Arabic Linguistics

In conclusion, in light of the data from JA and N, the picture that emerges
with respect to the role of tone in pidgins and creoles turns out to be more
complex than assumed by McWhorter (1998, 2000 and 2003).
7. Lexicalized compound nouns
Lexicalized compound nouns, which occur rather frequently in pidgins and
creoles, raise, among others, the issue of their origin. Consider, for instance,
eyewater ‗tear‘, which is, according to Baker and Huber (2001: 198) a diagnostic
feature of Atlantic English creoles.
It is certainly true that this feature is ―extremely common both in Atlantic
Creoles and in West African languages‖, as noted by Parkval (2000b: 113). Holm
(1992: 191), for instance, mentions among others Igbo aŋa-mmiri, Twi ani-suo
and Yoruba omi oju, all literally ‗eye water‘. It is equally true that ―[t]here are
many lexemes in Afro-American dialects which reveal a labelling pattern whereby
objects are named in terms of an association between two primary named objects‖
(Alleyne 1980: 114). Therefore, eyewater may be one of the ―readily convenient
calques from a number of African languages‖ Allsopp (1980: 91).
However, a number of arguments can be adduced against tracing it back to
an West African substrate language. First, according to Allsopp (1980: 91), ―each
of those African bases was likely to have its own synonymous form which did not
lend itself so readily to calquing‖. He further writes that e.g. ―Yoruba, in common
with many West African languages, has the relevant compound omi ojú (<
―water‖ + ―eye‖) ~ omijé (= ―a tear‖) but it is rarer than kún (= ―sorrowful
weeping‖)‖ (Allsopp 1980: 91).
Second, as shown in Avram (in press), the compound at issue is also attested
in Tok Pisin, a Pacific variety of restructured English: aiwara ‗tears‘. It follows
that eyewater ‗tear‘ should be reclassified as a world-wide feature.
Third, a structurally identical compound noun occurs in both JA and N 15 :
(67) móya ena JA (Miller 1993: 159)
water eye
‗eye‘
(68) moy-ééna N (Prokosch 1986: 85)
water eye
‗tear‘
Consider next the compound doormouth ‗threshold‘, which is also listed as
a diagnostic feature of Atlantic English pidgins and creoles in Baker (1999: 330)
and in Baker and Huber (2001: 198). It is widely assumed to be a calque of
similar compounds in West African languages. Baker (1999: 330), for instance,
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