattica, anche alla luce dei rischi che molti m<strong>il</strong>itanti<br />

rifugiati in Iran avrebbero potuto correre a causa <strong>di</strong> questa strategia.<br />

116 L’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> al-Qaida nella Terra dei due Fiumi (Iraq).<br />

117 Ely Karmon, Al-Qa’ida and the War on Terror after the War in Iraq, Middle East Review of International Affairs,<br />

Vol. 10, No. 1, Marzo 2006, p. 7<br />

118 Brian Fishman, After Zarqawi: The D<strong>il</strong>emmas and Future of al Qaeda in Iraq, The Washington Quarterly, Autunno<br />

2006, p. 21<br />

153


“Zawahiri […] admits that the "collision between any state based on the<br />

mo<strong>del</strong> of prophecy with the Shi’a is a matter that w<strong>il</strong>l happen sooner or<br />

later." The question he and " mujahed<strong>di</strong>n circles" ask Zarqawi is "about the<br />

correctness of this conflict with Shi’a at this time. […] Moreover, Zawahiri<br />

reminds Zarqawi that "more than one hundred prisoners – many of<br />

whom are from the leadership who are wanted in their countries – are in<br />

the custody of the Iranians". The attacks against the Shi’a in Iraq could<br />

compel "the Iranians to take counter measures" ” 119 .<br />

La continuazione degli attacchi contro la popolazione sciita ha sottolineato come la<br />

leadership storica qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta si trovasse in una situazione estremamente <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>e,<br />

dovendosi b<strong>il</strong>anciare tra la necessità <strong>di</strong> sfruttare al-Zarqawi per fini propagan<strong>di</strong>stici e<br />

operativi e <strong>il</strong> rischio <strong>di</strong> perdere progressivamente <strong>il</strong> controllo e la guida non solo<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione operante in Iraq ma <strong>di</strong> gran parte <strong>del</strong>le realtà connesse al nucleo<br />

storico <strong>del</strong> movimento.<br />

L’uccisione <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi <strong>il</strong> 7 giugno 2006 ha rappresentato un momento decisivo per<br />

le sorti <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione, privandola <strong>di</strong> una guida indubbiamente carismatica e<br />

determinata (sebbene non pienamente con<strong>di</strong>visa e accettata da tutti e spesso<br />

responsab<strong>il</strong>e <strong>di</strong> eclatanti fallimenti – come nel caso <strong>del</strong>l’attentato terroristico <strong>del</strong><br />

novembre 2005 che colpì tre hotel ad Amman causando la morte e <strong>il</strong> ferimento <strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>versi invitati ad uno sposalizio ) ed evidenziando la chiara inf<strong>il</strong>trazione <strong>di</strong> agenti<br />

legati ai servizi <strong>di</strong> intelligence alleati al suo interno (oltre che <strong>il</strong> probab<strong>il</strong>e<br />

coinvolgimento <strong>di</strong> elementi legati alla componente tribale sunnita).<br />

La morte <strong>del</strong> leader giordano avrebbe potuto quin<strong>di</strong> segnare l’inizio <strong>del</strong>la<br />

<strong>di</strong>sgregazione <strong>di</strong> AQI, eppure la nuova leadership pare essere riuscita a sfruttare<br />

appieno la spirale <strong>di</strong> violenza interetnica che infiamma <strong>il</strong> Paese per rinsaldare i<br />

propri ranghi, ridefinire i rapporti con l’insurrezione <strong>di</strong> matrice sunnita e ripensare<br />

le proprie strategie.<br />

119 Ely Karmon, Al-Qa’ida and the War on Terror after the War in Iraq, Middle East Review of International Affairs,<br />

Vol. 10, No. 1, Marzo 2006, p. 7<br />

154


La nomina <strong>di</strong> Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (alias Abu Ayub al-Masri) a capo <strong>di</strong> AQI, oltre<br />

a sottolineare l’esistenza <strong>di</strong> una realtà altamente strutturata in grado <strong>di</strong> sostituire una<br />

leadership importante, quale quella <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi, in un breve lasso <strong>di</strong> tempo, ha<br />

posto le basi per un riavvicinamento <strong>del</strong> movimento all’organizzazione-madre e alla<br />

sua leadership storica. Pur senza sconfessare le tesi <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi, <strong>il</strong> nuovo leader è<br />

riuscito a ricucire gli strappi creati dal protagonismo e dall’intransigenza <strong>del</strong> leader<br />

giordano, proseguendo gli attacchi volti a intensificare gli scontri interetnici nel<br />

Paese ma anche affrontando <strong>di</strong>rettamente le forze <strong>del</strong>le Coalizione e le forze<br />

governative irachene e conc<strong>il</strong>iando così le due anime <strong>del</strong> movimento.<br />

Soprattutto, però, al-Masri pare essere riuscito a <strong>di</strong>minuire notevolmente la <strong>di</strong>stanza<br />

tra l’organizzazione e la popolazione e i gruppi legati alla resistenza sunnita e aver<br />

posto le basi per una sempre maggior “irachizzazione” 120 <strong>di</strong> AQI – premessa<br />

essenziale per poter dar vita ad una realtà in grado <strong>di</strong> sopravvivere nel tempo senza<br />

<strong>il</strong> continuo supporto <strong>del</strong> network internazionale qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta e <strong>di</strong> continuare la lotta in<br />

corso – limitando gli effetti <strong>di</strong> quello che Brian Fishman ha definito “the Gharib<br />

Paradox”. Secondo Fishman, infatti, la sostanziale connotazione “straniera” <strong>di</strong> AQI<br />

non sarebbe dovuta esclusivamente allo scarso appeal <strong>del</strong>l’ideologia e <strong>del</strong> progetto<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione, ma anche – e forse soprattutto – ad un modus operan<strong>di</strong><br />

fortemente connesso alla figura <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi.<br />

“All terrorist groups face an important ideological paradox. Their ideas<br />

must appeal to popular au<strong>di</strong>ence, but they also must be insular to<br />

maintain internal group cohesion in the face of external criticism. […]<br />

Zarqawi dealt with this paradox by favouring internal group cohesion<br />

over popular appeal, a tendency <strong>il</strong>lustrated by his long-stan<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

nickname, al-Gharib, or the Stranger. […] This definition of identity – an<br />

outsider from mainstream society – embraces and expropriates isolation<br />

from the majority so that, instead of being a source of despair and<br />

weakness, seclusion promotes unity and strength. […] Zarqawi’s<br />

120 Si veda, tra gli altri, <strong>il</strong> famoso Baker-Ham<strong>il</strong>ton Report, ma anche l’affermazione r<strong>il</strong>asciata da al-Masri <strong>il</strong> 10<br />

novembre 2006 secondo cui AQI potrebbe contare ormai su una compagine <strong>di</strong> 12.000 uomini.<br />

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approach to the gharib paradox made AQI res<strong>il</strong>ient but impeded his<br />

ab<strong>il</strong>ity to bu<strong>il</strong>d social consensus in the Sunni community that would be<br />

strong enough to assert any real political control in Iraq.” 121 .<br />

Il progressivo allontanamento <strong>di</strong> AQI dal “Gharib Paradox” e dalla linea dura e<br />

intransigente adottata dalla leadership precedente paiono aver rappresentato un<br />

elemento fondamentale per <strong>il</strong> riavvicinamento <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione alla<br />

popolazione e alle realtà connesse all’eterogenea insurrezione sunnita,<br />

allontanando lo spettro <strong>di</strong> una definitiva rottura e, quin<strong>di</strong>, l’inevitab<strong>il</strong>e<br />

indebolimento <strong>del</strong> movimento che non sarebbe stato quasi certamente in grado<br />

<strong>di</strong> sostenere l’apertura <strong>di</strong> un nuovo fonte <strong>di</strong> scontro.<br />

La nuova <strong>di</strong>rigenza qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta quin<strong>di</strong>, pur non <strong>di</strong>sponendo né <strong>del</strong> carisma né <strong>del</strong><br />

fascino me<strong>di</strong>atico <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi, pare essere riuscita a <strong>di</strong>ssipare i numerosi dubbi<br />

relativi alla sua capacità <strong>di</strong> guidare un movimento che si riteneva inestricab<strong>il</strong>mente<br />

legato alla ormai mitica figura <strong>del</strong> proprio fondatore e a porre le basi per una<br />

duratura permanenza <strong>di</strong> AQI nel Paese.<br />

Al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>le considerazioni relative alla capacità <strong>di</strong> ricreare in Iraq le stesse<br />

con<strong>di</strong>zioni che avevano favorito l’ascesa <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione in Afghanistan, è ormai<br />

evidente che AQI sia riuscita a inserirsi efficacemente nel sistema iracheno e a<br />

costituire una struttura volta a <strong>di</strong>spiegare i suoi effetti non solo nell’ambito <strong>del</strong>lo<br />

scontro attuale ma anche in ottica futura. L’Iraq, infatti, non rappresenta per al-<br />

Qa’ida solamente <strong>il</strong> principale teatro <strong>di</strong> battaglia che contrappone <strong>il</strong> movimento alle<br />

forze “infe<strong>del</strong>i”, ma anche – e forse soprattutto – <strong>il</strong> principale training ground <strong>del</strong>la<br />

nuova generazione <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>itanti qa’i<strong>di</strong>sti.<br />

Allo stesso modo, è ormai evidente che <strong>il</strong> Paese si stia apprestando a <strong>di</strong>venire uno dei<br />

più importanti bacini <strong>di</strong> reclutamento per <strong>il</strong> movimento, anche alla luce <strong>del</strong> sempre<br />

maggior coinvolgimento <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>itanti iracheni e <strong>del</strong>l’enorme eco che la campagna<br />

contro le forze <strong>del</strong>la Coalizione sta avendo all’interno <strong>del</strong> mondo musulmano.<br />

121 Brian Fishman, After Zarqawi: The D<strong>il</strong>emmas and Future of al Qaeda in Iraq, The Washington Quarterly, Autunno<br />

2006, p. 21-22<br />

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Lungi dal costituire solo uno dei teatri d’azione <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione, l’Iraq è quin<strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>venuto uno dei punti nevralgici <strong>del</strong>la campagna intrapresa da al-Qa’ida: le<br />

eccezionali con<strong>di</strong>zioni <strong>del</strong>lo scenario iracheno combinate al mutato contesto interno<br />

seguito all’uccisione <strong>di</strong> al-Zarqawi e al graduale inserimento <strong>di</strong> AQI nel tessuto<br />

sociale <strong>del</strong> Paese hanno contribuito a intensificare l’interesse <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida nel Paese e a<br />

trasformare l’Iraq nel principale teatro <strong>del</strong>lo scontro ingaggiato con gli Stati Uniti e i<br />

suoi alleati.<br />

3.3 L’Europa e i rischi legati al <strong>fenomeno</strong> dei returning jiha<strong>di</strong>sts dal fronte iracheno<br />

L’Europa ha da sempre rappresentato una <strong>del</strong>le basi logistiche ed operative<br />

principali per al-Qa’ida. La presenza <strong>di</strong> una massiccia comunità musulmana (stimata<br />

attorno ai 15-20 m<strong>il</strong>ioni <strong>di</strong> in<strong>di</strong>vidui), la tra<strong>di</strong>zionale accoglienza riservata agli<br />

attivisti politici perseguitati nei loro Paesi <strong>di</strong> origine, unita alle deboli misure <strong>di</strong><br />

controllo dei processi migratori e alla possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> percorrere <strong>il</strong> continente senza<br />

dover temere continui controlli alle frontiere, hanno rappresentato alcuni degli<br />

elementi che hanno spinto al-Qa’ida a sfruttare una fitta rete <strong>di</strong> cellule e strutture <strong>di</strong><br />

sostegno per progettare, finanziare, supportare e implementare le proprie operazioni.<br />

“[…] it should come as no surprise that almost every single attack carried<br />

out or attempted by al-Qa’ida throughout the world has some link to<br />

Europe, even prior to 9/11. A Dublin-based charity provided material<br />

support to some of the terrorists who attacked the US Embassies in Kenya<br />

and Tanzania in 1998[…] False documents provided by a cell operating<br />

between Belgium and France allowed to al-Qa’ida operatives to portray<br />

themselves as journalists and assassinate Ahmed Shah Massoud, the<br />

commander of the Afghan Northern Alliance […] And the attacks of 9/11<br />

were partially planned in Hamburg, Germany, where three of the four<br />

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p<strong>il</strong>ots of the hijacked planes had lived and met, and from where they<br />

received financial and logistical support unt<strong>il</strong> the day of the attacks. After<br />

9/11 […] the cells operating in Europe gained even ad<strong>di</strong>tional importance<br />

. Most of the planning for the Apr<strong>il</strong> 2002 bombing of a synagogue in the<br />

Tunisian resort town of Djerba […] was done in Germany and France.<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to Moroccan authorities, the fund for the May 2003 Casablanca<br />

bombings came from Moroccan cells operating between Spain, Italy and<br />

Belgium. “ 122 .<br />

Al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>la fornitura <strong>di</strong> supporto logistico e operativo, la rete europea è riuscita a<br />

garantire a al-Qa’ida un ingente afflusso <strong>di</strong> capitali ottenuti attraverso <strong>il</strong> ricorso ad<br />

attività criminali che spaziano dal furto e dalla contraffazione <strong>di</strong> documenti sino allo<br />

sfruttamento <strong>di</strong> traffici <strong>di</strong> droga e <strong>del</strong>l’immigrazione clandestina. 123<br />

Benchè questi network abbiano tra<strong>di</strong>zionalmente ricoperto essenzialmente un ruolo<br />

<strong>di</strong> sostegno, gli attacchi a Madrid e a Londra, così come la scoperta <strong>di</strong> numerose<br />

cellule attive e dormienti, hanno sottolineato come <strong>il</strong> continente non rappresenti più<br />

solamente un importante centro <strong>di</strong> supporto logistico e operativo ma sia <strong>di</strong>venuto a<br />

tutti gli effetti uno dei principali teatri <strong>del</strong> conflitto ingaggiato da al-Qa’ida.<br />

In tale contesto, <strong>il</strong> ruolo <strong>del</strong> conflitto iracheno rappresenta un elemento <strong>di</strong> eccezionale<br />

importanza. L’invasione <strong>del</strong>l’Iraq da parte <strong>del</strong>le forze anglo-statunitensi ha infatti<br />

avuto un fortissimo impatto sull’intera ummah, incrementando l’ost<strong>il</strong>ità nei confronti<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’imperialismo statunitense e favorendo un netto aumento <strong>del</strong> sostegno alla causa<br />

qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

“Needless to say, opposition to the Iraq War does note equal support for<br />

terrorism.[…] Equally, though, the dominance of the Iraq issue among<br />

European Muslims has made some of them more susceptible […] to the<br />

political <strong>di</strong>scourse offered by Salafi jiha<strong>di</strong>sts. The invasion by Western<br />

forces of a country at the heart of the Muslim world, more forcefully than<br />

122 Lorenzo Vi<strong>di</strong>no in Islamic Extremism in Europe, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Europe and Emerging<br />

Threats of the Committee on International Relations, 27 apr<strong>il</strong>e 2005, p. 25<br />

123 Ibidem, p. 27<br />

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any of the local conflicts invoked by bin Laden and others in the past,<br />

seemed to confirm the notion that the West is at war with Islam. Indeed,<br />

in a recent ICM poll, seven out of ten British Muslims agreed with the<br />

statement that the ‘war against terrorism’ is, in reality, a ‘war against<br />

Islam’, with over 80% saying the Iraq War was unjustified and the<br />

promise of a democratic, sovereign Iraq was a lie” 124 .<br />

Questo fattore ha permesso ad al-Qa’ida <strong>di</strong> invertire la pericolosa deriva <strong>del</strong><br />

movimento e <strong>di</strong> registrare un sensib<strong>il</strong>e incremento <strong>di</strong> adesioni, limitando i <strong>di</strong>sastrosi<br />

effetti derivanti dalla caduta <strong>del</strong> santuario afgano e alla campagna scatenata contro <strong>il</strong><br />

movimento. Cosa ancora più importante, questo <strong>fenomeno</strong> non si è manifestato<br />

solamente all’interno <strong>del</strong>le aree <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico tra<strong>di</strong>zionalmente e storicamente<br />

più influenzate dal messaggio qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta, ma anche all’interno <strong>del</strong>lo stesso continente<br />

europeo, come <strong>di</strong>mostrato dal numero in continuo aumento <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>itanti <strong>di</strong> origine<br />

europea presenti al fronte.<br />

“Such assessments are underscored by numerous reports about attempts<br />

of young European Muslims to join the fighting in Iraq. Wh<strong>il</strong>e the actual<br />

number of European jiha<strong>di</strong>sts in Iraq may be relatively low – French<br />

intelligence believes that there are as few as 10-50 Europeans among the<br />

1,000-3,000 foreign jiha<strong>di</strong>sts – there is evidence that significant numbers<br />

have been recruited and made their way to Syria, Turkey and Jordan,<br />

where they are receiving basic m<strong>il</strong>itary training. The French anti-terrorist<br />

magistrate Jean-Francois Ricard asserts that there are ‘dozes of new cells’<br />

in France whose sole purpose it is to provide recruits for the jihad in Iraq.<br />

The UK authorities estimate that at least 70 in<strong>di</strong>viduals have left the<br />

country for Iraq, whereas the Germans believe that between ten and 50<br />

young Muslims have been recruited in the state of Bavaria alone.” 125<br />

124 Peter Neumann, Europe’s <strong>Jihad</strong>ist D<strong>il</strong>emma, Survival, vol. 48 n. 2, estate 2006, p. 75<br />

125 Peter Neumann, Europe’s <strong>Jihad</strong>ist D<strong>il</strong>emma, Survival, vol. 48 n. 2, estate 2006, p. 76<br />

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Sebbene <strong>il</strong> numero <strong>di</strong> m<strong>il</strong>itanti europei non possa essere paragonab<strong>il</strong>e a quello <strong>di</strong> aree<br />

“storicamente” legate al movimento, l’importanza <strong>di</strong> questo trend non può essere<br />

sottovalutata, soprattutto se esaminata in un orizzonte <strong>di</strong> me<strong>di</strong>o-lungo periodo.<br />

La r<strong>il</strong>evanza <strong>di</strong> questo <strong>fenomeno</strong> non è infatti tanto da in<strong>di</strong>viduarsi negli effetti che<br />

esso avrà sul corso <strong>del</strong> conflitto iracheno, quanto sulle conseguenze legate<br />

all’esperienza che questi m<strong>il</strong>itanti acquisiranno sul campo, ed è <strong>di</strong> natura sia tattica<br />

che strategica.<br />

Per quanto concerne <strong>il</strong> primo fattore, le maggiori preoccupazioni sono legate al fatto<br />

che, a <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>del</strong>lo scenario afgano, <strong>il</strong> teatro <strong>di</strong> scontro iracheno è essenzialmente<br />

urbano e presenta quin<strong>di</strong> forti analogie con l’ambiente nel quale questi m<strong>il</strong>itanti si<br />

troverebbero a operare, nel caso venisse implementata una campagna terroristica in<br />

Europa. L’impiego <strong>di</strong> tattiche <strong>di</strong>mostratesi eccezionalmente efficaci in un contesto<br />

urbano, unita alla profonda conoscenza <strong>del</strong>la cultura e <strong>del</strong> teatro <strong>di</strong> scontro,<br />

garantirebbero a questi guerriglieri un importante vantaggio sia sotto <strong>il</strong> prof<strong>il</strong>o<br />

organizzativo che sotto quello operativo e segnerebbero l’avvio <strong>di</strong> uno scontro<br />

destinato ad incidere pesantemente sulle sorti <strong>del</strong>la guerra al terrorismo.<br />

In relazione al secondo punto, invece, <strong>il</strong> rischio è legato all’influenza che questi<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itanti potrebbero avere, una volta tornati nei loro Paesi d’origine, sull’intera<br />

comunità islamica residente in Europa. Prendendo come termine <strong>di</strong> paragone<br />

l’impatto che i “returning jiha<strong>di</strong>s ” ebbero sui loro Paesi al loro ritorno dal jihad<br />

afgano, è possib<strong>il</strong>e <strong>del</strong>ineare scenari estremamente critici per <strong>il</strong> futuro <strong>del</strong> nostro<br />

continente. Se si analizza infatti <strong>il</strong> caso egiziano – da sempre segnato dalla presenza<br />

<strong>di</strong> forti movimenti fondamentalisti (ra<strong>di</strong>cali e non) – è infatti possib<strong>il</strong>e notare come<br />

l’acuirsi <strong>del</strong>lo scontro tra le forze governative e le cellule islamiche ra<strong>di</strong>cali si sia<br />

registrato in concomitanza con <strong>il</strong> ritorno dei mujahiddeen dal fronte afgano. Il ritorno<br />

<strong>di</strong> questi m<strong>il</strong>itanti, infatti, non si è solamente tradotto in un sensib<strong>il</strong>e incremento <strong>del</strong>le<br />

capacità operative <strong>di</strong> queste realtà, ma anche – e soprattutto – in una netta<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione <strong>del</strong>le posizioni e <strong>del</strong>l’ideologia <strong>di</strong> questi movimenti, spesso sino ad<br />

allora schierati su posizioni sostanzialmente moderate. L’influenza dei veterani<br />

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iracheni potrebbe quin<strong>di</strong> rivelarsi fondamentale per cooptare quei segmenti <strong>del</strong>la<br />

comunità islamica europea più sensib<strong>il</strong>i al messaggio qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta e integrarli nel<br />

network operante in Europa.<br />

Il <strong>fenomeno</strong> dei returning jiha<strong>di</strong>sts potrebbe quin<strong>di</strong> avere un impatto fortissimo sulle<br />

sorti <strong>del</strong>la guerra al terrorismo e tradursi in una spirale <strong>di</strong> violenza in grado <strong>di</strong><br />

alterare i già precari e <strong>del</strong>icati equ<strong>il</strong>ibri esistenti all’interno <strong>del</strong>la società europea. In<br />

questo contesto, la campagna irachena assume un significato ancora più r<strong>il</strong>evante e si<br />

inserisce all’interno <strong>di</strong> uno scenario che non è e non potrà mai essere solamente<br />

regionale o limitato alle aree storicamente legate al mondo islamico ma che riguarda<br />

<strong>di</strong>rettamente l’intera comunità internazionale.<br />

4. Conclusioni<br />

A cinque anni dalla caduta <strong>del</strong> santuario afgano, al-Qa’ida pare quin<strong>di</strong> essere riuscita<br />

a uscire dall’impasse nella quale era precipitata, dando vita a una nuova offensiva<br />

che ha <strong>il</strong> suo epicentro in Iraq e Afghanistan ma che si prefigge <strong>di</strong> colpire su scala<br />

globale.<br />

La graduale rinascita <strong>del</strong> movimento ha però imposto altissimi costi e ra<strong>di</strong>cali<br />

cambiamenti che hanno trasformato al-Qa’ida, da un’organizzazione fortemente<br />

coesa e strutturata, in una sorta <strong>di</strong> “nebulosa” che racchiude sotto la sua sigla<br />

numerose realtà dotate <strong>di</strong> ampia autonomia.<br />

Questa trasformazione ha permesso al movimento <strong>di</strong> estendere <strong>il</strong> proprio raggio <strong>di</strong><br />

azione e <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>venire un <strong>fenomeno</strong> sempre più globale ma ha anche minato<br />

seriamente la sua struttura <strong>di</strong> comando e <strong>il</strong> grado <strong>di</strong> controllo esercitato dalla<br />

leadership storica, tanto che <strong>di</strong>versi analisti hanno sottolineato come al-Qa’ida non<br />

esista più come organizzazione.<br />

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Sebbene sia innegab<strong>il</strong>e che <strong>il</strong> movimento abbia subito danni estremamente r<strong>il</strong>evanti,<br />

non è possib<strong>il</strong>e affermare – quantomeno allo stato attuale – che al-Qa’ida si sia<br />

trasformata in una semplice ideologia o in un mero brand.<br />

Oltretutto, sebbene sia evidente che la caccia scatenata contro la leadership e i quadri<br />

<strong>di</strong>rigenti qa’i<strong>di</strong>sti abbia comportato una seria limitazione <strong>del</strong>le loro capacità<br />

decisionali e operative, <strong>il</strong> loro ruolo, a tutt’oggi, pare tutt’altro che marginale,<br />

soprattutto qualora si tenga in considerazione <strong>il</strong> peso, in termini <strong>di</strong> influenza sul<br />

campo ra<strong>di</strong>cale, detenuto da Bin Laden e al-Zawahiri e <strong>il</strong> controllo che ancora essi<br />

sono in grado <strong>di</strong> esercitare sull’organizzazione.<br />

In tale contesto è quin<strong>di</strong> fondamentale non sottovalutare le capacità operative <strong>di</strong> cui<br />

ancora <strong>di</strong>spone <strong>il</strong> nucleo storico <strong>del</strong> movimento; parimenti, è altrettanto importante<br />

considerare come, in questi ultimi anni, si sia registrata l’ascesa <strong>di</strong> nuove realtà e<br />

guide carismatiche – <strong>di</strong> cui al-Zarqawi rappresentava uno dei più conosciuti<br />

esponenti – potenzialmente in grado <strong>di</strong> contendere nel lungo periodo la leadership<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione e frammentarla.<br />

Al <strong>di</strong> là <strong>del</strong>la questione relativa all’effettivo controllo <strong>del</strong>la leadership sull’intero<br />

movimento, è necessario tener presente che lo stato <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida non può essere<br />

valutato solamente da un punto <strong>di</strong> vista strutturale e organizzativo. Al-Qa’ida rimane<br />

infatti un <strong>fenomeno</strong> a cavallo tra piano materiale e ideologico e l’accresciuto status<br />

ottenuto dal movimento in questo seconda <strong>di</strong>mensione non può che influire<br />

<strong>di</strong>rettamente sull’attuale conflitto.<br />

In tale contesto, una strategia totalmente ed esclusivamente improntata allo scontro<br />

<strong>di</strong>retto non potrà segnare la sconfitta <strong>del</strong> fronte qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta. A fianco <strong>del</strong>le fondamentali<br />

operazioni m<strong>il</strong>itari – e <strong>del</strong>le altrettanto essenziali attività <strong>di</strong> intelligence e <strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>struzione dei canali <strong>di</strong> finanziamento <strong>del</strong> movimento – è necessario quin<strong>di</strong> avviare<br />

un serio programma volto a <strong>del</strong>egittimare <strong>il</strong> messaggio <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, attingendo agli<br />

stessi mezzi impiegati dall’organizzazione. Se da un lato sarà quin<strong>di</strong> fondamentale <strong>il</strong><br />

ruolo <strong>del</strong>l’imam per confutare le tesi qa’i<strong>di</strong>ste, dall’altro sarà altrettanto importante<br />

162


sostenere un’efficace contro-campagna me<strong>di</strong>atica per raggiungere <strong>di</strong>rettamente la<br />

popolazione e soprattutto le fasce potenzialmente più esposte e sensib<strong>il</strong>i al fascino<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Islam ra<strong>di</strong>cale.<br />

163


Tra virtuale e reale: le nuove <strong>piste</strong> <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo<br />

Marco Lombar<strong>di</strong><br />

Il processo evolutivo <strong>del</strong> jihad è passato e sta passando attraverso alcune fasi<br />

significative quali: la ra<strong>di</strong>calizzazione, la frammentazione, la deterritorializzazione, <strong>il</strong><br />

“franchising”. La conseguenza <strong>di</strong> questo processo è una nuova forma <strong>di</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo<br />

più flessib<strong>il</strong>e ma meno coor<strong>di</strong>nato; aperto a nuovi mercati <strong>di</strong> reclutamento ma meno<br />

omogenei sul piano culturale; me<strong>di</strong>aticamente r<strong>il</strong>evamente ma per questo più<br />

<strong>di</strong>pendente dalle tecnologie e competenze <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione.<br />

Questo approfon<strong>di</strong>mento si propone <strong>di</strong> affrontare questi aspetti attraverso l’analisi<br />

<strong>del</strong>la comunicazione via web, attraverso <strong>il</strong> monitoraggio dei siti significativi e<br />

l’analisi <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione proposta. Infatti, nella comunicazione web si ritrovano<br />

tutti i segni <strong>del</strong>la frammentazione come incremento <strong>del</strong>le fonti legittimate a<br />

comunicare; <strong>del</strong>la deterritorializzazione nella sintesi <strong>del</strong>la nuova umma virtuale;<br />

<strong>del</strong>la promozione <strong>del</strong> brand presso nuovi mercati. Il risultato <strong>di</strong> questa analisi<br />

evidenzia quelle rotte virtuali sulle sulle quali si muove <strong>il</strong> moderno jiha<strong>di</strong>smo.<br />

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Accompagnano questa analisi alcuni dati rispetto alla rotte <strong>del</strong> reclutamento<br />

attraverso la verifica <strong>del</strong>le liste dei prigionieri arrestati per terrorismo islamico.<br />

1. Il quadro <strong>di</strong> riferimento in sintesi : “al-Qa’ida”<br />

Oggi “al-Qa’ida” può essere definita come:<br />

• un’organizzazione terroristica globale, flessib<strong>il</strong>e, a cellule cioè composta da<br />

numerose cellule i cui membri non si conoscono reciprocamente, affinché in<br />

caso <strong>di</strong> per<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>di</strong> una cellula le altre si mantengano operative. Essa fa<br />

riferimento a quattro principali network:<br />

1) La rete originale Arabo-Afghana;<br />

2) Una nuova rete in “franchise” costituita in <strong>di</strong>fferenti paesi;<br />

3) Un’organizzazione ombrello <strong>di</strong> gruppi islamici dal Marocco alla<br />

Cina;<br />

4) Una rete <strong>di</strong> imitatori ed emulatori;<br />

• un movimento ra<strong>di</strong>cale <strong>del</strong> mondo islamico che ha i propri obiettivi politici.<br />

Infatti, da parte <strong>del</strong>la “shura majlis” (consiglio) è necessario garantire una<br />

relazione <strong>di</strong> coor<strong>di</strong>namento tra i quattro network (da qui l’uso funzionale dei<br />

me<strong>di</strong>a e <strong>del</strong>l’ “Umma Virtuale” costituita nel web), soprattutto affinché i suoi<br />

leader come al-Zawahiri e Osama possano essere i promotori in un esercizio<br />

senza precedenti <strong>di</strong> “corrupting, misinterpreting and misrepresenting” <strong>del</strong><br />

jihad come guerra santa;<br />

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• una moderna organizzazione res<strong>il</strong>iente, capace <strong>di</strong> approfittare<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’innovazione tecnologica per raggiungere i propri fini, muovendosi<br />

rapidamente in cerca <strong>di</strong> nuove opportunità.<br />

Alla luce degli ultimi avvenimenti si può ipotizzare una alleanza tattica sotto forma<br />

<strong>di</strong> un network <strong>del</strong> “terrore nich<strong>il</strong>ista” - composta<br />

1. da frange <strong>di</strong> fondamentalisti islamici m<strong>il</strong>itanti <strong>del</strong> jihad;<br />

2. dalla resistenza irachena sicuramente inf<strong>il</strong>trata da elementi <strong>del</strong> terrorismo e<br />

che non può essere confusa con l’idea occidentale <strong>di</strong> “partigiani”;<br />

3. da gruppi terroristici ed eversivi europei;<br />

4. da circoli anti-imperialisti.<br />

L’organizzazione non è definita attraverso un progetto strategico-politico, ma<br />

attraverso un modus operan<strong>di</strong> che deve portare a massimizzare <strong>il</strong> numero <strong>di</strong> vittime,<br />

alla spettacolarizzazione globale <strong>del</strong>l’atto terroristico e all’abbattimento <strong>di</strong> ogni limite<br />

e tabù, <strong>il</strong> tutto sotto la griffe <strong>di</strong> “al-Qa’ida”.<br />

“Al-Qa’ida”, in sintesi, depende da:<br />

1. la “cassa <strong>di</strong> risonanza” fornita dai me<strong>di</strong>a globali e da Internet;<br />

2. dalla “howala”, <strong>il</strong> sistema informale <strong>di</strong> finanziamento.<br />

Una tale organizzazione flessib<strong>il</strong>e e sempre più destrutturata sembrerebbe lasciare<br />

più spazio non solo a suicider bombers (islamici), i martiri <strong>del</strong> jihad, ma anche a<br />

m<strong>il</strong>itanti “non-islamici”. In questa prospettiva, è pensab<strong>il</strong>e che nei Paesi Europei o<br />

negli Stati Uniti, la hol<strong>di</strong>ng <strong>del</strong> terrore globale possa far uso anche <strong>di</strong> quadri locali<br />

non associati al fondamentalismo islamico ra<strong>di</strong>cale. Un ulteriore aspetto, che<br />

complica <strong>il</strong> quadro operativo, è l’uso sempre più massiccio da parte <strong>di</strong> “al-Qa’ida”, o<br />

<strong>del</strong>la galassia che va sotto <strong>il</strong> suo nome, <strong>di</strong> “imported suicider bombers”, come è<br />

caratteristico in molti attentati in Israele da parte <strong>di</strong> organizzazioni terroristiche<br />

Palestinesi. Questo <strong>fenomeno</strong> dovrebbe altresi segnalarci un potenziale pericolo<br />

futuro: quello che si crei una “scuola mon<strong>di</strong>ale” <strong>di</strong> suicider bombers non<br />

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necessariamente connessi a elementi islamici. Il meccanismo psicologico è quello<br />

<strong>del</strong>la “politicizzazione” <strong>del</strong> suicider bombers e <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>namiche <strong>di</strong> “appartenenza a<br />

un gruppo”. Questo è già avvenuto per terroristi politici/eversivi come quelli<br />

appartenenti alla banda Baader-Meinhof e all’IRA. E’ possib<strong>il</strong>e che se <strong>il</strong> <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>di</strong><br />

“export & import” <strong>di</strong> suicider bombers dovesse crescere nel futuro, questo potrebbe<br />

essere un segnale <strong>di</strong> “attraversamento” <strong>del</strong>la soglia religiosa e l’adozione <strong>del</strong><br />

terrorismo suicida da parte <strong>di</strong> elementi non-islamici.<br />

Questa forma <strong>di</strong> reclutamento si accompagna alla definizione più efficace che può<br />

essere attribuita ad “al-Qa’ida”: un movimento in franchising<br />

“al-Qa’ida” è una griffe, e al tempo stesso una “rete <strong>del</strong> terrorismo” internazionale, che<br />

elabora e trasmette documenti e fatwe, che <strong>del</strong>inea le <strong>di</strong>rettrici generali <strong>del</strong> jihad e<br />

scan<strong>di</strong>sce i tempi <strong>del</strong>le varie offensive, ma che poi <strong>del</strong>ega, o semplicemente<br />

“propone”, la fase operativa ai gruppi inse<strong>di</strong>ati localmente aventi un grado totale o<br />

parziale <strong>di</strong> autonomia. Questi gruppi possono essere tra loro in<strong>di</strong>pendenti o<br />

debolmente connessi– con proprie strategie, meto<strong>di</strong> e tecnologie <strong>di</strong> esecuzione <strong>del</strong><br />

terrore – e avere, con la leadership <strong>di</strong> “al-Qa’ida”, una debole oppure nessuna<br />

relazione storica. In ogni caso, agire sotto la griffe <strong>di</strong> “al-Qa’ida”, permetterà a questi<br />

gruppi <strong>di</strong> ottenere la massima visib<strong>il</strong>ità me<strong>di</strong>atica, <strong>di</strong> raccogliere nuovi finanziamenti<br />

dalle opere <strong>di</strong> carità arabe e, in ultimo, reclutare nuovi m<strong>il</strong>itanti per <strong>il</strong> jihad totale.<br />

2. Il caso <strong>di</strong> Ansar al Islam<br />

L’organizzazione <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam, con particolare riferimento al reclutamento, alla<br />

struttura e alla leadership mette nuovamente in evidenza la <strong>di</strong>mensione<br />

internazionale dei gruppi <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico.<br />

Ansar Al Islam nasce in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan iraqeno, nel settembre 2001, coagulando intorno a<br />

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se una molteplicità <strong>di</strong> movimenti, quale risultato degli ultimi 10 anni <strong>di</strong> storia <strong>del</strong>le<br />

organizzazioni islamiche estremiste nell’area e con <strong>di</strong>rette connessioni con la<br />

<strong>di</strong>mensione internazionale <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico.<br />

Un aiuto alla ricostruzione <strong>di</strong> questo processo <strong>di</strong> costituzione viene dato dalle<br />

informazioni raccolte presso le agenzie <strong>di</strong> sicurezza kurde a Sulaimani e Kirkuk, in<br />

particolare da Sarkout Hasan Jalal, responsab<strong>il</strong>e dei servizi <strong>di</strong> sicurezza a Sulaimani,<br />

<strong>il</strong> quale ricorda come si debba fare riferimento a “Bzutnawai Islami (Movimento<br />

Islamico) che nacque nel 1979 in Iran, per poi costituirsi in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan come partito<br />

politico legittimo dopo la rivolta <strong>del</strong> 1991”. Ma le posizioni abbastanza moderate <strong>del</strong><br />

movimento non sod<strong>di</strong>sfacevano un congruo numero <strong>di</strong> aderenti, spostato verso<br />

posizioni estremiste, che cominciarono a riunirsi in gruppi spontanei ma senza<br />

interrompere le relazioni formali con Bzutnawai Islami. Si tratta <strong>di</strong> una fase che<br />

caratterizza gli anni dal 1994 al 1998 circa, dove non si assiste alla organizzazione <strong>di</strong><br />

gruppi in<strong>di</strong>pendenti quanto, piuttosto, al formarsi <strong>di</strong> correnti interne al Movimento,<br />

che saranno <strong>il</strong> prodomo ai futuri movimenti islaimici kur<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>la fine degli anni<br />

Novanta: “nei <strong>di</strong>ntorni <strong>del</strong> confine <strong>di</strong> Halabja hanno fondato Hamas, ancora<br />

segretamente e senza annunciarlo. Un altro gruppo a Erb<strong>il</strong> ha fondato<br />

un’organizzazione estremista <strong>di</strong> nome Al Tawhid (Riunificazione), anche questi non<br />

erano d’accordo con <strong>il</strong> programma <strong>del</strong> Movimento Islamico sulla questione <strong>del</strong> jihad<br />

e sulla creazione <strong>di</strong> una regione islamica in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan. C’era anche un altro<br />

movimento nell’ambito <strong>di</strong> Bzutnawai Islami che veniva chiamato la Hezi Dui Soran<br />

(Forza 2 <strong>del</strong> Soran, una regione <strong>del</strong> Kur<strong>di</strong>stan.), coor<strong>di</strong>nati da un gruppo <strong>di</strong> giovani<br />

estremisti. C’era anche un altro gruppo che chiamavano Islah (Miglioristi), questi<br />

dall’inizio erano coor<strong>di</strong>nati dal Mullah Krekar” (Sarkout Hasan Jalal), cioè da<br />

Najmud<strong>di</strong>n Faraj Ahmad, rifugiato in Norvegia, inse<strong>di</strong>ato nell’area <strong>di</strong> Golp e<br />

Halabja 126 .<br />

Le ragioni <strong>del</strong> progressivo ra<strong>di</strong>camento <strong>del</strong>l’islamismo ra<strong>di</strong>cale e fondamentalista<br />

organizzato in gruppi estremisti in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan trova ragioni pratiche nell’embargo<br />

126 Le aree in<strong>di</strong>cate si trovano nell’area montuosa kurdo iraqena confinante con l’Iran.<br />

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economico che <strong>il</strong> governo iraqeno applicò alla regione dopo <strong>il</strong> 1991: la situazione<br />

economica interna era <strong>di</strong> piena recessione e tutte le entrate <strong>del</strong> Governo Regionale<br />

<strong>del</strong> Kur<strong>di</strong>stan, che erano basate soprattutto sui dazi doganali, si erano ormai ridotte.<br />

In questo contesto “i gruppi islamici sono venuti per sfruttare la situazione, sfruttare<br />

la povertà <strong>del</strong>la gente attraverso alcune organizzazioni legate all’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta:<br />

aiutavano gli orfani, le vedove, gli anziani. Questo coor<strong>di</strong>namento lo facevano le<br />

organizzazioni islamiche e tutto ciò per attirare l’attenzione <strong>del</strong>la gente. La gente<br />

stessa in quel periodo era povera perciò i sol<strong>di</strong> li influenzavano” (Sarkout Hasan<br />

Jalal).<br />

Si avviò in quella fase turbolenta <strong>di</strong> metà anni Novanta, una sistematica costruzione<br />

<strong>di</strong> moschee finanziate dalle associazioni sau<strong>di</strong>te in cui si “impartivano lezioni ai<br />

bambini nelle moschee e li abituavano alle idee <strong>del</strong>l’Islam. Dopo aver fatto questo gli<br />

islamici estremisti attraverso i loro uomini nelle moschee estremizzavano i giovani<br />

parlandogli <strong>del</strong> jihad con le loro tesi e con le idee <strong>del</strong> jihad”, specifica Sarkout Hasan<br />

Jalal, confermato dalle numerose testimonianze raccolte nei v<strong>il</strong>laggi <strong>di</strong> montagna<br />

soprattutto nell’area orientale <strong>del</strong> Kur<strong>di</strong>stan. La situazione comincia a cambiare dopo<br />

la risoluzione 986 <strong>del</strong> 1995 <strong>del</strong>le Nazioni Unite, a seguito <strong>del</strong>la quale <strong>il</strong> governo<br />

kurdo decide <strong>di</strong> intervenire avversando questa progressiva politica <strong>di</strong> arabizzazione,<br />

perché “noi siamo una società a maggioranza islamica, ma ciò che facevano loro era<br />

<strong>di</strong>verso, loro rendevano l’islam politico e questo è <strong>di</strong>verso dalla religione. Inoltre<br />

Ansar e Jiund Al Islam dopo aver fatto tanti atti terroristici <strong>di</strong>edero una brutta<br />

immagine degli islamici politicizzati” (Sarkout Hasan Jalal).<br />

Dunque la chiave per comprendere la nascita <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam sta proprio nelle<br />

complesse <strong>di</strong>namiche che ruotano attorno al Kur<strong>di</strong>stan sul finire degli anni Novanta,<br />

che non riguardano solo <strong>il</strong> tentativo <strong>di</strong> penetrazione “politica assistenziale”<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Islam, ma rimandano a specifiche <strong>di</strong>rettive che evidenziano un nuovo<br />

coor<strong>di</strong>namento internazionale <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico, basato in Afghanistan, sotto la<br />

leadership <strong>di</strong> Osama Bin Laden. E’ <strong>il</strong> 2000 quando al-Qa’ida fa pressioni sulle<br />

<strong>di</strong>fferenti organizzazioni kurde, affinché queste confluiscano in un gruppo operativo<br />

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unificato “al-Qa’ida ha detto ‘le frammentazioni ci danneggiano, dovete unirvi’”<br />

(Sarkout Hasan Jalal) e Bin Laden affida la promozione <strong>del</strong>l’iniziativa al suo uomo<br />

Abu Abd Al Raman Al Suri. Nel corso <strong>del</strong> 2000, intorno a maggio, <strong>il</strong> gruppo <strong>di</strong><br />

Hamas con quello <strong>di</strong> Al Tawhid si riuniscono nel Fronte Islamico Unito, ma è circa<br />

un mese più tar<strong>di</strong> la partecipazione <strong>di</strong> Hezi Dui Soran che porta alla fondazione <strong>di</strong><br />

Jund Al Islam: è <strong>il</strong> primo settembre 2000. Questo era un gruppo estremista inse<strong>di</strong>ato<br />

nelle regioni <strong>di</strong> Tawela e Biyara, a nord est <strong>del</strong> Kur<strong>di</strong>stan verso <strong>il</strong> confine con l’Iran<br />

dove “hanno aperto un ufficio con <strong>il</strong> nome <strong>di</strong> Jund Al Islam e hanno appoggiato al-<br />

Qa’ida e da essi ricevevano tutte le <strong>di</strong>rettive” e, sembra, un finanziamento <strong>di</strong> 600.000<br />

USD. Il leader era proprio Abu Abd Al Raman Al Suri, alla cui morte in battaglia con<br />

i peshmerga kur<strong>di</strong> si sostituì Abu Abdullah Shafii. Il compito <strong>del</strong> gruppo era<br />

destab<strong>il</strong>izzare l’area e formare nuovi terroristi reclutati tra gli estremisti kur<strong>di</strong>,<br />

secondo uno schema <strong>di</strong> celle in<strong>di</strong>pendenti organizzate in sei reggimenti.<br />

E’ nel 2001 che finalmente nasce Ansar Al Islam, come coronamento <strong>di</strong> questo sforzo<br />

<strong>di</strong> riunificazione, quando <strong>il</strong> gruppo <strong>di</strong> Mullah Krekar (Najmud<strong>di</strong>n Faraj Ahmad),<br />

Islah, si unisce a Jund Al Islam. Proprio quest’ultimo ne assume la leadership: “dopo<br />

la creazione <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam, Krekar <strong>di</strong>venne <strong>il</strong> loro emiro. Abu Abdullah Shafi con<br />

Asso I Hauleri <strong>di</strong>vennero i suoi vice” (Sarkout Hasan Jalal). La medesima linea <strong>di</strong><br />

comando, anche nelle sue interazioni con l’Afgahnistan <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, è confermata<br />

dalle interviste a Didar Khalid Khaled e Keis Abu Assim (Abu Assi,) terroristi <strong>di</strong><br />

Ansar.<br />

La prima azione <strong>di</strong> Ansar fu un’imboscata alle forze <strong>del</strong> PUK, che procurò loro 42<br />

morti, poi nel febbraio 2002 assassinò Franso Hariri, governatore <strong>di</strong> Erb<strong>il</strong> e in<br />

primavera cercò <strong>di</strong> eliminare Barham Salih, Primo Ministro <strong>del</strong> Governo PUK e<br />

attuale Vice Presidente iraqeno. Nell’attacco fallito furono tuttavia uccise cinque<br />

guar<strong>di</strong>e <strong>del</strong> corpo e due dei tre terroristi <strong>del</strong> commando, <strong>il</strong> terrorista <strong>di</strong> Ansar<br />

sopravvissuto è Keis Abu Assim (Abu Assi,), da me incontrato nelle prigioni <strong>di</strong><br />

Sulaimani. Le azioni <strong>di</strong> Ansar continuano per tutto l’anno con imboscate e attentati<br />

suici<strong>di</strong>: i terroristi <strong>di</strong> Ansar parlano <strong>di</strong> un attacco con circa 100 morti e 120 feriti ai<br />

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peshmerga <strong>del</strong> PUK intorno a fine <strong>di</strong>cembre 2002, attacco che tuttavia non è stato<br />

confermato dai governativi. In questo periodo le connessioni internazionali <strong>di</strong> Ansar<br />

emergono ancora più chiaramente: lo stesso Primo Ministro <strong>del</strong>la Giordania <strong>di</strong>chiara<br />

che Abu Musab Al Zarqawi (Sheikh Fe<strong>del</strong> Nazzel Khalayleh) si trova presso Ansar<br />

Al Islam ed è l’ispiratore sia <strong>del</strong>l’attacco a Salih sia <strong>del</strong>l’assassinio <strong>di</strong> Laurence Foley,<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’U.S. Agency for International Development.<br />

E’ stato l’avvio <strong>del</strong>la guerra in Iraq che ha permesso agli uomini <strong>del</strong>la coalizione,<br />

soprattutto truppe speciali americane e uomini <strong>del</strong>la CIA nell’area orientale e<br />

specialisti inglesi in quella occidentale, con i peshmerga kur<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> attaccare ed<br />

eliminare le basi <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam nella regione: “avevano un rapporto <strong>di</strong>retto con<br />

al-Qa’ida e con <strong>il</strong> governo iraqeno che li addestrava, fino a quando l’America li ha<br />

attaccati e loro sono fuggiti in Iran. Le loro forze sono cadute e molti <strong>di</strong> loro sono<br />

stati uccisi, molti sono agli arresti e <strong>il</strong> resto scappati in Iran. Tehran fece imprigionare<br />

un gruppo <strong>di</strong> loro per pochi giorni, salvo poi rispe<strong>di</strong>rceli in<strong>di</strong>etro. Le nostre forze,<br />

ancora una volta, li hanno costretti a ritornare in Iran, così si sono stab<strong>il</strong>iti nelle città<br />

<strong>di</strong> Marivan, Sanandaj, Mahabad. Molti degli arabi sono andati verso Tehran. Dopo la<br />

caduta <strong>del</strong> regime iraqeno e l’ingresso Usa, si sono riorganizzati in Iran a gruppi<br />

hanno mandato gente in Iraq, ma i gruppi maggiori sono entrati con i pellegrinaggi<br />

sciiti a Najaf e Kerbala, per anni vietati da Saddam, per visitare le tombe <strong>di</strong> Hassan,<br />

Hussein e Ali. Si sono inf<strong>il</strong>trati tra i pellegrini per <strong>di</strong>rigersi nel centro sud <strong>del</strong>l’Iraq<br />

raggiungendo altri gruppi <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida e <strong>di</strong> arabi non iracheni arrivati per attaccare<br />

l’America insieme all’esercito iraqeno. Questi erano tutti gruppi <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, che ha<br />

colto l’occasione per inviare altre persone in Iran dove si sono organizzati” (Sarkout<br />

Hasan Jalal).<br />

Le informazioni raccolte rispetto all’inse<strong>di</strong>amento in Iran <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam<br />

evidenziano un aspetto critico, ambiguo e poco chiaro: quello <strong>del</strong> rapporto tra Iran e<br />

le organizzazioni <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico internazionale. Secondo <strong>di</strong>verse fonti<br />

(soprattutto turche e iraqene) al-Qa’ida avrebbe in Iran un vero e proprio terreno <strong>di</strong><br />

transito e <strong>di</strong> riposo che accoglie quadri <strong>di</strong> alto livello <strong>del</strong>l’organizzazione. Le più<br />

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ecenti vicende <strong>del</strong>’autunno 2006, che suggeriscono un certa pressione iraniana per<br />

ricollocare nei quadri qa’i<strong>di</strong>sti <strong>di</strong> “alto livello” alcuni profughi afghani “ospitati”<br />

nelle caserme <strong>del</strong>le guar<strong>di</strong>e <strong>del</strong>la rivoluzione, approfittando <strong>di</strong> una evidente<br />

debolezza <strong>del</strong> capo storico. Fatto attestato dalle ormai scarse apparizioni life <strong>di</strong><br />

Osama. In particolare, Saif al-A<strong>del</strong>, egiziano, 46 anni, ricercato per gli attenati africani<br />

agli americani, sicuro ospite a Teheran, sarebbe uno dei favoriti. Se Teheran riuscisse<br />

nell’operazione la scalata <strong>di</strong> al-A<strong>del</strong> potrebbe aprire le porte ad una generazione <strong>di</strong><br />

nuovi leader <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida f<strong>il</strong>o-iraniani e l’Iran potrebbe fornire uomini e logistica<br />

all’organizzazione terroristica<br />

È un fatto che, negli ultimi tre anni Tehran avrebbe accordato, con conoscenza <strong>di</strong><br />

causa, visti e fac<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> transito a corrieri e altri responsab<strong>il</strong>i <strong>del</strong>la struttura centrale<br />

qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta. Questa politica si giustifica probab<strong>il</strong>mente con <strong>il</strong> fatto che l’Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta,<br />

uno degli obiettivi <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida, resta un avversario naturale per la Repubblica<br />

Islamica <strong>del</strong>l’Iran, ma non spiega per intero la presenza <strong>del</strong> jihad sul suo suolo e pone<br />

interrogativi su ruolo <strong>del</strong>l’Iran nell’attuale contesto politico internazionale. D’altra<br />

parte l’ospitalità ad Ansar era già messa in dubbio per via dei legami <strong>del</strong> Mullah<br />

Krekar con l’Iran, dove passò <strong>di</strong>versi anni <strong>del</strong>la sua vita e da dove proveniva quando<br />

fu arrestato all’aeroporto <strong>di</strong> Amsterdam. Sempre in relazione ad Ansar quale gruppo<br />

kurdo, una possib<strong>il</strong>e ragione <strong>di</strong> supporto <strong>del</strong>l’Iran può essere <strong>il</strong> timore <strong>di</strong> avere nel<br />

futuro un vicino stato kurdo democratico e islamico, quale risultato <strong>del</strong>la<br />

stab<strong>il</strong>izzazione <strong>del</strong>la regione. Infine, <strong>il</strong> supporto ai gruppi islamici potrebbe essere<br />

letto nel quadro <strong>di</strong> una manovra <strong>di</strong> “controllo” iraniano sul futuro assetto iraqeno.<br />

Tuttavia, queste ipotesi non sono tanto lineari e prive <strong>di</strong> ambiguità da non fare<br />

pensare a possib<strong>il</strong>i <strong>di</strong>vergenze tra <strong>di</strong>fferenti ambiti iraniani...<br />

Sarkout Hasan Jalal - responsab<strong>il</strong>e dei servizi cur<strong>di</strong> a Sulaimani – in un colloquio<br />

privato ci tiene a specificare che “c’erano anche gli arabi, tanti arabi, sau<strong>di</strong>ti, siriani,<br />

palestinesi, algerini, marocchini, yemeniti e anche qualeche iracheno. Gli arabi non<br />

iracheni venivano chiamati arab-afghan perché erano mandati dall’Afghanistan.<br />

Nelle battaglie (nota: si fa riferimento agli scontri <strong>del</strong> maggio 2003) quelli che sono stati<br />

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uccisi molti erano arabi come al Suri, ucciso nel <strong>di</strong>cembre 2001, siriano e messaggero<br />

<strong>di</strong> Osama. C’erano <strong>di</strong> tutte la razze arabe che accettavano <strong>il</strong> programma <strong>del</strong> jihad ed<br />

erano membri <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida. Venivano qui (nota in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan) e facevano guerra contro<br />

<strong>di</strong> noi. Loro, anche se avevano una piccola zona sotto controllo, avevano<br />

un’organizzazione molto più vasta. Anche perché dopo l’attacco all’afghanistan non<br />

avevano più un posto dove nascondersi e perciò hanno scelto questa zona, <strong>il</strong><br />

kur<strong>di</strong>stan, dove non c’era tanto controllo su tutto <strong>il</strong> territorio. Aiutavano le loro genti<br />

fuggite dall’afghanistan dopo l’attacco Usa e che hanno <strong>di</strong>sgregato l’organizzazione<br />

<strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida e dei talebani. Quelli non afghani piano piano hanno raggiunto <strong>il</strong><br />

kur<strong>di</strong>stan.<br />

La storie <strong>di</strong> Didar Khalid Khaled 127 e <strong>di</strong> Keis Abu Assim (Abu Assi) 128 sono, per certi<br />

versi, emblematiche rispetto a questo tema <strong>del</strong> reclutamento internazionale.<br />

Dall’intervista a Didar Khalid Khaled:<br />

• Perché sei qui? (Nota: nelle carceri kurde <strong>di</strong> Sulaimani).<br />

o Sono stato catturato perché ero <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam. Sono entrato con loro a<br />

<strong>di</strong>ciotto anni.<br />

• Come hai conosciuto questa organizzazione?<br />

o Ero amico <strong>di</strong> uno che mi ha fatto conoscere Ansar Al Islam. Volevamo fare<br />

jihad.<br />

• Perché ti sei messo con loro?<br />

o Perché ero con questo amico e mi sono fidato <strong>di</strong> lui.<br />

• Quale era l’obiettivo <strong>del</strong> gruppo <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam?<br />

o La ragione principale, come mi hanno fatto capire durante i loro <strong>di</strong>scorsi,<br />

127 Terrorista <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam che doveva farsi esplodere in un ministero kurdo ma, per un attimo <strong>di</strong> incertezza,<br />

è stato arrestato dalla forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza ed è in prigione a Sulaimani. Ha ventanni e ha fatto la scuola superiore a<br />

Erb<strong>il</strong>. Oggi, si <strong>di</strong>chiara pentito.<br />

128 Terrorista <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam, unico sopravvissuto <strong>del</strong> comando che attentò alla vita <strong>del</strong> Primo Ministro kurdo<br />

Barham Salih, è stato arrestato dalla forze <strong>di</strong> sicurezza ed è in prigione a Sulainami. E’ kurdo <strong>di</strong> Erb<strong>il</strong>, ha ventotto<br />

anni, parla arabo perché si rifiuta <strong>di</strong> parlare altra lingua (<strong>il</strong> kurdo).<br />

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era quella <strong>di</strong> fare <strong>il</strong> jihad per l’Unico Grande Dio.<br />

• Come Kurdo perché credevi nel jihad?<br />

o Ciascuno <strong>di</strong> noi ha una propria convinzione e io allora avevo quella.<br />

• Cosa è successo quel giorno?<br />

o Avevo addosso un g<strong>il</strong>et con una cintura esplosiva (Nota: 5 kg <strong>di</strong> TNT), ma<br />

quando sono entrato tra <strong>di</strong> loro nel luogo…ho avuto paura <strong>di</strong> farmi esplodere. E poi<br />

mi <strong>di</strong>spiaceva farmi uccidere per uccidere degli altri….<br />

• Ma allora eri <strong>di</strong>sposto a farlo. Perché?<br />

o Perché farmi uccidere e uccidere gli altri fa parte <strong>del</strong> jihad.<br />

• Come era strutturato <strong>il</strong> tuo gruppo <strong>di</strong> Ansar?<br />

o Ansar ha degli uomini che venivano a parlare con me o con altri ragazzi<br />

per convincerli a eseguire atti terroristici, suici<strong>di</strong> e attentati.<br />

• Sì, d’accordo ma <strong>di</strong>mmi come era organizzato <strong>il</strong> tuo gruppo, c’era un capo che impartiva<br />

or<strong>di</strong>ni…?<br />

o Eravamo sette persone nel nostro gruppo, ognuna <strong>di</strong> noi doveva uccidersi<br />

in qualsiasi modo, e Abdullah Raman Shafiici coor<strong>di</strong>nava.<br />

• Eravate tutti kur<strong>di</strong>?<br />

o Sì. Ma i membri <strong>di</strong> Ansar che coor<strong>di</strong>navano erano in rapporto con al-<br />

Qa’ida.<br />

Dall’intervista a Keis Abu Assim (Abu Assi):<br />

• Chi sei?<br />

o Sono un mujahid <strong>del</strong> jihad e lavoravo con Ansar Al Islam e al-Qa’ida, che<br />

sono due organizzazioni che collaborano e hanno <strong>il</strong> medesimo programma.<br />

• Quando sei entrato in Ansar?<br />

o Nel 2000 ho cominciato a collaborare con loro e sono uno dei fondatori.<br />

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• Cosa facevi prima?<br />

o Stu<strong>di</strong>avo stu<strong>di</strong> scientifici islamici.<br />

• Come era strutturato <strong>il</strong> tuo gruppo <strong>di</strong> Ansar Al Islam?<br />

o C’era un emiro, un vice e 20 membri <strong>di</strong> un Consiglio. Dietro <strong>di</strong> loro ci sono<br />

7 basi con ognuna 100 persone.<br />

• Quale è <strong>il</strong> nome <strong>del</strong>l’emiro?<br />

o Abu Adbullah Shafii<br />

• Come mantenevano i contatti con al-Qa’ida?<br />

o Abbiamo un buon rapporto con al-Qa’ida, l’anello <strong>di</strong> collegamento era un<br />

gruppo <strong>di</strong> arabi venuto qui da noi. Dopo <strong>di</strong> ciò alcuni kur<strong>di</strong> sono andati in<br />

Afghanistan a fare gli addestramenti. Sia loro che altri gruppi <strong>di</strong> arabi sono poi<br />

tornati qui da noi.<br />

Il sistema <strong>di</strong> reclutamento che emerge, sia dalle interviste sia da informazioni<br />

concorrenti, è quantomeno conosciuto: da una parte ci si rivolge agli studenti <strong>del</strong>le<br />

scuole islamiche e dall’altra ai giovani, spesso marginali, che in un pericoloso gioco<br />

<strong>di</strong> emulazione reciproca, rinforzata da una ossessiva e continua pressione<br />

informativa e formativa dei reclutatori, si trovano poi a unirsi al movimento. Questo<br />

meccanismo <strong>di</strong> reclutamento è r<strong>il</strong>evab<strong>il</strong>e sia in loco (per esempio in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan) sia nei<br />

paesi occidentali: gli arresti in Italia <strong>di</strong> fine anno 2003, hanno proprio evidenziato una<br />

sistematica iniziativa <strong>di</strong> aff<strong>il</strong>iazione promossa sia nell’ambito dei luoghi <strong>di</strong><br />

aggregazione religiosa sia in riferimento alle fasce <strong>del</strong>l’immigrazione meno<br />

“integrata”. D’altra parte, sappiamo dai prigionieri detenuti nella base <strong>di</strong><br />

Guantanamo che alcuni dei mujahed<strong>di</strong>n provengono dai paesi europei o hanno la<br />

doppia nazionalità, e una <strong>del</strong>le due nazionalità sarebbe europea. Rispetto alle<br />

informazioni che reputano essere <strong>di</strong> circa 20.000 i terroristi addestrati da al-Qa’ida<br />

prima <strong>del</strong>l’11 settembre, <strong>di</strong> cui circa 2.000 morti in Afghanistan, una semplice<br />

proiezione che si basa su questi 18.000 attivi, a cui aggiungere circa 3/4.000<br />

sopravvissuti alla guerra tra Afghani e sovietici, suggerisce un paio <strong>di</strong> migliaia <strong>di</strong><br />

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mujahed<strong>di</strong>n con passaporto europeo. Probab<strong>il</strong>mente un numero in crescita proprio<br />

grazie alla attività <strong>di</strong> reclutamento sempre più attiva nei paesi occidentali, <strong>di</strong> cui<br />

Ansar ha fornito un esempio.<br />

Ancora, le due interviste fanno riferimento a Abu Abdullah<br />

Al Shafii quale emiro loro capo. Per quanto r<strong>il</strong>evato, Abu<br />

Abdullah Al Shafii è un arabo afghano, forse <strong>di</strong> origine<br />

egiziana o siriana, che ha guidato Jund Al Islam e poi<br />

inseritosi come “numero due” nella leadership <strong>di</strong> Ansar.<br />

Infatti, come già evidenziato <strong>il</strong> leader carismatico <strong>di</strong> Ansar è <strong>il</strong><br />

Mullah Krekar (Najmud<strong>di</strong>n Faraj Ahmad), arrestato nel<br />

settembre 2002 dalle autorità olandesi, al suo sbarco da un<br />

aereo proveniente da Tehran. La vicenda <strong>di</strong> Krekar è significativa: rifugiato in<br />

Norvegia, a Oslo, è stato e arrestato <strong>il</strong> 2 gennaio 2004, su richiesta <strong>del</strong>l’Oekokrim,<br />

l’unità contro la criminalità economica norvegese, e poi r<strong>il</strong>asciato <strong>il</strong> 5 gennaio 2003.<br />

L’accusa per <strong>il</strong> fondatore <strong>del</strong> gruppo islamico che si ritiene collegato ad al-Qa’ida era<br />

<strong>di</strong> pianificazione e partecipazione a tentativi <strong>di</strong> omici<strong>di</strong>o, anche con attacchi suici<strong>di</strong>,<br />

contro membri <strong>del</strong> PUK, in un periodo che va dal <strong>di</strong>cembre 2001 al maggio 2002.<br />

L’Oekokrim aveva chiesto che <strong>il</strong> Mullah Krekar restasse in carcere per quattro<br />

settimane al fine <strong>di</strong> avviare un’indagine che producesse supporti alle accuse. Sono<br />

numerose le testimonianze che legano Ansar ad al-Qa’ida e Krekar ad Ansar, ma i<br />

complessi sis<strong>temi</strong> normativi nazionali europei e la mancanza <strong>di</strong> determinazione<br />

politica forniscono, ancora una volta, la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> eludere <strong>il</strong> “<strong>di</strong>ritto alla pena”<br />

che spetta a ogni criminale terrorista. L’ultima intervista a Krekar, <strong>del</strong> marzo 2006,<br />

riporta <strong>il</strong> suo pensiero <strong>di</strong> una guerra in corso tra l’Occidente e l’Islam, insieme alla<br />

sua sicurezza <strong>di</strong> una prossima vittoria islamica e alla sua preghiera per Osama bin<br />

Laden.<br />

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3. Il caso: Guantanamo<br />

La maggior parte dei detenuti nella base navale americana <strong>di</strong> Guantanamo furono<br />

arrestati in Afghanistan o in Pakistan tra <strong>il</strong> novembre 2002 e <strong>il</strong> gennaio 2003, in<br />

conseguenza <strong>del</strong>la risposta americana all’attacco <strong>del</strong>l’Un<strong>di</strong>ci Settembre. Ma alcuni<br />

furono anche arrestati in zone <strong>di</strong>stanti dal conflitto come la Bosnia (<strong>del</strong>la quale sei <strong>di</strong><br />

nazionalità algerina hanno la residenza), Gambia, Malawi e Zambia.<br />

Il 20 apr<strong>il</strong>e 2006 è stata resa pubblica dalle autorità americane una lista dei prigionieri<br />

detenuti a Guantanamo, <strong>di</strong> cui <strong>il</strong> grafico che segue mostra la <strong>di</strong>stribuzione per<br />

nazionalità degli incarcerati: in totale 505. Tuttavia, la <strong>di</strong>scussione sulla “contab<strong>il</strong>ità”<br />

dei detenuti è aperta e i numeri variano <strong>di</strong> alcune centinai <strong>di</strong> unità.<br />

Quanto appare evidente è l’ampia frammentazione <strong>del</strong>le nazionalità <strong>di</strong> provenienza<br />

(40) anche se oltre <strong>il</strong> 50% dei prigionieri è afghano, sau<strong>di</strong>ta o yemenita. Spiccano le<br />

origini francesi e britanniche <strong>di</strong> sei detenuti e la presenza relativamente forte <strong>di</strong><br />

combattenti <strong>di</strong> area centro asiatica e cinese. Quest’ultima ampia area <strong>di</strong> provenienza<br />

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sottolinea quella che è, e sarà sempre <strong>di</strong> più, una possib<strong>il</strong>e area <strong>di</strong> reclutamento e<br />

conflitto: le ex repubbliche sovietiche centro asiatiche e l’occidente islamico cinese.<br />

Guantanamo – lista 20 apr<strong>il</strong>e 2006<br />

Nazionalità Valore Assoluto Percentuale<br />

Afghanistan 120 23,8<br />

Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia 117 23,2<br />

Yemen 89 17,6<br />

Algeria 25 5,0<br />

China 22 4,4<br />

Kuwait 11 2,2<br />

Libya 11 2,2<br />

Pakistan 10 2,0<br />

Morocco 9 1,8<br />

Syria 9 1,8<br />

Tunisia 9 1,8<br />

Sudan 8 1,6<br />

Iraq 6 1,2<br />

Tajikistan 6 1,2<br />

Uzbekistan 6 1,2<br />

Bahrain 4 0,8<br />

Egypt 4 0,8<br />

Jordan 4 0,8<br />

France 3 0,6<br />

Kazakhstan 3 0,6<br />

Mauritania 3 0,6<br />

U.K. 3 0,6<br />

West Bank 3 0,6<br />

Belgium 2 0,4<br />

Iran 2 0,4<br />

Somalia 2 0,4<br />

Australia 1 0,2<br />

Azerbaijan 1 0,2<br />

Bangladesh 1 0,2<br />

Bosnia 1 0,2<br />

Canada 1 0,2<br />

Chad 1 0,2<br />

Ethiopia 1 0,2<br />

Lebanon 1 0,2<br />

Mal<strong>di</strong>ves 1 0,2<br />

Qatar 1 0,2<br />

Russia 1 0,2<br />

Turkey 1 0,2<br />

U.A.E. 1 0,2<br />

Uganda 1 0,2<br />

Totale 505 100<br />

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4. Videocassette e CD, DvD e Internet quale strumento <strong>di</strong> reclutamento<br />

Il terrorismo è comunicazione: questa semplice affermazione orienta <strong>il</strong> particolare<br />

interesse per internet. La stu<strong>di</strong>o che porta alla comprensione e spiegazione<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’azione terrorista, anche con l’obiettivo <strong>di</strong> sv<strong>il</strong>uppare adeguate pratiche <strong>di</strong><br />

risposta al <strong>fenomeno</strong>, deve dunque dotarsi <strong>di</strong> una “cassetta degli attrezzi” altamente<br />

specializzata ma inter<strong>di</strong>sciplinare in cui la <strong>di</strong>mensione comunicativa offre un<br />

in<strong>di</strong>rizzo interpretativo importante: la grande <strong>di</strong>fferenza che esiste tra un criminale e<br />

un terrorista è, infatti, che <strong>il</strong> secondo, a <strong>di</strong>fferenza <strong>del</strong> primo, ha interesse per <strong>il</strong><br />

riconoscimento simbolico che l’azione fornisce; ricerca la platea offerta dal sistema<br />

me<strong>di</strong>atico; si propone quale attore protagonista.<br />

L’uso <strong>del</strong>le nuove tecnologie, soprattutto <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione, è in progressivo<br />

aumento e perfezionamento nel mondo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta: esse permettono, a basso costo, sia<br />

<strong>di</strong> mantenere le relazioni sia <strong>di</strong> garantire visib<strong>il</strong>ità. Ma allo stesso modo le ICT<br />

“lasciano tracce”: per esempio attraverso i meccanismi <strong>di</strong> up/down load, l’analisi<br />

<strong>del</strong>le pagine in HTML, l’evoluzione <strong>del</strong>le strategie criptografiche,… ognuno <strong>di</strong> questi<br />

aspetti è un inevitab<strong>il</strong>e segno lasciato dal jiha<strong>di</strong>smo che fornisce informazione sulle<br />

competenze specifiche e sulla organizzazione <strong>del</strong>la rete.<br />

I vantaggi <strong>del</strong>le ICT si possono riassumere in:<br />

- interconnettività: comunicazione e networking all’intero e all’esterno;<br />

- comunicazione “coperta” e anonimato;<br />

- bassi costi: con pochi sol<strong>di</strong> <strong>il</strong> campo <strong>di</strong> intervento tramite internet è globale;<br />

- la moltiplicazione <strong>del</strong>le forze e la “sovra-rappresentazione” dei terroristi. Il<br />

terrorismo ha così raggiunto un livello <strong>di</strong> influenza mai avuto prima da altre sim<strong>il</strong>i<br />

organizzazioni. Perché le ICT costituiscono “la fine <strong>del</strong>le <strong>di</strong>stanze” e l’eliminazione<br />

dei confini tra “vittima e carnefice”;<br />

- <strong>di</strong> raggiungere con fac<strong>il</strong>ità una molteplicità <strong>di</strong> target, in<strong>di</strong>pendentemente dal<br />

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sistema me<strong>di</strong>atico formale.<br />

Ma come si è detto, le tecnologie lasciano tracce: <strong>il</strong> presupposto è la presenza <strong>di</strong><br />

specifiche competenze me<strong>di</strong>ali tra i jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, da cui la costituzione <strong>di</strong> un probab<strong>il</strong>e<br />

“centro me<strong>di</strong>a” e <strong>di</strong> strategie <strong>di</strong> promozione e reclutamento ad hoc. Allo stato attuale<br />

si può <strong>di</strong>re che l’informazione circa l’in<strong>di</strong>rizzo <strong>di</strong> un prossimo attacco è presente in<br />

rete, si tratta <strong>di</strong> deco<strong>di</strong>ficarla. Di seguito, si farà riferimento ai materiali raccolti dal<br />

gruppo <strong>di</strong> lavoro ITSTIME (www.itstime.it) che ha da akcuni anni cominciato uno<br />

specifico monitoraggio <strong>del</strong> web, ut<strong>il</strong>izzando strumenti <strong>di</strong> web searching and<br />

monitoring avanzati, che ha portato alla raccolta <strong>di</strong> circa 10 giga <strong>di</strong> materiali e al<br />

controllo <strong>di</strong> oltre 150 siti.<br />

Il lavoro <strong>di</strong> ricerca è stato de<strong>di</strong>cato alla analisi <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione <strong>del</strong> terrorismo<br />

attraverso <strong>il</strong> web, con l’obiettivo <strong>di</strong> identificare <strong>il</strong> centro me<strong>di</strong>atico <strong>di</strong> produzione<br />

<strong>del</strong>la comunicazione, le strategie comunicative <strong>di</strong> promozione e reclutamento, le<br />

possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> sv<strong>il</strong>uppare azioni efficaci <strong>di</strong> risposta. Tale attività deve essere<br />

sv<strong>il</strong>uppata nel futuro attraverso più precise analisi semiotiche, non solo linguistiche,<br />

per favorire l’elaborazione dei prof<strong>il</strong>i dei potenziali can<strong>di</strong>dati jiha<strong>di</strong>sti. Inoltre, tale<br />

analisi può sv<strong>il</strong>upparsi in modo specifico intorno ai web site <strong>di</strong> origine/lingua<br />

italiana <strong>di</strong> ispirazione islamica e ai mirror, potenzialmente fiancheggiatori, <strong>di</strong> origine<br />

anarco-insurrezionalista. Questi ultimi, oggi offrono notevoli opportunità <strong>di</strong> ricerca<br />

perché spesso garantiscono la persistenza <strong>del</strong> materiale jiha<strong>di</strong>sta sui loro mirror.<br />

Il monitoraggio sistematico dei siti web, reso <strong>di</strong>fficoltoso dalla spesso scarsa<br />

permanenza dei medesimi e dalla molteplicità <strong>di</strong> livelli che ciascuno <strong>di</strong> essi offre, è<br />

particolarmente attentato ai materiali au<strong>di</strong>o-visivi <strong>di</strong>stribuiti. Tale scelta è dovuta al<br />

forte impatto che questi hanno sul pubblico <strong>di</strong> riferimento e alla possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong><br />

articolazione in prodotti specifici che si offre. Tuttavia, <strong>il</strong> materiale au<strong>di</strong>o e testuale<br />

risulta <strong>di</strong> grande importanza per <strong>il</strong> ruolo che gioca soprattutto in chat e forum, in<br />

quanto portatore <strong>di</strong> informazioni specifiche e, tendenzialmente, essendo materiale<br />

più adatto a sv<strong>il</strong>uppare anche azioni <strong>di</strong> controterrorismo proprio nei luoghi in cui<br />

viene <strong>di</strong>stribuito (chat e forum).<br />

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Oggi si può sicuramente affermare che da una fase “naiv” <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione<br />

terroristica si è passati a una fase più sofisticata, che richiede mezzi, competenze e<br />

strategie specifiche: tutti “oggetti” che lasciano tracce potenziali, perché implicano<br />

l’esistenza <strong>di</strong> un centro organizzativo <strong>di</strong> queste competenze per massimizzare le<br />

potenzialità <strong>del</strong> web.<br />

Attraverso l’analisi <strong>del</strong> web è possib<strong>il</strong>e comprendere:<br />

• come questo me<strong>di</strong>a centre lavora: l’uso dei mezzi sia sul campo sia nella post-<br />

produzione confrontando i materiali grezzi raccolti dalle unità <strong>di</strong> fuoco e la loro<br />

successiva rielaborazione comunicativa. Si tratta <strong>di</strong> un passo importante per<br />

<strong>di</strong>stinguere le strategie sv<strong>il</strong>uppate e comprendere i <strong>di</strong>fferenti target <strong>del</strong>la<br />

comunicazione, in particolare i potenziali jiha<strong>di</strong>sti identificati per la<br />

comunicazione <strong>di</strong> reclutamento;<br />

• la rete <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>stribuzione dei materiali, attraverso le complesse mappe <strong>di</strong> link e<br />

backlink che si creano e attraverso le pratiche <strong>di</strong> up/down load;<br />

• l’evoluzione <strong>del</strong>le strategie <strong>di</strong> reclutamento, realizzando un’operazione <strong>di</strong> “back<br />

prof<strong>il</strong>ing” sulla base dei target <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione.<br />

Esempio <strong>di</strong> mappatura <strong>di</strong> link e back link <strong>di</strong> un sito monitorato<br />

Link Backlink<br />

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Già negli attacchi a Madrid nel marzo 2004, internet ebbe un ruolo significativo<br />

nell’in<strong>di</strong>rizzare verso specifici target le azioni <strong>del</strong> terrorismo. Per esempio, un<br />

classico sito, caratterizzato dalla usuale volat<strong>il</strong>ità spesso dovuta alle azioni <strong>di</strong><br />

hakkeraggio mirato, è www.al-farouq.com/vb/ dove si pssono trovere le<br />

comunicazione <strong>del</strong> <strong>Global</strong> Islamic Me<strong>di</strong>a Front (GIMF) che annunciava la “al-Qa’ida<br />

University of jihad Stu<strong>di</strong>es.” Ahmad al-Wathiq B<strong>il</strong>lah, <strong>il</strong> cosiddetto “Deputy General<br />

Emir” <strong>del</strong> GIMF, offre allo studente <strong>di</strong> pasare “through faculties devoted to the cause<br />

of the caliphate through morale boosting and bombings,” per questo <strong>il</strong> sito offre<br />

specializzazioni in “electronic, me<strong>di</strong>a, spiritual and financial jihad.”<br />

Secondo Weimann, che insegna comunicazioni alla Università <strong>di</strong> Haifa, <strong>il</strong> numero <strong>di</strong><br />

siti che promuovono <strong>il</strong> terrorismo e la violenza politica, in <strong>di</strong>eci anni è passato da una<br />

dozzina a circa 5.000. Un incremento <strong>di</strong> 400 volte circa, molto più r<strong>il</strong>evante rispetto<br />

all’incremento complessivo dei siti web nel medesimo arco <strong>di</strong> tempo, pari a circa 50-<br />

100 volte. Secondo Weiman i siti <strong>del</strong>l’islamiso ra<strong>di</strong>cale e jiha<strong>di</strong>sti hanno contributo a<br />

questo incremento per <strong>il</strong> 70% circa.<br />

Rispetto alla struttura decentralizzata e frammentata assunta da “al-Qa’ida” internet<br />

non è solo <strong>il</strong> me<strong>di</strong>um perfetto per la comunicazione ma anche incorpora idealmente <strong>il</strong><br />

misto <strong>di</strong> “frammentazione anarchica” che sta caratterizzando <strong>il</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo. Madrid,<br />

Londra, Bali hanno tutti in comune <strong>di</strong> essere attentati messi in atto da forme flessib<strong>il</strong>i<br />

<strong>del</strong>la pseudo organizzazione <strong>del</strong> terrore, aggregazione che si costitutiscono e si<br />

<strong>di</strong>sperdono, <strong>il</strong> cui modus operan<strong>di</strong> medesimo si ritrova nelle geometrie virtuali ed<br />

elusive <strong>del</strong>la rete. Se le cosè stanno così, anche a causa <strong>del</strong>la rete si possono in futuro<br />

aspettare nuovi attcchi terroristci <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>mente prevede<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>i.<br />

Tornando a Madrid, si ricorda come su uno dei computer ritrovati dopo l’attacco <strong>del</strong><br />

marzo 2004 ci fossero numerosi f<strong>il</strong>e scaricati da siti islamici che mostrano una attività<br />

sistematica <strong>di</strong> ricerca sul web da parte dei terroristi, tra cui <strong>il</strong> noto documento “<strong>Jihad</strong>i<br />

Iraq: Hopes and Dangers,” che circolava sulla rete pochi mesi prima <strong>del</strong> marzo 2004,<br />

in cui si suggeriva la Spagna tra i target degni <strong>di</strong> essere colpiti.<br />

182


Come è stato sottolineato, la<br />

rete è luogo <strong>di</strong><br />

comunicazione priv<strong>il</strong>egiato:<br />

ciò comporta meccanismi<br />

sempre più professionali <strong>di</strong><br />

produzione <strong>del</strong> materiale<br />

<strong>di</strong>stribuito, anche attraverso<br />

canali più tra<strong>di</strong>zionali.<br />

Tra le agenzie me<strong>di</strong>atiche <strong>del</strong><br />

jihad più conosciute<br />

sicuramente ha un posto<br />

r<strong>il</strong>evante As-Sahab, probab<strong>il</strong>mente collocata nelle province occidentali <strong>del</strong> Pakistan.<br />

Il monitoraggio a cui la produzione <strong>di</strong> As-Sahab è sottoposta dal 2002 mostra dati<br />

interessanti, che evidenziano <strong>il</strong> progressivo incremento <strong>del</strong>l’uso <strong>di</strong> materiale<br />

multime<strong>di</strong>ale nella guerra jiha<strong>di</strong>sta. E lo “starring” dei personaggi chiave, quali<br />

Zawahiri e bin Laden.<br />

Il miglioramento <strong>del</strong>le tecnologie e la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>la banda larga ha sicuramente<br />

promosso la <strong>di</strong>ffusione via rete <strong>di</strong> queste comunicazioni <strong>di</strong> promozione e<br />

reclutamento, soprattutto quelle rivolte al circuito <strong>di</strong> emulatori ed estremisti residenti<br />

183


in occidente. Nelle aree più soggette a “<strong>di</strong>gital <strong>di</strong>vide” i canali comunicativi sono<br />

ancora legati a una <strong>di</strong>stribuzione tra<strong>di</strong>zionale (soprattutto nei negozi <strong>di</strong> elettronica e<br />

<strong>di</strong> video) e a supporti quali <strong>il</strong> dvd e <strong>il</strong> cd, che stanno rapi<strong>di</strong>ssimamente scalzando la<br />

videocassetta vhs.<br />

Le foto scattatate qui a<br />

fianco risalgono al<br />

giugno 2006 e sono<br />

state prese in uno dei<br />

tanti negozie <strong>di</strong> video<br />

<strong>di</strong> Miran Shah,<br />

capitale <strong>del</strong>la regione pakistana <strong>del</strong> Waziristan (un acquirente legge la copertina <strong>di</strong><br />

un dvd jiha<strong>di</strong>sta, messo in ven<strong>di</strong>ta con un poster <strong>di</strong> bin Laden e Zarqawi); e <strong>di</strong><br />

Chaman, vicino al confine con l’Afghanistan.<br />

La maggior parte <strong>del</strong> materiale grezzo è raccolto da cameramen che affiancano le<br />

unità <strong>di</strong> fuoco, <strong>di</strong> cui riprendono le azioni. Questo materiale viene poi post-prodotto<br />

con <strong>di</strong>mostrazione <strong>di</strong> buone – e ormai ottime – competenze tecniche che non fanno<br />

pensare a un significativo indebolimento <strong>del</strong>la struttura jiha<strong>di</strong>sta: si stima che attorno<br />

ad Al- Zawahiri circolino una dozzina <strong>di</strong> operatori <strong>di</strong> as- Sahab pronti a riprendere le<br />

<strong>di</strong>verse situazioni, soprattutto <strong>di</strong> origine araba e spesso “reciprocamente<br />

sconosciuti”. Dalla testimonianza <strong>di</strong> uno <strong>di</strong> questi in Pakistan, tal Yusuf, si è avuta la<br />

descrizione <strong>di</strong> un efficace stu<strong>di</strong>o mob<strong>il</strong>e <strong>di</strong> As-Sahab organizzato su un van<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>mente mimetizzab<strong>il</strong>e nel traffico, a bordo <strong>del</strong> quale si effettua la prima post-<br />

produzione. Qualora si rendesse necessario un e<strong>di</strong>ting più sofisticato, i corrieri<br />

trasportano <strong>il</strong> video a Peshawar o a Lahore, dove anche una trasmissione “via etere”<br />

risulta più <strong>di</strong>ffic<strong>il</strong>mente scannerizzab<strong>il</strong>e tra le onde citta<strong>di</strong>ne. Racconta Yusuf: “we<br />

make the movie on a small cassette, which we shift to the computer and e<strong>di</strong>t. We<br />

make it into a CD or a cassette and then we take it from place to place. We do the<br />

e<strong>di</strong>ting, but we do not use the satellite where we f<strong>il</strong>m. The cassettes are sent to the<br />

city area to special places and we give them to these people." La catena <strong>di</strong><br />

184


<strong>di</strong>stribuzione, quella che si conclude nei numerosi shop <strong>del</strong> bazar, appare senza una<br />

chiara catena <strong>di</strong> comando, ma si articola in una grande quantità <strong>di</strong> mani che spesso<br />

appartengono anche a membri alcune organizzazioni politiche e religiose (Jamaat-e-<br />

Islami, Hezb-e-Islami).<br />

4.1. Nuove forme <strong>di</strong> comunicazione<br />

Chat, forum, room, blog, V-blog: la rete si adatta sempre <strong>di</strong> più alle esigenze dei suoi<br />

utenti e offre sempre più spazi <strong>di</strong> autonomia e assenza <strong>di</strong> controllo. La vicenda <strong>del</strong>le<br />

vignette apparse sul quoti<strong>di</strong>ano danese Jyllands-Posten ha goduto <strong>di</strong> un’ampia<br />

attenzione da parte dei me<strong>di</strong>a tra<strong>di</strong>zionali e ci permette <strong>di</strong> analizzare la sua<br />

comunicazione come caso specifico <strong>di</strong> impiego dei blog nella comunicazione islamica<br />

moderata, ra<strong>di</strong>cale e jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

La mappa allegata (tratta da Wikipe<strong>di</strong>a:<br />

http://en.wikipe<strong>di</strong>a.org/wiki/Image:Cartoonmap-key.png ), mostra la risonanza<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’accaduto (pubblicazione <strong>del</strong>le vignette su Maometto) all’interno <strong>del</strong>le testate<br />

185


giornalistiche: più la tonalità <strong>di</strong> blu è intensa, maggiore è <strong>il</strong> numero dei quoti<strong>di</strong>ani<br />

che hanno ristampato le vignette satiriche. Il colore rosso, invece, è ut<strong>il</strong>izzato per<br />

segnalare le aree nelle quali si sono verificate sia proteste da parte dei citta<strong>di</strong>ni <strong>di</strong><br />

religione musulmana, sia azioni <strong>di</strong> boicottaggio nei confronti <strong>di</strong> prodotti danesi.<br />

Anche in quest’ultimo caso, la tonalità è in<strong>di</strong>ce <strong>di</strong> una maggiore asprezza <strong>del</strong>le<br />

proteste. Come si può notare, alcuni paesi sono <strong>di</strong> colore viola (come la Francia). Il<br />

viola si riferisce ad un elevato numero <strong>di</strong> quoti<strong>di</strong>ani che hanno stampato i cartoons e<br />

a gravi azioni <strong>di</strong> protesta e boicottaggio.<br />

E’ interessante mettere in luce che i paesi musulmani nord-africani si<br />

contrad<strong>di</strong>stinguono più per le proteste più o meno violente che per la comparsa sui<br />

quoti<strong>di</strong>ani <strong>del</strong>le strisce incriminate (con l’eccezione <strong>del</strong>l’Algeria e <strong>del</strong> Marocco).<br />

Sebbene sia preve<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>e una minore possib<strong>il</strong>ità da parte dei citta<strong>di</strong>ni <strong>di</strong> questi paesi <strong>di</strong><br />

accedere a <strong>di</strong>verse fonti informative, non va <strong>di</strong>menticato “un altro tipo <strong>di</strong> mondo”<br />

che non è rappresentato sulla cartina. Mi riferisco agli utenti <strong>di</strong> Internet che hanno<br />

avuto modo <strong>di</strong> vedere i cartoons e <strong>di</strong> esprimere la loro opinione in merito. La<br />

<strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>di</strong> Internet è, infatti, in continua crescita. Anche se non si hanno a<br />

<strong>di</strong>sposizione dati statistici certi, è possib<strong>il</strong>e abbozzare alcune ipotesi. La prima<br />

riguarda gli utenti dei quali ci occuperemo nel seguito, ovvero chi ha aperto uno<br />

spazio personale, generalmente un weblog, per commentare i fatti culturali e <strong>di</strong><br />

cronaca <strong>del</strong> proprio paese. Questi bloggers rappresentano un’eccezione in quanto<br />

scrivono in lingua inglese al fine <strong>di</strong> raggiungere <strong>il</strong> maggior numero <strong>di</strong> persone al <strong>di</strong><br />

fuori dei confini <strong>del</strong>lo stato in cui vivono e, <strong>di</strong> conseguenza, si pensa abbiano una<br />

cultura me<strong>di</strong>o-alta rispetto ai propri concitta<strong>di</strong>ni. Il livello <strong>di</strong> conoscenza <strong>del</strong>la lingua,<br />

infatti, è piuttosto elevato così come la capacità <strong>di</strong> mettere a <strong>di</strong>sposizione risorse<br />

informative <strong>di</strong>mostra una notevole padronanza <strong>del</strong>lo strumento. Una seconda ipotesi<br />

è quella già accennata in precedenza e riguarda la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong> mezzo e la crescente<br />

attenzione da parte degli utenti in termini <strong>di</strong> potenzialità offerte. Basti pensare che è<br />

stato recentemente aperto un sito chiamato i.Toot (http://www.itoot.net) nato<br />

dall’esigenza <strong>di</strong> raccogliere le numerose voci provenienti dai blogger arabi che<br />

sentivano <strong>il</strong> desiderio <strong>di</strong> con<strong>di</strong>videre le proprie conoscenze o storie <strong>di</strong> vita. Lo scopo<br />

186


<strong>di</strong> i.Toot è <strong>di</strong> “ to bu<strong>il</strong>d a new me<strong>di</strong>um in which intelligent voices from and for<br />

Arabia are brought together and presented to a wider community; where passionate<br />

readers and writers can share and communicate without f<strong>il</strong>tering”. Colpisce<br />

l’accenno finale alla libertà <strong>di</strong> espressione nonché alla selezione <strong>del</strong>le “voci<br />

intelligenti” al fine <strong>di</strong> garantire interventi <strong>di</strong> buona qualità e rendere più gradevole la<br />

lettura. I.Toot è l’equivalente <strong>di</strong> technorati (http://www.technorati.com) nell’ambito<br />

blogosfera araba e monitora un centinaio <strong>di</strong> blog prevalentemente in lingua inglese.<br />

Si aggiunga, inoltre, l’attenzione che la Harvard Law School sta de<strong>di</strong>cando al<br />

<strong>fenomeno</strong> dei blogger - attraverso <strong>il</strong> sito <strong>Global</strong> voices<br />

(http://www.globalvoicesonline.org) - che si esprimono in paesi generalmente poco<br />

considerati nella “big conversation” <strong>del</strong> World Wide Web, come quelli africani,<br />

coreani, iraniani, afghani ecc… All’interno <strong>del</strong> panorama italiano, invece, <strong>il</strong> sito <strong>di</strong><br />

riferimento sembra essere Bloggers senza frontiere<br />

(http://bloggersenzafrontiere.blogosfere.it) nato per far “conoscere e ascoltare le<br />

voci <strong>di</strong> coloro che vivono in paesi in guerra (come l’Iraq), o in nazioni oppresse da<br />

regimi autoritari (come in Iran, Cina, Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta) o in luoghi dove è in atto un<br />

lento processo <strong>di</strong> democratizzazione (Egitto, Marocco, Barhain, Sud Africa), o <strong>di</strong><br />

sv<strong>il</strong>uppo (Tanzania)”.<br />

I.Toot, globalvoices e Blogger senza frontiere sono soltanto tre esempi <strong>del</strong> fermento<br />

che negli ultimi anni contrad<strong>di</strong>stingue i cybernauti <strong>del</strong> mondo arabo (e non solo) e<br />

sono le nuove modalità <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffusione incontrollab<strong>il</strong>e <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo. Per questi motivi,<br />

abbiamo deciso <strong>di</strong> occuparci <strong>di</strong> come i cartoons sono stati commentati in alcuni<br />

importanti blog marocchini, iraniani, giordani e afghani, a titolo <strong>di</strong> esempio rispetto a<br />

queste nuove realtà comunicative.<br />

Prima <strong>di</strong> analizzare la reazione dei blogger arabi ci siamo chiesti quale fosse l’entità<br />

dei post scritti all’interno <strong>del</strong>la blogosfera mon<strong>di</strong>ale inerenti all’argomento preso in<br />

esame. Per valutarlo, abbiamo fatto una ricerca all’interno <strong>di</strong> Technorati<br />

(http://www.technorati.com), <strong>il</strong> più grande motore <strong>di</strong> ricerca sui blog attualmente<br />

187


esistente, volta a comprendere nel corso <strong>di</strong> un anno quanti post fossero focalizzati<br />

sulla vicenda.<br />

I post de<strong>di</strong>cati al <strong>fenomeno</strong> <strong>del</strong>le vignette sono maggiormente concentrati nel mese <strong>di</strong><br />

febbraio 2006 quando anche i me<strong>di</strong>a tra<strong>di</strong>zionali hanno de<strong>di</strong>cato ampio spazio alle<br />

proteste in corso. In linea generale, dunque, nonostante la vicenda <strong>del</strong>la<br />

pubblicazione dei cartoons risalga al mese <strong>di</strong> settembre <strong>del</strong>l’anno precedente, i<br />

blogger si sono conformati all’agenda setting imposta dai me<strong>di</strong>a. La gerarchizzazione<br />

e la selezione <strong>del</strong>le notizie, cioè, si è articolata seconda le medesime modalità<br />

espresse sui giornali o in televisione. Questo denota, in<strong>di</strong>pendentemente dalla<br />

188<br />

profon<strong>di</strong>tà <strong>del</strong>le analisi, un<br />

ut<strong>il</strong>izzo <strong>del</strong> mezzo che, al<br />

contrario <strong>di</strong> ciò che si potrebbe<br />

pensare, rispecchia gli argomenti<br />

già proposti a livello istituzionale.<br />

Passiamo ora a cercare <strong>di</strong><br />

comprendere le reazioni <strong>di</strong> alcuni<br />

blogger alle luce <strong>del</strong>la <strong>di</strong>cotomia<br />

tolleranza versus intolleranza


Iran. In questo caso, gli approfon<strong>di</strong>menti più interessanti compaiono all’interno <strong>di</strong><br />

siti<br />

in lingua persiana. Grazie a un blog scritto italiano (http://iran.blogosfere.it),<br />

abbiamo recuperato le traduzioni <strong>di</strong> alcuni post la cui linea portante sembra essere la<br />

questione dei confini <strong>del</strong>la libertà <strong>di</strong> espressione. Alcuni si chiedono se libertà<br />

significhi offendere la fede altrui, altri nonostante riconoscano <strong>il</strong> valore <strong>del</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto <strong>di</strong><br />

esprimere le proprie opinioni, non capiscono perché i vignettisti abbiano voluto<br />

infierire sui musulmani. Ciò nonostante, viene espresso <strong>di</strong>sappunto nei confronti<br />

<strong>del</strong>le violente proteste verso le ambasciate danesi. C’è chi si appella alle<br />

organizzazioni internazionali affinché intervengano per impe<strong>di</strong>re le offese nei<br />

confronti <strong>del</strong>le religioni, solo in questo modo potrebbero essere evitati episo<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong><br />

fanatismo. I blogger religiosi inoltre si chiedono come potrebbe reagire <strong>il</strong> mondo<br />

occidentale se venissero pubblicate <strong>del</strong>le vignette sull’olocausto.<br />

Marocco. Uno dei più conosciuti blog marocchini, è certamente<br />

quello scritto da<br />

Samir,<br />

autore <strong>di</strong> The view from Fez (http://riadzani.blogspot.com). Samir in un<br />

post (http://riadzani.blogspot.com/2006/02/morocco-opens-inquiry-into-<br />

newspaper) si in<strong>di</strong>gna sia nei confronti <strong>del</strong>la poco oculata scelta <strong>del</strong> quoti<strong>di</strong>ano<br />

danese, sia per la violenza scatenatasi <strong>di</strong> conseguenza, frutto <strong>di</strong> gruppi estremisti.<br />

Gli “islamofobici”, afferma <strong>il</strong> blogger, stanno approfittando <strong>del</strong>le reazioni violente<br />

dei fanatici per creare più scontri ed evitare <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>alogo. Non tutti i governi hanno<br />

<strong>di</strong>mostrato <strong>di</strong> essere all’altezza <strong>del</strong>la situazione, quello marocchino sembra però<br />

essersi comportato in modo corretto e responsab<strong>il</strong>e. I giornali marocchini che hanno<br />

pubblicato le vignette sono stati sottoposti a giu<strong>di</strong>zio nonostante, come sostiene<br />

l’e<strong>di</strong>tore Ab<strong>del</strong>hakim Ba<strong>di</strong>aa, alcune strisce fossero già comparse nel mese <strong>di</strong> ottobre<br />

senza destare alcuna reazione a livello istituzionale. Nel paese è stata anche proibita<br />

la ven<strong>di</strong>ta <strong>del</strong>le testate giornalistiche che hanno pubblicato i cartoons. Samir ha<br />

anche dato spazio alle ema<strong>il</strong> e ai commenti dei lettori pubblicando quelli degni <strong>di</strong><br />

nota, come la riflessione <strong>del</strong>la blogger Kal<strong>il</strong>a che si chiede come la stampa danese<br />

abbia potuto pubblicare quelle vignette offensive senza pensare a cosa sarebbe<br />

potuto succedere. Non si tratta <strong>di</strong> mettere sotto accusa l’intero mondo occidentale,<br />

189


ensì <strong>di</strong> chiedere spiegazioni agli organi <strong>di</strong> stampa.<br />

Bsima, sul suo blog scritto in francese, condanna in modo più netto la violenza<br />

generata dalla pubblicazione<br />

(http://bsima.canalblog.com/archives/2006/02/06/1334853.html) affermando che<br />

le reazioni avrebbero dovuto essere più “ponderate, più giuste e, soprattutto, più<br />

me<strong>di</strong>tate” in quanto una religione che pre<strong>di</strong>ca la pace non dovrebbe proporre<br />

un’immagine sim<strong>il</strong>e. I commenti al suo post sono molto vari e interessanti. Alcuni<br />

sono d’accordo con l’autrice <strong>del</strong> blog mentre altri sottolineano <strong>il</strong> fatto che la violenza<br />

è l’unica cosa che gli occidentali capiscono e che comunque la maggior parte dei<br />

musulmani sono tolleranti. La violenza e <strong>il</strong> fanatismo appartengono anche<br />

all’Occidente.<br />

Secondo un altro blogger marocchino, Medlykos, “chi semina vento, raccoglie<br />

tempesta” (http://medlykos.canalblog.com/archives/2006/02/06/1332132.html)<br />

ma è anche molto<br />

lucido nell’affermare che i citta<strong>di</strong>ni hanno <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto <strong>di</strong> vedere le<br />

vignette per giu<strong>di</strong>care se siano o meno offensive: “on a tous besoin de voir de nos<br />

propres yeux pour émettre un jugement...pas suivre la masse comme du béta<strong>il</strong>!”. Le<br />

proteste avvenute in paesi quali l’Ingh<strong>il</strong>terra dove i musulmani non rappresentano<br />

certo una minoranza, non sembrano stupire <strong>il</strong> blogger <strong>il</strong> quale sottolinea ciò che ha<br />

già espresso chiaramente nel titolo, “non bisogna giocare con <strong>il</strong> fuoco”. Per “loro”,<br />

<strong>di</strong>ce Medlykos, la libertà <strong>di</strong> espressione è un <strong>di</strong>ritto costituzionale e non esistono<br />

zone grigie, soprattutto dopo <strong>il</strong> teorema espresso da Bush “Musulmani = terroristi”.<br />

Rivolgendosi <strong>di</strong>rettamente al mondo occidentale, egli scrive: “potete fare le<br />

caricature dei vostri primi ministri e dei vostri presidenti ma non avete alcun <strong>di</strong>ritto<br />

<strong>di</strong> prendervi gioco dei profeti, soprattutto <strong>del</strong> nostro! Siate onesti: chi vi impe<strong>di</strong>sce<br />

<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>segnare <strong>del</strong>le vignette sull’Olocausto? Non lo fate per una questione <strong>di</strong> rispetto,<br />

ma perché non volete scatenare l’ira <strong>di</strong> Israele”. E ancora “prima <strong>di</strong> chiedervi se gli<br />

episo<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> violenza dei musulmani siano esagerati, incominciate a riflettere su come<br />

vi siete comportati voi.”<br />

190


Afghanistan. Nel caso <strong>del</strong>l’Afghanistan abbiamo preso in considerazione un unico<br />

esempio, quello <strong>di</strong> Sanjar (http://www.sanjar.blogspot.com). In un lungo post<br />

(http://sanjar.blogspot.com/2006/02/cartoon-crisis.html)<br />

<strong>il</strong> blogger si esprime a<br />

favore <strong>di</strong> scuse ufficiali che dovrebbero provenire dal governo danese. E’<br />

interessante <strong>il</strong> riferimento al giornale polacco<br />

Rzeczospolita che ha pubblicato le<br />

vignette nei giorni successivi allo scandalo. Mentre Sanjar sembra comprendere<br />

l’atteggiamento <strong>del</strong>le società secolari e laiche dei paesi scan<strong>di</strong>navi, non riesce a<br />

giustificare la decisione <strong>del</strong> giornale polacco in quanto si tratta <strong>di</strong> uno stato con<br />

profonde tra<strong>di</strong>zioni religiose. Come può un paese “più religioso <strong>del</strong>l’Italia”,<br />

insultare in tal modo i credenti <strong>di</strong> un’altra fede? L’articolo si conclude ironicamente<br />

con <strong>il</strong> riferimento su cosa avrebbe fatto Maometto seavesse visto le caricature. Si <strong>di</strong>ce<br />

che <strong>il</strong> profeta era dotato <strong>di</strong> grande senso <strong>del</strong>l’umorismo, probab<strong>il</strong>mente la sua<br />

reazione sarebbe stata un buon precedente per i suoi seguaci.<br />

Giordania. I casi dei blog giordani sono i più interessanti. In particolare un blog<br />

(http://www.360east.com) curato dal designer e impren<strong>di</strong>tore<br />

Ahmad Humeid ha<br />

attirato<br />

l’attenzione <strong>di</strong> molti. Va ricordato che Humeid è uno dei promotori <strong>del</strong> sito<br />

al quale ci siamo riferiti in precedenza, i.Toot. Humeid ha posto la questione già<br />

avanzata dal blogger afghano inerente la possib<strong>il</strong>e risposta <strong>del</strong> profeta alle caricature<br />

“Wondering how the Prophet might have responded to the cartoons”. Per abbozzare<br />

una risposta, egli si rifà a tre episo<strong>di</strong> <strong>del</strong>la vita <strong>di</strong> Maometto. Il primo racconto<br />

riguarda la storia <strong>del</strong> vicino ebreo che gli getta la spazzatura sui gra<strong>di</strong>ni <strong>di</strong> casa. Un<br />

giorno, non vedendo i sacchi <strong>del</strong>la spazzatura, <strong>il</strong> profeta si reca a trovare <strong>il</strong> vicino e<br />

lo trova a letto ammalato. Gli augura <strong>di</strong> riprendersi presto e <strong>il</strong> vicino, colpito<br />

dall’atteggiamento <strong>di</strong> Maometto, si converte all’Islam. Il secondo si riferisce ai<br />

bambini <strong>del</strong>la città <strong>di</strong> Ta’if che lo prendono a sassate nei confronti dei quali reagisce<br />

pacificamente pregando Dio affinché rinsaviscano. L’ultimo concerne gli uomini<br />

<strong>del</strong>la sua tribù dopo la conquista <strong>del</strong>la Mecca. Molti <strong>di</strong> essi, infatti, non avevano mai<br />

creduto in lui arrivando persino a cospirare contro <strong>il</strong> profeta. Maometto, una volta<br />

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conquistata la Mecca, si rivolge a loro <strong>di</strong>cendo che sono liberi <strong>di</strong> andarsene. Nello<br />

spirito <strong>del</strong>la vita <strong>del</strong> Profeta, afferma Humeid, ci sono cinque <strong>di</strong>fferenti mo<strong>di</strong> in cui <strong>il</strong><br />

mondo musulmano avrebbe potuto rispondere alle vignette danesi:<br />

1. organizzare una grande mostra –finanziata dai governi arabi- sulla vita <strong>di</strong><br />

Maometto e la storia <strong>del</strong>l’Islam. La mostra avrebbe dovuto essere pubblicizzata<br />

attraverso i me<strong>di</strong>a danesi;<br />

2. invitare 100 bambini danesi a vivere con altrettante famiglie musulmane in modo<br />

da comprendere <strong>il</strong> mondo islamico;<br />

3. invitare gli e<strong>di</strong>tori <strong>del</strong> giornale danese a un grande incontro culturale a Doha,<br />

Quatar, o a Copenhagen;<br />

4. le ambasciate dei paesi arabi e<br />

e alla vita all’interno dei paesi<br />

musulmani;<br />

musulmani avrebbero potuto promuovere la<br />

nascita <strong>di</strong> un sito web in lingua danese de<strong>di</strong>cato ai pensatori islamici contemporanei<br />

5. approntare i sottotitoli in danese per <strong>il</strong> f<strong>il</strong>m “The message” e provvedere alla<br />

<strong>di</strong>stribuzione in Danimarca.<br />

Un altro post <strong>di</strong>mostra un notevole grado <strong>di</strong> approfon<strong>di</strong>mento. Si intitola “Decision<br />

time for global muslim culture” (http://www.360east.com/?p=311) e pone la<br />

questione <strong>del</strong>le vignette in termini<br />

essenzialmente culturali. Humeid, infatti, ricorda<br />

che la cultura islamica non è ancora pronta ad accettare critiche né provocazioni. Le<br />

violente reazioni da parte dei musulmani sono state lette in termini <strong>di</strong> “<strong>di</strong>fesa<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Islam; l’atteggiamento <strong>di</strong>fensivo riflette un senso <strong>di</strong> insicurezza culturale che<br />

deriva dall’incapacità <strong>di</strong> integrazione all’interno <strong>del</strong> mondo contemporaneo. Per<br />

quanto riguarda la religione, inoltre, è importante ricordare che ogni pretesa <strong>di</strong><br />

superiorità –sia da parte occidentale che islamica- è fuori luogo. L’indubbio<br />

vantaggio <strong>del</strong>le società occidentali sembra risiedere nel percorso storico degli ultimi<br />

secoli che le ha portate ad elaborare <strong>il</strong> moderno concetto <strong>di</strong> libertà, la stessa <strong>del</strong>la<br />

quale godono gli islamici che vivono in occidente. Lo sbaglio <strong>del</strong>le società<br />

musulmane è stato quello <strong>di</strong> non saper far tesoro <strong>di</strong> ciò che c’è <strong>di</strong> buono in Occidente<br />

e <strong>di</strong> non mostrare gli aspetti tolleranti <strong>del</strong>l’Islam. La domanda che si pone Humeid è<br />

la seguente: “what kind of respect does the global Muslim culture want today?”,<br />

192


ovvero che tipo <strong>di</strong> rispetto vuole la cultura musulmana? Il rispetto non dovrebbe<br />

passare attraverso <strong>il</strong> timore suscitato da episo<strong>di</strong> violenti –come le proteste nei<br />

confronti dei cartoons- bensì dovrebbe essere ispirato dal ricco patrimonio storico-<br />

culturale.<br />

4.2. Il caso <strong>del</strong> Quinto Anniversario <strong>del</strong>l’Un<strong>di</strong>ci Settembre<br />

Una serie <strong>di</strong> nuovi prodotti me<strong>di</strong>atici era attesa in occasione<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’anniversario <strong>del</strong><br />

Nine Eleven e As-Sahab aveva annunciato nei forum una sua realizzazione. La prima<br />

uscita<br />

è <strong>di</strong> sabato 2 settembre 2006, con un un video <strong>di</strong> 41 minuti: “As-Sahab Me<strong>di</strong>a<br />

Productions presents An Invitation to Islam by Sheikh Ayman Az-Zawahiri and brother<br />

Mujahid Adam Yahya Gadahn -’Azzam Al Amiriki”.<br />

Il giorno 7 settembre al- Jazeera e CNN hanno poi messo in onda <strong>il</strong> secondo video<br />

garantito da As-Sahab, dove accanto a Osama compaiono numerosi “fratelli”<br />

riconoscib<strong>il</strong>i in Sheikh Abu Abdullah, Ramzi Binashibah<br />

(coinvolto nel 9/11), Dr.<br />

Ayman, Abu Hafs al-Misri (l’Atef ucciso durante un raid nel 2001), KSM. Sono<br />

presenti anche i due fratelli al-Shehri, Wa<strong>il</strong> e Walee: Wa<strong>il</strong> al-Shehri, che era a bordo<br />

<strong>del</strong> volo 11, e Hamza al-Gham<strong>di</strong>, a bordo <strong>del</strong> volo 175, comunicano le loro ultime<br />

193<br />

volontà prima <strong>del</strong>l’attacco al WTC. E<br />

ricompare per la quinta volta Azzam<br />

al-Ameriki, figura centrale <strong>del</strong> video <strong>di</strong><br />

sabato 2/9. Nel complesso si tratta <strong>di</strong><br />

un assemblaggio <strong>di</strong> vecchi materiali<br />

che mostrano i preparativi all’attacco<br />

alla Torri Gemelle: una sorta <strong>di</strong> tra<strong>il</strong>er<br />

che sembra annunciare altro.


Vale tuttavia la pena <strong>di</strong> puntualizzare<br />

qualcosa a proposito <strong>del</strong>l’Americano,<br />

cioè <strong>di</strong> Adam Pearlman aka Adam<br />

Yahiye Gadahn presentato proprio al<br />

grande pubblico – ma già bene<br />

conosciuto in video e voce – da Ayman<br />

Al-Zawahiri nel primo video <strong>del</strong> 2<br />

settembre. Gadahn nasce come Adam<br />

Pearlman, figlio <strong>del</strong> musicista<br />

americano Ph<strong>il</strong> Pearlman convertito al crisitianesimo<br />

essendo <strong>di</strong> famiglia ebraica.<br />

Carl Pearlman, infatti, padre <strong>di</strong> Ph<strong>il</strong> e nonno <strong>di</strong> Adam-Gadahn, è un noto chirurgo<br />

ebreo. La famiglia allevava anche oche secondo la regola halal nella fattoria in<br />

Winchester – Riverside county, California, per venderle ad alcuni negozianti<br />

musulmani. Adam descrive la sua conversione in un post affidato al web nel 1995, e<br />

intitolato “Becoming a Muslim”, partendo dalle sue esperienze <strong>di</strong> giovane osc<strong>il</strong>lante<br />

tra le musica heavy metal “dura” e i sermoni intransigenti <strong>del</strong>le ra<strong>di</strong>o cristiane<br />

americane. Nel 1998 si trasferisce in Pakistan dove sposa una rifugiata afghana.<br />

Comincia quin<strong>di</strong> la sua ascesa come traduttore <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida: è la sua voce fuori campo<br />

o <strong>il</strong> doppiatore degli anchor-man consolidati, poi star <strong>del</strong> me<strong>di</strong>a system jiha<strong>di</strong>sta<br />

rivolto al nuovo target <strong>del</strong> pubblico occidentale.<br />

L’Americano, infatti, si inserisce molto bene nella comunicazione più recente <strong>del</strong><br />

terrorismo, quella che ormai prevede i sottotitoli in inglese,<br />

<strong>il</strong> medesimo protagonista<br />

non solo <strong>di</strong> lingua inglese ma evidentemente un convertito, proponendosi<br />

esplicitamente a un pubblico che non è ancora ne musulmano né jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

A conferma che la battaglia che si sta conducendo attraverso i me<strong>di</strong>a è la più<br />

importante e determinante - <strong>il</strong> cui successo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta si misura nel rinfoltimento<br />

<strong>del</strong>le<br />

f<strong>il</strong>e <strong>del</strong> terrorismo con uomini nuovi, cresciuti in occidente e mimetizzati dentro<br />

all’occidente - <strong>il</strong> video <strong>del</strong> 7/9 conferma anche le tendenze già affermate. Dunque,<br />

accanto ai sottotitoli in inglese e all’Americano anche i “fratelli” <strong>di</strong> battaglia <strong>di</strong><br />

194


Osama negli anfratti afghani; rievocazioni dei passati successi jae<strong>di</strong>sti ma possib<strong>il</strong>i<br />

minacce future celate in alcuni visi resi <strong>di</strong> proposito non riconoscib<strong>il</strong>i (<strong>il</strong> che significa<br />

che “sono tuttora in pista”); esempi <strong>di</strong> esercitazioni fisiche ru<strong>di</strong> e <strong>di</strong> tecniche d’arti<br />

marziali. Tutto questo premia la comunicazione jiha<strong>di</strong>sta che trova ampio e<br />

consenziente spazio sui me<strong>di</strong>a occidentali: in pratica <strong>il</strong> 7 settembre è stato fatto<br />

troppo clamore gratuito dai me<strong>di</strong>a occidentali (con annunci ai telegiornali <strong>del</strong> nuovo<br />

video apparso su internet) intorno a un video jiha<strong>di</strong>sta non particolarmente<br />

interessante, ma non per questo meno pericoloso in termini <strong>di</strong> propaganda,<br />

promozione e reclutamento.<br />

Di nuovo, <strong>il</strong> giorno 10 settembre, la produzione jiha<strong>di</strong>sta <strong>di</strong> As-Sahab è uscita con un<br />

documentario <strong>di</strong> 90 minuti, <strong>di</strong>viso in due parti, intitolato : “Knowledge is for Acting<br />

Upon”. Si tratta <strong>di</strong> 950 Mb <strong>di</strong> buona qualità, <strong>di</strong> cui ho identificato sulla rete circa 450<br />

link <strong>di</strong>visi tra le due parti, <strong>di</strong>sponb<strong>il</strong>i in formato .avi .rm o .3gp, e circa 60 link che<br />

rimandano a una versione unificata <strong>del</strong>le due parti, ridotta a circa 150 Mb. Dunque<br />

una <strong>di</strong>stribuzione ampia e cap<strong>il</strong>lare attraverso la maggior parte degli hosting free per<br />

<strong>il</strong> donwload, che <strong>di</strong>mostra la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>la banda larga.<br />

Il video, come al solito sottotitolato in inglese, appare come un mix <strong>di</strong> f<strong>il</strong>m d’azione<br />

degli anni Ottanta e un documentario <strong>del</strong>la BBC. Ma <strong>il</strong><br />

linguaggio <strong>di</strong> Osama bin<br />

Laden e <strong>di</strong> Ayman al-Zawahiri è denso <strong>di</strong> riman<strong>di</strong> religiosi e poetici <strong>di</strong> grande<br />

capacità evocativa.<br />

L’obiettivo <strong>del</strong> video sembra essere quello <strong>di</strong> celebrare l’anniversario attraverso una<br />

comunicazione pedagogica<br />

che <strong>il</strong>lustra le ragioni d’essere <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida passando per<br />

la nascita <strong>del</strong>lo Stato <strong>di</strong> Israele, la presenza <strong>del</strong>le truppe americane in Arabia Sau<strong>di</strong>ta<br />

e nel Me<strong>di</strong>o Oriente, fino alla guerra in Iraq. Il documentario è sostanzialmente<br />

costruito con materiale d’archivio che ci presenta tutte le star jiha<strong>di</strong>ste tra<strong>di</strong>zionali<br />

quali Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri e Abdallah Azzam, e quelle più recenti:<br />

Hamza al-Gham<strong>di</strong> e Wa’el al-Shihri, tra i kamikaze <strong>del</strong> Nine Eleven, che qui sono<br />

riproposti nella <strong>di</strong>chiarazione <strong>del</strong> loro testamento con le immagini <strong>del</strong> “tra<strong>il</strong>er” <strong>del</strong> 7<br />

settembre. Il f<strong>il</strong>o rosso è garantito da una voce narrante fuori campo <strong>di</strong> uno speaker<br />

195


non identificato, che lega ipotetici spettatori jiah<strong>di</strong>sti posti <strong>di</strong> fronte a un Pc piuttosto,<br />

che alla televisione, con le evidenti immagini <strong>di</strong> repertorio riproposte da questi<br />

me<strong>di</strong>a: sempre meno “informazione” e sempre più “fiction”….<br />

Ma non è finita, ancora <strong>il</strong> giorno 10 sempre As-Sahab <strong>di</strong>stribuisce un video <strong>di</strong> un’ora<br />

e se<strong>di</strong>ci minuti <strong>del</strong> quale è protagonista al-Zawahiri, dal titolo “Hot issues”: vestito <strong>di</strong><br />

bianco <strong>di</strong> fronte a una libreria, <strong>il</strong> numero due ideologo <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida espone le ragioni<br />

<strong>del</strong> conflitto tra occidente e islam. Il video, al contrario dei precedenti, è recente<br />

citando gli avvenimenti libanesi e <strong>il</strong> rapimento da parte <strong>di</strong> Hamas dei m<strong>il</strong>itari<br />

israeliani. La fattura <strong>del</strong> prodotto è decisamente buona, la doppia lingua con<br />

sottotitoli in inglese è garantita, l’intervista è ben condotta attraverso <strong>del</strong>le domande<br />

specifiche.<br />

Questi video sono interessanti per <strong>di</strong>verse ragioni.<br />

La prima ragione riguarda i contenuti, che continuando una linea intrapresa da al-<br />

Qa’ida negli ultimi messaggi, sostengono con orgoglio<br />

la preparazione, organizazione<br />

e realizzazione <strong>del</strong>l’attentato <strong>del</strong> Nine Eleven da parte qa’i<strong>di</strong>sta, portando evidenze<br />

contro i presupposti complotti americani e sionisti presenti <strong>di</strong>etro all’attacco: al-<br />

Qa’ida è l’autore, che ha preparato gli uomini che si sono avviati all’impresa con la<br />

bene<strong>di</strong>zione <strong>di</strong> Osama, Zawahiri, al-Suri e altri leader <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico.<br />

La seconda ragione riguarda la <strong>di</strong>stribuzione dei video: ampia e cap<strong>il</strong>lare; la<br />

anticipazione con <strong>il</strong> tra<strong>il</strong>er <strong>del</strong> 7 settembre; l’intensa presenza sui circuiti me<strong>di</strong>atici<br />

occidentali. Prodotti me<strong>di</strong>atici <strong>di</strong> buon livello ma sempre meno “informativi” e<br />

sempre più legato alla <strong>di</strong>mensione “drammaturgica”: in tal senso è legittimo chiedere<br />

quanto la loro <strong>di</strong>stribuzione sia più un contributo all’informazione o più un<br />

contributo al brand me<strong>di</strong>atico <strong>di</strong> al-Qa’ida .<br />

Infine: legittimano la domanda sulla leadership <strong>di</strong> Osama, apparso solo in immagini<br />

<strong>di</strong> repertorio.<br />

196


5. Reclutatori, reclute e reclutamento.<br />

Recenti rapporti provenienti<br />

dall’Europa Centro Settentrionale evidenziano un<br />

incremento <strong>del</strong>la presenza <strong>di</strong> giovani nord africani nei circuiti <strong>di</strong> reclutamento<br />

jiha<strong>di</strong>sta: la maggior parte <strong>di</strong> questi giovani sono nati nel paese <strong>di</strong> accoglienza o<br />

almeno vi abitano fin da bambini, avendo dunque partecipato al porcesso <strong>di</strong><br />

socializzazione <strong>del</strong> paese <strong>di</strong> destinazione <strong>del</strong>l’emigrazione. Le interviste mostrano<br />

spesso persone che sono passate attraverso profonde crisi identititarie, non risolte dai<br />

processi integrativi offerti, che li hanno condotti ad avvicinarsi a un islam ra<strong>di</strong>cale,<br />

frequentemente estraneo alle loro stesse famiglie <strong>di</strong> provenienza. A costoro la rete è<br />

stata tesa da altri immigrati residenti – legalmente o <strong>il</strong>legalmente – per la maggior<br />

parte caratterizzati dall’avere un trascorso da mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, concretizzatosi in qualche<br />

forma <strong>di</strong> istruzione religiosa rigorosa e <strong>di</strong> addestramento m<strong>il</strong>itare nei capi qa’i<strong>di</strong>sti<br />

in Afghanistan. Alcuni <strong>di</strong> questi reclutatori sono combattenti <strong>di</strong> ritorono dal fronte<br />

iraqeno. I luoghi <strong>di</strong> contatto preferiti r<strong>il</strong>evati dagli operatori sul campo sono<br />

solitamente: le moschee più ra<strong>di</strong>cali, i centri islamici, gli internet caffee ma anche le<br />

prigioni: i detenuti stranieri sembrano (almeno così è per l’Olanda sicuramente)<br />

essere <strong>di</strong>ventati tra i target preferiti dei reclutatori. A seguito <strong>di</strong> una <strong>di</strong>sponb<strong>il</strong>ità<br />

mostrata dopo i primi contatti, <strong>il</strong> can<strong>di</strong>dato viene prograssivamente isolato dalla sua<br />

rete abituale <strong>di</strong> amicizie e parentele e sottoposto a un duro processo <strong>di</strong><br />

indottrinamento. Lo stesso processo r<strong>il</strong>evato nelle interviste avute in Kur<strong>di</strong>stan con i<br />

due mujahed<strong>di</strong>n <strong>di</strong> Ansar: “non sono mai stato abbandonato, qualcuno era insieme a<br />

me 24 ore su 24. Per almeno sei mesi. Mi ha accompagnato fino a dove dovevo<br />

saltare….” (Didar Khalid Khaled). Infine <strong>il</strong> processo <strong>di</strong> reclutamento si completa con un<br />

training m<strong>il</strong>itare e si conclude con qualche forma pubblica <strong>di</strong> testimonianza <strong>di</strong><br />

appartenenza: fossa anche l’ultima, l’usuale testamento prima <strong>di</strong> farsi esplodere.<br />

197


5.1. Il caso <strong>di</strong> Londra luglio 2005<br />

Nello specifico degli attacchi a Londra, l’analisi comunicativa comincia dalle<br />

riven<strong>di</strong>cazioni e dalla subitanee smentite: entrambe <strong>di</strong> origine islamica. La<br />

riven<strong>di</strong>cazione è comparsa sul sito <strong>di</strong> Qal3ah, che è connesso a Sa’ad Rashed<br />

Mohammad Al-Fagih, considerato appartenente ad al-Qa’ida e al jihad da circa <strong>di</strong>eci<br />

anni. Fagih – sau<strong>di</strong>ta con residenza a Londra – secondo gli USA ha fornito supporto<br />

logistico agli attentati alla ambasciata americana in Africa nel 1998 e poi si è occupato<br />

<strong>di</strong> mantenere la comunicazione via rete tra i jiha<strong>di</strong>sti. Queste operazioni rimandano<br />

alla sua organizzazione “MIRA” e, appunto, a un’altra identità in rete denominata “Il<br />

Castello”. Di più, la pista informatica porta a islah.org e miraserve.com, che non sono<br />

registrati a nome <strong>di</strong> Al-Fagih o <strong>di</strong> MIRA, tuttavia re-in<strong>di</strong>rizzano al sito <strong>di</strong> MIRA<br />

(islahi.net). Inoltre attraverso le informazioni <strong>di</strong> registrazione dei domini portano a<br />

Al-Fagih, attraverso la “charity” <strong>di</strong> Hamas con base in Gran Bretagna, denominata<br />

Interpal. Pertanto, almeno <strong>il</strong> luogo virtuale in cui la riven<strong>di</strong>cazione ha avuto<br />

manifestazione è congruente. La smentita ha, anch’essa, avuto una origine jiha<strong>di</strong>sta è<br />

ha fornito ad alcuni l’alibi <strong>del</strong>la speranza: se la smentita è vera forse non è jihad. Tale<br />

atteggiamento è spia significativa <strong>di</strong> una cultura <strong>del</strong> rifiuto <strong>del</strong>la possib<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> essere<br />

oggetto <strong>del</strong> terrorismo islamico che ormai non ha più senso e crea debolezza. Ma<br />

soprattutto pone un interrogativo: perché smentire?<br />

Un altro aspetto comunicativo allarga le <strong>di</strong>mensioni <strong>del</strong> problema. Imme<strong>di</strong>atamente<br />

dopo Londra ecco l’uccisione, riven<strong>di</strong>cata, <strong>del</strong>l’Ambasciatore egiziano in Iraq. Perché<br />

tanta fretta? In fin dei conti era nelle loro mani, assassinarlo contiguamente a Londra<br />

significa avere perso una opportunità comunicativa: le due notizie penetrano su<br />

“mercati” – cioè pubblici – <strong>di</strong>versi, uno occidentale e uno arabo. Le due notizie<br />

tendono a elidersi a vicenda e non a rafforzarsi. Al contrario, l’assassinio<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’Ambasciatore, <strong>di</strong>stante più tempo dalla riven<strong>di</strong>cazione, avrebbe rinforzato<br />

l’allarme generato dagli attacchi <strong>di</strong> luglio. Allora perché? La lettura comunicativa<br />

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<strong>del</strong>la questione potrebbe fornire alcune informazioni circa la struttura <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo<br />

in Europa.<br />

La<br />

risposta alla domanda <strong>di</strong> cui sopra, relativa alla <strong>di</strong>mensione comunicativa, sembra<br />

evidenziare una forma <strong>di</strong> comunicazione interna: l’assassinio <strong>del</strong>l’Ambasciatore<br />

egiziano assomiglia a un atto <strong>di</strong> reazione tra un jihad me<strong>di</strong>o orientale e un jihad<br />

europea che non sono coor<strong>di</strong>nate. Insomma, una sorta <strong>di</strong> affermazione <strong>di</strong> potere tra<br />

entità attive su un progetto comune ma senza una comune centrale <strong>di</strong> controllo. Le<br />

medesima percezione può essere confermata dall’attacco a Sharm el Sheik: due fronti<br />

<strong>di</strong>versi con due linguaggio <strong>di</strong>versi (Europa ed Egitto), che ci aiutano a comprendere<br />

una struttura cellulare in evoluzione in Europa, fatta <strong>di</strong> imitatori <strong>di</strong> una rete in<br />

“franchising”. Se questa lettura è corretta, <strong>il</strong> jihad può attraversare un momento <strong>di</strong><br />

<strong>di</strong>fficoltà organizzative (questo è l’aspetto positivo) ma anche può presentarsi<br />

sempre più frammentata e impreve<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>e (e questo è l’aspetto negativo).<br />

Tale impreve<strong>di</strong>b<strong>il</strong>ità è rafforzata dalla tipologia <strong>del</strong>le nuove reclute: rispetto a<br />

Madrid, si inserisce la terrificante novità dei kamikaze e <strong>di</strong> terroristi allevati in casa.<br />

Il kamikaze evidenzia un mutamento <strong>di</strong> strategia – una baghda<strong>di</strong>zzazione o<br />

palestinizzazione - <strong>del</strong>lo scontro. E sostiene l’idea <strong>di</strong> “fase riorganizzativa” in atto,<br />

piuttosto che <strong>di</strong> una escalation degli attacchi. A Madrid non venne ut<strong>il</strong>izzato e i<br />

terroristi erano <strong>di</strong> “importazione”. A Londra è stato ut<strong>il</strong>izzato e proprio “dagli<br />

inglesi”. Questa è la nuova pista, estremamente pericolosa.<br />

Altro che terroristi <strong>di</strong> rientro dal me<strong>di</strong>o oriente: al contrario immigrati insod<strong>di</strong>sfatti<br />

<strong>di</strong> seconda generazione invasati nelle tollerate moschee lon<strong>di</strong>nesi. Costoro scontano<br />

la probab<strong>il</strong>e mancata integrazione <strong>del</strong>la prima generazione – senza aprire <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>battito<br />

accademico ma sostanziale sul mo<strong>del</strong>lo <strong>del</strong> ghetto inglese – che, raggiunto <strong>il</strong><br />

benessere ed esaurito l’entusiasmo forzato <strong>del</strong>la spinta alla migrazione, comunque<br />

riversa sui figli la frustrazione nostalgica <strong>del</strong>l’immigrato. A ciò si aggiunge una<br />

ricerca <strong>di</strong> identità forte che si risolve spesso nelle <strong>il</strong>lusioni che riempiono le moschee.<br />

E rispetto all’Italia la supposta neutralità e la sicurezza acquistata dal Paese,<br />

chiudendo qualche occhio sulle opportunità logistiche fornite all’organizzazione <strong>del</strong><br />

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terrorismo (falsi documenti, flussi <strong>di</strong> finanziamento, strategie <strong>di</strong> reclutamento), non<br />

funziona più. Questa seconda generazione ha i documenti in regola e la rete <strong>di</strong><br />

supporto: dunque <strong>il</strong> rischio è <strong>di</strong>fferente e massimo.<br />

5.2. Reclute iternazionali dal campo iraqeno<br />

Una modalità <strong>di</strong> promozione ormai consueta terrorismo, rimanda alla pubblicazione<br />

in Internet <strong>del</strong>le biografie dei martiri jiha<strong>di</strong>sti proposti come esempio <strong>di</strong> perfetta<br />

applicazione <strong>del</strong>l’islam. Quelli che seguono sono alcuni esempi che sottolineano la<br />

componente internazionale <strong>del</strong>le nuove reclute, pubblicati nel corso <strong>del</strong> 2006.<br />

Abu Dujanah al-Qahtani (Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia)<br />

“Abu Dujanah al-Qahtani… was a former resident of Riyadh. He was married,<br />

and in the past worked for the Sau<strong>di</strong> National Guard driving armored<br />

personnel carriers and other armored vehicles… The martyr rushed to Iraq<br />

where he joined an anti-aircraft unit that specialized in the heavy 14.5mm<br />

[weapon]… Abu Dujanah loved the Kalashnikov very much<br />

and used it to send<br />

many enemies of Allah to hell on your behalf.”<br />

“Blessed Allah honored Abu Dujanah and he was wounded in an anti-aircraft<br />

operation launched in blessed Al-Qaim. He sustained an injury to his face as a<br />

result of shrapnel from a rocket launched by one of the crusader Apache<br />

helicopters. Afterwards, this helicopter along with another were shot down. The<br />

martyr was happy as if he had been given a gift or a reward of some kind…<br />

Abu Dujanah took part in many operations, such as the first attack in usaybah,<br />

launched alongside his comrade in life and in death Abu Bakr al-Qasimi [from<br />

Sau<strong>di</strong> Arabia]. Launched from several <strong>di</strong>rections, the attack [in Husaybah] was<br />

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led by [Abu Dujanah] and commander Abu Ibrahim al-Tunisi [from Tunisia],<br />

may Allah have mercy on his soul. Our friend was positioned along a frontline<br />

that was in imme<strong>di</strong>ate proximity to the enemies of Allah. He unleashed hell<br />

from his weapon, and Allah honored him by inflicting casualties upon them…<br />

He was k<strong>il</strong>led in a face-to-face battle with the apostates in the Sadda area after<br />

managing to k<strong>il</strong>l the commander of the m<strong>il</strong>itary checkpoint and his personal<br />

assistant who ordered them to stop. The brothers managed to recover his body<br />

three days later and noticed that it had not changed at all, and that he was st<strong>il</strong>l<br />

blee<strong>di</strong>ng, with his index finger pointing upward as if he were k<strong>il</strong>led only a few<br />

minutes before. Abu Dujanah was buried alongside his friend and comrade Abu<br />

Bakr al-Qasimi (who we have mentioned earlier) in the Al-Shuhadaa cemetery<br />

in the al-Karab<strong>il</strong>ah area… The sound of explosions and bombing by F-18 aircraft<br />

rocked the area as the brothers buried his body in broad daylight. The martyr<br />

looked<br />

calm and content, just as he had been during the battles and<br />

confrontations. Farewell, Abu Dujanah, and may you rest in peace alongside the<br />

beautiful black-eyed virgins in para<strong>di</strong>se.”<br />

Abu Hummam al-Urdani (Jordan)<br />

“Abu Hummam al-Urdani [from Jordan]… Head toward righteous Baghdad<br />

and then turn south to the Sunni triangle, or the ‘Triangle of Death’ as it is often<br />

referred to by the American cowards. Even more<br />

specifically, there is an area<br />

that the enemy is very fam<strong>il</strong>iar with from the havoc we have wreaked upon<br />

him. It is the region of al-Maq<strong>di</strong>si, al-Sharqi, al-Masri, and others that is also<br />

known as Al-Yousifiya, and this is where you w<strong>il</strong>l find the grave of Abu<br />

Hummam, may Allah almighty have mercy on his soul. When you see him, you<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l not think much of him, with his small frame and short height. Nonetheless,<br />

the martyr had an athletic bu<strong>il</strong>d and was a Tae Kwon Do self-defense instructor<br />

who earned a level 2 black belt. Abu Hummam would constantly prepare<br />

himself for jihad in the cause of Allah, and was passionate about it. He was<br />

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married and his wife gave birth to a baby daughter shortly before his death.<br />

Although he never saw her and <strong>di</strong>d not even know her name, he was very<br />

happy to hear this news. The martyr, may Allah have mercy on his soul,<br />

worked in a metal and wooden furniture manufacturing company in Jordan. As<br />

soon as he heard the call for jihad coming from Iraq, he rushed over there,<br />

hoping to join the ranks of the heroic mujahed<strong>di</strong>n in Iraq—whose courage awed<br />

our enemies even before it awed the rest of us.”<br />

“Abu Hummam arrived in Al-Qaim and signed himself up on the ‘honor list’—<br />

the list of volunteer martyrs. Nevertheless, the m<strong>il</strong>itary commander objected<br />

and insisted that our brother continue to train the brothers with the gifts that<br />

Allah had bestowed upon him by serving as a martial arts and physical<br />

education instructor. Our brother Abu Hummam was supposed to take part in<br />

the third assault against Abu Ghraib also known as the ‘Revenge Battle of Abu<br />

Anas al-Shami’, may Allah have mercy on his soul… Abu Hummam assumed<br />

responsib<strong>il</strong>ity for training at the desert-based Rawa m<strong>il</strong>itary camp, along with a<br />

Yemeni brother. They <strong>di</strong>d a superb job and became famous for the rigorous<br />

training<br />

regimen they established at the training camp”.<br />

Abu Radwan al-Urdani (Jordan)<br />

Better known as Raed al-Banna, a law student from Salt, Jordan who spent time<br />

working in the United States, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng during the period of September 11, 2001<br />

“when the men of Islam finally struck and wrought destruction in the heartland<br />

of America in broad daylight.” Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, the weight of 9/11<br />

“moved Abu Radwan and so he embraced blessed Allah once again.” Abu<br />

Radwan, a.k.a. Raed al-Banna, later volunteered as an al-Qa’ida suicide bomber<br />

in Iraq targeting Shiites in the town of H<strong>il</strong>la. The devastating attack that he<br />

carried out “claimed the lives of 150 cursed enemies, and wounded more than<br />

300--we ask Allah that they do not recover from their injuries.”<br />

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Abu Usama al-Ansari (Iraq)<br />

A former <strong>il</strong>legal arms smuggler during the regime of Saddam Hussein who<br />

reformed himself and became a mujahid after the U.S. invasion in 2003.<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, Abu Usama “was inspired by the Shaykh and<br />

mujahid, Abu Anas al-Shami [a.k.a. Omar Yousef Jumah]... who spent a period<br />

of time resi<strong>di</strong>ng at Abu Usama’s house, urging people to join the fight. Abu<br />

Usama used to teach his brothers many of the lessons and sayings of Abu<br />

Anas.”<br />

Abu As<strong>il</strong> al-Jazairi (Algeria)<br />

A former senior official in the comparatively moderate Muslim Brotherhood<br />

movement who was “eventually guided toward the righteous path” and used<br />

his “administrative and organizational experience” to help al-Qa’ida instead.<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the mujahed<strong>di</strong>n, Abu As<strong>il</strong> “was assigned the responsib<strong>il</strong>ity of<br />

overseeing the borders [of Iraq]. In other words, he was responsible for all the<br />

Arab brothers that came to fight in the jihad... He loved<br />

to quote from Shaykh<br />

Abu Musab al-Zarqawi’s statements... and <strong>di</strong>d this so frequently that he<br />

practically knew all of his speeches verbatim<br />

by heart.”<br />

Abu Ibrahim al-Tunisi (Tunisia)<br />

A veteran Tunisian mujahed<strong>di</strong>n commander who “spent most of his life fighting<br />

on the frontlines and practicing jihad in Afghanistan, Europe [presumably<br />

Bosnia-Herzegovina], and Iraq. He was responsible for Shaykh Usama Bin<br />

Laden’s guesthouses in Afghanistan... [and later] arrived in Rawa [Iraq], the city<br />

of martyrs, where he spent some time and assumed the role of commander of<br />

[al-Qa’ida’s] security branch.”<br />

Questi<br />

medaglioni biografici sono oggi spesso inseriti in percorsi multime<strong>di</strong>ali<br />

complessi, in cui immagini <strong>di</strong> repertorio e immagini biografiche si fondono per<br />

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organizzare un messagio <strong>il</strong> cui obiettivo è proporre, emblematicamente, <strong>il</strong> percorso<br />

dei martiri<br />

<strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo per promuovere <strong>il</strong> reclutamento.<br />

Quelli<br />

che seguono sono alcuni esempi <strong>di</strong> fotogrammi tratti da altri video dei martiri<br />

<strong>del</strong> jihad.<br />

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Recentemente, <strong>di</strong>cembre 2006, è apparso in rete un nuovo video che riunisce quanto<br />

finora qui sottolineato. Si tratta, infatti, <strong>di</strong> un prodotto multime<strong>di</strong>ale sottotitolato in<br />

turco in cui si esalta come martire Eymen Muhammed Salim Cude (Ebu Zubeyr): un<br />

cameramen ucciso mentre riprendeva<br />

l’azione. Il video <strong>di</strong>stribuito ut<strong>il</strong>izza le ultime<br />

immagine registrate, documentando la caduta <strong>del</strong>l’operatore e la registrazione che<br />

prosegue senza contollo. Con <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>cembre 2006 la comunicazione jiha<strong>di</strong>sta ha <strong>il</strong> suo<br />

primo martire ufficiale: una nuova figura da proporre al reclutamento, secondo un<br />

canone che ormai mette sul medesimo piano la telecamera e l’AK47.<br />

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6. Conclusioni<br />

In ultima analisi, la sopravvivenza <strong>di</strong> ogni gruppo terrorista <strong>di</strong>pende dalla sua<br />

capacità <strong>di</strong> reclutare nuovi membri, cioè dalla sua ab<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>di</strong> mantere e promuovere<br />

gruppi <strong>di</strong> suopporter “attivi” e gruppi <strong>di</strong> simpatizzanti “passivi”. In questo processo<br />

<strong>di</strong> reclutamento e mantenimento degli attivisti e dei simpatizzanti <strong>il</strong> ruolo <strong>del</strong>la<br />

comunicazione è centrale, perché da esso <strong>di</strong>pende sia <strong>il</strong> costante<br />

approvvigionamento <strong>di</strong> combattenti nel movimento sia<br />

<strong>il</strong> progressivo<br />

coinvolgimento<br />

dei simpatizzanti. Ancora una volta: senza comunicazione non può<br />

esserci terrorismo.<br />

L’analisi fin qui condotta intorno ai processi comunicativi <strong>del</strong> jiha<strong>di</strong>smo, mostra<br />

come in questi anni <strong>il</strong> processo <strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>del</strong>l’estremismo islamico sia stato reso<br />

possib<strong>il</strong>e anche con modalità e conseguendo successi non preventivab<strong>il</strong>i. Oggi, ogni<br />

gruppo terrorista può <strong>di</strong>sporre <strong>del</strong> suo sito web in internet, probab<strong>il</strong>mente è in grado<br />

<strong>di</strong> mantenere più siti, organizzati in lingue <strong>di</strong>fferenti per colpire una molteplicità <strong>di</strong><br />

bersagli.<br />

Mai come adesso, per mezzo <strong>di</strong> strumenti e modalità comunicative <strong>di</strong>gitali sofisticate<br />

che includono video, au<strong>di</strong>o, fotografie <strong>di</strong>gitali, “fotogrammi” montati dentro a<br />

presentazioni multime<strong>di</strong>ali, flash, au<strong>di</strong>o clip e comunque web site <strong>di</strong> grande impatto<br />

emotivo, <strong>il</strong> terrorismo ha potuto raggiungere un pubblico tanto vasto, così<br />

rapidamente e con tanta efficacia.<br />

Perché dunque stupirsi <strong>del</strong> successo <strong>del</strong> terrorismo?<br />

Un tale rivoluzione nella comunicazione <strong>del</strong> terrore è destinata a perdurare,<br />

migliorare in qualità, per contenuti trasmessi e per capacità <strong>di</strong> trasmissione: la<br />

capacità<br />

comunicativa <strong>del</strong> terrorismo evolve tanto quanto evolvono le ICT, si riduce<br />

<strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>gital <strong>di</strong>vide, si <strong>di</strong>ffonde la globale società <strong>del</strong>la comunicazione.<br />

Certamente possiamo sostenere che dopo l’Un<strong>di</strong>ci Settembre <strong>il</strong> jihad ha perso molte<br />

<strong>del</strong>le sue basi operative, molti dei suoi santuari, ma questi sono stati rapidamente<br />

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sostituti dai “santuari virtuali”, che sono altrettanto efficaci nel reclutare, formare,<br />

mantenere coesione, organizzare e orientare.<br />

Sorprendersi <strong>di</strong> tutto ciò, significa non applicare alla realtà tutta i medesimi mo<strong>del</strong>li<br />

interpretativi che applichiamo alle nostre realtà locali occidentali. E dunque, non<br />

essere capaci <strong>di</strong> leggere le vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ità dei nostri sis<strong>temi</strong> organizzati che forniscono<br />

allo stesso terrorismo le opportunità tecnologiche e cognitive per colpirci.<br />

In questo quadro, in cui tecnologie tra<strong>di</strong>zionali analogiche e <strong>di</strong>gitali <strong>di</strong> rete si mixano,<br />

una risposta articolata è pertanto necessaria.<br />

Le attività tra<strong>di</strong>zionali, orientate a fornire altri punti <strong>di</strong> vista alle platee, a ri-/contro-<br />

orientare, informare<br />

non possono essere affidate ai soli strumenti ra<strong>di</strong>o e televisivi.<br />

Se consideriamo gli Stati Uniti, <strong>il</strong> Dipartimento <strong>di</strong> Stato ha avviato gran<strong>di</strong> programmi<br />

in tal senso, de<strong>di</strong>cati al mondo islamico: la televisione in lingua araba al-Hura, la<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>o al-Sawa e l’aumento <strong>del</strong>le trasmissioni in lingua araba <strong>di</strong> Voice of America<br />

sono tutti segni <strong>di</strong> questa attenzione alla guerra me<strong>di</strong>atica. Ma tutto ciò sortisce scarsi<br />

effetti, e appare ad<strong>di</strong>rittura anacronistico, se non si interviene allo stesso modo nel<br />

mondo <strong>del</strong>la<br />

comunicazione <strong>di</strong>gitale per colpire au<strong>di</strong>ence sempre più recettive al<br />

messaggio jiha<strong>di</strong>sta (giovani e giovani adulti musulmani anche residenti in paesi non<br />

islamici) e consumatori <strong>di</strong> internet e TV satellitare.<br />

Per esempio, è fondamentale partecipare al <strong>di</strong>battito che coinvolge i movimenti<br />

<strong>del</strong>l’estremismo islamico soprattutto per mostrare a quel pubblico l’intrinseca<br />

debolezza e <strong>di</strong>visione che si cela<br />

<strong>di</strong>etro la supposta monoliticità <strong>del</strong> movimento<br />

stesso. Nella storia <strong>del</strong> terrorismo si è sempre r<strong>il</strong>evato l’interesse a mostrare ogni<br />

gruppo come altamente coeso, unito, senza conflitti interni.<br />

Ma nella realtà non è mai<br />

stato così: <strong>il</strong> conflitto appartiene al carattere evolutivo <strong>di</strong> ogni gruppo per sua<br />

costituzione. Partecipare al regime comunicativo <strong>del</strong> gruppo ci permette <strong>di</strong> “cogliere<br />

l’occasione”, per rompere questa immagine <strong>di</strong> coesione che è determinante quando si<br />

chiede adesione e partecipazione ai “nuovi arrivati”.<br />

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Nello sv<strong>il</strong>uppare una strategia me<strong>di</strong>atica che cerchi <strong>di</strong> contere per esempio <strong>il</strong><br />

reclutamento e la promozione jiha<strong>di</strong>sta è fondamentale <strong>il</strong> coor<strong>di</strong>namento interno ed<br />

esterno.<br />

Sul piano interno la pubblicazione multime<strong>di</strong>ale prima commentata, in occasione <strong>del</strong><br />

Quinto Anniversario <strong>del</strong> 9/11, mostra come ormai <strong>il</strong> jihad non solo sappia usare le<br />

tecniche <strong>di</strong> post produzione ma sappia sfruttare le debolezze dei sis<strong>temi</strong><br />

me<strong>di</strong>atici<br />

occidentali, <strong>di</strong>sastrosamente orientati al sensazionalismo <strong>del</strong> terrore e sempre<br />

<strong>di</strong>sponib<strong>il</strong>i a fornire spazi a possib<strong>il</strong>i “breaking news” qa’i<strong>di</strong>ane. Tanto è vero che <strong>il</strong><br />

tra<strong>il</strong>er (l’annuncio) “paga” in termini comunicativi quanto <strong>il</strong> video annunciato. In<br />

questa prospettiva emerge una duplice responsab<strong>il</strong>ità: quella dei me<strong>di</strong>a a non<br />

prestarsi al gioco <strong>del</strong>la comuncazione <strong>del</strong> terrorismo contrabbandando <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto<br />

all’informazione con <strong>il</strong> <strong>di</strong>ritto all’incasso a ogni costo; quella <strong>del</strong>le istituzioni che<br />

devono legittimare la presenza dei me<strong>di</strong>a dentro alle procedure <strong>di</strong> sicurezza che<br />

riguardano la nostra comunità, conferendo loro titolarità <strong>di</strong> interpreti e non <strong>di</strong><br />

esecutori.<br />

Sul piano esterno, la battaglia sul campo me<strong>di</strong>atico richiede ancor più strette<br />

alleanze che sul campo <strong>del</strong>la realtà: la virtualità annulla i confini e, dunque, richiede<br />

l’assoluta con<strong>di</strong>visione dei fini tra gli alleati e<br />

la massima transitab<strong>il</strong>ità <strong>del</strong>le<br />

informazioni. Una falla, nella rete <strong>di</strong> controllo <strong>di</strong>gitale, determina risultati pari<br />

all’assenza <strong>del</strong>la rete medesima: non esiste <strong>di</strong>scriminazione in livelli<br />

<strong>di</strong> grigio rispetto<br />

ai gra<strong>di</strong> <strong>di</strong> efficienza <strong>del</strong> controllo, ma solo presenza o assenza <strong>di</strong> esso.<br />

In pratica, la <strong>di</strong>ffusione <strong>di</strong> siti <strong>di</strong> istruzione, promozione e supporto esplicito al jihad<br />

rende praticamente inut<strong>il</strong>e la battaglia <strong>del</strong>l’intelligence e <strong>del</strong> controterrorismo sul<br />

campo, orientata alla eliminazione fisica dei referenti jiha<strong>di</strong>sti, nella misura in cui a<br />

essa non si affianca una battaglia nel mondo virtuale, dove viene garantita<br />

permanenza oltre la morte agli scritti, orientamenti e insegnamenti dei leader <strong>del</strong><br />

terrorismo jiha<strong>di</strong>sta.<br />

208


Understan<strong>di</strong>ng Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism.<br />

Threat and Countermeasures<br />

Maurizio Martellini and Kathryn McLaughlin<br />

“…We looked forward to working together with other like-minded nations and the IAEA to<br />

expand and accelerate efforts that develop partnership capacity to combat nuclear terrorism<br />

on a determined and systematic basis…[in International Security of the Chair’s Summary,<br />

G8 Summit, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation – 17 July 2006]”<br />

209


Introduction 129<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to many world leaders the greatest threat to international peace and<br />

security this century is the confluence between terrorism and weapons of mass<br />

destruction – nuclear, chemical, biological and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons.<br />

Those with<br />

access to the most up-to-date<br />

intelligence on international terrorist activities have<br />

reiterated<br />

the seriousness of this threat time and time again. They warn it is not a<br />

question<br />

of ‘if’ but only of ‘when’.<br />

Although<br />

the terrorist use of chemical or biological weapons is a truly horrifying<br />

possib<strong>il</strong>ity, it is considerably more <strong>di</strong>fficult than ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism<br />

and would<br />

likely cause less damage than nuclear terrorism. This paper, therefore, focuses on<br />

these two <strong>di</strong>stinct but clearly linked threats – the possible acquisition and use of<br />

nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons by non-state actors. In particular it examines<br />

technical aspects of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism, its possible motivations, the<br />

capacity which have to be acquired to implement<br />

such attacks and the existing<br />

countermeasures.<br />

129 DISCLAIMER: All data for the paper has been extracted from recent open source research and reports, in<br />

particular, published documents and public websites. Therefore, the data is only as accurate as is reported in the<br />

public sphere. Any possible inaccuracies are the sole responsib<strong>il</strong>ity of the LNCV General Secretariat. It should be<br />

noted that issues relating to the security of high-activity ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources and deta<strong>il</strong>s of their malicious use are<br />

sensitive in nature. They can often be considered as sensitive to national security and as a result are classified. No<br />

such resources have been used in the development of this work and as a result there are areas within it which<br />

may appear sparse to those with the opportunity to have a thorough groun<strong>di</strong>ng in this information. The authors<br />

beg the indulgence of these in<strong>di</strong>viduals.<br />

210


Technical Aspects Nuclear terrorism can be broadly defined as an<br />

attack, outside of conventional m<strong>il</strong>itary operations,<br />

involving nuclear materials. Such an attack can be<br />

either <strong>di</strong>rect or oblique.<br />

A <strong>di</strong>rect attack would involve the detonation<br />

of a<br />

yield-producing nuclear explosive – either a nuclear warhead, or a crude or<br />

explosives (or an equivalent<br />

source of explosive power) upon a nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ity or<br />

power plant.<br />

In order to achieve nuclear terrorism, the perpetrators must either steal or buy a<br />

nuclear weapon or its components, or alternatively, fabricate their own special<br />

nuclear material (SNM). In the in<strong>di</strong>rect scenario, a conventional attack may be made<br />

upon nuclear reactors or spent nuclear fuel (SNF).<br />

In nuclear weapons, it is the fission<br />

and fusion of certain ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

materials that release energy<br />

causing explosion. Ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons (RDDs) are simply<br />

conventional explosives used to<br />

scatter ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material.<br />

improvised device using nuclear materials, commonly referred to as an improvised<br />

nuclear device (IND). An IND could consist of <strong>di</strong>verted nuclear weapon components,<br />

a mo<strong>di</strong>fied nuclear weapon, or in<strong>di</strong>genous-designed device, and can be categorised<br />

into two types: implosion and gun assembled. 130<br />

The possib<strong>il</strong>ity of in<strong>di</strong>rect nuclear terrorism is envisaged as an attack upon nuclear<br />

materials themselves – such a scenario includes an attack with conventional<br />

The affect of the detonation of a nuclear weapon is well known. Images following the<br />

attacks on Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1946 portray the sheer scale of damage and<br />

suffering that ensue. These images have been seared into the public consciousness.<br />

These attacks also demonstrated the twin nature of the use of a nuclear weapon –<br />

there is an imme<strong>di</strong>ate impact which occurs within minutes or seconds of a<br />

detonation and causes tremendous damage due to the shockwave, thermal ra<strong>di</strong>ation<br />

130 Terrorist CBRN: Materials and Effects<br />

(url: https://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/terrorist_cbrn/terrorist_CBRN.htm) [last accessed 10/10/06]<br />

211


(heat) and ionising ra<strong>di</strong>ation; there is also a more <strong>del</strong>ayed effect which manifests<br />

from hours after the event and can persist for centuries afterwards which cause<br />

health<br />

and environmental damage due to ra<strong>di</strong>oactive fallout. The imme<strong>di</strong>ate effects<br />

are confined to the area surround the detonations wh<strong>il</strong>st<br />

then <strong>del</strong>ayed effect can<br />

manifest in more <strong>di</strong>verse geographical locations.<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism, by contrast, refers to <strong>di</strong>spersal<br />

devices designed to use or<br />

<strong>di</strong>stribute ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material<br />

to cause a harmful<br />

someone. l weapon (popularly called a<br />

131 The main aim in using a ra<strong>di</strong>ologica<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material and explosive. A passive RDD<br />

is a system in which unshielded<br />

- often called a "<strong>di</strong>rty bomb" - is any system that uses the explosive force of<br />

detonation to <strong>di</strong>sperse ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material. An atmospheric RDD is any system in<br />

which ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material is converted into a form that is eas<strong>il</strong>y transported by air<br />

currents.<br />

Examples of accidental contamination with an<br />

industrial ra<strong>di</strong>ation sources exemplified the<br />

potential for a terrorist group to traumatise an<br />

unsuspecting population. A serious ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

effect upon something or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological <strong>di</strong>spersal device or RDD) is therefore to ut<strong>il</strong>ise the ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material<br />

to contaminate areas and/or injure targets, as opposed to a nuclear weapon where<br />

the destructive explosive power is the aim and ra<strong>di</strong>ological contamination is merely<br />

a secondary effect. RDDs can be almost any size, defined only by the amount of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material is <strong>di</strong>spersed or placed manually at the target. An explosive RDD<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>ological devices require no<br />

deta<strong>il</strong>ed technical understan<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

beyond that required for the<br />

manipulation of the conventional<br />

explosives which would be used in<br />

the case of an RDD, or in basic<br />

aerial <strong>di</strong>spersal in the case of a<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ation emission device.<br />

131 Ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity is the property or con<strong>di</strong>tion of certain elements that results in the spontaneous transformation, or<br />

decay, of the nucleus of an unstable atom. As the unstable atom tries to change to a stable state, it releases energy<br />

in the form of ra<strong>di</strong>ation. This energy is release in one of three forms: alpha ra<strong>di</strong>ation, which is equivalent to a<br />

helium nucleus and can be stopped by a thick piece of paper; beta ra<strong>di</strong>ation, which is equivalent to an electron<br />

and w<strong>il</strong>l be stopped by human skin; and gamma ra<strong>di</strong>ation, which is an energy wave and capable of greater<br />

penetration than either of the other two forms. Substances that undergo this transformation process are called<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oisotopes, or more commonly, ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials. Once the substances are processed into a usable form,<br />

such as pellets or powder, they are called ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources. Depen<strong>di</strong>ng upon the amount of energy release and<br />

the form it takes these ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources<br />

can be classified as low-activity, interme<strong>di</strong>ate-activity, or high-activity<br />

sources.<br />

212


accident occurred in Goiânia, Braz<strong>il</strong> in September 1987, when a high activity source,<br />

Caesium-137 132 , was inadvertently removed from a therapy unit and <strong>di</strong>smantled by<br />

scrap dealers. It was found that 249 people were contaminated. Of the 249<br />

contaminees, 21 presented acute ra<strong>di</strong>ation syndrome, ten of which were in a serious<br />

con<strong>di</strong>tion. Four of these <strong>di</strong>ed. It has been argued that overall, the accident affected all<br />

inhabitants of the city, either <strong>di</strong>rectly or in<strong>di</strong>rectly, and the Goiás State as a whole, in<br />

terms of social, emotional, economic, psychological, and health-related issues. Clean-<br />

up operations took over a month, which is the minimum time, and the waste<br />

removed from the contaminated sites was not <strong>di</strong>sposed of unt<strong>il</strong> 1991. 133 The Goiânia<br />

incident shows that a ra<strong>di</strong>ological event in an urban setting can have devastating<br />

consequences, and also that each incident w<strong>il</strong>l be unique to the setting within which<br />

it occurs.<br />

The effects of a ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon are more <strong>di</strong>fficult to pre<strong>di</strong>ct than the effects of a<br />

nuclear explosion. Environmental con<strong>di</strong>tions, such as temperature, time of day,<br />

relative humi<strong>di</strong>ty and wind con<strong>di</strong>tions all affect the size of the affected area. The type<br />

of material and method of <strong>di</strong>spersion also affects the size of the contaminated area<br />

and the level of <strong>di</strong>spersed ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity. Even low levels of contamination could have<br />

a severe impact<br />

on an urban population.<br />

RDDs may be made with any ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material,<br />

although the level of effects<br />

depends upon the level of ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity of the material<br />

used. Suitable ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

materials vary wi<strong>del</strong>y from relatively weak sources,<br />

such as Strontium 90, to high<br />

levels of ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity such as that possessed by the fissionable materials plutonium<br />

and uranium. An RDD is therefore a very flexible weapon. This type of weapon can<br />

have a wide range of effects from creating a panic situation based on fear of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ation, a general denial of territory due to local contamination, the murder of a<br />

specific in<strong>di</strong>vidual(s), to creating a mass casualty event. 134<br />

132 50.9 TBq 137C<br />

133 For a more in-depth account of the accident, see: Vinhas, L.A., ‘Overview of the Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Accident in<br />

Goiânia’, Security of Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources, Procee<strong>di</strong>ngs of an international conference, 10-13 March 2003 (IAEA), pp.347-<br />

355<br />

134 Nichelson, S.M. & Medlin, D.D., ‘Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Weapons of Terror’, Apr<strong>il</strong> 1999<br />

213


These key <strong>di</strong>fferences between nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons necessitate<br />

<strong>di</strong>fferent approaches to analysing the magnitude of the threat posed by each, and<br />

their control and counter-measures.<br />

Framing the <strong>di</strong>scussion: the faces of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological (NR) terrorism<br />

Nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism is most often <strong>di</strong>scussed together but it must be<br />

stressed from the outset that there are fundamental and intrinsic <strong>di</strong>fferences between<br />

the two that<br />

affect how <strong>di</strong>scussions of terrorism using these weapons should be<br />

framed, and how countermeasures should be approached. Both types of terrorism,<br />

however, are usefully <strong>di</strong>scussed by assessing the threat in terms of specific likely<br />

scenarios on how a terrorism event may be perpetrated. By identifying these<br />

scenarios, further key <strong>di</strong>fferences between the two become apparent.<br />

Nuclear terrorism is most often examined by looking at four main scenarios –<br />

clear terrorism. 135 popularly known as the four faces of nu<br />

Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to Ferguson,<br />

Potter et al, these are:<br />

• The theft and detonation of an intact nuclear weapon<br />

• The theft or purchase of fiss<strong>il</strong>e material lea<strong>di</strong>ng to the fabrication and<br />

detonation of a crude nuclear weapon – an improvised nuclear device (IND)<br />

• Attacks against and sabotage of nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities, in particular nuclear power<br />

plants, causing the release of large amounts of ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity<br />

• The unauthorized acquisition of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials<br />

contributing to the<br />

fabrication and detonation of a ra<strong>di</strong>ological <strong>di</strong>spersal device (RDD) – a<br />

“<strong>di</strong>rty<br />

bomb” – or ra<strong>di</strong>ation emission device.<br />

135 see Ferguson, Charles D., & Potter, W.C.,et al, Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism (Monterey Institute of<br />

International Stu<strong>di</strong>es, Monterey: 2004)<br />

214


This work assesses the threat of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism separately, and<br />

therefore <strong>di</strong>scusses the dangers associated with RDDs under the rubric of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism, ad<strong>di</strong>ng a further scenario – that of ra<strong>di</strong>ological assassination.<br />

1. The Magnitude of the Threat<br />

The extent of the danger posed by each of these scenarios is best evaluated by<br />

assessing the various elements that must converge in order to produce favourable<br />

con<strong>di</strong>tions for an attack. Each in<strong>di</strong>vidual factor is a necessary pre-con<strong>di</strong>tion, but not<br />

sufficient in and of itself to lead to an NR terrorist event. These factors are:<br />

• The intention of a sub-national group to pursue, and ultimately use, a nuclear<br />

or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon;<br />

• The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of sufficient nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources;<br />

• The means to obtain the necessary technologies and materials;<br />

• The technical<br />

knowledge and expertise to use the materials and technologies<br />

to create a viable weapon<br />

The factors can be more simply described as the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way.<br />

215


1.1 The “W<strong>il</strong>l”<br />

The w<strong>il</strong>l denotes the desire, intent and w<strong>il</strong>lingness of a sub-state group to pursue,<br />

develop and deploy high impact weapons and devices.<br />

There<br />

are many variables which could affect a sub-state’s group choice as to whether<br />

to pursue the acquisition and use of NR weapons. Commonly cited influences<br />

include group motivations, target au<strong>di</strong>ence, structure and organisation, history and<br />

learning behaviour,<br />

the education level of members, the level of state support (or<br />

independent finances), intended targets and the ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of material. 136<br />

Recent reviews have proposed the advent of “new terrorism”, which calls into<br />

question the classical notion that terrorists are more interested in gaining an au<strong>di</strong>ence<br />

than in k<strong>il</strong>ling their potential au<strong>di</strong>ence. Scholars and experts have suggested<br />

that this<br />

mo<strong>del</strong> may only be true for secularly motivated terrorist organisations. Proponents<br />

of the “new terrorism” identify a small number<br />

of sub-state actors with a malign<br />

intent which do not appear to fit comfortably into this characterisation,<br />

inclu<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

religious fundamentalists or extremist groups. It has been argued that three other<br />

factors coalesce in such groups to separate them from their more tra<strong>di</strong>tional<br />

equivalents: a <strong>del</strong>iberate quest to acquire or develop high impact weapons; a<br />

w<strong>il</strong>lingness to accept martyrdom;<br />

and, a perception that the only “au<strong>di</strong>ence” of<br />

worth is that of a deity.<br />

Current<br />

analytical literature tends to argue that, within islamist ra<strong>di</strong>cal groups, a<br />

new<br />

mass-casualty concept has developed. This has been tied to a belief that their<br />

cause is part of a higher plan, either as a battle between ‘good’ and ‘ev<strong>il</strong>’ or as a<br />

precursor to an apocalypse, which detaches them from moral “norms” or other social<br />

constraints.<br />

136 ‘Chemical, Biological, Ra<strong>di</strong>ological, and Nuclear Terrorism: The Threat Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to the Current Unclassified<br />

Literature’, Report by Centre for Counterproliferation Research, National Defense University, 31 May 2002, p2-3,<br />

[Online]<br />

http://www.ndu.edu/centercounter/CBRN_Annotated_Bib.pdf [Last Accessed 12/04/05]<br />

216


This axiom, however, has to be considered less than absolute. As the harsh<br />

condemnations issued by prominent clerics (but also from important islamist ra<strong>di</strong>cal<br />

leaders)<br />

against al-Qa’ida 9/11 attacks have shown, the islamist field is not<br />

monolithic and the risk of new deep fractures remains extremely high.<br />

Furthermore, islamist ra<strong>di</strong>cal organizations have always considered<br />

legitimacy as<br />

one of the main p<strong>il</strong>lars of their struggle and they have always avoided to violate<br />

universally recognized Islamic principles without a valid justification guaranteed by<br />

a recognized religious authority. This stance is due to the fact that, especially in the<br />

complex Islamic environment, legitimacy represents one of the key of the popular<br />

support which is fundamental to prolong the struggle these organization<br />

are<br />

fighting.<br />

In this regard, it is important to underline that, unt<strong>il</strong> 2003, no religious authority –<br />

except ayatollah Khomeini in the Shia world – has issued any pronouncement on the<br />

issue related to the un-Islamic character of WMDs. On May 2003 this s<strong>il</strong>ence was<br />

broken by Shayk Nasir bin Hamid al-Fahd’s fatwa which legitimates the use of such<br />

weapons against enemies responsible for k<strong>il</strong>ling thousands of the faithful and against<br />

whom this kind of weapon represents the only possible means of achieving final<br />

victory, even this could k<strong>il</strong>ling innocent Muslims too 137 .<br />

This fatwa represents an important step towards the threat represented by the<br />

acquisition of WMD by islamist ra<strong>di</strong>cal organizations but it is also necessary to<br />

consider that, even if there<br />

hasn’t been any official confutation of al-Fahd’s thesis, the<br />

issue remains extremely controversial and clarified in a definitive way.<br />

An ad<strong>di</strong>tional motive for the use of high impact weapons has also been suggested -<br />

that of the ‘shock factor’. The threat of use of these weapons incites substantial<br />

psychological, political and economic damage to the affected State and its population<br />

(and possibly its neighbours). It has been noted:<br />

137 Sammy Salama – Ly<strong>di</strong>a Hansell, Does intent equal capab<strong>il</strong>ity? Al-Qaeda and Weapons of Mass Destruction,<br />

Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 12, No 3, November 2005, pp. 627-628<br />

217


…in the case of ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons, despite the fact that the number of casualties would<br />

likely be far lower than those of a successful biological or nuclear attack, the potential for<br />

widespread public fear of ra<strong>di</strong>ation would likely nevertheless inspire acute psychological<br />

damage far in excess of the physical damage resulting from the attack. 138<br />

Not all commentators agree that it is an issue of when, as opposed to if, sub-state<br />

actors obtain such capab<strong>il</strong>ities. Some analysts point to the scarcity of events involving<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources and interpret this rarity as a sign of a lack of interest. Figures<br />

developed by the Monterey Institute of International Stu<strong>di</strong>es suggest that between<br />

1975 and 2004 there were around fifty incidents involving ra<strong>di</strong>ological material in<br />

comparison to over three hundred chemical-based incidents and almost a hundred<br />

with biological.<br />

Furthermore, these commentators point out that of these few recorded incidents, the<br />

majority are not in<strong>di</strong>cative of a concerted effort on the behalf of sub-state groups to<br />

acquire weapons capab<strong>il</strong>ities, but can be better characterised as in<strong>di</strong>viduals<br />

committing opportunistic offences with no clear aim in mind.<br />

350<br />

300<br />

250<br />

200<br />

150<br />

100<br />

50<br />

0<br />

Biological Chemical Nuclear Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Combination<br />

FIGURE 1: Incident Involving Nuclear, Biological, Chemical and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Agents between 1975 and 2004<br />

Parallel to this debate over the intent of sub-state actors to acquire ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons, a second debate is ongoing as to the likely<br />

damage from an attack using<br />

these weapons. The small data set relating to such incidents increases the <strong>di</strong>fficulty<br />

for assessing the risks.<br />

138 ‘Chemical, Biological, Ra<strong>di</strong>ological, and Nuclear Terrorism’ ,Ibid, p5<br />

218


Threats and attempts at nuclear terrorism allow for less debate over interpretation.<br />

Trial testimony has revealed that al-Qa’ida training camps offered instruction in<br />

urban warfare against Western installations inclu<strong>di</strong>ng nuclear power plants. In<br />

November 2001, the Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) was<br />

requested to translate and analyse documents recovered in the aftermath of the<br />

Taliban’s withdrawal from Afghanistan. It was subsequently <strong>di</strong>scovered that these<br />

documents included:<br />

“…instructor guides on making conventional explosives; e<strong>di</strong>ted, mass-produced<br />

instructional materials; nuclear weapon documents; student notebooks; and<br />

information about the activities and plans of Pakistani nuclear scientists in<br />

Afghanistan.” 139<br />

However, a subsequent report by the ISIS expressed doubt that al-Qa’ida, under<br />

leadership of Osama bin Laden, possessed nuclear weapons or capab<strong>il</strong>ities, stating<br />

the ISIS:<br />

“…found no cre<strong>di</strong>ble evidence that either bin Laden or al-Qa’ida<br />

possesses nuclear<br />

weapons<br />

or sufficient fiss<strong>il</strong>e material to make them. However, if al-Qa’ida obtained<br />

enough plutonium or highly enriched uranium, we believe it is capable of bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng a<br />

crude nuclear explosive, despite several <strong>di</strong>fficult steps. We cannot say absolutely<br />

whether al-Qa’ida possesses fiss<strong>il</strong>e material, but to our knowledge no evidence of<br />

possession has surfaced.” 140<br />

What is known, however, is that al-Qa’ida has previously, unsuccessfully, attempted<br />

to procure highly enriched uranium in the mid-1990s in Africa, Europe, and Russia.<br />

Bin<br />

Laden has loudly proclaimed his desire for nuclear capab<strong>il</strong>ity, and on 9<br />

November 2001, he told a Pakistani journalist that he already has nuclear weapons.<br />

139 Al Qaeda Nuclear and Conventional<br />

Explosive Documents: CNN - ISIS Collaboration (http://www.isis-<br />

online.org/publications/terrorism/intro.html)<br />

[last accessed 12.10.06]<br />

140 Albright, D., Beulhler, K., and Higgins, H., “Bin Laden and the Bomb”, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,<br />

January/February 2002 (vol. 58, no. 01), pp. 23<br />

(http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=jf02albright_027) [last<br />

accessed: 17.10.06]<br />

219


In 1986, the Nuclear Control Institute, in cooperation with the Institute for Stu<strong>di</strong>es in<br />

International Terrorism of the State University of New York, convened the<br />

International Task Force on Prevention of Nuclear Terrorism, comprised of 26<br />

nuclear scientists and industrialists, current and former government officials, and<br />

experts on terrorism from nine countries. The report issued by the Task Force, along<br />

with more than 20 commissioned stu<strong>di</strong>es, remains the most definitive examination of<br />

nuclear terrorism in the unclassified literature.<br />

The Task Force warned that the "probab<strong>il</strong>ity of nuclear terrorism is increasing"<br />

because of a number of factors inclu<strong>di</strong>ng "the growing incidence, sophistication and<br />

lethality of conventional forms of terrorism," as well as the vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity of nuclear<br />

power and research<br />

reactors to sabotage and of weapons-usable nuclear materials to<br />

theft. The Task Force's warnings and its recommendations for reducing<br />

vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ities, many of which went unheeded, are all the more relevant in today's<br />

threat environment<br />

of sophisticated and suicidal terrorists de<strong>di</strong>cated to mass k<strong>il</strong>ling<br />

and destruction.<br />

A definitive conclusion to this debate surroun<strong>di</strong>ng terrorist interest in, and<br />

w<strong>il</strong>lingness to use, nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons is only possible in one way: an<br />

attempt, or successful attack, by a terrorist organisation using a nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon. Unt<strong>il</strong> then it can be persuasively argued that the threat of an<br />

NR event remains real. It is<br />

the belief of the author that this danger w<strong>il</strong>l be ever-<br />

present in potentia: with the advent of the nuclear age, the genie is well and truly out<br />

of the bottle. As long as NR technology and weapons exist, so too w<strong>il</strong>l the risk of<br />

terrorist acquisition and ultimate use.<br />

With the rise of the so-called “New Terrorism” where terrorist groups strive to<br />

execute increasingly destructive attacks upon their targets, it is no simple matter to<br />

era<strong>di</strong>cate the “w<strong>il</strong>l” to use more powerful and high impact weapons, especially in<br />

cases where the group believes their cause to be one of a higher purpose, either as<br />

part of a religious war, or as a precursor to an apocalypse. It is, therefore, primar<strong>il</strong>y<br />

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in the “means” that international, regional and domestic initiatives can act effectively<br />

to deny terrorists the ab<strong>il</strong>ity to perpetrate their attacks.<br />

Assassination – the surreptitious administration of ionising ra<strong>di</strong>ation to an<br />

in<strong>di</strong>vidual<br />

The possib<strong>il</strong>ity of using ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials as a tool for assassination has largely<br />

been ignored in these times, where the focus of the associated dangers of NR<br />

terrorism is tra<strong>di</strong>tionally on mass casualty events. However, given the relative ease of<br />

access to ra<strong>di</strong>ological materials (as <strong>di</strong>scussed in the following section) and its<br />

flexib<strong>il</strong>ity to be used as equally for poisoning in<strong>di</strong>viduals and for contaminating<br />

large areas, this possib<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

must not be ignored.<br />

There are a number of advantages attractive to a non-state actor in using ra<strong>di</strong>ation to<br />

murder another. Firstly, there is no known cure to acute ra<strong>di</strong>ation poisoning;<br />

secondly, the public response to such an act would be of the greatest magnitude in<br />

these times of heightened sensitivity to use of unconventional weapons; and, thirdly,<br />

as with biological and many chemical agents, in<strong>di</strong>viduals cannot normally detect<br />

ionising ra<strong>di</strong>ation by hearing, sight, odour, touch, or other normal sense without<br />

specialised equipment. It is <strong>di</strong>fficult to detect ra<strong>di</strong>ation prior to becoming poisoning<br />

and the likelihood therefore of contracting<br />

the <strong>il</strong>lness is higher.<br />

There have been very few cases of proven or suspected <strong>del</strong>iberate ra<strong>di</strong>ation<br />

poisoning, among these there is the case of a Soviet Secret Agent, Nikolai Khokhlov,<br />

who, in 1954, gave himself up to U.S. authorities rather than carry out an<br />

assassination in West Germany. He subsequently joined the emigrant Russian<br />

revolutionary movement centred in West Germany. In 1957, wh<strong>il</strong>e atten<strong>di</strong>ng a<br />

Frankfurt conference, he became sick with nausea, vomiting and fainting. Having<br />

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een hospitalised for acute gastritis, on the sixth day he developed widespread<br />

ecchymoses. At the same time, it was <strong>di</strong>scovered that his hair was falling out and<br />

thallium<br />

poisoning was suspected. Upon review of his activities on the day he<br />

became sick, he recalled a bad-tasting cup of coffee after his speech; he thought this<br />

coffee may have been poisoned. His con<strong>di</strong>tion worsened with the development of<br />

marrow fa<strong>il</strong>ure lea<strong>di</strong>ng to anaemia and leucopoenia on the seventh day of<br />

hospitalisation.<br />

He was transferred to the U.S. m<strong>il</strong>itary hospital in Frankfurt for<br />

treatment. It was a month after onset before he was released. No definitive toxicology<br />

is known to have been done; the thallium <strong>di</strong>agnosis was made on clinical grounds.<br />

Some time later, American consultants reviewing the case suggested that ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

thallium ingested in food could most eas<strong>il</strong>y explain the syndrome. 141<br />

The <strong>del</strong>eterious effects of ra<strong>di</strong>ation poisoning are well documented and are amply<br />

demonstrated by the case of a 19 year old research worker in a ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

laboratory in Moscow who decided to commit suicide because of unfavourable<br />

relationships with his fam<strong>il</strong>y. He took a hermetically<br />

sealed aluminium capsule f<strong>il</strong>led<br />

with ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material. The mean doses of ra<strong>di</strong>ation he ultimately received were<br />

extremely large, lea<strong>di</strong>ng rapidly to nausea and weakness, followed by acute<br />

abdominal pain and <strong>di</strong>arrhoea. He also developed necrotic burns developed around<br />

the trunk of his body and death occurred after fifteen days.<br />

The most recent and controversial case is the death of Mr. Alexander Litvienko, a<br />

former Soviet spy who <strong>di</strong>ed on November 23 2006 after having been in contact with<br />

Polonium 210 more than three weeks before.<br />

These examples show that wh<strong>il</strong>e a political assassination with ra<strong>di</strong>ation could be<br />

committed, it also could be detected at a later time. Of course, at that later time it<br />

might be <strong>di</strong>fficult or impossible to demonstrate who administered the dose, or<br />

indeed, the perpetrators may wish to claim responsib<strong>il</strong>ity.<br />

141 Khokhlov, N.: In the Name of Conscience. Fredrick Muller, London, 1959 (in Postscript - - "the Poison Rays")<br />

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1.2 The “Way”<br />

Terrorist desire to obtain NR weaponry, technology and materials, and their<br />

w<strong>il</strong>lingness to use them becomes a greater concern when there exists the means by<br />

which to acquire them. Insufficient safeguards, security and controls, the existence of<br />

nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological smuggling, <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking and organised crime networks,<br />

and the wide ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources and materials all contribute to this<br />

significant danger.<br />

1.2.1 Nuclear weapons and materials surety<br />

Nuclear weapons surety is “the materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the<br />

safety, security, reliab<strong>il</strong>ity and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear<br />

accidents, incidents, unauthorized use, or degradation in performance.” 142 It should be<br />

clarified that the terms “incidents” and “unauthorized use” in<br />

essence refer to<br />

nuclear weapons sabotage, theft, <strong>di</strong>version and loss. Although intact nuclear<br />

weapons are most often well-secured and protected by stringent security and<br />

accounting procedures and mechanisms, the significant threats of nuclear theft and<br />

<strong>di</strong>version remain, particularly in countries such<br />

as the Russian Federation and in the<br />

NIS. Wh<strong>il</strong>st nuclear security has vastly improved across the globe, largely due to<br />

focussed initiatives such as the <strong>Global</strong> Threat Reduction Initiative and the<br />

Cooperative Threat Reduction programmes of the US and EU, security upgrades are<br />

urity are daunting. 143<br />

incomplete at many sites, and the challenges to effective sec<br />

142 http://www.acq.osd.m<strong>il</strong>/ncbdp/nm/nuclearweaponssurety.html [last accessed 02.10.06]<br />

143 Bunn, W., and Weir, A., Securing the Bomb 2006, Nuclear Threat Initiative: July 2006, Executive Summary<br />

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Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the uncertain status of nuclear<br />

weapons, fiss<strong>il</strong>e materials and nuclear scientists in Russia and other former Soviet<br />

republics<br />

are wi<strong>del</strong>y regarded as posing perhaps the most imme<strong>di</strong>ate threat of<br />

nuclear proliferation and nuclear terrorism. Despite significant assistance from the<br />

United States over the last ten years, many of Russia’s nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities seem poorly<br />

secured, and there is st<strong>il</strong>l no comprehensive, verifiable system of nuclear materials<br />

accountancy.<br />

Connected to the risk from inadequately secured nuclear and fiss<strong>il</strong>e materials and<br />

weaponry is the sheer number of such stocks<br />

worldwide. It is a long and arduous<br />

task<br />

to install adequate protection and security levels at all the sites and in the<br />

meantime,<br />

accor<strong>di</strong>ng to one report, civ<strong>il</strong> stocks alone of plutonium and highly<br />

enriched uranium (HEU) total 1850 tonnes as of the end of 2003. M<strong>il</strong>itary stocks total<br />

a further 1880 tonnes, meaning that 3730 tonnes<br />

of these materials are theoretically<br />

ulnerable to theft and sabotage. 144<br />

v<br />

1.2.2 Attacks against and sabotage of nuclear power plants<br />

Nuclear power plants (NPP) are <strong>di</strong>sseminated all over the world. Unlike with the<br />

commercial and orphaned sources <strong>di</strong>scussed later, the threats posed to NPPs are<br />

those of sabotage or a conventional attack to release their high-activity ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

sources. Furthermore, sabotaging or attacking an NPP could cause economic and<br />

socio-political damage, or provide access to ra<strong>di</strong>oactive or fiss<strong>il</strong>e materials to be used<br />

in the construction of an RDD.<br />

A report made by the UK Department of the Environment, Transport and the<br />

Regions (DETR) - now the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs<br />

144 see Table 1 <strong>Global</strong> Plutonium and Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU), Assigned to Civ<strong>il</strong> or M<strong>il</strong>itary Stocks, end<br />

2003, in tonnes; in <strong>Global</strong> Stocks of Nuclear Explosive Materials: Summary Tables and Charts,<br />

July 12, 2005<br />

(http://www.isis-online.org/global-stocks/end2003/tableofcontents.html) [last accessed 01.11.06]<br />

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(DEFRA) - was undertaken “to assist in the definition of potential threats from<br />

overseas nuclear reactor accidents”. 145 The study examined a large number of<br />

reactors and data for NPPs in Western Europe, Russia, the seven Central and Eastern<br />

European Countries (CEECs) seeking membership of the European Union, and the<br />

Newly Independent States (NIS) with operable NPPs. 146 It demonstrates that<br />

incidents in one country can affect its neighbours and, indeed, perhaps a whole<br />

region, depen<strong>di</strong>ng upon environmental con<strong>di</strong>tions.<br />

In ad<strong>di</strong>tion to nuclear power plants of the type <strong>di</strong>scussed above, a further two related<br />

plant types warrant mention: commercial research reactors and nuclear fuel<br />

reprocessing plants (which produces and stores nuclear spent fuel), in ad<strong>di</strong>tion to the<br />

threat of attacks on ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products.<br />

Research reactors<br />

The IAEA maintains a list of past, present and future research<br />

reactors, which it<br />

makes ava<strong>il</strong>able on its website. 147 When queried as to those fac<strong>il</strong>ities in or around the<br />

European<br />

Union, the IAEA database identified 183 operational research reactors, 189<br />

shut down reactors, 154 decommissioned reactors, as well as two ad<strong>di</strong>tional fac<strong>il</strong>ities<br />

under construction with an ad<strong>di</strong>tional two planned. Commercial research reactors<br />

are neither as well guarded and secured, nor as structurally able to withstand a<br />

powerful attack. With the large number of targets ava<strong>il</strong>able worldwide, this is a<br />

significant cause for concern.<br />

145 Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, ‘Estimates of Probab<strong>il</strong>ity of Severe Accidents at<br />

European Reactors Potentially Lea<strong>di</strong>ng to Fallout in the UK’, DEFRA Report No: DEFRA/RAS/01.001, August 2001<br />

146 The countries assessed were Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,<br />

Russia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and<br />

Armenia.<br />

147 see the IAEA website for these deta<strong>il</strong>s worldwide: http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/rrdb/<br />

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Nuclear fuel reprocessing plants<br />

Nuclear fuel reprocessing plants are another type of nuclear power plant dealing<br />

with the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.<br />

They often generate the greatest concerns in connection with civ<strong>il</strong> nuclear plant<br />

safety because:<br />

i. Reprocessing is the only way to produce plutonium;<br />

ii. Reprocessing creates vast quantities of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste.<br />

The vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity of spent nuclear fuel poses another significant danger from<br />

terrorist attack. Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to a former Senior Policy Advisor to the U.S. Energy<br />

Secretary:<br />

Although much of<br />

this ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste is low-level, some waste is contaminated<br />

with plutonium and so is classified at the interme<strong>di</strong>ate-level and a small quantity of<br />

high-level (activity) waste is also created.<br />

Wh<strong>il</strong>st a small minority of nuclear power stations in the US store their spent fuel in<br />

dry-casks, the vast majority of commercial spent fuel is stored in water, or “pools”.<br />

These pools can contain over 40000 tonnes of highly ra<strong>di</strong>oactive spent fuel in<br />

approximately 137000 spent fuel rods.<br />

It has been noted that these fac<strong>il</strong>ities may be vulnerable to attack. In one scenario<br />

developed by Mycle Schneider, it is envisaged that a suicide attack using a<br />

commercial aeroplane on spent<br />

fuel pools, or a miss<strong>il</strong>e attack, might create<br />

tremendous ra<strong>di</strong>oactive fall-out which could affect not only the target country, but<br />

also its neighbours. 148 Schneider argues that many bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ngs at nuclear plants and<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>ities are over fifty years old and that many of the older bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ngs could not<br />

withstand an aircraft crash and subsequent aviation fuel fire. Furthermore,<br />

148 Large, J., Schneider, M., International Terrorism - The Vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ities and Protection of Nuclear Fac<strong>il</strong>ities, World<br />

Information Service on Energy, WISE, Paris, France, [Online] http://www.wiseparis.org/english/reports/conferences/030102NukeTerrorORGFinalJL.pdf<br />

[Last Accessed 5/06/05]<br />

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edundant bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ngs on-site have been “cru<strong>del</strong>y adapted” to store large quantities of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials for which they are clearly unsuited. He also asserts that “the<br />

design<br />

of the most modern plants does not seem to provide that much defence (in<br />

terms of containment surety and segregation of hazardous materials) against an<br />

aerial attack.” b<strong>il</strong>ity of nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities could allow for<br />

149 These defects in the defensi<br />

serious consequences if an attack was mounted.<br />

This scenario has<br />

been described as being comparable to the Chernobyl nuclear<br />

power plant accident of 26 Apr<strong>il</strong> 1986. By March 1999, The Union<br />

of Concerned<br />

Scie ntists had already documented over 120 acts of sabotage at US nuclear plants<br />

alone. 150<br />

Professor Paul Rogers, a renowned nuclear terrorism expert, recently also<br />

highlighted the threat<br />

posed by param<strong>il</strong>itary attacks on nuclear plants as a form of<br />

“economic targeting” – the sister strand to mass casualty attacks. Rogers outlined the<br />

ad<strong>di</strong>tional danger whereby terrorists, or param<strong>il</strong>itary groups, could foreseeably<br />

target nuclear power plants for the primary purpose of waging economic warfare,<br />

with the secondary effect of causing widespread destruction, death and<br />

contamination. 151<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products<br />

The sheer number of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste shipments across the European continent is<br />

the highest in the world, and concerns remain regar<strong>di</strong>ng the vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity of such<br />

shipments to attack, with resulting ra<strong>di</strong>oactive fallout. Wh<strong>il</strong>e there are regulations<br />

pertaining to the security and safety arrangements of such shipments, vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ities<br />

st<strong>il</strong>l exist and are magnified when faced with a particularly determined attacker or<br />

149 Ibid<br />

150 Lochbaum, D., Three M<strong>il</strong>e Island’s Puzzling Legacy<br />

151 Rogers, P., “The Risk of Nuclear Terrorism in the UK”, Secure Energy: options for a Safer World, Factsheet 3<br />

(Oxford Research Group: 2006)<br />

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saboteur. Attacks on ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste in storage are also a valid concern. Most often<br />

there are too few waste <strong>di</strong>sposal sites to deal with the various types of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

waste (low, me<strong>di</strong>um and high-activity) and often the ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste <strong>di</strong>sposal is<br />

carried out by the producers. This in itself presents concerns over the safety and<br />

security of storage of the waste, as there is far more waste than can be <strong>di</strong>sposed of<br />

quickly and fully which means that ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products must be stored at the<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>ity. 152 One solution to this is the development and maintenance of centralised<br />

storage fac<strong>il</strong>ities under <strong>di</strong>rect control of the government which would improve<br />

security by having all the waste in only a few places and under constant vig<strong>il</strong>ance.<br />

1.2.3 Nuclear smuggling<br />

In relation to the proliferation of nuclear weapons to non-state actors, the issue is<br />

more complicated than simply examining the smuggling nuclear material, although<br />

this<br />

remains a problem. As already noted, perhaps the most efficient method for a<br />

non-state actor to acquire a nuclear weapon would be to <strong>di</strong>vert one from existing<br />

stockp<strong>il</strong>es. Such an act would<br />

then necessitate the weapon to be smuggled to its<br />

intended<br />

detonation point. Fortunately, there are few in<strong>di</strong>cations that the smuggling<br />

of complete nuclear weapon systems is currently a problem. The same cannot be said<br />

the <strong>il</strong>licit transfer of special nuclear material –a key element in any attempt to<br />

produce an IND. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has reported at<br />

least 18 confirmed seizures of stolen plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU)<br />

over the past decade. 153<br />

152 See: www.ananuclear.org/CARTYfactsheet.html<br />

153 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), "Facts & Figures: The IAEA's Database on Illicit Trafficking of<br />

Nuclear and Other Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Materials" (press release, Vienna, Austria, October 8, 2002).<br />

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Nuclear smuggling also incorporates the <strong>il</strong>licit transfer of the resources required to<br />

establish an independent production programme; intangible resources, such as<br />

knowledge, training or contacts; as well assorted other key technologies. The story of<br />

the Pakistani nuclear weapons programmes <strong>il</strong>lustrates many of the contemporary<br />

concerns over nuclear smuggling.<br />

Pakistan's nuclear weapons program was headed for about 25 years by Dr A.Q.<br />

Khan. Dr Khan trained originally as a metallurgist. He worked in the Physics<br />

Dynamic Research Laboratory (FDO) in Amsterdam, from May 1972 to December<br />

1975. FDO was a subcontractor to a Dutch-German and British consortium<br />

(URENCO)<br />

specializing in the manufacture of nuclear equipment. It was during his<br />

time in Almelo (Netherlands), the consortium ‘s primary enrichment fac<strong>il</strong>ity, that Dr<br />

Khan<br />

is believed to have been requested by the Prime Minister of Pakistan to lead<br />

their national uranium enrichment programme. By 1976, Dr Khan returned to<br />

Pakistan, taking with him two blueprints for uranium centrifuges. Descriptions of<br />

Pakistan’s<br />

efforts to produce fiss<strong>il</strong>e material in<strong>di</strong>cate that they suffered from a lack of<br />

necessary resources. Dr Khan reportedly began to acquire the necessary materials<br />

and components <strong>il</strong>licitly through contacts obtained wh<strong>il</strong>st working for URENCO. As<br />

an example, two Dutch firms were reputedly involved in the export in 1976 of 6,200<br />

unfinished rotor tubes to Pakistan. Although initially working under the remit of the<br />

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), Dr Khan was soon to be placed in sole<br />

charge of the uranium enrichment project and founded the Engineering Research<br />

Laboratories (ERL) on 31 July 1976. He reported <strong>di</strong>rectly to the Prime Minister’s<br />

office. Within five years the ERL (by then renamed the A.Q.Khan Research<br />

Laboratories (KRL)) had developed an in<strong>di</strong>genous capacity for the enrichment of<br />

uranium. It was the source material for the nuclear weapon detonation in May 1998.<br />

It is clear that, despite<br />

having developed an in<strong>di</strong>genous programme for the<br />

enrichment of uranium, a considerable number of ad<strong>di</strong>tional resources would be<br />

required on the road to acquiring a nuclear weapon. In hindsight it is also apparent<br />

that once more Pakistan lacked the national<br />

capacity domestically. Ad<strong>di</strong>tional covert<br />

229


acquisition and transfer operations must have been carried out. Intelligence records<br />

in<strong>di</strong>cate that suspicions of such activities developed in a number of western states<br />

during the 1990s. By the end of the century, a more complete picture had emerged.<br />

These proliferation activities appeared not to be isolated events. There were<br />

in<strong>di</strong>cations of the existence of an international proliferation network involving Dr<br />

Khan. For example, the Joint Intelligence Committee in the UK was reporting that<br />

they had information linking Dr Khan attempts to acquire uranium enrichment<br />

technology by one middle eastern country (believed to be Libya). Within a year, Dr<br />

Khan had been removed as <strong>di</strong>rector of the KRL but retained as a special advisor to<br />

the government. He has been shielded ever since from <strong>di</strong>rect investigation by other<br />

states or the international community.<br />

Efforts to establish just what proliferation activities Dr Khan had or may continue to<br />

be involved in, however, managed to progress despite the lack of access to the man<br />

himself. Statements from US officials in<strong>di</strong>cate that they possess intelligence linking<br />

Dr Khan to the North Korean nuclear weapons programme. Dr Khan, it was later<br />

proven, helped to provide North Korea with centrifuge designs, complete centrifuges<br />

and lists of components for centrifuge production. 154<br />

Ad<strong>di</strong>tionally, in October 2003 links to Dr Khan emerged through the international<br />

inspections of the Iranian nuclear programme. In early March 2005, Pakistan<br />

acknowledged A. Q. Khan had provided centrifuges to Iran. 155<br />

Equally, a shipment of centrifuge parts destined for Libya, inter<strong>di</strong>cted in October<br />

2003, were also linked to Dr Khan. Surve<strong>il</strong>lance by the UK’s Joint Intelligence<br />

Committee revealed Dr Khan had expanded his activities to mass-produce the<br />

components for centrifuge cascades and had established his own production<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>ities, in Malaysia. Libya was also reportedly provided by the Dr Khan with<br />

154 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/dprk/khan-dprk.htm [last accessed 24.10.06]<br />

155 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/iran/khan-iran.htm [last accessed 24.10.06]<br />

230


information on how and where to acquire ad<strong>di</strong>tional components for their<br />

enrichment program. 156<br />

These events were partly responsible for the IAEA contacting the government of<br />

Pakistan over possible proliferation concerns in November 2003. The national<br />

investigation which followed in<strong>di</strong>cated that Dr Khan and another senior figure in<br />

Pakistan’s nuclear programme, Mohammed Farooq, had both participated in a black<br />

market in nuclear resources. Some activities appear to have been particularly overt.<br />

A sales brochure from KRL included components critical for making centrifuges and<br />

which had been developed for Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme. President<br />

Musharraf denied any government involvement but acknowledged that some<br />

scientists may have acted for their own personal gain. In a later television interview,<br />

Dr Khan confirmed he had acted without authorisation and provided North Korea,<br />

Iran and Libya with nuclear technology. He in<strong>di</strong>cated that the network involved was<br />

truly global and stretched from Germany to Dubai and from China to South Asia. 157<br />

1.2.4 Organised Crime Networks<br />

Although terrorism and organised crime have<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>tionally been considered as <strong>di</strong>stinctly <strong>di</strong>fferent<br />

threats to international peace and security, there is a<br />

growing body of evidence to suggest that their<br />

interests, modes of action and even motivations<br />

might actually overlap.<br />

Organised crime networks already<br />

possess many of the resources<br />

sought by nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorists, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng: mechanism<br />

for <strong>il</strong>licit transport; circumventing<br />

control regimes and access to<br />

prohibited goods.<br />

A prime example of such a confluence is evident in the activities of Dr Khan and the<br />

smuggling of nuclear materials as <strong>di</strong>scussed above. The information ava<strong>il</strong>able on this<br />

156 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/libya/khan-libya.htm [last accessed 24.10.06]<br />

157 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/pakistan/khan.htm [last accessed 24.10.06]<br />

231


proliferation network in<strong>di</strong>cates that it might have been motivated by greed – the<br />

tra<strong>di</strong>tional motivation of organised crime (as opposed to the political motivations of<br />

terrorism). Furthermore, Dr Khan used false papers, front companies and transport<br />

arrangements put in place not by terrorists but by criminal contacts. One of Dr<br />

Khan's confederates was a Dubai-based Sri Lankan businessman, Buhary Ayed Abu<br />

Tahir. It was he that arranged for a Malaysian company to manufacture nuclear<br />

components for shipment to Libya and for Libyan technicians to be trained in the use<br />

of machines that were part of the nuclear program. Abu Tahir has also been<br />

implicated in the transfer of centrifuge units from Pakistan to Iran.<br />

It is becoming clear that both terrorists and organised crime possess resources which<br />

might be of interest to one and other. Terrorist groups realise that their activities are<br />

likely to be costly and commonly have access to financial resources large enough to<br />

interest organised crime, driven by greed. Terrorists can also be well versed in the<br />

use of a variety of <strong>di</strong>fferent weapons, counter-intelligence training, and other sk<strong>il</strong>ls.<br />

This<br />

knowledge might be equally applicable for criminal purposes. On the other<br />

hand, organised crime can often access both resources (such as weapons) and<br />

logistical mechanisms (such as smuggling routes) which could fac<strong>il</strong>itate terrorist<br />

activities. The practical alignment<br />

of the interests of both terrorists and organised<br />

crime might best be exemplified by the international trade in narcotics – an industry<br />

which<br />

involves both terrorist organizations and organised crime.<br />

This growing relationship between terrorism and<br />

ad<strong>di</strong>tional avenues to address nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorism. It reinforces the<br />

necessity of ensuring counter-terrorism activities are conducted<br />

within the remit of<br />

the rule of law. It also justifies recent efforts to enhance<br />

efforts to combat corruption<br />

and the financing of terrorism. It also necessitates strengthening<br />

law enforcement.<br />

International cooperation<br />

organised crime opens up<br />

on extra<strong>di</strong>tion laws could also be strengthened to ensure<br />

those perpetrating criminal acts cannot eas<strong>il</strong>y elude arrest and prosecution. Most<br />

importantly, all these activities need to be carried out throughout the world – having<br />

effective measures in a limited number of countries would undermine the<br />

232


effectiveness of these efforts. As long as there are safe havens for the conduct of<br />

organised crime, terrorists w<strong>il</strong>l have easy access to many of their required resources.<br />

1.2.5 Ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources<br />

There are seven main sources of ra<strong>di</strong>ological materials:<br />

(i) Nuclear weapons;<br />

(ii) Commercial sources;<br />

(iii) Orphan sources;<br />

(iv) Nuclear power reactors;<br />

(v) Research reactors;<br />

(vi) Nuclear fuel processing plants; and<br />

(vii) Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products.<br />

Despite the <strong>di</strong>fferences between these types of sources, there are two principles<br />

which appear universal: firstly, that small and insignificant (from their potential to be<br />

used in a malign manner) sources greatly out-number larger and more hazardous<br />

sources; and secondly, that fiss<strong>il</strong>e material (either in the form of nuclear weapons or<br />

nuclear power related materials) are under tighter controls at a much smaller<br />

number of sites than ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources. 158 The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of nuclear weapons and<br />

materials, the vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity and widespread numbers of nuclear power plants,<br />

research reactors, nuclear fuel processing plants and ra<strong>di</strong>oactive waste products have<br />

158 Mullen, E., Van Tuyle, G., & York, R.L., “Potential Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Dispersal Device (RDD) Threats and Associated<br />

Technology”, ANS Winter Meeting, Washington D.C., November 18-20, 2002 [online]<br />

http://eed.llnl.gov/ans/2002/mullen/mullen_ans_2002.pdf [last accessed 07.04.05]<br />

233


een <strong>di</strong>scussed above. It therefore remains to address commercial ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources<br />

and so-called “orphan sources”. 159<br />

Commercial and industrial sources<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

sources have numerous commercial<br />

applications, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng in me<strong>di</strong>cal devices,<br />

healthcare products, pharmaceuticals, industry,<br />

geological activities, food preservation, cosmetics,<br />

emergency lighting and signage.<br />

As a result these<br />

Large numbers of sources are<br />

already<br />

in use for commercial and<br />

industrial<br />

applications –<br />

monitoring and verifying they are<br />

not <strong>di</strong>verted for malign purposes<br />

is a significant challenge which<br />

st<strong>il</strong>l requires<br />

further work.<br />

sources have been <strong>di</strong>sseminated<br />

around the globe with large numbers in use at this<br />

time and even more having been<br />

<strong>di</strong>scarded. The proliferation risk posed by<br />

commercial sources is dependent upon their size and ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity. Commercial<br />

sources can be characterised as either weak or strong. Weak sources (producing up to<br />

10 s ranging from smoke detectors to<br />

9 Bq) have been used in commonplace item<br />

me<strong>di</strong>cal <strong>di</strong>agnostic equipment. In<strong>di</strong>vidually<br />

these sources pose a minimal<br />

proliferation risk. High concentrations of weak sources could, however, pose a threat<br />

if <strong>di</strong>verted for malign use. Strong sources, tra<strong>di</strong>tionally used in me<strong>di</strong>cal therapies,<br />

although fewer in number pose a greater proliferation concern. There are over 10,000<br />

me<strong>di</strong>cal ra<strong>di</strong>otherapy units in current usage.<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources are also wi<strong>del</strong>y used for ra<strong>di</strong>ography of metallic parts, gauges<br />

and irra<strong>di</strong>ation of products in numerous industrial settings. Tens of thousands<br />

industrial ra<strong>di</strong>ography sources are used annually, the majority of which contain<br />

lethal quantities of iri<strong>di</strong>um-192, cobalt-60, selenium-75 or ytterbium-169.<br />

159 For the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s (USA) definition of ‘orphan’ sources, see<br />

www.nrc.gov/materials/miau/miau-reg-initiatives/orphan.html<br />

234


Orphaned ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources<br />

Far too many commercial or industrial sources are<br />

improperly <strong>di</strong>sposed of when they reach<br />

the end of<br />

the ut<strong>il</strong>ity – they are abandoned. 160 Other ‘orphan’<br />

sources<br />

may never have been subject to regulatory<br />

Orphaned sources pose one of the<br />

greatest proliferation risks – far too<br />

many strongly ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources<br />

are <strong>di</strong>sposed of improperly, lost or<br />

stolen on an annual basis.<br />

control. A number are also lost, abandoned, misplaced,<br />

<strong>di</strong>verted, or removed without<br />

authorisation. The exact scale of this problem remains unknown. Large numbers of<br />

sources are st<strong>il</strong>l believed to be orphaned every year<br />

preventing a spectrum of proliferation concern (ranging<br />

from minimal security<br />

concern to significant proliferation risk) – but all represent a safety and<br />

environmental problem.<br />

despite efforts to strengthen<br />

regulatory controls. Orphaned sources can also vary<br />

in size and ra<strong>di</strong>oactivity –<br />

Orphaned sources are also a truly global problem. In the USA, about 375 sources are<br />

reported lost or stolen each year. Around 70 sources are orphaned annually within<br />

the EU. 161 Furthermore, some 30,000 <strong>di</strong>sused sources in the EU could be in danger of<br />

becoming orphaned. 162 In the former Soviet Union, notable cases of particular<br />

concern include abandoned electricity thermogenerators containing powerful<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources of strontium-90. 163 Abandoned thermogenerators have been<br />

<strong>di</strong>scovered in Georgia, Tajikistan, and Belarus and are subject to varying degrees of<br />

security implemented by the IAEA. <strong>di</strong>tionally, Kolos ‘Gamma-ear-of-corn’<br />

164 Ad<br />

apparatus, manufactured in the former Soviet Union for agricultural purposes<br />

(containing large, high-activity sources) have also been <strong>di</strong>scovered to have been<br />

orphaned.<br />

160 Gonzalez, A.J., “Security of Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources: Threats and Answers”, in Commercial Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources:<br />

Surveying the Security Risks, p39-40<br />

161 Ferguson, C.D, Kazi, T., and Perera, J., “Introduction: Setting the Security and Safety Context”, in Commercial<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources: Surveying the Security Risks, p.17<br />

162 Angus, M.J., Crumpton, C., McHugh, G., Moreton, A.D., and Roberts, P.T., “Management and Disposal of Disused<br />

Sealed Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources in the European Union”, EUR 1886, 2000, p.3<br />

163 Lluma, D., “What the Russians Left Behind’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, May/June 2000, p14-17<br />

164 A.J. Gonzalez, “Security of Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources: Threats and Answers”, in Commercial Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources:<br />

Surveying the Security Risks, Occasional Paper No.11, p.41-43<br />

235


The existence of these sources do not by and in of itself demonstrate a capab<strong>il</strong>ity to<br />

obtain them for malign purposes. There are a spectrum of factors which effect the<br />

ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

of such sources. Once again these factors w<strong>il</strong>l be dependent on the<br />

practicalities of the <strong>di</strong>fferent types of sources and the<br />

variety of locations and to<br />

deta<strong>il</strong> them here may be counter-productive. There is,<br />

however, a more in<strong>di</strong>cative<br />

dataset which demonstrates in actuality the capab<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

of sub-state actors to access<br />

these sources – deta<strong>il</strong>s of <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking.<br />

1.2.6 Illicit trafficking of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources<br />

It is worth noting at the outset<br />

that data referring to trafficking incidents and seizures<br />

is at best partial and is often <strong>di</strong>fficult to interpret due to a paucity of information. A<br />

major problem with this approach comes in attempting to accurately categorize the<br />

type of material involved and the intent of the in<strong>di</strong>viduals involved. Despite these<br />

serious drawbacks, examining incidents of <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking may st<strong>il</strong>l be the best<br />

approximation of the real world capab<strong>il</strong>ity to obtain access to the sources deta<strong>il</strong>ed<br />

above.<br />

As an in<strong>di</strong>cation of the level of <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking which has occurred in the recent<br />

past, it is possible to examine a dataset made ava<strong>il</strong>able by the Nuclear Threat<br />

Initiative which deta<strong>il</strong>s Reported Nuclear, Ra<strong>di</strong>oisotope, and Dual-Use Materials<br />

Trafficking Incidents Involving the Newly Independent States.<br />

236


Substance<br />

Number of Reported<br />

Cases<br />

Plutonium 2*<br />

Weapons-Grade Uranium 0<br />

Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) 0<br />

Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) 0<br />

Uranium (natural or form unidentified) 6<br />

Thorium and other nuclear materials 0<br />

Nuclear Related Dual-Use Materials 2<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Isotopes 27<br />

Waste/ Scams/ Contaminated Materials 7<br />

Total 44<br />

*These two incidents both appear to have involved minuscule quantities of<br />

plutonium, as in smoke detector ionization sources, and are probably not of<br />

proliferation significance.<br />

TABLE 1: Reported Nuclear, Ra<strong>di</strong>oisotope, and Dual-Use Materials Trafficking Incidents Involving the NIS in<br />

2003, Categorized by Material Type, (January - December 2003) 165<br />

Deta<strong>il</strong>s are also ava<strong>il</strong>able for other, earlier, occurrences of the <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking of<br />

high-activity ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources. One example involved the<br />

<strong>il</strong>legal export of the<br />

isotope Iri<strong>di</strong>um-192 from Ra<strong>di</strong>oisotope Factory No. 45 at the Mayak Production<br />

Association to a company in the United Kingdom. The iri<strong>di</strong>um was exported under<br />

falsified customs documents that had been prepared by the factory staff. The scheme<br />

165NTI, Reported Nuclear, Ra<strong>di</strong>oisotope, and Dual-Use Materials Trafficking Incidents Involving the Newly Independent<br />

States, Nuclear Threat Initiative,<br />

[Online] http://www.nti.org/db/nistraff/tables/2003%20by%20material.htm [Last Accessed 10/04/05]<br />

237


was uncovered when the factory sent a shipment of iri<strong>di</strong>um to St. Petersburg instead<br />

of to the local Kyshtym Customs Post. This led to the realization that the ra<strong>di</strong>ation<br />

level of the shipment <strong>di</strong>d not match the ra<strong>di</strong>ation level stated on the customs<br />

documentation. Investigations into the incident revealed that sim<strong>il</strong>ar cases of <strong>il</strong>licit<br />

trafficking had been occurring for a period of at least two years.<br />

Another example involved the export of over 100 k<strong>il</strong>ograms of LEU and other<br />

assorted ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials from the Ulba Metallurgy Plant in Ust- Kamenogorsk,<br />

Kazakstan. It was reported that a former employee of the site recruited a number of<br />

mid-level employees to <strong>di</strong>vert from their<br />

intended use a variety of ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

sources, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng: LEU, thorium, tantalum, and other ra<strong>di</strong>oactive metals. The<br />

material s were then sold on to a group which included a form er Customs agent who<br />

used his deta<strong>il</strong>ed knowledge of the export control regime to send the material<br />

abroad. Charges f<strong>il</strong>ed following the action of security forces to inter<strong>di</strong>ct some of the<br />

material specified the theft of 146 kg of LEU, 439kg of thorium, 58kg of thallium,<br />

20kg of in<strong>di</strong>um, and an un<strong>di</strong>sclosed amount of tantalum.<br />

It has been noted that recent incidents have involved a variety of <strong>di</strong>fferent sources<br />

which have,<br />

not since 1994, involved weapons-grade material.<br />

When considering weapons grade material, it is necessary to examine the period<br />

prior to 2003. Between 1992 and 1994, there were at least seven unambiguous cases of<br />

<strong>di</strong>version and recovery<br />

of weapons-usable nuclear material that appeared to be<br />

linked to the former Soviet Union. The Western nonproliferation community has<br />

referred to these as “significant cases” because they provided unequivocal evidence<br />

that it was possible for highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium, the essential<br />

ingre<strong>di</strong>ents of nuclear weapons, to be stolen and traded on the black market. The first<br />

significant case involved the <strong>di</strong>version of 1.5 k<strong>il</strong>ograms (kg) of 90-percent-enriched<br />

HEU in 1992 from the Luch Scientific Production Association, a Russian nuclear<br />

research fac<strong>il</strong>ity located outside Moscow in the town of Podolsk. The last case<br />

involved the recovery of 2.72 kg of 87.7-percent-enriched HEU in Prague, Czech<br />

238


Republic in December 1994. In all of these cases, the perpetrators were brought to<br />

trial and convicted.<br />

Since 1995 there has not been a single confirmed case involving weapons grade<br />

material in the open source literature, but as described above trafficking does<br />

continue in high-activity sources and other dual-use equipment. It is possible that<br />

international assistance to secure nuclear materials in the NIS has achieved a<br />

significant success. It is also possible that an increased awareness of the seriousness<br />

of nuclear smuggling issues has pervaded the NIS and has helped provide a positive<br />

deterrent to nuclear theft and <strong>di</strong>version. 166 Alternatively, it is possible that this data<br />

is in<strong>di</strong>cative of a shift away from sub-state acquisition of weapons grade material<br />

towards an increased desirab<strong>il</strong>ity for high-activity ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources.<br />

FIGURE 2: Incidents confirmed to the IAEA Illicit Trafficking Database in 1993-2004 167<br />

Data recently released by the IAEA (Figure 2) clearly in<strong>di</strong>cates that levels of incidents<br />

involving the <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking of nuclear material dropped sharply between 1993 and<br />

2004, wh<strong>il</strong>st during the same period sim<strong>il</strong>ar incidents involving other ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

sources stea<strong>di</strong>ly increased.<br />

Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials other than nuclear materials involved in the incidents reported<br />

to the IAEA Illicit Trafficking Database have mostly been in the form of sealed<br />

166 Em<strong>il</strong>y S. Ewell, “NIS Nuclear Smuggling Since 1995: A Lull in Significant Cases?”, The Nonproliferation Review,<br />

Spring-Summer 1998, Vol. 5, No.3, p119-125.<br />

167 Taken from: IAEA, The IAEA Illicit Trafficking Database (ITDB): Fact Sheet for 1993-2004, International Atomic<br />

Energy Agency, [Online] http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/RadSources/fact_figures2004.pdf [Last<br />

Accessed 17/04/05]<br />

239


a<strong>di</strong>oactive sources with various activity levels and applications. A large portion of<br />

incidents involving ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources <strong>di</strong>d not involve criminal activity. The<br />

Database has also recorded numerous cases of <strong>di</strong>scoveries of orphan sources.<br />

Whether or not this increase is related to a parallel escalation in the desirab<strong>il</strong>ity of<br />

developing a ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons capab<strong>il</strong>ity amongst sub-state groups w<strong>il</strong>l be<br />

considered along with other relevant trends in terrorism in the following section.<br />

1.2.7 The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of relevant nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological expertise<br />

There has been a great deal of debate over the issue of whether a terrorist group<br />

could actually bu<strong>il</strong>d a nuclear bomb having acquired the necessary materials. This<br />

question hinges on whether the terrorists possess the requisite technical know-how<br />

and expertise to do so. There is general consensus, however, that wh<strong>il</strong>st terrorists<br />

would face many challenges, given enough time, it could be achieved:<br />

In order to construct a crude nuclear weapon, a sub-national group needs to possess<br />

specialised expertise in areas such as nuclear physics, engineering, high explosives,<br />

chemistry, electronics and propellants; they must also possess knowledge of the<br />

physical and chemical properties of plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU)<br />

and obtained deta<strong>il</strong>ed drawings and plans of weapons components and final<br />

assembled device. If a group does indeed possess<br />

this knowledge and expertise, it is<br />

not impossible that the terrorists, even a small group, could design and bu<strong>il</strong>d a crude<br />

nuclear device. Furthermore, the rise of the internet and the world wide web has<br />

only served to make it easier to acquire the requisite knowledge.<br />

The Congressional Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) concluded in a 1977<br />

publication that “a small group of people, none of whom have ever had access to the<br />

240


classified literature, could possibly design and bu<strong>il</strong>d a crude nuclear device.” 168 In<br />

1987, a group of former weapons designers calculated that “the number of specialists<br />

required [to construct a crude nuclear weapon]…could be scarcely fewer than three<br />

or four and might as well be more.” 169<br />

The manufacture of a ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon is vastly less complicated than the<br />

assembly of a nuclear explosive device, and may be well within a terrorist groups<br />

capab<strong>il</strong>ity,<br />

although the handling and <strong>di</strong>spersion of highly ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials<br />

poses health and safety challenges that a terrorist group might not wish to risk for<br />

fear of incapacitation or <strong>di</strong>scovery. The quantity of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials needed for a<br />

<strong>di</strong>spersal device is substantially less than the amount of plutonium<br />

needed to bu<strong>il</strong>d<br />

an explosive device. Nor would the terrorist group be limited to plutonium or HEU<br />

for<br />

source materials; any highly ra<strong>di</strong>oactive substance could cause contamination<br />

and necessitate an expensive clean up if <strong>di</strong>spersed effectively. 170<br />

Section 1 Conclusion<br />

The lesson from this section is that ultimately the threat posed by NR terrorism can<br />

only be gauged by looking at the convergence of the in<strong>di</strong>vidual elements involved.<br />

The intent and w<strong>il</strong>lingness of a terrorist organisation to perpetrate a nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological attack is equally as important as the means by which they can obtain the<br />

technologies, materials and knowledge to do so.<br />

The means (or “supply-side”) by which terrorists can access potentially dangerous<br />

substances are becoming more numerous and the danger is real as<br />

shown by the rise<br />

168 Office of Technology Assessment, Nuclear Proliferation and Safeguards (New York: Praeger Press, 1997), p141<br />

169 Carson, M.J., Taylor, T et al, “Can Terrorists Bu<strong>il</strong>d a Nuclear Weapon?” in Leventhal and Alexander, Preventing<br />

Nuclear Terrorism (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987), p58<br />

170 NTI, Introduction to Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism, Nuclear Threat Initiative, [Online]<br />

http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/radtutorial/ [Last Accessed 17/04/04]<br />

241


in nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological smuggling and <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking networks. The example<br />

of the A.Q. Khan network demonstrates that a highly sophisticated smuggling<br />

network can exist and thrive in today’s nuclear climate under the nose of nuclear<br />

watchdogs such as the IAEA and other States.<br />

Sim<strong>il</strong>arly, organised crime networks are becoming increasingly involved in<br />

smuggling m<strong>il</strong>itar<strong>il</strong>y significant materials across borders and provide a easy route for<br />

terrorists to acquire such materials. No longer bound by the rules of a system of<br />

states, criminal and <strong>il</strong>licit networks flourish in the fac<strong>il</strong>itative environments of<br />

ungoverned spaces, cultural enclaves in strong states, and in weak and fa<strong>il</strong>ing states.<br />

These networks of criminals and traffickers, and the volat<strong>il</strong>e settings that enable their<br />

activities, create an entirely <strong>di</strong>fferent world from that which was originally<br />

envisioned by the crafters of WMD policies and institutions.<br />

The intersections between these major threats, added to the dangers<br />

posed by the<br />

weak<br />

border and policing controls of weak or fa<strong>il</strong>ed states – and their internal<br />

vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity<br />

to theft or <strong>di</strong>version of dangerous materials and technologies – open<br />

new pathways and dynamics of NR proliferation that are, as yet, inadequately<br />

addressed at state, regional<br />

and international levels.<br />

There<br />

is, therefore, a real and present danger posed by the proliferation and use of<br />

NR terrorism to the international community. With the rise of terrorists w<strong>il</strong>ling to use<br />

such weapons, and of smuggling and trafficking networks able to supply the<br />

necessary material, this threat is significantly increased. Imme<strong>di</strong>ate and effective<br />

national, regional and international efforts must therefore be devised and execute to<br />

negate the in<strong>di</strong>vidual links of this chain. The following section w<strong>il</strong>l outline current<br />

efforts in these areas, and highlight areas that need further support and action. It<br />

must be noted at the outset that the fundamental <strong>di</strong>fferences between nuclear and<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons, and the threat posed by each, require <strong>di</strong>stinct control and<br />

counter-measures. There is no “one-size-fits-all” solution, and to attempt to do so<br />

would be <strong>di</strong>sastrous.<br />

242


2. International Efforts and Initiatives to Address the Threat<br />

The architecture of the U.S. response is termed “Layered defense.” The goal is to try<br />

to block terrorists at various stages in their attempts to obtain a nuclear weapon and<br />

smuggle it into the United States. The underlying concept is that the probab<strong>il</strong>ity of<br />

success is higher if many layers are used rather than just one or two. Layers include<br />

threat reduction programs in the former Soviet Union, efforts to secure HEU<br />

worldwide, control of former Soviet and other borders, the Container Security<br />

Initiative and Proliferation Security Initiative, and U.S. border security. Several<br />

approaches underlie multiple layers, such as technology, intelligence, and forensics.<br />

These principles can be applied in a broader manner – a multi-layered<br />

approach is<br />

just as necessary whether efforts are at the international, regional or national level.<br />

Indeed, such an assertion underlies recent efforts by the United Nations Member<br />

States to develop a common strategy to confront the threat of terrorism, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng the<br />

use of weapons of mass destruction by non-state actors.<br />

2.1 A <strong>Global</strong> Counter-Terrorism Strategy<br />

Throughout a series of Reports, the UN<br />

Secretary-General developed such a<br />

framework. In 2004 the High Level Panel<br />

on Threats, Challenges and Change,<br />

commissioned by the UN Secretary-General<br />

published the report of its fin<strong>di</strong>ngs, entitled<br />

A More Secure World:<br />

Our Shared<br />

243<br />

Counter measures should seek to: <strong>di</strong>ssuade<br />

non-state actors from seeking to acquire or<br />

use nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons; deny<br />

the means for non-state actors to acquire or<br />

use nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons; deter<br />

non-state actors from acquiring or using<br />

nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons; develop<br />

state capacity to prevent and respond to<br />

the acquisition and use of nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons; and defend human<br />

rights.


Responsib<strong>il</strong>ity 171 . The concepts developed by the eminent experts were then<br />

incorporated into the preparations for the UN <strong>Global</strong> Summit in 2005, for which the<br />

UN<br />

Secretary-General released a report of his own, entitled In Larger Freedom:<br />

Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All 172 . Although many of the<br />

issues presented in this report fa<strong>il</strong>ed to invoke consensus decisions when considered<br />

by world leaders, the underlying concepts were further refined. They formed the<br />

underpinnings of a further report by the UN Secretary-General, Uniting Against<br />

Terrorism: Recommendations for a <strong>Global</strong> Counter-Terrorism Strategy, released on 27<br />

Apr<strong>il</strong> 2006 173 .<br />

The framework developed by the UN Secretary-General seek[s] to both guide and<br />

unite… by emphasizing operational elements of <strong>di</strong>ssuasion, denial, deterrence, development of<br />

State capacity and defence of human rights. 174 It combines both the top down approach<br />

of what States can do in<strong>di</strong>vidually and collectively (thereby addressing supply) with<br />

the bottom-up approach of grass routes action (equally addressing demand).<br />

There are two principles which aid in <strong>di</strong>ssua<strong>di</strong>ng groups from resorting to terrorism<br />

or supporting it, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng:<br />

•<br />

•<br />

A clear, principled and immutable message that terrorism is unacceptable;<br />

Addressing con<strong>di</strong>tions conducive to exploitation by terrorists to create or<br />

increase their power base – such efforts should<br />

address:<br />

o<br />

o<br />

Extremist ideologies and dehumanization of victims;<br />

Violent conflict;<br />

o Poor governance; lack of civ<strong>il</strong> rights<br />

and human rights abuse;<br />

o Religious and ethnic <strong>di</strong>scrimination,<br />

political exclusion and socio-<br />

economic marginalization<br />

171 http://www.un.org/secureworld/report2.pdf<br />

172 http://www.un.org/largerfreedom/contents.htm<br />

173 http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/60/825&Lang=E<br />

174 http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/60/825&Lang=E p2<br />

244


There are five principles which aid in denying terrorists the means to carry out an<br />

attack, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng:<br />

• Denying financial support;<br />

• Denying access to weapons, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng weapons of mass destruction;<br />

• Denying access to recruits and communication by countering terrorist use of<br />

the Internet;<br />

• Denying terrorists access to travel;<br />

• Denying terrorists access to their targets and the desired impact of their<br />

attacks.<br />

To be able to deter an actor from becoming involved in terrorism, a situation has to<br />

be created where there are real penalties for engaging in the activities it is desirable<br />

to proscribe. This necessitates two things – firstly an ab<strong>il</strong>ity to identify those planning<br />

or carrying out proscribed activities (the unresolved nature of the anthrax letter<br />

attacks in<strong>di</strong>cate how <strong>di</strong>fficult this can be even for those with the greatest resources);<br />

and secondly an ab<strong>il</strong>ity to reach<br />

those planning or conducting proscribed activities<br />

(the continuing fa<strong>il</strong>ure to be able to locate senior al-Qa’ida figures despite exhaustive<br />

efforts in<strong>di</strong>cate how <strong>di</strong>fficult this can be). As a result efforts have focused on<br />

deterring States from supporting terrorist groups. A<br />

factor which might have<br />

elevated relevance when considering nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons.<br />

Seven<br />

areas have been identified as requiring priority action under developing State<br />

capacity, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng:<br />

• Promoting the rule of law, respect for human rights, and effective criminal<br />

justice systems;<br />

• Promoting quality education and religious and cultural tolerance;<br />

• Countering the financing of terrorism;<br />

• Ensuring transport security;<br />

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• Harnessing the power of the Internet to counter terrorism;<br />

• Improving the protection of soft targets and the response to attacks on them;<br />

• Strengthening State capacity<br />

to prevent terrorists from acquiring nuclear,<br />

biological, chemical, or ra<strong>di</strong>ological materials, and ensuring<br />

preparedness for an attack with such materials.<br />

better<br />

A scarce six months after the report was released; the UN adopted a <strong>Global</strong> Counter-<br />

lan175 Terrorism Strategy and attendant Action P . The Plan recognises a need for a<br />

multi-<strong>di</strong>rectional approach closely resembling the framework proposed by the UN<br />

Secretary-General. Member States have agreed to undertake:<br />

• Measures to address the con<strong>di</strong>tions conducive to the spread of terrorism<br />

• Measures to Prevent and combat terrorism<br />

• Measures to bu<strong>il</strong>d States' capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and to<br />

strengthen the role of the United Nations system in this regard<br />

• Measures to ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the<br />

fundamental basis of the fight against terrorism<br />

2.2 A Counter-Nuclear-Terrorism Strategy?<br />

Many of the principles in the framework described above are not specifically ta<strong>il</strong>ored<br />

to addressing nuclear terrorism. They might be thought too broad and complex to<br />

deal with in any depth in this document. A number of principles <strong>di</strong>scussed, however,<br />

do carry a special poignancy when considering the non-state use of nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons. They fit more comfortably<br />

into the tra<strong>di</strong>tional approaches to<br />

addressing this issue. By adopting<br />

175 http://www.un.org/terrorism/strategy/<br />

this framework could it be possible to ta<strong>il</strong>or a<br />

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counter-terrorism strategy against the acquisition and use of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons by non-state actors?<br />

It is certainly possible to identify a range of areas in which activities could be<br />

particularly important. Indeed it is possible to consider existing activities under these<br />

hea<strong>di</strong>ngs gap analysis as to the short-<br />

176 . Such an approach also provides for a basic<br />

falls of the current arrangements.<br />

2.2.1 Dissuasion<br />

To date, perhaps the most authoritative message of the<br />

unacceptab<strong>il</strong>ity of nuclear<br />

terrorism is the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear<br />

Terrorism (ICSANT) 177 . When they sign up to this regime, States solemnly reaffirm<br />

their unequivocal condemnation of all acts, methods and practices of<br />

terrorism as<br />

criminal and unjustifiable, wherever and by whomever committed, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng those<br />

which jeopar<strong>di</strong>ze the friendly relations among States and<br />

peoples and threaten the<br />

territorial<br />

integrity and security of States.<br />

2.2.2 Denial<br />

A prime example of ad hoc coalition bu<strong>il</strong><strong>di</strong>ng on this issue at the international level<br />

would be the work undertaken by the Group of Eight nations (G-8). At the summit<br />

meeting of the G-8 178 in June 2002 at Kananaskis, Canada, the participants adopted<br />

176 The <strong>di</strong>scussion of relevant initiatives in this paper is only in<strong>di</strong>cative – there are many other worthwh<strong>il</strong>e efforts<br />

undertaken in a variety of fora.<br />

177 http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism/English_18_15.pdf<br />

178 The G8 countries are Canada, France, Germany,<br />

Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom and United States.<br />

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the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Weapons of<br />

Mass Destruction, stating:<br />

“We commit ourselves to prevent terrorists, or those who harbour them, from acquiring or<br />

developing nuclear, chemical, ra<strong>di</strong>ological and biological weapons; miss<strong>il</strong>es; and related<br />

materials, equipment and technology.” 179<br />

The goals of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership include: the security and <strong>di</strong>sposition of weapons<br />

materials;<br />

physical protection of fac<strong>il</strong>ities; detection and deterrence of <strong>il</strong>licit<br />

trafficking; and the strengthening of export controls. These goals are implemented<br />

through a series of<br />

six principles, to:<br />

•<br />

Promote mult<strong>il</strong>ateral treaties that help prevent the spread of weapons,<br />

materials and know-how;<br />

• Account for and secure these items;<br />

• Promote physical protection of fac<strong>il</strong>ities;<br />

• Help deter, detect and inter<strong>di</strong>ct <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking;<br />

• Promote national export and transhipment controls; and<br />

• Manage and <strong>di</strong>spose of nuclear, biological<br />

and chemical weapons<br />

There<br />

have also been relevant b<strong>il</strong>ateral arrangements, for example, in 1991, the<br />

United States<br />

established a wide ranging security assistance initiative to help<br />

alleviate the adverse risks associated with many NIS nuclear related problems.<br />

Informally<br />

called "Nunn-Lugar" after its initial sponsors, Senators Richard Lugar and<br />

Sam Nunn, the program is sponsored by the Department of Defense (DOD),<br />

Department of Energy (DOE) and Department of State. Activities during the first<br />

seven years of its existence were funded with a budget of under $3 b<strong>il</strong>lion. 180<br />

179 G8, Statement by the G8 Leader: The G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass<br />

Destruction, [Online] http://www.g8.gc.ca/2002Kananaskis/globpart-en.asp<br />

[Last Accessed 12/04/05]<br />

180 Ellis, J.D., and Perry, T., Nunn Lugar's Unfinished<br />

Agenda, October 1997 [Online]<br />

http://www.armscontrol.org/act/1997_10/nunnoct.asp [Last Accessed 17/04/05]<br />

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The goal of Nunn-Lugar is to lessen the threat posed by weapons of mass<br />

destruction, to deactivate and to destroy these weapons, and to help the scientists<br />

formerly engaged in production of such weapons start working for peace. The<br />

Defense Authorization Act (1997) defines CTR programmes as those which: fac<strong>il</strong>itate<br />

the elimination, and the safe and secure<br />

transportation and storage, of nuclear,<br />

chemical and other weapons and their <strong>del</strong>ivery vehicles; fac<strong>il</strong>itate the safe and secure<br />

storage of fiss<strong>il</strong>e materials derived from the elimination of nuclear weapons; prevent<br />

the proliferation of weapons, weapons components and weapons related technology<br />

and expertise; and expand m<strong>il</strong>itary to m<strong>il</strong>itary and defence contacts.<br />

Other relevant activities include:<br />

• UN Security Counc<strong>il</strong> Re solution 1540 - adopted on 28 Apr<strong>il</strong> 2004, this<br />

resolution decided that all States shall refrain from supporting by any means<br />

non-State actors that attempt to acquire, use or transfer nuclear weapons and<br />

their <strong>del</strong>ivery systems. It also necessitates<br />

that all States would establish<br />

domestic controls to prevent the proliferation of such<br />

weapons and means of<br />

<strong>del</strong>ivery, in particular for terrorist purposes, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

by establishing<br />

appropriate controls over related materials, and adopt legislative measures in<br />

that respect. Further to counter the threat, it called upon all States,<br />

accor<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

to their national legislation and consistent with international law, to cooperate<br />

in preventing <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking in such weapons, means of <strong>del</strong>ivery and related<br />

materials.<br />

• The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) - a collaborative network of<br />

concerned States launched in 2003 to “impede <strong>il</strong>licit WMD related trade to and<br />

from States of proliferation concern and terrorist groups”. 181 . Under the<br />

initiative, participating States undertake to <strong>di</strong>srupt <strong>il</strong>licit trade by inter<strong>di</strong>cting all modes of transport within their territory or territorial waters that are<br />

reasonable suspected of carrying suspicious cargo.<br />

181 Proliferation Security Initiative, Statement of Inter<strong>di</strong>ction Principles, [Online]<br />

http://www.dfat.gov.au/globalissues/psi/psi_statement.html [Last Accessed 5/06/06]<br />

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• The Megaport Initiative - a US programme to enhance the security of<br />

container-ports to prevent the <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking in ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material. It is<br />

part of the “Second Line of Defense” Programme of the Office of Defense<br />

Nuclear Nonproliferation of the National Nuclear Security Administration<br />

(NNSA) within the US Department of Energy. The purpose of the Megaport<br />

Initiative is to “safeguard global maritime trade by enhancing security at<br />

seaports worldwide in order to identify and examine high-risk containers as<br />

early as possible before they reach U.S. shores”. 182 To date, the Megaport<br />

Initiative has focused its activities within the EU and has installed detection<br />

capab<strong>il</strong>ities in ports in the Netherlands<br />

and Greece.<br />

2.2.3 Deterrence<br />

The International Convention for Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and<br />

United Nations Security Counc<strong>il</strong> Resolution 1540 underpin deterrence efforts. They<br />

require effective implementation – achieving this w<strong>il</strong>l challenge the international<br />

community and w<strong>il</strong>l in<strong>di</strong>cate whether the political w<strong>il</strong>l exists to truly confront the<br />

threat posed by nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism.<br />

The International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism<br />

includes an article necessitating States to make the following activities criminal<br />

offences:<br />

• Possession of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material or a device with the intent to cause death<br />

or serious bo<strong>di</strong>ly injury or to cause substantial damage to property or to the<br />

environment;<br />

• The use or threat of use of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive material or a device;<br />

182 NNSA, Second Line of Defense Program, Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation, National Nuclear Security<br />

Administration, Department of Energy, United States of America [Online] http://www.nnsa.doe.gov/na-<br />

20/sld.shtml [Last Accessed 26/5/05]<br />

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• Attempting to commit or participating as an accomplice in the commission of<br />

the above acts.<br />

The UN Security Counc<strong>il</strong> Resolution 1540 has also acted towards this <strong>di</strong>rection. It<br />

states that all States shall refrain from supporting by any means non-State actors that<br />

attempt to acquire, use or transfer nuclear weapons and their <strong>del</strong>ivery systems.<br />

Because this resolution was adopted under Chapter 7 of the UN Charter, it leaves<br />

open all options (inclu<strong>di</strong>ng the use of force) for ensuring compliance with its terms.<br />

2.2.4 Developing State Capacity<br />

The week following<br />

the events of September 11, 2001, the General Conference of the<br />

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) met and requested the Director-General<br />

to “identify possible threats from acts of nuclear terrorism and to propose what the<br />

IAEA might do to help prevent them.” Accor<strong>di</strong>ngly a new Nuclear Security Action<br />

Plan was devised to upgrade worldwide protection against acts of terrorism<br />

involving nuclear and other ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials. The Action plan is focused on:<br />

Other relevant activities<br />

UN Security Counc<strong>il</strong> Resolution 1540<br />

G-8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Weapons of<br />

Mass Destruction<br />

IAEA Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Ra<strong>di</strong>oactive Sources<br />

IAEA International Physical Protection Advisory Service (IPPAS)<br />

IAEA International Nuclear Security Advisory Service (INSServ)<br />

The <strong>Global</strong> Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI)<br />

The US National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)<br />

The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (INFCIRC/274/Rev.1,<br />

May 1980)<br />

IAEA Regulations<br />

for the Safe Transport of Ra<strong>di</strong>ological material EURATOM<br />

regulations on shipments of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive substances<br />

improving the physical protection of nuclear material and fac<strong>il</strong>ities, detecting<br />

malicious activities involving nuclear and other ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials, strengthening<br />

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State Systems of Accountancy and Control (SSACs), strengthening the security of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials other than nuclear material, assessing the security/safety<br />

vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ities of nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities, respon<strong>di</strong>ng to malicious acts and threats, ensuring<br />

compliance with international agreements and gui<strong>del</strong>ines and co-or<strong>di</strong>nating<br />

information on nuclear security. 183<br />

2.3 Basic Gap Analysis of Existing Initiatives to Counter Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

Terrorism<br />

By comparing the areas covered by existing initiatives in the above <strong>di</strong>scussion to the<br />

list of activities identified as warranting attention as derived from the adaptation of<br />

the UN Secretary-General’s framework for counter-terrorism strategies, it is possible<br />

to identify areas in which further development might be desirable. These include:<br />

i) addressing con<strong>di</strong>tions conducive to exploitation by terrorists to win support for the use of<br />

weapons of mass destruction<br />

Wh<strong>il</strong>st States reserve the right to develop and use nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons,<br />

it w<strong>il</strong>l be<br />

hard to persuade everyone that their possession and use are anything but<br />

legitimat e. Terrorists could argue that they are a legitimate weapon as they are to be<br />

found in the arsenals of even the most powerful States. To counter this argument<br />

real<br />

progress would have to be made towards complete global nuclear<br />

<strong>di</strong>sarmament. This<br />

would send a clear message that nuclear terrorism w<strong>il</strong>l not be tolerated and go a long<br />

way towards<br />

undermining these arguments.<br />

ii) denying<br />

access to relevant intangible resources via the Internet<br />

183 Dodd, B., and Reber, E., “Initiatives by the International Atomic Energy Agency to Prevent Ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

Terrorism”, Winter Meeting, American Nuclear Society, Washington D.C., USA., 17-21 November 2002, [Online]<br />

www.ans.org/meetings/pdfs/2002/wm2002-final.pdf [Last Accessed 12/04/04]<br />

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Although controlling the information ava<strong>il</strong>able over the Internet is practically<br />

<strong>di</strong>fficult. Significant efforts have been made in other fields to regulate certain content.<br />

The efficiency of such an approach can be debated. An alternate tactic would be to<br />

step-up outreach and education in an attempt to <strong>di</strong>ssuade those with access to the<br />

relevant information from making it so freely ava<strong>il</strong>able over the Internet.<br />

iii)<br />

denying nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists access to their targets and the desired impact of<br />

their<br />

attacks<br />

In order to prevent a terrorist from being able to transport a device to the intended<br />

detonation site, it would be necessary to be able detect the material involved.<br />

Although such<br />

technology does exist and is currently being installed in numerous<br />

ports,<br />

it is very costly, too large to move and impractical for installation in so many<br />

locations. It is possible that developments in science and technology may correct this<br />

situation in the future.<br />

iv) ensuring the effective international criminalisation of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism<br />

The primary international legal instrument in this area would be the Rome Statute of<br />

the International Criminal Court. This instrument makes it a criminal offence to use a<br />

variety of weapons, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng<br />

poison weapons. It does not currently cover nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons. It could be expanded to cover them, even if it were necessary<br />

to include a ‘get out clause’ sim<strong>il</strong>ar to that found in the International Convention for<br />

the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism – exclu<strong>di</strong>ng the use of these weapons<br />

by States.<br />

v) promoting education and awareness raising amongst those who might unwittingly be<br />

involved in proliferation<br />

Although nuclear physicists are generally<br />

aware of these considerations and<br />

commonly heralded as setting an example which should be replicated<br />

amongst other<br />

scientists, the same is not necessar<strong>il</strong>y true for all those who could be in a position to<br />

contribute to the acquisition of a nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons capab<strong>il</strong>ity. Many of<br />

the components which would be required are dual-use. It might be desirable to<br />

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ensure that all those who work with such material are aware of the possible host<strong>il</strong>e<br />

uses to which they could be put. The types of in<strong>di</strong>viduals who could be targeted by<br />

such an effort might extend considerably beyond highly qualified scientists to<br />

include technicians, exporter/importers, machinists, manufacturing companies,<br />

me<strong>di</strong>cal personnel, industrialists with access to ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources, explosive<br />

experts, etc.<br />

vi) improving the protection of soft targets<br />

Efforts to protect soft targets are complicated by the same factors as denying access<br />

to target locations. Unt<strong>il</strong> scientific and technological developments permit the<br />

construction of cheap, reliable and portable detection systems addressing this issue<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l remain <strong>di</strong>fficult.<br />

vii) enhancing the consideration of human rights implications of efforts to counter nuclear<br />

and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism<br />

Beyond the ethical and moral necessity of incorporating such concepts into future<br />

<strong>del</strong>iberations, it might be desirable for practical reasons. Many of the issues dealt<br />

with under the chapeau of human rights enjoy considerably more grass-routes<br />

support than many security issues. These broad-based support can generate the scale<br />

of political w<strong>il</strong>l necessary to move forward on issues on which States have <strong>di</strong>vided<br />

opinions.<br />

2.4 The <strong>Global</strong> Initiative<br />

to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT)<br />

During the 2006 Summit of the G8 in St. Petersburg, the Presidents of the USA and<br />

the Russian Federation announced the creation of the GICNT as a joint initiative to<br />

tackle the threat posed by nuclear terrorism. Bu<strong>il</strong>t in the mode of the PSI, the GICNT<br />

has been described as an activity, conducted by a coalition of the w<strong>il</strong>ling, to:<br />

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“…prevent the acquisition, transport, or use by terrorists of nuclear materials and ra<strong>di</strong>oactive<br />

substances or improvised explosive devices using such materials, as well as host<strong>il</strong>e actions<br />

against nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities.” 184<br />

As with other counter-proliferation mechanisms developed outside of tra<strong>di</strong>tional<br />

mult<strong>il</strong>ateral instruments, it relies heav<strong>il</strong>y on the norms enshrined within these<br />

regimes to underpin its existence. The GICNT relies specifically mentions that it is an<br />

extension objectives reflected in the International<br />

Convention for the Suppression of<br />

Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear<br />

Material and Nuclear Fac<strong>il</strong>ities as amended in 2005, the Protocol to the Convention<br />

for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, and<br />

other international legal frameworks relevant<br />

to combating nuclear terrorism.<br />

The fact sheet released during the G8 Summit outlines the activities which w<strong>il</strong>l be<br />

undertaken through GICNT,<br />

inclu<strong>di</strong>ng determined and systematic efforts to:<br />

• Improve accounting, control, and physical protection of nuclear material and<br />

• Detect and suppress <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking or other <strong>il</strong>licit activities involving such<br />

• Respond<br />

to and mitigate the consequences of acts of nuclear terrorism;<br />

•<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive substances, as well as security of nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities;<br />

materials, especially measures to prevent their acquisition and use by<br />

terrorists;<br />

Ensure cooperation in the development of technical means to combat nuclear<br />

terrorism;<br />

• Ensure that law enforcement takes all possible measures to deny safe haven<br />

•<br />

to terrorists seeking to acquire or use nuclear materials; and<br />

Strengthen our respective national legal frameworks to ensure the effective<br />

prosecution of, and the certainty of punishment for, terrorists and those who<br />

fac<strong>il</strong>itate such acts.<br />

184 http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/or/69021.htm<br />

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It relates solely to civ<strong>il</strong>ian nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities and notes these “remain strictly the<br />

national prerogative of the nuclear weapons state parties to the Non-Proliferation of<br />

Nuclear Weapons Treaty” 185 .<br />

The first meeting of the GICNT convened in early November 2006 in Rabat, Morocco.<br />

The meeting was attended by thirteen nations: the USA, the Russian Federation,<br />

China, France, the UK, Italy, Japan, Canada, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Australia,<br />

Morocco, and Germany. The participants committed themselves to improve<br />

accounting and security of ra<strong>di</strong>oactive and nuclear materials; enhance security at<br />

civ<strong>il</strong>ian nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ities; improve detection of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials to<br />

prevent <strong>il</strong>licit trafficking; improve capab<strong>il</strong>ities to search and seize unlawfully held<br />

nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>oactive substances; leverage response, mitigation, and investigation<br />

capab<strong>il</strong>ities in case of terrorist attack; develop technical means to identify nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials that could be involved in a terrorist incident; and to prevent<br />

the<br />

provision of safe havens to terrorists and financial or economic resources to terrorists<br />

seeking to use nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>oactive materials.<br />

The next meeting of the GICNT is due to take place in February 2007 in Turkey.<br />

The GICNT is an important development – it provides a flexible forum for expanded<br />

and non-tra<strong>di</strong>tional activities targeted<br />

to reduce the threat posed by nuclear<br />

terrorism. It demonstrates both the seriousness of the threat and the de<strong>di</strong>cation of<br />

world leaders to address it. It bu<strong>il</strong>ds upon well established international norms in<br />

such a way maximise their strengths wh<strong>il</strong>st minimising their weaknesses. The<br />

GICNT incorporates all of the elements deta<strong>il</strong>ed in the strategy to counter nuclear<br />

terrorism and so provides a powerful new tool to complement the activities<br />

described in the previous sections.<br />

185 http://en.g8russia.ru/docs/7.html<br />

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2.4.1 The GICNT and Dissuasion<br />

The very creation of the initiative sends a clear message that nuclear terrorism is<br />

completely unacceptable. The clear support it enjoys from many influential states,<br />

organizations and in<strong>di</strong>viduals reinforces this message. The GICNT also seeks to put<br />

in place national legislation with stringent penal provisions in an attempt to <strong>di</strong>ssuade<br />

non-state actors from perceiving nuclear terrorism as a viable option.<br />

2.4.2 The GICNT and Denial<br />

National legislation also acts to deny access to the resources which would be<br />

required to carry out an act of nuclear terrorism. This is most clearly demonstrated<br />

by the efforts to improve the accounting, control and physical protection of nuclear<br />

material. The inclusion of elements to address safe havens, financial and economic<br />

aspects also demonstrates the importance placed upon denial in the GICNT.<br />

2.4.3 The GICNT and Deterrence<br />

As described earlier, effective national penal legislation underpins deterrence efforts.<br />

The GICNT also identifies this as one<br />

key component and binds partner states to take<br />

action<br />

on this front. The initiative itself is a considerable step towards the effective<br />

international criminalisation of nuclear terrorism – one of the key elements of<br />

deterrence. The inclusion of all five of the permanent members of the UN Security<br />

Counc<strong>il</strong> in GICNT also sends a message to the international community that state<br />

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support for nuclear terrorism w<strong>il</strong>l not be tolerated, which in and of itself w<strong>il</strong>l have a<br />

deterrent effect.<br />

2.4.4 The GICNT and Developing State Capacity<br />

This initiative contains a commitment for the provision of assistance in implementing<br />

its commitments. This helps to ensure that its terms w<strong>il</strong>l not remain purely political<br />

aims<br />

but w<strong>il</strong>l be translated into tangible actions with real security benefits.<br />

Ad<strong>di</strong>tionally, envisaged activities<br />

include multinational exercises, expert-level<br />

meetings to share best practices, all of which w<strong>il</strong>l contribute to developing state<br />

capacity.<br />

Furthermore, the stated aims of the GICNT are a reaffirmation of the<br />

“commitment to non-proliferation wh<strong>il</strong>e promoting legitimate cooperation in<br />

peaceful nuclear activities for the prosperity of all nations” 186 .<br />

2.4.5 The GICNT and Defen<strong>di</strong>ng Human Rights<br />

By placing the GICNT firmly within<br />

the remit of both international and domestic<br />

legal settings, it is in effect an endorsement of the fundamental principles of human<br />

rights.<br />

This legal framework w<strong>il</strong>l help to ensure that the rights of all parties who may<br />

fall under the remit of the initiative are treated in a manner consistent with the well<br />

established tenets of human rights, not least of which is the right not to suffer the<br />

prolonged and agonizing death which would likely follow the use of a nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon by a non-state actor.<br />

186 http://en.g8russia.ru/docs/7.html<br />

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Conclusion<br />

Although not all experts agree that nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism is a matter of<br />

‘when’ as opposed to ‘if’, it is clear that they do pose a clear and present danger to<br />

international peace and security - as long as nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological technology and<br />

weapons<br />

exist, so too w<strong>il</strong>l the risk of terrorist acquisition and use. The genie is well<br />

and truly out of the bottle. The potential for nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism to<br />

change the dynamics of global politics has ensured that the international community<br />

takes the threat seriously. The advent of the <strong>Global</strong> Initiative to Combat Nuclear<br />

Terrorism is an important development – it provides a flexible forum for expanded<br />

and non-tra<strong>di</strong>tional activities targeted to reduce the threat posed by nuclear<br />

terrorism. It demonstrates both the seriousness of the threat and the de<strong>di</strong>cation of<br />

world leaders to address it. It bu<strong>il</strong>ds upon well established international norms in<br />

such a way maximise their strengths wh<strong>il</strong>st minimising their weaknesses.<br />

It is to be<br />

hoped<br />

that a sim<strong>il</strong>ar initiative w<strong>il</strong>l be undertaken to confront the threat of<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism, or the existing regime can be expanded to effectively address<br />

this issue too.<br />

The<br />

last few years have seen a plethora of international initiatives to address the<br />

proliferation of materials and technologies related to nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons. Wh<strong>il</strong>st this progress is admirable, it begs the question why now? Why is<br />

the threat suddenly so more deserving of attention at the start of the third<br />

m<strong>il</strong>lennium than it was in the middle years of last century when the horrific affects of<br />

the detonation of a nuclear weapon was st<strong>il</strong>l fresh in the collective memory? The<br />

answer, as argued in this paper, and as evident from the <strong>di</strong>scussions it contains, is<br />

that recent years have seen the convergence<br />

of a number of pre-existing factors. For<br />

example, the existence of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons has combined with the<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l to inflict mass casualties and an apparent w<strong>il</strong>lingness to use any methodology to<br />

achieve this aim. Equally, the ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity the necessary materials has combined with<br />

means to obtain them and the knowledge to use them to create a weapon. There have<br />

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also been confluences in the international political environment: the end of the Cold<br />

War has coincided with a greater understan<strong>di</strong>ng of our collective weaknesses and<br />

feelings<br />

of vulnerab<strong>il</strong>ity and insecurity. This understan<strong>di</strong>ng provides a firm<br />

foundation to re-examine the assessment of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism and<br />

counter measures found in this paper. This assessment ultimately leads to a series of<br />

conclusions which, it is hoped, w<strong>il</strong>l prove insightful and useful for addressing this<br />

frightening threat.<br />

Assessing Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism<br />

It is appropriate to address the two issues separately. Each weapon has in<strong>di</strong>vidual<br />

characteristics. Nuclear weapons manifest massive imme<strong>di</strong>ate damage to health and<br />

the destruction of property. They also have significant <strong>del</strong>ayed effects which can<br />

cause considerable health and environmental concerns. Ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons on the<br />

other hand have<br />

minimal imme<strong>di</strong>ate effect. Their primary threat comes from the fear<br />

their use would incite – more people would likely be injured or k<strong>il</strong>led in the panic to<br />

flee than by an actual device. Although they do share <strong>del</strong>ayed affects with nuclear<br />

weapons, they w<strong>il</strong>l be of a <strong>di</strong>fferent magnitude and w<strong>il</strong>l prompt <strong>di</strong>fferent response<br />

measures. Splitting up the two types of weapon in this manner allows for the<br />

identification of three scenarios for the use of nuclear weapons and three scenarios<br />

for the use of ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons.<br />

Nuclear weapon scenarios include:<br />

• The theft or purchase of a nuclear weapon;<br />

• The construction of an improvised nuclear device;<br />

• In<strong>di</strong>rect nuclear attack by damaging or sabotaging a nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ity.<br />

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Ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons scenarios include:<br />

• The construction of a ra<strong>di</strong>ological <strong>di</strong>spersal device;<br />

• The construction of a ra<strong>di</strong>ological emission device;<br />

• Ra<strong>di</strong>ological assassination.<br />

As already <strong>di</strong>scussed, nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism require a confluence of<br />

various factors to create both the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way:<br />

•<br />

•<br />

The intention for a non-state actor to acquire or use a device (WILL);<br />

The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of the prerequisite materials (WAY);<br />

• The means to obtain these materials (WAY);<br />

• Access to the required knowledge and experience to create a weapons (WAY).<br />

Although both nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists would share this confluence, their<br />

in<strong>di</strong>vidual factors might be <strong>di</strong>fferent. For example, they could both have a w<strong>il</strong>l to<br />

acquire a nuclear or a ra<strong>di</strong>ological device but nuclear terrorists would have to have<br />

the w<strong>il</strong>l to inflict mass civ<strong>il</strong>ian casualties – which a ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorist might not be<br />

required to have.<br />

It is argued in this paper that there are five factors which can converge to provide the<br />

w<strong>il</strong>l to acquire and use a nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon:<br />

• A <strong>del</strong>iberate quest to acquire high impact weapons (shared by both nuclear<br />

and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists);<br />

• A w<strong>il</strong>lingness to accept martyrdom (to some extent shared by both nuclear<br />

and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists, although the latter might also have to be prepared<br />

for a very slow and agonising transition);<br />

• The only worthy au<strong>di</strong>ence is a deity (shared by both nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorists);<br />

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• A belief that it is part of a higher plan (the particular revulsion reserved for<br />

nuclear weapons means that this would have<br />

amongst nuclear terrorists);<br />

to be particularly strong<br />

• A desire for the shock factor (once again the detonation of either a nuclear or a<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological device would cause<br />

extreme fear and incite a massive reaction).<br />

Such factors have already converged in a number of terrorist organizations and<br />

emerging trends seem to suggest that the number of groups<br />

which embody all of the<br />

factors is growing. This w<strong>il</strong>l influence the likelihood that terrorists groups<br />

might<br />

pursue nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons in the future.<br />

A sim<strong>il</strong>ar assessment of the way was also conducted.<br />

In this case there are three<br />

relevant factors identified as converging to provide for the acquisition or use of a<br />

nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapon. For each of these three in turn, a number of<br />

influential considerations have been identified.<br />

Elements influencing the ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of materials include:<br />

• Nuclear weapons and materials security (relevant for nuclear terrorists) –<br />

security upgrades<br />

are incomplete at many sites and the challenges to effective<br />

security are daunting;<br />

• Commercial sources (relevant for ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists)<br />

- large numbers of<br />

sources are already in use for commercial and industrial applications –<br />

monitoring and verifying they are not<br />

<strong>di</strong>verted for malign purposes is a<br />

significant challenge which st<strong>il</strong>l requires further work;<br />

• Orphaned sources (relevant for ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists) - pose one of the<br />

greatest proliferation risks – far too many strongly ra<strong>di</strong>oactive sources are<br />

<strong>di</strong>sposed of improperly, lost or stolen on an annual basis.<br />

Elements influencing the means to obtain technology and materials include:<br />

• Nuclear smuggling (relevant for nuclear terrorists) - the confirmed existence<br />

of organised networks de<strong>di</strong>cated to the <strong>il</strong>licit transfer of materials, technology,<br />

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esources, knowledge, experience and training critical for the acquisition of<br />

nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons undermines all efforts to prevent non-state<br />

actors from acquiring them;<br />

• Illicit trafficking of ra<strong>di</strong>ological sources (relevant for ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists) -<br />

occurs with <strong>di</strong>sturbing frequency and seems to be increasing continuously;<br />

• Organised crime network (relevant for both nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorists) - already possess many of the resources sought by nuclear and<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng: mechanism for <strong>il</strong>licit transport;<br />

circumventing control regimes and access to prohibited goods.<br />

Elements influencing the means to gain access to the knowledge and experience<br />

necessary to create a weapon include:<br />

• Proliferation networks (relevant to nuclear terrorists) - the confirmed existence<br />

of organised networks de<strong>di</strong>cated to the <strong>il</strong>licit<br />

transfer of materials, technology,<br />

resources, knowledge, experience and training critical<br />

for the acquisition of<br />

nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons undermines all efforts to prevent non-state<br />

actors from acquiring them;<br />

• The simplicity of ra<strong>di</strong>ological devices<br />

(relevant to ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists) –<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological devices require no deta<strong>il</strong>ed technical understan<strong>di</strong>ng beyond that<br />

required for the manipulation of the conventional explosives which would be<br />

used in the case of an RDD, or in basic aerial <strong>di</strong>spersal in the case of a<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ation emission device;<br />

• The ava<strong>il</strong>ab<strong>il</strong>ity of relevant experience (relevant to both nuclear and<br />

•<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists) - obtaining the expertise to construct a nuclear weapon<br />

would be <strong>di</strong>fficult but not impossible. Gaining access to the<br />

expertise to bu<strong>il</strong>d<br />

a ra<strong>di</strong>ological device would be far simpler – well within the capab<strong>il</strong>ities of an<br />

organised international terrorist network;<br />

The potential for in<strong>di</strong>rect attacks (relevant to both nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorists) - a deta<strong>il</strong>ed understan<strong>di</strong>ng of how to bu<strong>il</strong>d a nuclear weapon can be<br />

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ypassed by attacking or sabotaging a nuclear fac<strong>il</strong>ity. Such an attack would<br />

release ra<strong>di</strong>oactive fallout sim<strong>il</strong>ar to a massive ra<strong>di</strong>ological attack. A<br />

knowledge threshold st<strong>il</strong>l exists as a terrorist would st<strong>il</strong>l be required to<br />

understand how to bypass the relevant safety and security precautions.<br />

This summary demonstrates that the necessary materials, technology and knowledge<br />

are st<strong>il</strong>l ava<strong>il</strong>able and there are means for obtaining it. The factors, which converge to<br />

establish the way to acquire and use nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons, st<strong>il</strong>l exist<br />

despite considerable efforts to counter the threat posed by these weapons. It is<br />

possible to conclude that the threat posed by nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons st<strong>il</strong>l<br />

exists in potential and may be greater than ever due to the converges in both w<strong>il</strong>l and<br />

way. It is necessary, therefore, to further develop existing counter measures in such a<br />

manner as to address both the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way.<br />

Countering Nuclear and Ra<strong>di</strong>ological Terrorism<br />

The five-point strategy outlined by the United Nations Secretary-General to address<br />

terrorism, and adapted in this paper to specifically address nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

terrorism, is of particular use in confronting the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way. This strategy was<br />

used to assess existing counter measures,<br />

accor<strong>di</strong>ng to whether they:<br />

• Dissuade non-state actors from seeking to acquire or use nuclear or<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons (effectively undermining their w<strong>il</strong>l) - the message that<br />

nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism is completely unacceptable needs to be<br />

constantly repeated and supported by actions in line with this principle;<br />

• Deny the means for non-state actors to acquire<br />

or use nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons (addressing the way) - considerable progress has been made in<br />

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furthering non-proliferation objectives. Constant vig<strong>il</strong>ance w<strong>il</strong>l be required to<br />

ensure agreements produce tangible security benefits;<br />

• Deter non-state actors from acquiring or using nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological<br />

weapons (reducing their w<strong>il</strong>l) - the International Convention for Suppression<br />

of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and United Nations Security Counc<strong>il</strong> Resolution<br />

1540 underpin deterrence efforts. They require effective implementation –<br />

achieving this w<strong>il</strong>l challenge the international community and w<strong>il</strong>l in<strong>di</strong>cate<br />

whether the political w<strong>il</strong>l exists to truly confront the threat posed by nuclear<br />

and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism;<br />

• Develop state capacity to prevent and respond to the acquisition and use of<br />

nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons (addressing both the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way) -<br />

numerous mechanisms exist for the<br />

development of state capacity –<br />

coor<strong>di</strong>nation w<strong>il</strong>l be the key to maximising their ut<strong>il</strong>ity. States must remain<br />

de<strong>di</strong>cated to supporting these mechanisms over the long term as the path to<br />

universal capacity w<strong>il</strong>l not be short;<br />

• Defend human rights (impacting on w<strong>il</strong>l) – creating an environment in which<br />

there are human rights for all undermines the justifications for the use of<br />

nuclear weapons by non-state actors. It would also help to minimise the<br />

support for any group prepared to resort to such extreme tactics.<br />

Using the aims of this strategy to confront both the w<strong>il</strong>l and the way for the<br />

acquisition and use of nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological weapons allowed a basic<br />

gap analysis<br />

to be conducted. This demonstrated that wh<strong>il</strong>st concerted action had been taken that<br />

there was st<strong>il</strong>l more to do.<br />

The gap analysis also identified a number of areas which could benefit from further<br />

development:<br />

• Addressing con<strong>di</strong>tions conducive to exploitation by terrorists to win support<br />

for the use of weapons of mass destruction;<br />

• Denying access to relevant intangible resources via the Internet;<br />

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• Denying nuclear or ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorists access to their targets and the<br />

desired impact of their attacks;<br />

• Ensuring the effective international criminalisation of nuclear and<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism;<br />

• Promoting education and awareness raising amongst those who might<br />

unwittingly be involved in proliferation;<br />

• Improving the protection of soft targets; and<br />

• Enhancing the consideration of human rights implications of efforts to<br />

counter nuclear and ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism.<br />

It is recommended that as consideration of how best the threat of nuclear and<br />

ra<strong>di</strong>ological terrorism is to be addressed, progresses in the future that efforts are<br />

targeted at addressing these shortcoming.<br />

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