Arabic Linguistics

Note that according to Nhial (1975: 81), JA ―is a pidgin [and] is spoken
mainly as a second language [emphasis added]‖. In his turn, Vincent (1986: 71)
characterizes JA as being ―a full fledged pidgin [emphasis added]‖, while Tosco
(1995: 423) writes that JA is ―an expanded pidgin for most of its speakers,
including my informants [emphasis added]‖.
It follows that preverbal progressive markers and of combinations of two
preverbal markers do not differentiate expanded pidgins from creoles (see also
Avram 1998, for other examples).
As for the absence of progressive preverbal markers and of combinations
of two preverbal markers, it seems, however, to be typical of minimal pidgins
(pre-pidgins or jargons) only, including Arabic-based ones, such as those
described in Smart (1990) and Avram (1997).
4. Complementizer etymologically derived from a verbum dicendi
Miller (2000: 216) notes ―a very similar use of ‗say‘ as a complementizer‖
in JA and N 3 . Consider the following examples:
(41) Uwo kelem gal uwo bi ja JA (Miller 2000: 215)
he speak COMP he FUT come
‗He said he would come.‘
(42) Úwa fékir gále imkin asset de áwuju ákulu úwa JA (Miller 2002: 35)
he think COMP maybe lion DET want eat he
‗He thinks that maybe the lion wants to eat him.‘
(43) ínta ásma gále re:s be já [...]? N (Nhial 1975: 87)
you hear COMP president FUT come
‗Have you heard that the president is coming?‘
(44) ke'd(e) 'umon 'aruf gal fi difa'na al gi- 'ja N (Wellens 2003: 204)
so that they know COMP be guest REL PROG come
‗so that they know that there are guests who are coming‘
Note, incidentally, that the use of the complementizer gal/gále is not
restricted to verbs of saying, as in (41). As can be seen, it may also occur after a
verb of cognition, in (42) and (43), or perception, in (44).
Miller (2000: 216) claims that in both JA and N the verb ‗say‘ has been
grammaticalized into a complementizer 4 . However, she further writes that in JA
―in many cases instances of grammaticalization are due to language transfer
[emphasis added]‖, while in N ―grammaticalization here cannot be viewed as an
internal development [emphasis added]‖ (Miller 2000: 216). Finally, she
concludes that in both languages ―in the case of gale it seems that the influence
[emphasis added] of the local vernacular language (Bari) was effective‖ (Miller
29