Diversidad y control biológico de insectos - CyberTesis UACh ...
Diversidad y control biológico de insectos - CyberTesis UACh ... Diversidad y control biológico de insectos - CyberTesis UACh ...
products were precipitated adding ethanol. The sequencing reactions were suspended in deionized formamide, heat denatured and run on an ABI 3100 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Systems, Foster City, CA). The resulting chromatographs were imported into Sequencher 4.1 (Gene Codes Corp., Ann Arbor, Michigan) for visual inspection and editing. Multiple sequence alignments were constructed with the MegAlign module of DNASTAR 5 (Lasergene, Madison, WI). Data analysis. Phylogenetic approaches. The ninety seven sequences were aligned using the Clustal W module of MEGA version 3.1 (Kumar et al., 2004) and collapsed into haplotypes using the DNASP 4.10 software (Rozas et al., 2003). The phylogenetic relationships among the whole sequences and the extracted haplotypes were evaluated by using neighbour-joining (NJ), maximum parsimony (MP) and minimum evolution (ME) methods. All analyses were conducted using the Phylogeny module of MEGA version 3.1 (Kumar et al., 2004). The NJ tree was constructed from the matrix of pairwise p distances. This distance measure was chosen because it has low variance and then it is suitable to deal with low variation sequences (Nei and Kumar, 2000). Both MP and ME trees were constructed using unweighted data. Bootstrapping values (600 pseudoreplicates) were used to determine nodal support. The trees were rooted using a sequence obtained from the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe rosea, retrieved from Genbank (XM_368948, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=Nucleotide&list_uids=3 9975114&dopt=GenBank). We considered gapped positions as unreliable characters and excluded them from further analysis (Swofford et al, 1996). To further analyze the genetic relatedness of haplotypes, we constructed a haplotype network using the median-joining network method as implemented in Network software (Bandelt et al., 1999; www.fluxus- engineering.com). Analyses of demographic history. The mismatch analysis (the distribution of the observed number of differences between pairs of haplotypes) was adopted to examine the demographic history of the species 23
(Schneider and Excoffier, 1999; Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). The resulting distribution was compared against a simulated distribution assuming the constant growth model as implemented in DNASP (Rozas et., 2003). A unimodal distribution is expected if the lineages have undergone a recent bottleneck or population expansion, while a multimodal or ragged distribution is expected for a lineage whose populations are at demographic equilibrium (Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). In addition, we used Tajima’s D to examine further the historical demography of B. bassiana sensu lato (Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). This test for selective neutrality can be used to examine demography: a significant negative value indicate a deviation from the expectations of the mutation-drift equilibrium and can indicate population expansion, while a positive value is expected under population subdivision. Under neutrality the number of nucleotides differences between sequences from a random sample should be equal to the number of differences between the polymorphic sites only, but population expansions can cause negative departures of Tajima’s D from zero. The molecular diversity of the data set was calculated using the Arlequin 3.01 software (Schneider et al., 2000), including the average number of nucleotides per sites (nucleotide diversity π; Nei, 1987) and haplotype diversity. These parameters were calculated because centers of origin should be more diverse than more recently founded populations (Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). Analyses of population structure. Hierarchical structuring of genetic variation was determined using analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA, Excoffier et al., 1992) as implemented in the Arlequin 3.01 software (Schneider et al., 2000). This analysis computes fixation indices φST analogous to Wright’s (1951) F statistics to divide the variance into the different components. The significance of the a priori geographical groupings was tested by bootstrapping (1023 permutations). The molecular distances between pairs of sequences necessary to run AMOVA were computed under the Kimura 2P model. 24
- Page 1 and 2: UNIVERSIDAD AUSTRAL DE CHILE FACULT
- Page 3 and 4: DIVERSIDAD Y CONTROL BIOLÓGICO DE
- Page 5 and 6: ÍNDICE DE CONTENIDOS INTRODUCCIÓN
- Page 7 and 8: 4.- CAPÍTULO CUARTO: ANÁLISIS DE
- Page 9 and 10: CAPÍTULO I. INDICE DE CUADROS Tabl
- Page 11 and 12: CAPÍTULO I. ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS Fig
- Page 13 and 14: Figure 5. Rarefaction curves for th
- Page 15 and 16: ABSTRACT About 10% of Southern Chil
- Page 17 and 18: Sin embargo, a pesar de esta percep
- Page 19 and 20: preeminencia de esta idea ha sido e
- Page 21 and 22: niveles tróficos completos o grand
- Page 23 and 24: Se ha propuesto diversos enfoques p
- Page 25 and 26: El control de esta especie se reali
- Page 27 and 28: con la consiguiente pérdida o dism
- Page 29 and 30: 4. Numerosos estudios se concentran
- Page 31 and 32: 1.- CAPÍTULO PRIMERO: DIVERSIDAD G
- Page 33 and 34: sample, showing the potential use o
- Page 35 and 36: and put it in a phylogeographical p
- Page 37: centrifugation and supernatant was
- Page 41 and 42: All the putative populations showed
- Page 43 and 44: strongly influenced by insect host
- Page 45 and 46: supported a geographical sub-divisi
- Page 47 and 48: Neuveglise C, Brygoo Y, Vercrambe B
- Page 49 and 50: Table 1. Environmental data for the
- Page 51 and 52: B907 Poike 27º 06' 109º 21' Easte
- Page 53 and 54: B606 Lago Icalma 38º 50' 71º 20'
- Page 55 and 56: Figure 1. NJ tree of the B fragment
- Page 57 and 58: Figure 2. Haplotype tree inferred f
- Page 59 and 60: Figure 4. Mismatch distributions of
- Page 61 and 62: Figure 5. Haplotype diversity in th
- Page 63 and 64: Table 6. Analyses of molecular vari
- Page 65 and 66: Table 8. Pairwise differentiation e
- Page 67 and 68: CONSERVATION BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF
- Page 69 and 70: Introduction. In last decades, mode
- Page 71 and 72: a dose of 10 12 spores per ha was s
- Page 73 and 74: aerea were very low at 1 and 30 day
- Page 75 and 76: explanation than no toxicity of the
- Page 77 and 78: fields that are sprayed with pestic
- Page 79 and 80: affected species, when present, whe
- Page 81 and 82: Kiss, B., Samu, F., 2000. Evaluatio
- Page 83 and 84: Wilby, A., Villareal, S., Lan, L.,
- Page 85 and 86: ARANEAE Gnaphosidae 253 54 % Lycosi
- Page 87 and 88: Activity density (individuals per p
(Schnei<strong>de</strong>r and Excoffier, 1999; Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). The resulting distribution was<br />
compared against a simulated distribution assuming the constant growth mo<strong>de</strong>l as<br />
implemented in DNASP (Rozas et., 2003). A unimodal distribution is expected if the<br />
lineages have un<strong>de</strong>rgone a recent bottleneck or population expansion, while a multimodal<br />
or ragged distribution is expected for a lineage whose populations are at <strong>de</strong>mographic<br />
equilibrium (Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002).<br />
In addition, we used Tajima’s D to examine further the historical <strong>de</strong>mography of B.<br />
bassiana sensu lato (Althoff and Pellmyr, 2002). This test for selective neutrality can be<br />
used to examine <strong>de</strong>mography: a significant negative value indicate a <strong>de</strong>viation from the<br />
expectations of the mutation-drift equilibrium and can indicate population expansion, while<br />
a positive value is expected un<strong>de</strong>r population subdivision. Un<strong>de</strong>r neutrality the number of<br />
nucleoti<strong>de</strong>s differences between sequences from a random sample should be equal to the<br />
number of differences between the polymorphic sites only, but population expansions can<br />
cause negative <strong>de</strong>partures of Tajima’s D from zero.<br />
The molecular diversity of the data set was calculated using the Arlequin 3.01 software<br />
(Schnei<strong>de</strong>r et al., 2000), including the average number of nucleoti<strong>de</strong>s per sites (nucleoti<strong>de</strong><br />
diversity π; Nei, 1987) and haplotype diversity. These parameters were calculated because<br />
centers of origin should be more diverse than more recently foun<strong>de</strong>d populations (Althoff<br />
and Pellmyr, 2002).<br />
Analyses of population structure.<br />
Hierarchical structuring of genetic variation was <strong>de</strong>termined using analysis of molecular<br />
variance (AMOVA, Excoffier et al., 1992) as implemented in the Arlequin 3.01 software<br />
(Schnei<strong>de</strong>r et al., 2000). This analysis computes fixation indices φST analogous to Wright’s<br />
(1951) F statistics to divi<strong>de</strong> the variance into the different components. The significance of<br />
the a priori geographical groupings was tested by bootstrapping (1023 permutations). The<br />
molecular distances between pairs of sequences necessary to run AMOVA were computed<br />
un<strong>de</strong>r the Kimura 2P mo<strong>de</strong>l.<br />
24
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