09.05.2013 Views

Neutralidad de la red y otros retos para - Repositori institucional ...

Neutralidad de la red y otros retos para - Repositori institucional ...

Neutralidad de la red y otros retos para - Repositori institucional ...

SHOW MORE
SHOW LESS

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.

<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong><br />

<strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Actas <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso Internacional Internet, Derecho y Política<br />

Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

Barcelona, 11-12 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

Net Neutrality and other challenges<br />

for the future of the Internet<br />

Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference on Internet, Law & Politics<br />

Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

Barcelona, 11-12 July, 2011<br />

Agustí Cerrillo-i-martínez • miquel Peguera<br />

Ismael Peña-lópez • mònica Vi<strong>la</strong>sau so<strong>la</strong>na<br />

COORDINADORES<br />

Universitat Oberta<br />

<strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

www.uoc.edu


<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong><br />

<strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Actas <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso Internacional Internet,<br />

Derecho y Política. Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya,<br />

Barcelona, 11-12 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

Net Neutrality and other challenges<br />

for the future of the Internet<br />

Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference on Internet,<br />

Law & Politics. Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya,<br />

Barcelona, 11-12 July, 2011<br />

Universitat Oberta<br />

<strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

www.uoc.edu<br />

2011


Colección Lex<br />

<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong><br />

<strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> iNterNet<br />

NET NEUTRALITY AND OTHER CHALLENGES<br />

FOR THE FUTURE OF THE INTERNET<br />

© 2011, Los autores<br />

© 2011, Huygens Editorial<br />

La Costa, 44-46, át. 1ª<br />

08023 Barcelona<br />

www.huygens.es<br />

ISBN: 978-84-694-7037-4<br />

Impreso en España<br />

Esta obra está bajo una llicència Attribution-<br />

NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported <strong>de</strong> Creative Commons.<br />

Para ver una copia <strong>de</strong> esta licencia, visite<br />

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.


Índice General<br />

Prólogo ............................................................................................................................ 15<br />

CONFERENCIA INAUGURAL<br />

NetwOrk NeUtrAlIty: HIstOry, regUlAtION AND fUtUre. Christopher T. Mars<strong>de</strong>n............. 29<br />

1. History: Trust-to-Trust and Control of Communications .......................................................... 29<br />

1.1. History: Definition and Development ................................................................................ 30<br />

1.2. History: how traffic management has changed common carriage ........................................ 31<br />

2. Regu<strong>la</strong>tion: the Law of Net Neutrality ....................................................................................... 33<br />

2.1. National Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Responses ........................................................................................... 34<br />

2.1.1. Bandwidth caps ........................................................................................................ 35<br />

2.1.2. Transparency and ‘Reasonable Traffic Management’ .................................................. 36<br />

2.2. Implementing regu<strong>la</strong>tion of net neutrality .......................................................................... 37<br />

2.3. The Special Case of Wireless or Mobile Net Neutrality? ...................................................... 39<br />

3. The Future: Public Policy Consi<strong>de</strong>rations in Net Neutrality ...................................................... 40<br />

3.1. The Future Development of Net Neutrality and the Internet .............................................. 41<br />

4. Conclusions: Future Policy Research ......................................................................................... 42<br />

5. References ................................................................................................................................. 43<br />

COMUNICACIONES SOBRE NEUTRALIDAD DE LA RED<br />

lA NeUtrAlIDAD De lA reD DesDe lA PersPeCtIVA De sU ArQUIteCtUrA POr CAPAs<br />

¿De trANsPOrtIstAs PÚBlICOs A gestOres De CONteNIDOs? David Arjones Girál<strong>de</strong>z ..... 53<br />

1. Introducción. El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>................................................................ 53<br />

2. La regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha ................................................................................. 57<br />

2.1. Una aproximación a <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ...................................................................... 57<br />

2.2. La arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y su necesaria regu<strong>la</strong>ción neutral .................................................. 59<br />

3. Conclusión ................................................................................................................................ 64<br />

4. Bibliografía básica...................................................................................................................... 64<br />

lA NeUtrAlIDAD De reD y lAs lIBertADes eN lA refOrmA De lAs COmUNICACIONes<br />

eleCtróNICAs De lA UNIóN eUrOPeA: ¿estáN PreseNtes eN tODA eUrOPA? Cristina<br />

Cullell March ................................................................................................................................. 67<br />

1. Introducción. El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>................................................................ 67<br />

2. La sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información: internet como bien colectivo ..................................................... 68<br />

3. La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea: <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas <strong>de</strong> 2009 .................................................................................................................. 70<br />

4. Las intituciones europeas ante <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> internet: <strong>la</strong> comisión, el par<strong>la</strong>mento y el<br />

oRECE .................................................................................................................................... 72


6 Índice general<br />

5. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 76<br />

6. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 76<br />

tHe Net As A PUBlIC sPACe: Is Net-NeUtrAlIty NeCessAry tO PreserVe ON-lINe<br />

freeDOm Of exPressION? C<strong>la</strong>ra Marsan Raventós ................................................................... 79<br />

1. Introduction: Spaces, Net Neutrality and Freedom of Expression .............................................. 79<br />

2. The re<strong>la</strong>tionship between Net Neutrality and Public Space ........................................................ 80<br />

3. I<strong>de</strong>ntifying those that craft Network public spaces ..................................................................... 85<br />

3.1. The role of states against Net neutrality .............................................................................. 86<br />

3.2. The role of private parties against Net neutrality ................................................................. 89<br />

4. Net neutrality through a global multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach ...................................................... 90<br />

5. Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................. 92<br />

6. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 92<br />

sIN NeUtrAlIDAD eN lA reD ¿DóNDe lA lógICA UNIVersAl De lA INNOVACIóN? Helena<br />

Nadal Sánchez .............................................................................................................................. 95<br />

Introducción ................................................................................................................................. 95<br />

1. Diferentes aspectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ........................................................................... 96<br />

2. La discriminación <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> los ISP ................................................................................................ 98<br />

3. Reivindicando un acceso en abierto ........................................................................................... 100<br />

4. Consecuencias <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación ........................................................................... 103<br />

5. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 105<br />

6. Bibliografía citada...................................................................................................................... 106<br />

INterNet ABIertA, NeUtrAlIDAD De lA reD y DefeNsA De lA COmPeteNCIA. Jose Manuel<br />

Pérez Marzabal .............................................................................................................................. 109<br />

1. Introducción ............................................................................................................................. 109<br />

2. El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red .................................................................................... 111<br />

2.1. Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes y convergencia <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s ................................................................................. 111<br />

2.2. Métrica <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red ............................................................... 113<br />

2.3. Contexto internacional ....................................................................................................... 115<br />

3. Aspectos regu<strong>la</strong>torios ................................................................................................................. 117<br />

3.1. Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes y liberalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones ...................................................... 117<br />

3.2. Marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones modificado ...................................................... 119<br />

4. Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia ......................................... 123<br />

4.1. Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones generales ................................................................................................... 123<br />

4.2. Principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red ........ 124<br />

4.3. <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia ............................................................. 126<br />

5. A modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión ............................................................................................................... 129<br />

6. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 131<br />

COMUNICACIONES SOBRE PROPIEDAD INTELECTUAL EN INTERNET<br />

‘PIrACy. It’s A CrIme.’ – tHe CrImINAlIsAtION PrOCess Of DIgItAl COPyrIgHt INfrINgemeNt.<br />

Benjamin Farrand .......................................................................................................... 137<br />

1. The Concept and Development of Digital Copyright ................................................................ 137<br />

1.1. Napster opens the floodgates: - infringement goes digital .................................................... 138


Índice general<br />

1.2. European digital copyright legis<strong>la</strong>tion ................................................................................. 140<br />

2. Pirates on the Digital Seas: - Criminalisation Enforcement Mechanisms ................................... 141<br />

2.1. From prose to policy: - how lobbyist rhetoric appears to shape copyright <strong>la</strong>w and policy, or,<br />

‘piracy is killing music’ ....................................................................................................... 142<br />

2.2. The legis<strong>la</strong>tive response, or, how discourse shapes policy ..................................................... 145<br />

2.3. The cross-pollination of actors ............................................................................................ 149<br />

3. Conclusions and final remarks ................................................................................................... 151<br />

4. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 152<br />

COPyrIgHt At A POlICy CrOss-rOADs – ONlINe eNfOrCemeNt, tHe teleCOms PACkAge<br />

AND tHe DIgItAl eCONOmy ACt. Monica Horten ...................................................................... 157<br />

1. The Telecoms Package ............................................................................................................... 158<br />

1.1. A general obligation on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs ...................................................................... 159<br />

1.2. A contractual obligation on Internet subscribers ................................................................. 162<br />

1.3. Access to subscribers’ data ................................................................................................... 163<br />

1.4. Linking to the policy agenda .............................................................................................. 165<br />

2. The Digital Economy Act .......................................................................................................... 167<br />

2.1. A suite of obligations imposed on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs and the regu<strong>la</strong>tor ........................... 167<br />

2.2. Implied contractual changes ............................................................................................... 169<br />

2.3. Subscriber data ................................................................................................................... 170<br />

2.4. Due process ........................................................................................................................ 171<br />

3. Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 172<br />

4. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 173<br />

“NeUtrAlIty” test ON weB 2.0 PlAtfOrm fOr Its INtermeDIAry lIABIlIty IN CHINA AND<br />

IN eUrOPe. Qian Tao ................................................................................................................... 177<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 177<br />

2. Legal status of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms .............................................................................................. 178<br />

2.1. Legal framework ................................................................................................................. 178<br />

2.2. Case <strong>de</strong>cisions ..................................................................................................................... 180<br />

3. operating mo<strong>de</strong>l analysis .......................................................................................................... 181<br />

3.1. European approach –taking French and Spanish cases as example ....................................... 181<br />

3.2. Chinese approach ............................................................................................................... 184<br />

4. Financial benefit analysis ........................................................................................................... 185<br />

4.1. European approach ............................................................................................................. 186<br />

4.2. Chinese approach ............................................................................................................... 187<br />

5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 189<br />

6. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 190<br />

Chinese Cases ............................................................................................................................ 191<br />

European cases .......................................................................................................................... 192<br />

INtermeDIArIes IN tHe eye Of tHe COPyrIgHt stOrm: A COmPArAtIVe ANAlysIs Of<br />

tHe tHree strIke APPrOACH wItHIN tHe eUrOPeAN UNION. Evi Werkers .......................... 195<br />

1. Copyright infringement vs. copyright enforcement, 1-1 ............................................................ 195<br />

1.1. The long-running failure of enforcing copyright regu<strong>la</strong>tion online ...................................... 195<br />

1.2. The changing role of intermediaries in the creative content online environment ................. 197<br />

1.2.1. The safe harbour provisions ...................................................................................... 197<br />

1.2.2. A complex set of services: challenging interpretations ............................................... 199<br />

7


8 Índice general<br />

1.2.3. Should intermediaries lift their anchor and set sail to less safe waters? ....................... 200<br />

2. Pouring oil on troubled waters… or adding fuel to the fire? ....................................................... 203<br />

2.1. The French (un)graduated response and its British lookalike ............................................... 203<br />

2.2. The curious case of Belgium ............................................................................................... 205<br />

2.3. Some <strong>de</strong>velopments on EU level ......................................................................................... 206<br />

3. The best is yet to come… ......................................................................................................... 207<br />

4. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 208<br />

COMUNICACIONES SOBRE DERECHOS FUNDAMENTALES, LIBERTADES<br />

Y RESPONSABILIDAD EN INTERNET<br />

ClOUD COmPUtINg: legAl IssUes IN CeNtrAlIzeD ArCHIteCtUres. Primavera De Filippi<br />

y Smari McCarthy .......................................................................................................................... 213<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 213<br />

2. The Emergence of Cloud Computing ........................................................................................ 214<br />

2.1. Definition of Cloud Computing ......................................................................................... 214<br />

2.2. The changing face of Networked Services ........................................................................... 215<br />

3. Legal Issues of Cloud Computing .............................................................................................. 218<br />

3.1. Centralized Control ............................................................................................................ 219<br />

3.2. Privacy & Confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality ................................................................................................... 221<br />

4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 225<br />

DereCHO Al HONOr Vs DereCHO A lA lIBertAD De exPresIóN eN lA reD. Patricia Escribano<br />

Tortajada ............................................................................................................................... 227<br />

1. Los conceptos <strong>de</strong> honor y libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión ......................................................................... 227<br />

1.1. El honor como <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental y <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad ..................................... 227<br />

1.2. La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión como límite al <strong>de</strong>recho al honor .................................................... 229<br />

2. Un nuevo marco <strong>para</strong> el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> estos <strong>de</strong>rechos: el impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet ............................... 231<br />

3. Las lesiones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor en Internet: el caso concreto <strong>de</strong> los insultos ............................ 233<br />

3.1. Cuestiones generales ........................................................................................................... 233<br />

3.2. Análisis jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> los insultos en Internet y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión....................... 236<br />

4. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 241<br />

5. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 242<br />

lA teNsIóN eNtre ImPUNIDAD eN lA reD y lImItACIóN De lA lIBertAD De exPresIóN.<br />

Mª Dolores Pa<strong>la</strong>cios González ......................................................................................................... 243<br />

1. Introducción ............................................................................................................................. 243<br />

2. Posibles responsables en caso <strong>de</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l honor, <strong>la</strong> intimidad o <strong>la</strong> imagen ...................... 244<br />

3. Régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad civil por intromisiones ilegítimas realizadas a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> .........<br />

4. Criterios <strong>de</strong> imputación <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación<br />

consistentes en alojamiento o almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos o proporcionar en<strong>la</strong>ces o instrumentos<br />

245<br />

<strong>de</strong> búsqueda............................................................................................................................... 249<br />

4.1. El conocimiento efectivo .................................................................................................... 249<br />

4.2. La diligencia exigible al prestador ....................................................................................... 254<br />

5. Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones finales .............................................................................................................. 255<br />

6. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 256


Índice general<br />

el esPACIO De lIBertAD, segUrIDAD y JUstICIA y lA CIBerCrImINAlIDAD eN lA UNIóN<br />

eUrOPeA. Alicia Chicharro ........................................................................................................... 259<br />

1. Introducción ............................................................................................................................. 259<br />

2. El espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia en el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa ............................................. 260<br />

2.1. De <strong>la</strong> estructura <strong>de</strong> pi<strong>la</strong>res al espacio común <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia ...................... 260<br />

2.2. Modificaciones sustanciales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial en materia penal .............................. 264<br />

2.3. Noveda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>institucional</strong>es <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal ................. 268<br />

3. El tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> UE ........................................................................ 270<br />

3.1. Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones generales ................................................................................................... 270<br />

3.2. Algunos instrumentos europeos en <strong>la</strong> lucha contra <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad .............................. 271<br />

3.2.1. La Decisión Marco sobre ataques contra sistemas <strong>de</strong> información ............................. 271<br />

3.2.2. Directiva sobre comercio electrónico......................................................................... 272<br />

3.2.3. La Decisión Marco sobre lucha contra el terrorismo ................................................. 273<br />

3.2.4. Directiva sobre b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales y financiación <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo .......................... 275<br />

4. A modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión ............................................................................................................... 276<br />

ANONymIty, “trAsH tAlk” AND CyBer-smeArINg ON tHe INterNet. Anne W. Salisbury ...... 279<br />

1. The Role of Anonymity ............................................................................................................. 280<br />

1.1. Suits For Defamation.......................................................................................................... 282<br />

1.2. Process ................................................................................................................................ 282<br />

1.3. Brief Summary of U. S. Defamation <strong>la</strong>w............................................................................. 282<br />

2. Bad Facts Make Bad Law: The Lisku<strong>la</strong> Cohen Case ................................................................... 284<br />

2.1. Facts of Cohen Case ........................................................................................................... 285<br />

2.2. Fact v. opinion ................................................................................................................... 286<br />

2.3. The Context of the Blog Informing Defamatory Meaning .................................................. 287<br />

COMUNICACIONES SOBRE DERECHO AL OLVIDO, PROTECCIÓN DE DATOS Y PRIVACIDAD<br />

BeHAVIOUrAl ADVertIsINg IN eleCtrONIC COmmUNICAtIONs. A benefit to electronic communication<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment and an intrusion of individual’s right to privacy and data protection. Jelena<br />

Burnik .......................................................................................................................................... 293<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 293<br />

2. Current state of p<strong>la</strong>y regarding behavioural advertising .............................................................. 295<br />

2.1. Behavioural advertising and electronic service provi<strong>de</strong>rs...................................................... 296<br />

2.2. Regu<strong>la</strong>tory context in the EU – The new “cookie Directive” requires prior consent ............ 297<br />

2.2.1. The industry response ............................................................................................... 298<br />

2.3. Regu<strong>la</strong>tory context in the US – Reliance on self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion ................................................. 299<br />

2.3.1. Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong> for behavioural advertising ........................................................ 299<br />

2.3.2. US recognizes issues with behavioural advertising ..................................................... 300<br />

3. A reflection on the two inter-<strong>de</strong>pendant regu<strong>la</strong>tory frameworks ................................................ 301<br />

3.1. Statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion versus self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion ........................................................................... 302<br />

4. Implications for regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural targeting in the future .............................................. 303<br />

4.1. The crucial elements of future behavioural advertising regu<strong>la</strong>tion ....................................... 303<br />

4.2. The interp<strong>la</strong>y between self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory and statutory means of regu<strong>la</strong>tion ............................. 304<br />

5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 304<br />

6. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 305<br />

9


10 Índice general<br />

DAtA trANsfer frOm germANy Or sPAIN tO tHIrD COUNtrIes. QUestIONs Of<br />

CIVIl lIABIlIty fOr PrIVACy rIgHts INfrINgemeNt. Philipp E. Fischer y Rafael Ferraz<br />

Vazquez ......................................................................................................................... 311<br />

1. Topicality and complexity .......................................................................................................... 312<br />

1.1. Technological complexity.................................................................................................... 312<br />

1.2. Commercial complexity ...................................................................................................... 313<br />

1.3. Political complexity ............................................................................................................ 313<br />

2. Legal instruments of the European Union ................................................................................. 314<br />

2.1. European Data Protection Directive (EU-DPD) ................................................................. 314<br />

2.2. Safe Harbor ........................................................................................................................ 317<br />

2.3. Binding Corporate Rules (BCR) ......................................................................................... 318<br />

2.4. Standard Contractual C<strong>la</strong>uses (SCC) .................................................................................. 319<br />

2.4.1. Version 1 (SCC I) ..................................................................................................... 319<br />

2.4.2.Version 2 (SCC II) .................................................................................................... 320<br />

2.4.3. Special version for data processors established in third countries (SCC-DP) ............. 321<br />

3. Jurisdiction and applicable <strong>la</strong>w .................................................................................................. 321<br />

3.1. Jurisdiction ......................................................................................................................... 322<br />

3.2. Applicable Law ................................................................................................................... 323<br />

3.2.1. Contract statute ........................................................................................................ 323<br />

3.2.2. Tort statute / Data protection statute ........................................................................ 324<br />

3.3. outlook.............................................................................................................................. 326<br />

4. German substantive <strong>la</strong>w ............................................................................................................ 327<br />

4.1. Case study .......................................................................................................................... 327<br />

4.2. System of BDSG ................................................................................................................ 327<br />

4.3. Subsumtion to the regu<strong>la</strong>tions of BDSG............................................................................. 327<br />

4.3.1. Legal basis (first step) ................................................................................................ 327<br />

4.3.2. A<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection (second step) ......................................................... 329<br />

5. Spanish substantive <strong>la</strong>w ............................................................................................................. 330<br />

5.1. Spanish Legal Framework ................................................................................................... 330<br />

5.2. System of LoPD ................................................................................................................ 331<br />

5.2.1. Authorisation through AEPD ................................................................................... 332<br />

5.2.2. Subcontracting ......................................................................................................... 333<br />

5.2.3. Alternative route: The <strong>de</strong>rogation of Art.34 (e) LoPD ............................................. 334<br />

5.3. The limited role of AEPD ................................................................................................... 335<br />

5.4. Data subject and the compensation for damages ................................................................. 335<br />

6. Com<strong>para</strong>tive <strong>la</strong>w analysis ........................................................................................................... 336<br />

7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 337<br />

8. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 339<br />

lA PrIVACIDAD De lAs COmUNICACIONes eN lA INVestIgACIóN PeNAl: UNO De lOs retOs<br />

De lA JUstICIA eN UNA sOCIeDAD glOBAlIzADA. Inmacu<strong>la</strong>da López-Barajas Perea ......... 341<br />

1. La sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos .................................................... 341<br />

2. El secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones ................................................................................................ 344<br />

3. La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, <strong>la</strong> intimidad y el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones ...... 345<br />

4. La <strong>de</strong>tección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s c<strong>la</strong>ves IMSI e IMEI ..................................................................................... 350<br />

5. Conclusión ................................................................................................................................ 353<br />

6. Bibliografía sobre <strong>la</strong> materia ....................................................................................................... 354


Índice general<br />

lA BAse ADAms De lA AgeNCIA mUNDIAl ANtIDOPAJe. PrOBlemAs De PrOteCCIóN De<br />

DAtOs. Ricardo Morte Ferrer ....................................................................................................... 359<br />

1. Introducción al tema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lucha antidopaje ............................................................................... 359<br />

2. Localizaciones o whereabouts .................................................................................................... 360<br />

3. Transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos. La base ADAMS .......................................................... 362<br />

4. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 368<br />

5. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 369<br />

el DereCHO Al OlVIDO eN INterNet. Ramón M. Orza Linares y Susana Ruiz Tarrías .............. 371<br />

1. Introducción ............................................................................................................................. 371<br />

2. El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet ................................................................................................. 374<br />

2.1. Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes ...................................................................................................................... 374<br />

2.2. La actividad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos en re<strong>la</strong>ción al <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

olvido ........................................................................................................................... 375<br />

2.3. Derecho al olvido y re<strong>de</strong>s sociales ....................................................................................... 378<br />

3. La posible reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 1995 y su repercusión en re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

con el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” ................................................................................................... 380<br />

4. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 387<br />

5. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 388<br />

el régImeN CONstItUCIONAl Del DereCHO Al OlVIDO eN INterNet. Pere Simón Castel<strong>la</strong>no<br />

................................................................................................................................. 391<br />

1. Introducción y terminología ...................................................................................................... 391<br />

2. Web 2.0 Y transformaciones sociales .......................................................................................... 392<br />

2.1. La perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en Internet ...................................................................... 393<br />

3. El encaje constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital .................................................................. 395<br />

3.1. El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales ........................ 396<br />

3.1.1. El principio <strong>de</strong> consentimiento <strong>de</strong> los datos .............................................................. 399<br />

3.1.2. El principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad ........................................................................................... 399<br />

4. Diferentes ámbitos <strong>de</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido frente a <strong>la</strong> memoria digital ..................... 400<br />

4.1. El olvido en <strong>la</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s sociales ............................................................................................... 400<br />

4.2. El olvido en los resultados <strong>de</strong> los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda ....................................................... 402<br />

4.3. El olvido en <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales .................................................................................. 404<br />

5. Conclusiones ............................................................................................................................. 405<br />

6. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 406<br />

PrIVACIDAD y trACkINg COOkIes. UNA APrOxImACIóN CONstItUCIONAl. María Concepción<br />

Torres Díaz ............................................................................................................................. 407<br />

1. P<strong>la</strong>nteamiento general ............................................................................................................... 407<br />

2. objetivos ................................................................................................................................... 408<br />

3. Conceptualizaciones y bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad .................................................... 409<br />

4. Privacidad en <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE.................................................................................... 415<br />

5. Apuntes sobre el Dictamen 2/2010, sobre publicidad comportamental on-line ..........................<br />

6. Las tracking cookies y el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> integridad y confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y<br />

417<br />

<strong>de</strong> información .......................................................................................................................... 419<br />

7. Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones finales .............................................................................................................. 421<br />

8. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 421<br />

11


12 Índice general<br />

legAl feAsIBIlIty fOr stAtIstICAl metHODs ON INterNet As A sOUrCe Of DAtA gAtHerINg<br />

IN tHe eU. Faye Fangfei Wang ....................................................................................... 423<br />

1. Introduction: Current EU Legal Framework for Data Privacy Protection .................................. 423<br />

2. Legis<strong>la</strong>tive Measures for Automated Data Collection ................................................................. 424<br />

2.1. Un<strong>de</strong>rlying General Steps on Data Privacy Protection ........................................................ 424<br />

2.2. Exemption C<strong>la</strong>uses for Automated Data Collection for Statistical Purposes ........................ 427<br />

3. Recommendation and Conclusion ............................................................................................. 428<br />

4. References ................................................................................................................................. 428<br />

COMUNICACIONES SOBRE GOBIERNO Y DEMOCRACIA ELECTRÓNICA<br />

yOU HAVe NO sOVereIgNty wHere we gAtHer. wIkIleAks AND freeDOm, AUtONOmy<br />

AND sOVereIgNty IN tHe ClOUD. Bodó Balázs ......................................................................... 433<br />

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 434<br />

2. A new era of hacktivism ............................................................................................................. 435<br />

3. Anonymous ............................................................................................................................... 437<br />

4. Transparency ............................................................................................................................. 438<br />

5. Sovereignty ................................................................................................................................ 440<br />

6. References ................................................................................................................................. 445<br />

lA INICIAtIVA CIUDADANA eUrOPeA eleCtróNICA. Lorenzo Cotino Hueso ............................... 447<br />

1. Aproximación a una normativa muy innovadora ....................................................................... 447<br />

1.1. origen e interés <strong>de</strong> una normativa innovadora mundialmente ............................................ 447<br />

1.2. Elementos básicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción y fases <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea .................... 449<br />

2. Sistemas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web y su ac<strong>red</strong>itación por los Estados .................................. 450<br />

2.1. El <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taformas a partir <strong>de</strong> normas y programas <strong>de</strong> código abierto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión ... 450<br />

2.2. Requisitos <strong>de</strong> los apoyos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> recogida ......................................................<br />

2.3. El tipo <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica requerida, el posible uso <strong>de</strong> sistemas poco robusto y el anonimato<br />

452<br />

o el seudónimo electrónico .................................................................................................<br />

2.4. La ac<strong>red</strong>itación por autoridad competente <strong>de</strong> un Estado <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos que aun sistema<br />

452<br />

<strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos y el obligatorio reconocimiento por los <strong>de</strong>más Estados .................... 454<br />

3. La presentación y verificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s concretas firmas y apoyos recibidos por una ICE ............... 454<br />

4. El régimen <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> los apoyos ciudadanos ...................................................... 456<br />

4.1. Los <strong>de</strong>sproporcionados datos que los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong>ben facilitar <strong>para</strong> apoyar una iniciativa . 457<br />

4.2. La finalidad exclusiva <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos ........................................................... 458<br />

4.3. La fijación <strong>de</strong> los responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento y el alcance <strong>de</strong> su responsabilidad ................ 458<br />

4.4. El régimen<strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos aplicable .........................................................................<br />

4.5. Las exigencias <strong>de</strong> seguridad y <strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> ficheros según el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE y el alto nivel<br />

459<br />

<strong>de</strong> seguridad exigido por tratarse <strong>de</strong> datos i<strong>de</strong>ológicos ........................................................ 460<br />

5. Bibliografía seleccionada ............................................................................................................ 461<br />

INstItUtIONAl trUst AND e-gOVerNmeNt ADOPtION IN tHe eU: A CrOss-NAtIONAl<br />

ANAlysIs. Georgia Foteinou .......................................................................................................... 463<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 463<br />

2. The ‘Digitally Reluctant’ Europeans........................................................................................... 464<br />

3. The answers to the research problem: what the literature suggests .............................................. 466<br />

4. Trust literature ........................................................................................................................... 467<br />

5. Theoretical Lenses: A Neo-Institutional Approach ..................................................................... 468


Índice general<br />

6. The outliers: britain, germany and estonia ................................................................................. 471<br />

7. Factors affecting e-government adoption and the ‘trust’ hypothesis ............................................ 472<br />

7.1. Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 472<br />

7.2. Data, variables and measurement ....................................................................................... 473<br />

7.3. The role of trust in e-government adoption ........................................................................ 474<br />

8. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 476<br />

9. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 477<br />

AN INtrODUCtOry HIstOrICAl CONtextUAlIzAtION Of ONlINe CreAtION COmmUNItIes<br />

fOr tHe BUIlDINg Of DIgItAl COmmONs: tHe emergeNCe Of A free CUltUre mOVemeNt.<br />

Mayo Fuster Morell .............................................................................................................. 481<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 481<br />

2. From the 1950s: Cultural roots of oCCs: pioneer online communities ..................................... 482<br />

3. From the 1990s: The appearance of the first online creation communities: Free and open source<br />

software projects ........................................................................................................................ 483<br />

4. 2001: From free software to free culture: The expansion of oCCs to other immaterial content . 484<br />

5. 2006: The explosion of commercial Web 2.0 ............................................................................. 485<br />

6. A free culture movement in formation? ...................................................................................... 486<br />

7. Defining the movement dimension of free culture ..................................................................... 489<br />

8. Bibliographic references ............................................................................................................. 493<br />

self-gOVerNeD sOCIO-teCHNICAl INfrAstrUCtUres. Autonomy and Cooperation through<br />

free software and Community wireless Networks. Daniel Guagnin y Car<strong>la</strong> Ilten ............................ 497<br />

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 497<br />

1. Free Software: a Constitution for Crowd Sourcing ..................................................................... 498<br />

1.1. Principles of Free Software .................................................................................................. 498<br />

1.2. Why Freedom of Software Affects the Freedom of Everyday Life ....................................... 499<br />

1.2.1. Society Ma<strong>de</strong> Durable and the Law of Cyberspace .................................................... 500<br />

1.2.2. Expert Systems, Resources and the Power of Laypeople ............................................ 501<br />

1.3. A Constitution for Crowd Sourcing ................................................................................... 502<br />

1.4. Interlu<strong>de</strong> ............................................................................................................................ 503<br />

2. Community Wireless Networks: Free Software and DIY Hardware Citizen-owned Infrastructures .. 504<br />

2.1. What are Community Wireless Networks? ......................................................................... 504<br />

2.1.1. Wireless Architectures: Socio-Technical Configurations ............................................ 504<br />

2.1.2. Chicago Wireless Community Networks .................................................................. 505<br />

2.2. A Community Wireless Networks Niche ........................................................................... 506<br />

2.2.1. The Broadband Market ............................................................................................. 507<br />

2.2.2. Alternative Niches .................................................................................................... 507<br />

2.2.3. Community Wireless I<strong>de</strong>als ...................................................................................... 508<br />

2.3. Diversity and Local Expertise Through Socio-Technical Niches ......................................... 510<br />

3. Niches Based on the Usage of Free Software and Hardware Foster Network Neutrality ............. 511<br />

4. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 512<br />

CONflICts ABOUt tHe regUlAtION Of INtelleCtUAl PrOPerty IN INterNet: COmPArINg<br />

tHe IssUe NetwOrks IN Uk AND sPAIN. Jorge Luis Salcedo.............................................. 515<br />

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 515<br />

2. Literature ................................................................................................................................... 517<br />

2.1. Why media visibility is important? ..................................................................................... 517<br />

13


14 Índice general<br />

3. Methods .................................................................................................................................... 522<br />

4. Contextual features .................................................................................................................... 527<br />

5. Findings .................................................................................................................................... 529<br />

6. References ................................................................................................................................. 534<br />

lAs CIBer-CAmPAñAs eN AmérICA lAtINA: POteNCIAlIDADes y lImItANtes. Andrés Val<strong>de</strong>z<br />

Zepeda ........................................................................................................................................... 539<br />

1. Introducción ............................................................................................................................. 539<br />

2. La política en <strong>la</strong> era “punto.com” ............................................................................................... 540<br />

3. Las ciber-campañas .................................................................................................................... 541<br />

4. Las ciber-campañas en América Latina....................................................................................... 543<br />

5. Limitantes y potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas ................................................................... 549<br />

6. A modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión ............................................................................................................... 552<br />

7. Bibliografía ................................................................................................................................ 554


Prólogo<br />

NetwOrk NeUtrAlIty: HIstOry, regUlAtION AND fUtUre<br />

Agustí Cerrillo-i-Martínez<br />

Miquel Peguera<br />

Ismael Peña-López<br />

Mònica Vi<strong>la</strong>sau So<strong>la</strong>na<br />

Comité <strong>de</strong> dirección<br />

VII Congreso, Internet, Derecho y Política<br />

El VII Congreso Internacional Internet, Derecho y Política (IDP 2011), que se ha<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do en Barcelona los días 11 y 12 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011 bajo el título genérico <strong>de</strong> “<strong>Neutralidad</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet”, ha abordado algunos <strong>de</strong> los principales<br />

<strong>retos</strong> a los que se enfrenta <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva jurídica<br />

y politológica. En particu<strong>la</strong>r, los temas centrales han sido el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>de</strong> can<strong>de</strong>nte actualidad tanto en Europa como en los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> América,<br />

y el l<strong>la</strong>mado “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” cuyo reconocimiento emerge con fuerza como un nuevo<br />

problema aparejado a <strong>la</strong>s cada vez más potentes herramientas <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, y en el que se<br />

ven implicados <strong>de</strong>licados aspectos <strong>de</strong> privacidad, protección <strong>de</strong> datos y libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

e información.<br />

El Congreso Internet, Derecho y Política es impulsado y organizado por los Estudios<br />

<strong>de</strong> Derecho y Ciencia Política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya (UoC), cuyos profesores<br />

vienen <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>ndo una fructífera actividad investigadora sobre <strong>la</strong>s transformaciones <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho y <strong>la</strong> política en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información canalizada a través <strong>de</strong> diversos grupos<br />

<strong>de</strong> investigación 1 .<br />

Con sus ya siete ediciones, el Congreso Internet, Derecho y Política, se ha consolidado<br />

como lugar <strong>de</strong> encuentro anual <strong>de</strong> investigadores, académicos y profesionales interesados<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s consecuencias <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación en los<br />

diferentes ámbitos <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política en un sentido amplio. Destacados académicos<br />

e investigadores han participado en calidad <strong>de</strong> ponentes invitados en anteriores ediciones <strong>de</strong>l<br />

congreso, entre <strong>otros</strong>, Benjamin Barber, Lilian Edwards, Jane Ginsburg, James Grimmelmann,<br />

Ronald Leenes, Helen Margetts, Eben Moglen, Evgeny Morozov, John Palfrey, Yves<br />

Poullet, Stephano Rodotà, A<strong>la</strong>in Strowel o Jonathan Zittrain 2 . En esta ocasión, <strong>la</strong>s conferen-<br />

1 Véase al respecto, Peguera Poch, M. (coord.) PrinciPios <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información. Cizur Menor: Reuters-Thomson-Aranzadi (2010).<br />

2 En <strong>la</strong> página web http://edcp.uoc.edu/symposia/idp2011/ se pue<strong>de</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a <strong>la</strong>s web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ediciones<br />

anteriores con los en<strong>la</strong>ces a <strong>la</strong>s grabaciones en ví<strong>de</strong>o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s diversas sesiones y en http://idp.uoc.edu/ a<br />

los diferentes números <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> revista IDP don<strong>de</strong> se ha venido publicando una selección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ponencias<br />

presentadas así como un amplio resumen <strong>de</strong> los resultados obtenidos.


16 Prólogo<br />

cias inaugurales han corrido a cargo <strong>de</strong>l profesor Christopher T. Mars<strong>de</strong>n, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Univesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> Essex, que ha analizado el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> profesora Cécile<br />

<strong>de</strong> Terwangne, <strong>de</strong>l Centre <strong>de</strong> Recherche Informatique et Droit (CRID) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong><br />

Namur, que ha tratado sobre el l<strong>la</strong>mado <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido.<br />

Si bien el Congreso Internet, Derecho y Política ha mantenido su interés fundacional<br />

<strong>de</strong> analizar anualmente <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho y <strong>la</strong> política a <strong>la</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s transformaciones<br />

que se van produciendo en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, esta VII edición se distingue <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s anteriores en el nuevo enfoque dado al Congreso, al abrirlo <strong>de</strong> modo c<strong>la</strong>ro a una amplia<br />

participación internacional a través <strong>de</strong> un riguroso proceso <strong>de</strong> solicitud <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

y <strong>de</strong> revisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> asistencia <strong>de</strong> participantes <strong>de</strong> numerosos países. De este<br />

modo, aunque se ha mantenido <strong>la</strong> presencia <strong>de</strong> conferenciantes y <strong>de</strong> ponentes invitados a<br />

participar en mesas <strong>red</strong>ondas, el peso principal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s aportaciones ha recaído en los profesores<br />

y expertos que han enviado sus contribuciones al congreso promoviendo con ello <strong>la</strong><br />

internacionalización y <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l Congreso.<br />

El elemento <strong>de</strong> internacionalización salta a <strong>la</strong> vista en el propio índice <strong>de</strong> este libro,<br />

dado el elevado porcentaje <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones aceptadas que han sido presentadas por académicos<br />

y especialistas proce<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> numerosos países.<br />

La calidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones seleccionadas se ha visto garantizada a través <strong>de</strong><br />

un proceso académico <strong>de</strong> revisión por pares que se ha regido por los criterios fijados por el<br />

comité <strong>de</strong> dirección y validados por el comité científico <strong>de</strong>l Congreso. Así, se ha valorado en<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r el encaje <strong>de</strong>l objeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s principales líneas temáticas<br />

<strong>de</strong>l congreso, <strong>la</strong> originalidad y relevancia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s aportaciones y el rigor académico <strong>de</strong>l trabajo<br />

presentado.<br />

2<br />

La elección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido como ejes centrales <strong>de</strong>l<br />

congreso respon<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> voluntad <strong>de</strong> facilitar el <strong>de</strong>bate académico sobre temas <strong>de</strong> gran actualidad<br />

<strong>institucional</strong> y social y ha querido contribuir a presentar diversos puntos <strong>de</strong> vista y a<br />

enriquecer el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre estas materias, que, cada una a su modo, revisten una importancia<br />

sin duda creciente en <strong>la</strong> reflexión sobre los efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y sobre su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo futuro.<br />

La neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, o Net Neutrality, es el principio según el cual <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>be<br />

permanecer neutral en re<strong>la</strong>ción con los contenidos que se transmiten a través <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong> y evitar<br />

cualquier discriminación basada en <strong>la</strong> naturaleza o el origen <strong>de</strong> los datos. Este principio es<br />

visto generalmente como una característica esencial <strong>de</strong>l diseño original <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, que ha<br />

permitido un crecimiento exponencial <strong>de</strong> nuevos servicios en los últimos años.<br />

El mantenimiento <strong>de</strong> esta neutralidad se enfrenta a <strong>la</strong> pau<strong>la</strong>tina introducción <strong>de</strong> diversas<br />

prácticas <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico por parte <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones que<br />

implican un tratamiento diferenciado <strong>de</strong> los datos transmitidos. Por otra parte, se enfrenta a<br />

<strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> que <strong>para</strong> hacer llegar contenidos y aplicaciones <strong>de</strong> calidad a los <strong>de</strong>stinatarios<br />

finales, los prestadores <strong>de</strong> estos servicios puedan verse precisados a suscribir acuerdos específicos<br />

con los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones que podrían supeditarse a <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong>


Prólogo<br />

estos últimos en los beneficios <strong>de</strong> dicha actividad. Esta posibilidad, ya p<strong>la</strong>nteada por algunos<br />

operadores, presenta por lo <strong>de</strong>más evi<strong>de</strong>ntes problemas <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia cuando, cada vez más a menudo, <strong>la</strong>s compañías <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

extien<strong>de</strong>n su actividad al mercado <strong>de</strong> contenidos, lo que pue<strong>de</strong> dar lugar a prácticas <strong>de</strong> priorización<br />

o <strong>de</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong> carácter anticompetitivo.<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> otro punto <strong>de</strong> vista, <strong>de</strong>terminadas fórmu<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico pue<strong>de</strong>n llevar<br />

aparejadas consecuencias negativas tanto sobre <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión como sobre el propio<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet, <strong>de</strong>sarrollo que ha venido en gran medida facilitado<br />

precisamente por el esquema <strong>de</strong> neutralidad o <strong>para</strong>digma <strong>de</strong> extremo a extremo, don<strong>de</strong> el<br />

núcleo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> no interfiere en <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones y contenidos que circu<strong>la</strong>n a través <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>.<br />

A favor <strong>de</strong> permitir a los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones un amplio margen <strong>para</strong> llevar<br />

a cabo una razonable gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico se alega <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> evitar el co<strong>la</strong>pso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>,<br />

así como <strong>la</strong> legítima aspiración a obtener el retorno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s inversiones realizadas <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>splegar<br />

y mantener <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones. Se indica, a<strong>de</strong>más, que una discriminación<br />

con fundamento estrictamente técnico pue<strong>de</strong> llegar a ser beneficiosa <strong>para</strong> el usuario final, al<br />

permitir dar un servicio <strong>de</strong> mayor calidad y con mayores niveles <strong>de</strong> eficacia y eficiencia.<br />

En buena parte, el <strong>de</strong>bate se centra en si es precisa una específica intervención regu<strong>la</strong>toria<br />

<strong>para</strong> exigir el respeto a los principios <strong>de</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, o si <strong>la</strong> cuestión <strong>de</strong>be<br />

<strong>de</strong>jarse a <strong>la</strong> libre competencia <strong>de</strong> los operadores y al juego <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia, limitándose el legis<strong>la</strong>dor a exigir a los operadores un <strong>de</strong>terminado nivel <strong>de</strong><br />

transparencia y <strong>de</strong> información al consumidor. Quienes se oponen a una regu<strong>la</strong>ción explícita<br />

<strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> argumentan que precisamente esa regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

implicaría una injerencia por parte <strong>de</strong>l Estado en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones y que<br />

es preferible el juego <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>para</strong> ajustarse a <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mandas <strong>de</strong> los usuarios y <strong>de</strong> los<br />

proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

Frente a estos argumentos <strong>de</strong> mercado, se invocan los peligros que pue<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>rivarse<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> merma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad que históricamente ha presidido el funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>,<br />

merma que se percibe como amenaza, por lo menos potencial, a <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

básicos como el <strong>de</strong>recho a recibir información <strong>de</strong> calidad, no sesgada, imparcial, exenta <strong>de</strong><br />

censura o manipu<strong>la</strong>ciones o el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. En particu<strong>la</strong>r, esta última<br />

podría verse perjudicada en el caso <strong>de</strong> que se admita <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> dar prioridad a unos<br />

paquetes <strong>de</strong> datos –información, comunicaciones, comunicados, noticias, <strong>de</strong>nuncias– frente<br />

a <strong>otros</strong> a los que el operador <strong>de</strong>see favorecer.<br />

otro elemento, mucho menos referido y, sin embargo, tan o más relevante que los<br />

anteriores, es el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> reunión. Cada vez más, <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, conversaciones e<br />

interacción entre los usuarios se tras<strong>la</strong>dan a <strong>la</strong>s p<strong>la</strong>taformas digitales, y tienen lugar en foros,<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, espacios <strong>de</strong> encuentro síncrono <strong>de</strong> texto, voz y ví<strong>de</strong>o. De este modo <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> se<br />

constituye en un verda<strong>de</strong>ro espacio <strong>de</strong> reuniones (virtuales), a menudo <strong>de</strong> tipo lúdico pero<br />

también <strong>de</strong> tipo político, religioso, cultural o <strong>de</strong> pensamiento en general. La capacidad <strong>de</strong><br />

interferir <strong>de</strong> modo arbitrario en el tráfico impidiendo o dificultando estas comunicaciones<br />

colectivas por parte <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones pondría en riesgo el ejercicio<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. En buena medida, <strong>de</strong>terminados movimientos sociales <strong>de</strong> indu-<br />

17


18 Prólogo<br />

dable relevancia acaecidos en muy diversos lugares <strong>de</strong>l mundo en <strong>la</strong> primera mitad <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

–primavera árabe, protestas en los países <strong>de</strong>l sur <strong>de</strong> Europa– se han apoyado fuertemente en<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> como ágora virtual <strong>para</strong> informar, <strong>de</strong>liberar y <strong>de</strong>cidir, mientras que <strong>otros</strong> se han visto<br />

impedidos, precisamente, por el control <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Las re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones constituyen sin duda infraestructuras cruciales <strong>para</strong><br />

el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. Así pues, <strong>la</strong> cuestión ya apuntada surge <strong>de</strong> nuevo:<br />

¿en qué medida los operadores <strong>de</strong>ben gozar <strong>de</strong> plena autonomía <strong>para</strong> establecer sistemas <strong>de</strong><br />

gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico, o priorizaciones basadas en acuerdos <strong>de</strong> mercado, que pongan en riesgo o<br />

dificulten el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> tales <strong>de</strong>rechos? ¿Hasta qué punto es preciso renunciar a <strong>la</strong> eficiencia<br />

en <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en aras <strong>de</strong> una mejor tute<strong>la</strong> efectiva <strong>de</strong> los mismos? ¿El respeto a los<br />

principios <strong>de</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong>be confiarse a <strong>la</strong> exclusivamente a <strong>la</strong> autoregu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l sector?<br />

¿Es precisa una regu<strong>la</strong>ción directa <strong>para</strong> garantizarlos? ¿Sería a<strong>de</strong>cuado el recurso a esquemas <strong>de</strong><br />

co-regu<strong>la</strong>ción? Son muchos los matices a los que se prestan <strong>la</strong>s distintas opciones y el <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

<strong>de</strong> política jurídica parece lejos <strong>de</strong> estar cerrado. Toda esta riqueza <strong>de</strong> puntos <strong>de</strong> vista se ha<br />

querido tras<strong>la</strong>dar a <strong>la</strong>s diferentes sesiones <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>das durante el primer día <strong>de</strong>l Congreso.<br />

El segundo eje temático <strong>de</strong>l congreso ha sido <strong>la</strong> configuración <strong>de</strong> un “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido”<br />

en Internet y <strong>la</strong>s notables dificulta<strong>de</strong>s que presenta. El conflicto se p<strong>la</strong>ntea aquí como un<br />

equilibrio entre el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> privacidad y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales y el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y <strong>de</strong> información, así como a <strong>la</strong> libre prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

in<strong>de</strong>xación y localización <strong>de</strong> los contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Internet acumu<strong>la</strong> ingentes cantida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> datos. A <strong>la</strong> información generada recientemente<br />

se aña<strong>de</strong> una infinidad <strong>de</strong> contenidos ya antiguos que pasan a estar en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> gracias,<br />

por ejemplo, a <strong>la</strong> digitalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas <strong>de</strong> los principales periódicos y que cobran<br />

nueva vida al quedar in<strong>de</strong>xados y ser fácilmente localizables gracias a los buscadores. Así, una<br />

búsqueda en Google por el nombre <strong>de</strong> una persona, pue<strong>de</strong> arrojar como resultados viejas noticias,<br />

ciertas o menos ciertas, <strong>de</strong>smentidas o no, que en otras circunstancias habrían quedado<br />

olvidadas o cuyo conocimiento se habría mantenido en círculos re<strong>la</strong>tivamente limitados.<br />

Como parte <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa se rec<strong>la</strong>ma a los buscadores <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> los en<strong>la</strong>ces a tales contenidos, que pue<strong>de</strong>n afectar, en ocasiones<br />

gravemente, a <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas afectadas. Los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, por su parte,<br />

seña<strong>la</strong>n que su actividad es neutra, limitándose a in<strong>de</strong>xar y facilitar <strong>la</strong> localización <strong>de</strong> contenidos<br />

en cuya creación no han intervenido, y consi<strong>de</strong>ran que <strong>la</strong>s rec<strong>la</strong>maciones <strong>de</strong>berían<br />

dirigirse a <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> los datos en su origen. Esto último pue<strong>de</strong> chocar con el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a proporcionar información y así lo hacen notar por ejemplo los periódicos que han volcado<br />

sus fondos históricos en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate se hal<strong>la</strong> presente no sólo en los foros académicos. Las autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos mantienen abiertos contenciosos con prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios que podrían dar<br />

lugar a una cuestión prejudicial ante el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea. La cuestión<br />

está también en <strong>la</strong> agenda <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, que se ha manifestado a favor <strong>de</strong><br />

reconocer un <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en términos que todavía no se han explicitado. Esta materia<br />

ocupó buena parte <strong>de</strong>l segundo día <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso IDP, con <strong>la</strong> enriquecedora aportación<br />

<strong>de</strong> puntos <strong>de</strong> vista muy diversos y matizados.


Prólogo<br />

2<br />

Las actas que aquí presentamos recogen <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones que fueron expuestas en<br />

el Congreso, agrupadas en diversos ámbitos temáticos, encabezadas por <strong>la</strong> conferencia <strong>de</strong>l<br />

profesor Mars<strong>de</strong>n sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Los bloques temáticos se refieren a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>; <strong>la</strong> propiedad intelectual en<br />

Internet; los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, liberta<strong>de</strong>s y responsabilidad en Internet; el <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

olvido, protección <strong>de</strong> datos y privacidad; y finalmente al ámbito <strong>de</strong>l gobierno y <strong>de</strong>mocracia<br />

electrónicas.<br />

En el bloque <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones sobre neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> se abordan diversos aspectos<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate ya referido. Por una parte, Cullell March y Marsan Raventós tratan <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión,<br />

centrando el análisis en el papel fundamental <strong>de</strong> Internet en <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

en el siglo XXI. Por su parte, Pérez Marzabal, Arjones Girál<strong>de</strong>z y Nadal Sánchez aportan un<br />

punto <strong>de</strong> vista más centrado en <strong>la</strong> industria, tanto el propio sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones<br />

como el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s empresas cuya actividad como proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos se apoya fuertemente<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras tecnológicas digitales.<br />

En el grupo <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones sobre propiedad intelectual se tratan diversos aspectos<br />

re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> persecución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infracciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos en el ámbito digital. Horten<br />

nos presenta el <strong>de</strong>bate <strong>de</strong> política jurídica en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Directivas <strong>de</strong>l l<strong>la</strong>mado paquete<br />

Telecom y Farrand examina críticamente <strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia a recurrir al <strong>de</strong>recho penal como vía<br />

<strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> aquellos <strong>de</strong>rechos. Werkers o Tao ponen el foco en los intermediarios, en<br />

quienes a menudo se quiere hacer recaer el peso <strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong>s posibles infracciones <strong>de</strong> sus<br />

usuarios.<br />

El régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los intermediarios constituyó también un elemento<br />

relevante en el siguiente bloque <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones, referido a los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales,<br />

liberta<strong>de</strong>s y responsabilidad en Internet. Escribano Tortajada, Salisbury o Pa<strong>la</strong>cios González<br />

<strong>de</strong>baten los ataques a <strong>la</strong> intimidad y al honor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas en Internet, junto con <strong>la</strong><br />

necesidad <strong>de</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, así como los límites <strong>de</strong>l anonimato en <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong>, con especial referencia al sistema <strong>de</strong> exclusiones <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. De Filippi y McCarthy analizan los riesgos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

privacidad y confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad que p<strong>la</strong>ntea el cloud computing. Por último, Chicharro Toledo<br />

examina <strong>la</strong> responsablidad penal en el marco <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión Europea.<br />

En el bloque <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones sobre <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, protección <strong>de</strong> datos y privacidad,<br />

orza Linares y Ruiz Tarrías, así como Simon Castel<strong>la</strong>no centran sus aportaciones en el<br />

concepto mismo <strong>de</strong> “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>otros</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos. Por su parte, Burnik<br />

y Torres Díaz se centran en los problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong>rivados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad<br />

basada en comportamiento. Wang, Fisher y Ferraz y Morte analizan diversos aspectos re<strong>la</strong>cionados<br />

con <strong>la</strong>s posibles infracciones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, en especial con ocasión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> recogida y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transferencia internacional <strong>de</strong> datos.<br />

19


20 Prólogo<br />

López-Barajas Perea se centra en <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones <strong>de</strong> privacidad re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con <strong>la</strong> intervención<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación penal.<br />

El último grupo <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones se refiere al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> participación política y<br />

ciudadana a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, así como al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> administración o gobierno electrónico.<br />

Los trabajos <strong>de</strong> Balázs, Guagnin e Ilten abordan diversos aspectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s en sí<br />

mismas o en sus componentes básicos, <strong>de</strong>stacando <strong>la</strong> naturaleza extraterritorial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, que<br />

trascien<strong>de</strong> fronteras y ámbitos legales. otro grupo <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones analizan el funcionamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> los gobiernos o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s administraciones<br />

públicas con sus administrados. Los textos <strong>de</strong> Cotino Hueso y Foteinou nos hab<strong>la</strong>n<br />

<strong>de</strong> administración electrónica o gobierno electrónico, así como <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas ciudadanías en<br />

<strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. Por último, y <strong>de</strong> can<strong>de</strong>nte actualidad, se presenta también el<br />

uso y funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunida<strong>de</strong>s virtuales <strong>para</strong> el activismo ciudadano, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mano<br />

<strong>de</strong> Morell, Salcedo y Val<strong>de</strong>z Zepeda.<br />

2<br />

El VII Congreso Internet, Derecho y Política es el resultado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> estrecha inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

entre diferentes nodos <strong>de</strong> una compleja <strong>red</strong> conformada por numerosos participantes<br />

que aportan su conocimiento, experiencia y pericia tanto en los aspectos puramente académicos<br />

como en los logísticos.<br />

Ponentes y comunicantes han aportado su conocimiento, ava<strong>la</strong>do por los revisores <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s diferentes comunicaciones presentadas y aceptadas.<br />

Los comités <strong>de</strong> dirección, académico y científico han perseguido fomentar <strong>la</strong> calidad<br />

académica <strong>de</strong>l Congreso e impulsar su internacionalización garantizando asimismo <strong>la</strong> actualidad<br />

y el interés académico y social <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s diferentes sesiones organizadas y <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>bates<br />

en el<strong>la</strong>s mantenidos.<br />

El equipo <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> los Estudios <strong>de</strong> Derecho y Ciencia Política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat<br />

oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya, con el apoyo <strong>de</strong> diferentes técnicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia universidad y <strong>de</strong>l<br />

singu<strong>la</strong>r edificio MediaTIC don<strong>de</strong> transcurrió el Congreso, han facilitado <strong>la</strong> consecución <strong>de</strong><br />

los objetivos previstos.<br />

Finalmente, <strong>la</strong> editorial El Derecho ha patrocinado el VII Congreso Internet, Derecho<br />

y Política y el Ilustre Colegio <strong>de</strong> Abogados <strong>de</strong> Barcelona ha co<strong>la</strong>borado en su organización.<br />

A todos ellos, nuestro agra<strong>de</strong>cimiento por su <strong>la</strong>bor e implicación y nuestra confianza<br />

<strong>de</strong> que nos podamos reencontrar en una próxima edición <strong>de</strong>l Congreso Internet, Derecho<br />

y Política.


Prólogo<br />

organización <strong>de</strong>l Vii congreso idP<br />

La organización <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso IDP está formada por los siguientes órganos con <strong>la</strong><br />

composición que se indica a continuación:<br />

comité <strong>de</strong> dirección<br />

• Agustí Cerrillo-i-Martínez, director <strong>de</strong> los Estudios <strong>de</strong> Derecho y Ciencia Política. Universitat<br />

oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Miquel Peguera Poch, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Ismael Peña-López, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Mònica Vi<strong>la</strong>sau So<strong>la</strong>na, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

comité académico<br />

• Joan Balcells Padullés, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Mikel Bar<strong>red</strong>a Díez, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Albert Batlle Rubio, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Ignasi Beltrán <strong>de</strong> He<strong>red</strong>ia Ruiz, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Ana Sofía Car<strong>de</strong>nal Izquierdo, profesora agregada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Biel Company Pérez, investigador <strong>de</strong>l IN3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Ana María Delgado García, catedrática <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Patricia Escribano Tortajada, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Jordi Garcia Albero, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Elisabet Gratti Martinez, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Maria Julià Barceló, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• C<strong>la</strong>ra Marsan Raventós, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• David Martínez Zorril<strong>la</strong>, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Marcel Mateu Vi<strong>la</strong>seca, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Albert Padró-So<strong>la</strong>net Grau, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Irene Rovira Ferrer, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Víctor M. Sánchez Sánchez, profesor agregado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• B<strong>la</strong>nca Torrubia Chalmeta, profesora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Manuel José Vial Dumas, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Aura Esther Vi<strong>la</strong>lta Nicuesa, profesora agregada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

• Marc Vi<strong>la</strong>lta Reixach, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

21


22 Prólogo<br />

comité científico<br />

• Ama<strong>de</strong>u Abril i Abril, profesor asociado <strong>de</strong>l Departamento <strong>de</strong> Derecho Público <strong>de</strong><br />

ESADE, exmiembro <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Administración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICANN (Internet Corporation<br />

for Assigned Names and Numbers)<br />

• Ramon Casas Vallès, profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho civil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> Barcelona y<br />

profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Escue<strong>la</strong> Judicial <strong>de</strong>l Consejo General <strong>de</strong>l Po<strong>de</strong>r Judicial.<br />

• Santiago Cavanil<strong>la</strong>s Múgica, catedrático <strong>de</strong> Derecho Civil y Decano <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> les Illes Balears.<br />

• Lorenzo Cotino, profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> València,<br />

responsable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> DerechoTICS.<br />

• Lilian Edwards, catedrática <strong>de</strong> e-Governance <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Strathcly<strong>de</strong> University.<br />

• James Grimmelmann, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> New York Law School (NYLS) e investigador <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Institute for Information Law and Policy.<br />

• Ronald Leenes, profesor <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción y tecnología en el Instituto <strong>para</strong> el Derecho, <strong>la</strong><br />

Tecnología y <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Tilburg (TILT).<br />

• Daithí Mac Sithigh, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> University of East Anglia.<br />

• Helen Margetts, directora <strong>de</strong> Investigación y profesora <strong>de</strong> Sociedad e Internet, oxford<br />

Internet Institute, Universidad <strong>de</strong> oxford.<br />

• Apol·lònia Martínez, catedrática <strong>de</strong> Derecho mercantil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> les Illes<br />

Balears.<br />

• Esther Mitjans, directora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Autoritat Cata<strong>la</strong>na <strong>de</strong> Protecció <strong>de</strong> Da<strong>de</strong>s y profesora<br />

titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> Barcelona.<br />

• Evgeny Morozov. Visiting Scho<strong>la</strong>r en <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Stanford y Schwartz Fellow <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> New America Foundation<br />

• Guillermo ormazábal, catedrático <strong>de</strong> Derecho procesal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> Girona.<br />

• Josep Maria Reniu, profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Ciencia Política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> Barcelona.<br />

• A<strong>la</strong>in Strowel, profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis (Bruse<strong>la</strong>s) y Université<br />

<strong>de</strong> Liège.<br />

• Antoni Roig, profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat Autònoma<br />

<strong>de</strong> Barcelona y miembro <strong>de</strong>l Instituto <strong>de</strong> Derecho y Tecnología (IDT) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma<br />

universidad.<br />

• Julián Valero, profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho administrativo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Murcia.


Prólogo<br />

El VII Congreso Internet, Derecho y Política se <strong>de</strong>sarrolló con arreglo al siguiente<br />

Programa<br />

lunes 11 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

• 9.00 Recepción y ac<strong>red</strong>itaciones<br />

• 9.30 Conferencia inaugural: Network Neutrality: History, Regu<strong>la</strong>tion and Future.<br />

Christopher T. Mars<strong>de</strong>n Communications Law Prof, University of Essex, UK.<br />

Autor <strong>de</strong>l libro “Net Neutrality: Towards a Co-Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Solution” (2010).<br />

• 10.30 Mesa <strong>red</strong>onda: El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>: <strong>la</strong>s opciones <strong>de</strong> política<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tiva.<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rador: Ama<strong>de</strong>u Abril. Profesor <strong>de</strong> ESADE, <strong>de</strong>partamento <strong>de</strong> Derecho<br />

Público. Ex-miembro <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Administración <strong>de</strong> ICANN.<br />

Ponentes:<br />

• Antoni Elias. Catedrático <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ETS <strong>de</strong> Ingeniería <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicación <strong>de</strong><br />

Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica <strong>de</strong> Catalunya.<br />

• Joan Barata. Profesor <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación y Vice<strong>de</strong>cano <strong>de</strong> Re<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

Internacionales y Calidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Comunicación B<strong>la</strong>nquerna,<br />

Universitat Ramon Llull.<br />

• Ángel León. Dirección General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones y Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información.<br />

Ministerio <strong>de</strong> Industria, Turismo y Comercio.<br />

• 12:00 Pausa-café.<br />

• 12:30 Mesa <strong>red</strong>onda: El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>: <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> los<br />

operadores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s, proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos y usuarios.<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rador: Miquel Peguera. Profesor Agregado <strong>de</strong> Derecho mercantil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

Ponentes:<br />

• Maite Arcos. Directora General <strong>de</strong> RedTel<br />

• Andreu Teixidor. Director <strong>de</strong> estrategia editorial <strong>de</strong> BUBoK<br />

• ofelia Tejerina. Abogada, Asociación <strong>de</strong> Internautas.<br />

• 14:00 Comida<br />

• 15:30 Sesión sobre neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rador: Rodolfo Tesone Mendizabal, Presi<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> SDTIC (Sección <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong>l Ilustre<br />

Colegio <strong>de</strong> Abogados <strong>de</strong> Barcelona).<br />

Comunicaciones:<br />

• Cristina Cullell March: La <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>la</strong>s Liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea: ¿están presentes en toda<br />

Europa?<br />

23


24 Prólogo<br />

• José Manuel Pérez Marzabal: Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>de</strong>fensa<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

• C<strong>la</strong>ra Marsan Raventós: The Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary<br />

to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

• Helena Nadal Sánchez : Sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

• David Arjones Girál<strong>de</strong>z: La neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su<br />

arquitectura por capas: ¿De transportistas públicos a gestores <strong>de</strong> contenidos?<br />

• Debate<br />

• 16:45 Sesión sobre propiedad intelectual en Internet<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>radora: B<strong>la</strong>nca Torrubia Chalmeta. Profesora <strong>de</strong> Derecho mercantil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

Comunicaciones:<br />

• Monica Horten: Copyright at a Policy Cross-Roads – online Enforcement,<br />

the Telecoms Package and the Digital Economy Act<br />

• Evi Werkers: Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive<br />

analysis of the three strike approach within the European Union<br />

• Qian Tao: “Neutrality” Test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability<br />

in China and in Europe<br />

• Benjamin Farrand : ‘Piracy. It’s a Crime.’ – The criminalisation process of<br />

digital copyright infringement<br />

• Debate<br />

• 17:45 Pausa-café<br />

• 18:15 Sesión sobre <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, liberta<strong>de</strong>s y responsabilidad en Internet<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>radora: C<strong>la</strong>ra Marsan Raventós. Profesora <strong>de</strong> Derecho Público <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat<br />

oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya.<br />

Comunicaciones:<br />

• Patricia Escribano Tortajada: Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong><br />

expresión en <strong>la</strong> Red<br />

• Primavera De Filippi, Smári McCarthy: Cloud Computing: Legal Issues in<br />

Centralized Architectures<br />

• Anne W. Salisbury: Anonymity, Trash Talk and Cyber-Smearing on the Internet<br />

• Mª Dolores Pa<strong>la</strong>cios González: La tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

• Alicia Chicharro : El espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea<br />

• Debate<br />

• 19:30 Fin <strong>de</strong>l primer día


Prólogo<br />

martes 12 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

• 9.30 Conferencia inaugural: Privacidad en Internet y <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido<br />

Cécile <strong>de</strong> Terwangne. Profesora, Centre <strong>de</strong> recherche informatique et droit<br />

(CRID)<br />

• 10.30 Mesa <strong>red</strong>onda: privacidad en Internet y <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>radora: Esther Mitjans. Directora <strong>de</strong> l’Agència Cata<strong>la</strong>na <strong>de</strong> Protecció <strong>de</strong><br />

Da<strong>de</strong>s. Profesora <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional, Universitat <strong>de</strong> Barcelona.<br />

Ponentes:<br />

• Norberto Nuno Gomes <strong>de</strong> Andra<strong>de</strong>. Scientific officer at the European Commission,<br />

working at the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS,<br />

Spain)<br />

• Ricard Martínez Martínez. Profesor <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional. Universitat<br />

<strong>de</strong> València.<br />

• Mi<strong>la</strong>gros Pérez oliva. Defensora <strong>de</strong>l lector <strong>de</strong> El País.<br />

• 12:00 Pausa-café<br />

• 12:30 Sesión sobre <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, protección <strong>de</strong> datos y privacidad<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>radora: Mònica Vi<strong>la</strong>sau So<strong>la</strong>na. Profesora <strong>de</strong> Derecho civil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat<br />

oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya.<br />

Comunicaciones:<br />

• Ramón M. orza Linares; Susana Ruiz Tarrías: El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

• Pere Simon Castel<strong>la</strong>no: El régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en<br />

Internet<br />

• Jelena Burnik: Behavioural advertising in electronic communications. A benefit<br />

to electronic communication <strong>de</strong>velopment and an intrusion of individual’s<br />

right to privacy and data protection<br />

• María Concepción Torres Diaz: Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación<br />

constitucional<br />

• Philipp E. Fischer; Rafael Ferraz Vazquez: Data transfer from Germany or<br />

Spain to third countries – Questions of civil liability for privacy rights infringement<br />

• Faye Fangfei Wang: Legal Feasibility for Statistical Methods on Internet as a<br />

Source of Data Gathering in the EU<br />

• Ricardo Morte Ferrer: La base ADAMS <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Mundial Antidopaje.<br />

Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

• Inmacu<strong>la</strong>da López-Barajas Perea: La privacidad en internet y <strong>la</strong> investigación<br />

penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia en una sociedad globalizada<br />

• Debate<br />

• 14:30 Comida<br />

25


26 Prólogo<br />

• 16:00 Sesión sobre gobierno y <strong>de</strong>mocracia electrónica<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rador: Ismael Peña-López. Profesor <strong>de</strong> Políticas Públicas <strong>para</strong> el Desarrollo.<br />

Universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

Comunicaciones:<br />

• Lorenzo Cotino Hueso: La Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea electrónica<br />

• Daniel Guagnin; Car<strong>la</strong> Ilten: Self-Governed Socio-technical Infrastructures.<br />

Autonomy and Cooperation through Free Software and Community Wireless<br />

Networks<br />

• Mayo Fuster Morell: An introductory historical contextualization of online<br />

creation communities for the building of digital commons: The emergence of<br />

a free culture movement<br />

• Georgia Foteinou: Institutional Trust and e-Government Adoption in the EU:<br />

a Cross-National Analysis<br />

• Bodó Balázs: You have no sovereignty where we gather — Wikileaks and Freedom,<br />

Autonomy and Sovereignty in the cloud<br />

• Andrés Val<strong>de</strong>z Zepeda: Las Ciber-campañas en América Latina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

y Limitantes<br />

• Jorge Luis Salcedo: Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in<br />

Internet: comparing the issue networks in UK and Spain<br />

• Debate<br />

• 18:00 Pausa-café<br />

• 18:30 Conclusiones. Re<strong>la</strong>tor: Javier <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cueva, abogado.<br />

• 19:00 Fin <strong>de</strong>l congreso


CONFERENCIA INAUGURAL


NetwOrk NeUtrAlIty: HIstOry, regUlAtION AND fUtUre<br />

1<br />

Dr. Christopher T. Mars<strong>de</strong>n<br />

University of Essex School of Law<br />

1. History: trust-to-trust and control of communications<br />

Network neutrality is the <strong>la</strong>test phase of an eternal argument over control of communications<br />

media. The Internet was held out by early legal and technical analysts to be<br />

special, due to its <strong>de</strong>cent<strong>red</strong> construction, se<strong>para</strong>ting it from earlier ‘technologies of freedom’<br />

(<strong>de</strong> So<strong>la</strong> Pool 1983) including radio and the telegraph. Spar (2001) argues that control is a<br />

historical evolutionary step in communications media <strong>de</strong>velopment, while Wu (2010) following<br />

Lessig (1999a) argues that closure need not be an inevitable outcome.<br />

The Internet had never been subject to regu<strong>la</strong>tion beyond that nee<strong>de</strong>d for interoperability<br />

and competition, building on the Computer I and II inquiries by the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications<br />

Commission (FCC) in the United States (Werbach 2005), and the <strong>de</strong>sign principle<br />

of End-to-End (E2E) that was first <strong>de</strong>scribed by Saltzer, Reed and C<strong>la</strong>rk (1984). That<br />

principle itself was bypassed by the need for greater trust and reliability in the emerging<br />

broadband network by the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s, particu<strong>la</strong>rly as spam email led to viruses, botnets and<br />

other risks. As a result, E2E has gradually given way to trust-to-trust mechanisms, in which<br />

it is receipt of the message by one party’s trusted agent which rep<strong>la</strong>ces the receipt by final<br />

receiver (C<strong>la</strong>rk/Blumenthal 2011). This agent is almost always the Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

(ISP), and it is regu<strong>la</strong>tion of this party which is at stake in net neutrality. ISPs are not only<br />

removing spam and other hazardous materials before they reach the (<strong>la</strong>rgely technically<br />

uneducated) subscriber, ISPs also can remove other potentially illegal materials on behalf of<br />

governments and copyright hol<strong>de</strong>rs, to name the two most active censors on the Internet,<br />

as well as prioritising packets for their own benefit. As a result, the E2E principle would be<br />

threatened were it not already moribund.<br />

The legal policy and regu<strong>la</strong>tory implications of rapidly standardising innovation on<br />

the communications ecology was well un<strong>de</strong>rstood by Benkler, who was concerned with<br />

the need to maintain interoperability and openness to ensure a ‘commons’ in which unaffiliated<br />

and non-commercial innovation could flourish (Benkler, 1998a, 1998b). The<br />

Internet’s core values of openness and <strong>de</strong>mocracy have been established by acci<strong>de</strong>nt as well<br />

as <strong>de</strong>sign. Noam (2008) states: ‘There is nothing especially new about [media <strong>la</strong>w’s] recent<br />

round- net-neutrality – as a conceptual issue, or in terms of its policy options, except for<br />

the terminology’. Benkler (2006) has argued that though network effects may tend to<br />

closure of the network, regu<strong>la</strong>tory scrutiny may not be the only outcome that will result<br />

in greater openness.


30 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

It is not novel to c<strong>la</strong>im that protocols regu<strong>la</strong>te user behaviour on the Internet (‘Co<strong>de</strong> is<br />

<strong>la</strong>w’ as Lessig [ 1999a] put it), but legal commitment to freedom of speech means that <strong>la</strong>w<br />

can regu<strong>la</strong>te the Internet, by enforcing conditions to enable free speech. As Wu (2003a) exp<strong>la</strong>ins,<br />

<strong>la</strong>ws can regu<strong>la</strong>te the Internet as surely as vice versa, and with more constitutional authority<br />

if less technical virtuosity (Mayer-Schonberger, 2008; Rei<strong>de</strong>nberg, 2005). By 1998,<br />

the innovation-control argument hinged on Microsoft’s leveraging of its operating system<br />

monopoly into browser and vi<strong>de</strong>o software, and by 2000 this had led to scrutiny of AoL-<br />

Time Warner, notably the potential for foreclosure of Instant Messaging and vi<strong>de</strong>o (Faulhaber<br />

2002), and of cable-telephony horizontal merger such as that between AT&T and<br />

Mediaone (Lemley and Lessig 1999). This moved on to control over WiFi, an unlicensed<br />

spectrum technology capable of providing Local Area Network connectivity and opening<br />

the control over end-users exerted by fixed and wireless ISPs (Croxford and Mars<strong>de</strong>n 2001).<br />

Net neutrality as a <strong>de</strong>scription was first applied to the <strong>de</strong>bate about Internet traffic management<br />

practices (ITMP), or Quality of Service on the Internet in 2003 (Lessig and Wu,<br />

2003; Wu, 2003b), though the <strong>de</strong>bate began when aca<strong>de</strong>mics fea<strong>red</strong> that cable TV’s closed<br />

business mo<strong>de</strong>l would overtake the open Internet in 1999 (Lemley and Lessig, 1999; Lessig<br />

1999a, 1999b).<br />

Initial treatment of network neutrality discussed ensuring four ‘Net Freedoms’ (FCC<br />

2005) for end-users: freedom to attach <strong>de</strong>vices, run applications, receive the content packets<br />

of their choice and to receive ‘Service P<strong>la</strong>n Information...meaningful information’ (on<br />

which see the section on transparency). Even in 2011, scho<strong>la</strong>rs are suggesting freedom to innovate<br />

can be squa<strong>red</strong> with <strong>de</strong>sign prohibitions (van Schewick 2010), <strong>de</strong>spite over a <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong><br />

of multi-billion dol<strong>la</strong>r protocol <strong>de</strong>velopment by the ISP community resulting in the ability<br />

to control traffic coming onto their networks (Wac<strong>la</strong>wsky 2005), and wholescale rationing<br />

of end-user traffic (see Section 5.1). Berners Lee (2006) exp<strong>la</strong>ined: “There have been suggestions<br />

that we don’t need legis<strong>la</strong>tion because we haven’t had it. These are nonsense, because in<br />

fact we have had net neutrality in the past - it is only recently that real explicit threats have<br />

occur<strong>red</strong>.” Berners Lee was particu<strong>la</strong>rly adamant that he does not wish to see the prohibition<br />

of QoS because that is precisely the c<strong>la</strong>im ma<strong>de</strong> by some US net neutrality advocates – and<br />

opposed by the network engineering community.<br />

1.1. History: <strong>de</strong>finition and <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

Net neutrality may be seen to comprise two se<strong>para</strong>te non-discrimination commitments<br />

(Mars<strong>de</strong>n 2010a), one of universal service and another of common carriage. Backward-looking<br />

‘net neutrality lite’ c<strong>la</strong>ims that Internet users should not be disadvantaged due to opaque<br />

and invidious practices by their current Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r –the company providing<br />

the Internet connection into their home. The argument is that a minimum level of service<br />

should be provi<strong>de</strong>d which offers open Internet access without blocking or <strong>de</strong>grading of<br />

specific applications or protocols– what has been <strong>de</strong>scribed as an updated form of universal<br />

service (Mueller 1998), generally proposed at 2Mbps. That provi<strong>de</strong>s a basic level of service<br />

which all subscribers should eventually receive.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Forward-looking ‘positive net neutrality’ <strong>de</strong>scribes a practice whereby higher Quality of<br />

Service (QoS) for higher prices should be offe<strong>red</strong> on fair reasonable and non-discriminatory<br />

(FRAND) terms to all-comers, a mo<strong>de</strong>rn equivalent of common carriage (Noam, 1994). It<br />

is a more <strong>de</strong>batable principle, with many content provi<strong>de</strong>rs and carriers preferring exclusive<br />

arrangements. The type of service which may be entitled to FRAND treatment could result<br />

in short-term exclusivity in itself, as for instance wireless/mobile cell towers may only be<br />

able to carry a single high-<strong>de</strong>finition vi<strong>de</strong>o stream at any one point in time and therefore a<br />

monopoly may result. As common carriage dictates terms but not the specific market conditions,<br />

transparency and non-discrimination would not automatically result in a plurality of<br />

services. I argue against social or economic justifications for either barring any proprietary<br />

high-speed traffic at all, or for strict versions of net neutrality that would not allow any<br />

traffic prioritisation. There is too much at stake either to expect government to supp<strong>la</strong>nt<br />

the market in providing higher speed connections, or for the market to continue to <strong>de</strong>liver<br />

openness without the most basic of policy and regu<strong>la</strong>tory backstops to ensure some growth<br />

(Meisel, 2010: 20).<br />

The net neutrality problem is complex and far-reaching: attempts to dismiss it as a<br />

problem that can be overcome by local loop (<strong>la</strong>st mile) telecoms competition (Cave et al.<br />

2009; Renda 2008) do not fully acknowledge persistent problems with market failure. The<br />

physical <strong>de</strong>livery of Internet to consumers is subject to a wi<strong>de</strong> range of bottlenecks, not<br />

simply in the ‘<strong>la</strong>st mile’ to the end-user. There is little ‘middle mile’ (backhaul) competition<br />

in fixed ISP markets, even in Europe where the commitment to regu<strong>la</strong>tion for competition<br />

remains, as wholesale backhaul is provi<strong>de</strong>d by the incumbent privatised national telecoms<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r (in the UK, British Telecom). Even if p<strong>la</strong>tforms did compete in, for instance, heavily<br />

cabled countries, there would remain ‘n-si<strong>de</strong>d’ market problems in that there is no necessary<br />

direct (even non-contractual) re<strong>la</strong>tionship between innovative application provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and ISPs (Economi<strong>de</strong>s and Tåg, 2007), so that p<strong>la</strong>tforms may set rules to ‘tax’ data packets<br />

that ultimately impoverish the open innovation value chain, so ultimately causing consumer<br />

harm. Thus the archetypal garage start-ups such as Facebook (foun<strong>de</strong>d 2003) and YouTube<br />

(foun<strong>de</strong>d 2005) would have had less opportunity to spread ‘virally’ across the Internet, as<br />

their services would be subject to these extra costs. Many commercial content provi<strong>de</strong>rs,<br />

such as Google, use content <strong>de</strong>livery networks and other caching mechanisms to accelerate<br />

the speed of <strong>de</strong>livery to users, in essence <strong>red</strong>ucing the number of those ‘hops’. Content is<br />

therefore already <strong>de</strong>live<strong>red</strong> at different speeds <strong>de</strong>pending on the paid priority the content<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r assigns to it, but not the ISPs’ policies.<br />

1.2. History: how traffic management has changed common carriage<br />

Network congestion and <strong>la</strong>ck of bandwidth at peak times is a feature of the Internet.<br />

It has always existed. That is why vi<strong>de</strong>o over the Internet was until the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s simply<br />

unfeasible. It is why Voice over the Internet has patchy quality, and why engineers have been<br />

trying to create higher QoS. ‘End to end’ is a two-edged sword, with advantages of openness<br />

and a dumb network, and disadvantages of congestion, jitter and ultimately a slowing<br />

rate of progress for high-end applications such as High Definition vi<strong>de</strong>o. E2E may have its<br />

31


32 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

disadvantages for those introducing zoning as compa<strong>red</strong> with QoS, and in this it has obvious<br />

<strong>para</strong>llels with ‘common carriage’. Common carriers who c<strong>la</strong>im on the one hand the<br />

benefits of rights of way and other privileges, yet on the other c<strong>la</strong>im traffic management for<br />

profit rather than network integrity, are trying to both have their cake and eat it (Frie<strong>de</strong>n<br />

2010b). It is worth stating what common carriage is not. It is not a f<strong>la</strong>t rate for all packets.<br />

It is also not necessarily a f<strong>la</strong>t rate for all packets of a certain size. It is, however, a mediaeval<br />

non-discrimination bargain between Sovereign and transport network or facility, in which<br />

an exchange is ma<strong>de</strong>: for the privileges of c<strong>la</strong>ssification as a common carrier, those private<br />

actors will be granted the rights and benefits that an ordinary private carrier would not. As<br />

Cherry (2006, 2008) has written, common carriers are not a solution to a competition problem,<br />

they far p<strong>red</strong>ate competition <strong>la</strong>w. They prevent discrimination between the same traffic<br />

type – if I offer you transport of your High Definition vi<strong>de</strong>o stream of a certain protocol,<br />

then the next customer could <strong>de</strong>mand the same subject to capacity, were the Internet to be<br />

subject to common carriage.<br />

New technology lets any of the ISP routers (if so equipped) look insi<strong>de</strong> a data packet<br />

to ‘see’ its content, via what is known as Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) and other techniques.<br />

Previous routers were not powerful enough to conduct more than a shallow inspection that<br />

simply established the hea<strong>de</strong>r information –the equivalent of the postal address for the packet.<br />

An ISP can use DPI to <strong>de</strong>termine whether a data packet values high-speed transport– as<br />

a television stream does in requiring a <strong>de</strong>dicated broadcast channel –and offer higher-speed<br />

<strong>de</strong>dicated capacity to that content, typically real-time <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt content such as television,<br />

movies or telephone calls using VoIP. Most voice calls and vi<strong>de</strong>o today use a <strong>de</strong>dicated line,<br />

your copper telephone line or cable line: tomorrow they may use <strong>de</strong>dicated high-speed <strong>la</strong>nes<br />

on your Internet connection. That could make a good business for ISPs that wish to offer<br />

higher capability via DPI (not all ISPs will do so, and it is quite possible to manage traffic<br />

less obtrusively by using the DiffServ protocol to prioritise traffic streams within the same<br />

Internet channel). Wac<strong>la</strong>wsky (2005) stated, ‘This is the emerging, consensus view: [it] will<br />

let broadband industry vendors and operators put a control <strong>la</strong>yer and a cash register over the<br />

Internet and creatively charge for it’.<br />

DPI and other techniques that let ISPs prioritise content also allow them to slow down<br />

other content, as well as speed up content for those that pay (and for emergency communications<br />

and other ‘good’ packets). This potentially threatens the business of companies<br />

that compete with that content: Skype offers VoIP using normal Internet speeds; uTorrent<br />

and BBC’s iP<strong>la</strong>yer offer vi<strong>de</strong>o using peer-to-peer (P2P) protocols. Encryption is common in<br />

these applications and partially successful in overcoming these ISP controls, but even if all<br />

users and applications used strong encryption this would not succeed in overcoming <strong>de</strong>cisions<br />

by ISPs simply to route known premium traffic to a ‘faster <strong>la</strong>ne’, consigning all other<br />

traffic into a slower non-priority <strong>la</strong>ne (a policy exp<strong>la</strong>nation simplifying a complex engineering<br />

<strong>de</strong>cision). P2P is <strong>de</strong>signed to make the most efficient use of congested networks, and its<br />

proponents c<strong>la</strong>im that with sufficient <strong>de</strong>ployment, P2P could <strong>la</strong>rgely overcome congestion<br />

problems.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Traffic management techniques affect not only high-speed, high-money content, but<br />

by extension all other content too. You can only build a high-speed <strong>la</strong>ne on a motorway by<br />

creating inequality, and often those ‘improvement works’ slow down everyone currently using<br />

the roads. The Internet may be different in that regu<strong>la</strong>tors and users may tolerate much<br />

more discrimination in the interests of innovation. To make this <strong>de</strong>cision on an informed<br />

basis, it is in the public interest to investigate transparently both net neutrality ‘lite’ (the slow<br />

<strong>la</strong>nes) and net neutrality ‘heavy’ (what rules allow higher speed content). For instance, in the<br />

absence of oversight, ISPs could use DPI to block some content altogether, if they <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> it<br />

is not to the benefit of ISPs, copyright hol<strong>de</strong>rs, parents or the government. ISP blocking is<br />

currently wi<strong>de</strong>spread in controlling spam email, and in some countries in blocking sexually<br />

graphic illegal images.<br />

one of the main c<strong>la</strong>ims by ISPs wishing to traffic manage the Internet is that Internet<br />

traffic growth is unmanageable by traditional means of expansion of bandwidth and that<br />

therefore their practices are reasonable. In or<strong>de</strong>r to properly research this c<strong>la</strong>im, regu<strong>la</strong>tors<br />

need access to ISP traffic measurement data. There are several possible means of accessing<br />

data at Internet Exchange points, but much data is private either because it is between<br />

two peers who do not use an exchange, or because it is carried by a CDN. No government<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tor has produced any reliable data and carriers’ and CDNs’ own data is subject to<br />

commercial confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality (for instance Google’s proprietary CDN). In June 2009, Epitiro<br />

benchmarking tests showed UK broadband running at 0.9 Mbps in evening peak time, a<br />

rate below that which would permit vi<strong>de</strong>o streaming of the BBC iP<strong>la</strong>yer. The <strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>ys to the<br />

network also ma<strong>de</strong> it unreliable for vi<strong>de</strong>o gaming or VoIP (ThinkBroadband 2009): “users<br />

received on average 24% of the maximum ‘up to’ headline speeds advertised.... During peak<br />

hours (6 pm to midnight) speeds dipped by approximately 20% ...Ping times, an important<br />

metric for online game p<strong>la</strong>ying came in at around 150 ms which is too high for acceptable<br />

gaming performance.”<br />

2. regu<strong>la</strong>tion: tHe <strong>la</strong>w of net neutrality<br />

Although net neutrality was the subject of FCC regu<strong>la</strong>tory discussions and merger<br />

conditions from 2003 (Frie<strong>de</strong>n 2010b, 2011), its status was unsure in mid-2011 with no<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tion passed by Congress, and FCC actions reserved to iso<strong>la</strong>ted examples of discrimination<br />

that were litigated (Comcast v. FCC, 2010). Presi<strong>de</strong>nt obama came into office committed<br />

to net neutrality regu<strong>la</strong>tion (Mars<strong>de</strong>n, 2010a: 1). A Notice of Proposed Rule Making<br />

(NPRM) by the FCC exten<strong>de</strong>d a consultation on net neutrality over 2009-10. This process<br />

was finishing just as the Court of Appeal in April 2010 (Comcast v. FCC, 2010) judged that<br />

the FCC’s regu<strong>la</strong>tory actions in this area were not justified by its reasoning un<strong>de</strong>r the Communications<br />

Act 1996 (Ammori 2010). The successful Comcast appeal meant that the FCC<br />

had three legal choices: rec<strong>la</strong>im Title II common carrier authority for ISPs un<strong>de</strong>r the 1996<br />

Telecommunications Act, ask Congress to re-legis<strong>la</strong>te to grant it Title I authority, or try to<br />

assert its own Title I authority subject to legal challenge (Mars<strong>de</strong>n 2010a). It adopted this<br />

<strong>la</strong>st course in its or<strong>de</strong>r of 23 December 2010 (FCC 2010), which is to be challenged before<br />

33


34 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the courts (Frie<strong>de</strong>n 2011: 6-15). This stay of regu<strong>la</strong>tory action may leave the FCC in suspen<strong>de</strong>d<br />

animation for much of 2012, and researchers must look elsewhere for net neutrality<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion (Mars<strong>de</strong>n 2010b; Meisel, 2010, Donahue 2010).<br />

The European institutions in <strong>la</strong>te 2009 agreed to impose transparency and net neutrality<br />

‘lite’ conditions on ISPs, in directives that had to be implemented in national <strong>la</strong>w by May<br />

2011. BEREC (2010) note that legal provisions in the Directives permit greater ‘symmetric’<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion on all operators, not simply dominant actors, but ask for c<strong>la</strong>rification on these<br />

measures: “Access Directive, Art 5(1) now explicitly mentions that NRAs are able to impose<br />

obligations “on un<strong>de</strong>rtakings that control access to end-users to make their services interoperable”.<br />

The new wi<strong>de</strong>r scope for solving interoperability disputes may be used:<br />

“revised article 20 of the Framework Directive now provi<strong>de</strong>s for the resolution of<br />

disputes between un<strong>de</strong>rtakings providing electronic communications networks or<br />

services and also between such un<strong>de</strong>rtakings and others that benefit from obligations<br />

of access and/or interconnection (with the <strong>de</strong>finition of “access” also modified<br />

in Art 2 AD as previously stated). Dispute resolutions cannot be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong><br />

as straightforward tools for <strong>de</strong>veloping a regu<strong>la</strong>tory policy, but they do provi<strong>de</strong> the<br />

option to address some specific (maybe urgent) situations. The potential outcome<br />

of disputes based on the transparency obligations can provi<strong>de</strong> a “c<strong>red</strong>ible threat” for<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rtakings to behave in line with those obligations, since vio<strong>la</strong>tion may trigger the<br />

imposition of minimum quality requirements on an un<strong>de</strong>rtaking, in line with Art<br />

22(3) USD.”<br />

The European Commission is in 2011 consulting on the future of the Universal Service<br />

obligation (EC, 2010) which may be exten<strong>de</strong>d to 2Mbps broadband (impacting member<br />

state <strong>la</strong>w in 2012), which will mark a new ‘line in the sand’ in Europe for minimum service<br />

levels. That will also require commitments to offering that level of access to the open Internet,<br />

not a throttled, blocked, walled gar<strong>de</strong>n area.<br />

2.1. national regu<strong>la</strong>tory responses<br />

Net neutrality has been most effectively carried into legis<strong>la</strong>tion or regu<strong>la</strong>tion in Japan<br />

and the European Union, as well as Norway and Canada (where it is called ITMP: De Beer,<br />

2009). European Economic Area (not full EU) member, Norway, <strong>de</strong>alt with net neutrality<br />

in 2008-9. A comp<strong>la</strong>int first arose due to a dispute between an ISP, NextGenTel, and<br />

the Norwegian state broadcaster NRK in mid-2006 (Mars<strong>de</strong>n, 2010a, pp. 172–173). The<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tor in Norway persua<strong>de</strong>d the ISPs and cable companies to sign a co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory pact on<br />

transparency and consumer rights in 2009. The Norwegian Co<strong>de</strong> (2009) states:<br />

• Internet users must be given complete and accurate information about the service they<br />

are buying, including capacity and quality.<br />

• Users may send and receive content of their choice, use services and applications of<br />

their choice and connect any hardware and software that does not harm the network.<br />

• The connection cannot be discriminated against based on application, service, content,<br />

sen<strong>de</strong>r or receiver.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

At national level, EU member states have been slow to recognise net neutrality problems,<br />

<strong>de</strong>spite strong anecdotal evi<strong>de</strong>nce arising (Dunstone, 2006). ofcom has confined itself<br />

to measuring ISP broadband performance, and making it easier for consumers to switch to<br />

rival provi<strong>de</strong>rs (Kiedrowski, 2007). The government itself has been inert, even erroneously<br />

reporting to the European Commission in its 15th Annual Implementation Report on telecoms<br />

liberalisation that no problems were occurring.<br />

The Nether<strong>la</strong>nds in June 2011 introduced a net neutrality provision into Parliament,<br />

following controversy over KPN Mobile’s intention to charge extra for VoIP and text messaging<br />

by alternative provi<strong>de</strong>rs. The vote was postponed twice, on 14 and 21 June, and is<br />

pending.<br />

Net neutrality is politically controversial in Canada, where a celebrated breach took<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce in 2005 (De Beer, 2009). The regu<strong>la</strong>tor announced an evi<strong>de</strong>nce-based inquiry into net<br />

neutrality held in 2009. As a result, new principles of transparency and non-discrimination<br />

were <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong><strong>red</strong>; these await cases and regu<strong>la</strong>tory <strong>de</strong>cisions in which to add <strong>de</strong>tail to the broad<br />

<strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rations.<br />

2.1.1. Bandwidth caps<br />

Usage based billing (UBB), to use the Canadian expression, is not new in Internet<br />

policy, being the <strong>de</strong>fault in most countries prior to the introduction of broadband mo<strong>de</strong>ms<br />

in the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s. only in countries with unmete<strong>red</strong> local calls, such as Canada and the<br />

United States, was Internet use ‘all you can eat’ (oftel 2000). UBB became a headline issue<br />

in 2010 in both the United States and Canada. Different practices have been i<strong>de</strong>ntified by<br />

Geist (2011). With the introduction of broadband cable in Canada, its regu<strong>la</strong>tor the Canadian<br />

Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) permitted UBB with<br />

monthly download caps on users. This was justified by the sha<strong>red</strong> resource used by cable<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>m subscribers in the local loop. The CRTC (2011) reiterated its permission for UBB,<br />

justified by reference to its responsibilities to ensure competition un<strong>de</strong>r Section 7 of the<br />

Telecommunications Act 1993. Comcast in the US created a 250GB cap (Burstein 2008),<br />

which was consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> more transparent than its previous usage of DPI and other techniques<br />

led by its subcontractor Sandvine to prevent Peer-to-Peer transfers.<br />

Most UBB re<strong>la</strong>tes to maximum download capacity, and is assessed in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ntly<br />

of the maximum download speeds which users can receive, the <strong>la</strong>tter being the ‘headline<br />

rates’ that are generally used in broadband advertising to consumers. oECD (2008)<br />

shows that of 215 broadband packages sampled, almost half would result in users exceeding<br />

their monthly caps within three hours at advertised maximum speeds. oECD (2010)<br />

shows that while two countries (Japan, South Korea) have rep<strong>la</strong>ced almost half of their<br />

copper lines with fibre, the vast majority are still copper-based. There is wi<strong>de</strong> variation in<br />

practices between countries, though comparisons are difficult to put into context (Bauer<br />

2010). Countries which were bottom of the oECD tables for bandwidth provision in<br />

2008, Australia and New Zea<strong>la</strong>nd have adopted the radical step of commissioning a national<br />

fibre local loop to rep<strong>la</strong>ce their incumbent telephony monopoly. Public interven-<br />

35


36 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tion is by no means a taboo in broadband investment, and the European Commission<br />

has repeatedly approved all non-urban public investment in fibre <strong>de</strong>ployments proposed<br />

by Member States. Broadband is not an investment to be left wholly to the private sector,<br />

and investment incentives such as permitting UBB will not of themselves ensure national<br />

fibre to the premises.<br />

The <strong>de</strong>ployment of fibre to the local exchange is in itself no major current constraint<br />

on capacity: it is the backhaul cost from the telephone exchange to the Internet that is<br />

the constraint here (and in future, the cost of fibre from exchange closer to the customer).<br />

All broadband users share the backhaul capacity from the local exchange to the Internet,<br />

capacity which must be bought wholesale from the incumbent in most cases. Therefore,<br />

incumbents can control the capacity avai<strong>la</strong>ble to competitive ISPs. Burstein (2011) has<br />

stated his belief that current caps are <strong>de</strong>signed to prevent ‘over-the-top’ (oTT) vi<strong>de</strong>o to<br />

be <strong>de</strong>live<strong>red</strong> via broadband, competing with the triple-p<strong>la</strong>y offers of ISPs which want<br />

subscribers to pay for a telephone line, broadband service and cable or Internet <strong>de</strong>live<strong>red</strong><br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o programming (also Crawford 2011). oTT vi<strong>de</strong>o would compete with the <strong>la</strong>st of<br />

these services, and <strong>de</strong>grading or capping the broadband service can protect the incumbent’s<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o service. Burstein estimates the backhaul costs to ISPs as un<strong>de</strong>r $1/month,<br />

whereas ofcom (2006) estimated the costs of backhaul for BBC’s iP<strong>la</strong>yer vi<strong>de</strong>o catch-up<br />

service to UK ISPs as in the or<strong>de</strong>r of £4-5/month. Prices have fallen rapidly with increases<br />

in transmission efficiency in that period (Moore’s Law alone will have <strong>de</strong>creased prices<br />

by 75% over five years). Much more research is nee<strong>de</strong>d into backhaul costs and other<br />

constraints on UBB.<br />

2.1.2. Transparency and ‘Reasonable Traffic Management’<br />

one of the several principles of network neutrality promulgated by both the FCC and<br />

European Commission is that only ‘reasonable network management’ be permitted, and<br />

that the end-user be informed of this reasonableness via clear information (Faulhaber 2010).<br />

Both the FCC in the US and the European Commission have relied on non-binding <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rations<br />

to make clear their intention to regu<strong>la</strong>te the ‘reasonableness’ of traffic management<br />

practices. In Canada, the CRTC has relied on inquiries to the dissatisfaction of advocates,<br />

while in Norway and Japan non-binding self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rations have been thus far<br />

non-enforced.<br />

Transparency is a work in progress, and best regu<strong>la</strong>tory information practices have yet<br />

to emerge –without such practices, any commitment to net neutrality is specious. Faulhaber<br />

(2010) has suggested four basic principles based on examination of other industries’ information<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion: “disclose all information relevant to customer choice, 2) to which customers<br />

have easy access, 3) clearly and simply, and 4) in a way that is verifiable.” He argues<br />

that Comcast would not have been repriman<strong>de</strong>d by the FCC had its traffic management<br />

been more transparent. I suggest a fifth principle: information should be cross-compa<strong>red</strong><br />

by an acc<strong>red</strong>ited in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt third party that is not reliant on broadband industry funding,<br />

such as a consumer protection agency. This could be carried out at arm’s length via a self- or<br />

co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory agreement.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

From May 2011, both European regu<strong>la</strong>tors and the European Commission have begun<br />

to attempt to <strong>de</strong>fine ‘reasonable traffic management’ for the purposes of the European<br />

<strong>la</strong>w on Internet traffic. This is likely to produce more robust gui<strong>de</strong>lines for both ISPs and<br />

consumers (Sluijs 2010), with a BEREC work group due to report by the end of 2011. The<br />

European <strong>la</strong>w was in 2009 amen<strong>de</strong>d to inclu<strong>de</strong> the following:<br />

‘19. Transparency obligations on public communications network provi<strong>de</strong>rs providing<br />

electronic communications services avai<strong>la</strong>ble to the public to ensure end-to-end connectivity,<br />

...disclosure regarding any conditions limiting access to and/or use of services<br />

and applications where such conditions are allowed by Member States in conformity<br />

with Community <strong>la</strong>w, and, where necessary and proportionate, access by national regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

authorities to such information nee<strong>de</strong>d to verify the accuracy of such disclosure’<br />

1 .<br />

In the UK, ofcom has tried to encourage industry self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion via transparency<br />

Co<strong>de</strong>s of Conduct. It has also carried out measurement of ISP practices in col<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

with SamKnows, a consultancy that has also worked with the FCC. SamKnows is measuring<br />

the following seventeen metrics over 2010-12 2 . It has worked with ofcom since 2008, and<br />

the FCC since 2010 (with the <strong>la</strong>tter it is conducting 11 tests over a three year period). US<br />

FCC-SamKnows tests with project name TestMyISP are also supported by the Measurement<br />

Lab, notably the New America Foundation. The Canadian CRTC ma<strong>de</strong> rules in 2009, but<br />

there is little evi<strong>de</strong>nce of enforcement of CRTC principles of reasonableness, which are to<br />

be ma<strong>de</strong> on a case-by-case basis (Geist 2011).<br />

2.2. implementing regu<strong>la</strong>tion of net neutrality<br />

Net neutrality regu<strong>la</strong>tory solutions un<strong>de</strong>r the 2009 European Directives had to be<br />

implemented by May 2011. They can be c<strong>la</strong>ssified by the ‘<strong>de</strong>gree of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion’ involved,<br />

from basic informal communication through to formal regu<strong>la</strong>tion. The general<br />

trend is towards an expansion of scope of co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, often at the expense of statutory<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion. A wi<strong>de</strong> variety of mo<strong>de</strong>ls of co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory tools exist (EU, 2003), for those<br />

actions that require coordinated or joint implementation (Mars<strong>de</strong>n et al, 2008; Tambini,<br />

Leonardi, Mars<strong>de</strong>n, 2007). Without co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion responsive to constitutional protection<br />

of freedom of expression at national levels, measures cannot be self-sustaining (Mars<strong>de</strong>n<br />

2011).<br />

In the UK, ofcom has continually attempted since 2008 to reach a self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

solution. By 2011, with the timetable for implementation of EC Directives growing<br />

near, the government-fun<strong>de</strong>d Broadband Stakehol<strong>de</strong>r Group (BSG) produced a Co<strong>de</strong><br />

1 Annex to Directive 2002/20/EC Authorisation Directive by Directive 2009/140/EC at oJ<br />

L337/68 18 December 2009.<br />

2 For more <strong>de</strong>tails and methodology, see http://www.samknows.com/broadband/ofcom_and_samknows<br />

for ofcom and https://www.testmyisp.com/faq.html for the FCC tests.<br />

37


38 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

of Conduct, upon which the UK government minister indicated that Berners Lee would<br />

p<strong>la</strong>y an oversight role (Vaizey 2011). Whether such a ramshackle arrangement satisfies<br />

the European Commission, which is legally obliged to monitor implementation,<br />

remains to be seen in the course of 2012. It is likely to first ask the 27 Member States<br />

for <strong>de</strong>tails of their <strong>de</strong>tailed implementations, before a further information request can<br />

be ma<strong>de</strong> which would be a prelu<strong>de</strong> to a possible case for a preliminary ruling before the<br />

Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). Such a case would be unlikely to be<br />

heard before 2013.<br />

In the US, co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion is a novel concept, and the implementation of the technical<br />

means for measuring reasonable traffic management are to be tested in a self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

forum, though with FCC blessing, the Broadband Industry Technical Advisory Group<br />

(BITAG), un<strong>de</strong>r Executive Director and FCC veteran Dale Hadfield. Its specific duties<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong> that to offer ‘safe harbor’ opinions on traffic management practices’ by parties making<br />

formal reference for an advisory technical opinion: “Specific TWG functions inclu<strong>de</strong>: (i)<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntifying “best practices” by broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs and other entities; (ii) interpreting and<br />

applying “safe harbor” practices; (iii) otherwise providing technical guidance to industry and<br />

to the public; and/or (iv) issuing advisory opinions on the technical issues germane to the<br />

TWG’s mission that may un<strong>de</strong>rlie disputes among discrete parties.” (BITAG 2011: Section<br />

7.1). BITAG has a broad multistakehol<strong>de</strong>r constituency and is therefore far from simply an<br />

industry self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory solution, but charges companies for testing of their solutions and is<br />

not currently mandated by <strong>la</strong>w, therefore continuing to act as self- rather than co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

forum 3 . As a De<strong>la</strong>ware-incorporated entity with published by<strong>la</strong>ws and an antitrust policy<br />

to formally exclu<strong>de</strong> government activity, BITAG is a c<strong>la</strong>ssic self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory organisation in<br />

structure. US legal and policy scho<strong>la</strong>rs may wish to research the extent to which this offers<br />

advantages and costs in constitutional oversight and regu<strong>la</strong>tory flexibility as compa<strong>red</strong> with<br />

more administrative <strong>la</strong>w supported bodies in Europe. Phil Weiser has proposed that a coregu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

mechanism be supported (Weiser 2009).<br />

Unsurprisingly, net neutrality regu<strong>la</strong>tion has been fiercely resisted by the ISPs, and<br />

its implementation has relied on a series of <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rations and merger conditions prior<br />

to full implementation via regu<strong>la</strong>tions and legis<strong>la</strong>tion. Mergers afford regu<strong>la</strong>tors the opportunity<br />

to introduce such re<strong>la</strong>tively minor adjustments as merger parties are eager to<br />

conclu<strong>de</strong> the overall <strong>de</strong>al, and tra<strong>de</strong> off the re<strong>la</strong>tively minor inconvenience of controls on<br />

traffic management in the interests of successful approval. In the same way as consumers<br />

–even with perfect information– may not view traffic management as the primary goal<br />

of their subscription to broadband (and are thus easy targets for restrictive conditions so<br />

long as industry standards prevent real choice between ISPs), so ISPs may make strategic<br />

choices to accept some limited traffic management conditions as a price of approval. The<br />

proposed 2011 merger of AT&T Wireless and T-Mobile could also illustrate the propensity<br />

to enforce net neutrality via merger conditions, as could the merger of Level3 and<br />

3 For <strong>de</strong>tails see http://members.bitag.org/kwspub/BITAG_Membership/


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Global Crossing, important Tier 1 backbone provi<strong>de</strong>rs with extensive Content Delivery<br />

Networks.<br />

2.3. The special case of wireless or mobile net neutrality?<br />

Mobile remains a poor substitute for the fixed Internet, and mobile smartphone users<br />

(the most advanced mobile users) in 2010 only downloa<strong>de</strong>d an average of 79 Megabytes per<br />

month (Cisco 2011). It is misleading to use headline percentage growth to suggest there is a<br />

major congestion issue - people are finally using the Internet on mobile networks via dongles<br />

and smartphones, so absolute usage is increasingly slowly compa<strong>red</strong> to growth. Mobile data<br />

traffic was in 2010 a total of 237 Petabytes, which Cisco states is three times greater than<br />

the entire Internet in 2000. More relevant is that it was 1% of the Internet in 2010, a global<br />

total of 21 Exabytes. If mobile data grows twice as fast as the global Internet for the next<br />

<strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> years, it will amount to 11% of the entire Internet by 2020. At that point, it will<br />

become more than a statistical insignificance in global terms. Mobile c<strong>la</strong>ims should be met<br />

with robust scepticism as mobile is such a minute part of the entire Internet traffic measu<strong>red</strong>,<br />

and in<strong>de</strong>ed a substantial part of mobile ‘traffic’ is inten<strong>de</strong>d in future to be han<strong>de</strong>d off to<br />

femtocells, WiFi cells, and other fixed wireless infrastructure, piggybacking on the re<strong>la</strong>tively<br />

stable and mature fixed Internet that is expanding to meet capacity. Mobile is a trivial proportion<br />

of overall Internet traffic by volume, but commands massive premiums over fixed<br />

traffic for the service provi<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

European regu<strong>la</strong>tors’ group BEREC (2010: 11) exp<strong>la</strong>ined: “mobile network access<br />

may need the ability to limit the overall capacity consumption per user in certain circumstances<br />

(more than fixed network access with high bandwidth resources) and as this<br />

does not involve selective treatment of content it does not, in principle, raise network<br />

neutrality concerns.” They exp<strong>la</strong>in that though mobile will always need greater traffic<br />

management than fixed (“traffic management for mobile accesses is more challenging”),<br />

symmetrical regu<strong>la</strong>tion must be maintained to ensure technological neutrality: “there<br />

are not enough arguments to support having a different approach on network neutrality<br />

in the fixed and mobile networks. And especially future-oriented approach for network<br />

neutrality should not inclu<strong>de</strong> differentiation between different types of the networks.”<br />

BEREC (2010: 3) conclu<strong>de</strong>d that mobile should be subject to the ‘net neutrality lite’<br />

provisions avai<strong>la</strong>ble un<strong>de</strong>r Directives 136/2009/EC and 140/2009/EC, listing some<br />

breaches of neutrality: “blocking of VoIP in mobile networks occur<strong>red</strong> in Austria, Croatia,<br />

Germany, Italy, the Nether<strong>la</strong>nds, Portugal, Romania and Switzer<strong>la</strong>nd”. The FCC’s<br />

comment period on their open Internet inquiry, specifically asked for answers to regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

of managed specialized services, and wireless net neutrality. The FCC announced<br />

in their (FCC 2010) or<strong>de</strong>r that they were prepa<strong>red</strong> not to enforce their proposed regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

on wireless services in the near future. This means that the faster growing and<br />

more competitive US market will be less regu<strong>la</strong>ted, whereas the more sluggish and less<br />

competitive European market will be.<br />

39


40 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

3. tHe future: Public Policy consi<strong>de</strong>rations in net neutrality<br />

Net neutrality is a more politically important issue than telecommunications regu<strong>la</strong>tors<br />

are equipped or legally bound to explore, as at stake are technologies of censorship.<br />

BEREC (2010: 20) exp<strong>la</strong>ins:<br />

“Freedom of expression and citizens rights, as well as media pluralism and cultural diversity,<br />

are important values of the mo<strong>de</strong>rn society, and they are worth being protected<br />

in this context –especially since mass communication has become easier for all citizens<br />

thanks to the Internet. However intervention in respect of such consi<strong>de</strong>rations lies<br />

outsi<strong>de</strong> the competence of BEREC.”<br />

‘Putting a cash register on the Internet’ (Wac<strong>la</strong>wsky 2005) will permit much more<br />

granu<strong>la</strong>r knowledge of what an ISP’s customers are downloading and uploading on the<br />

Internet. ISPs could filter out both annoying and illegal content. For instance, they could<br />

‘hear’ criminal conversations, such as those by terrorist sympathisers, illegal pornographers,<br />

harassers, those p<strong>la</strong>nning robberies, libellous commentary and so on. They could also ‘see’<br />

illegal downloading of copyrighted material. They would be obliged to cooperate with <strong>la</strong>w<br />

enforcement or even copyright industries in these scenarios, and this could create even greater<br />

difficulties where that speech was legal in one country but illegal where it was received<br />

(Diebert et al., 2010). Net neutrality is therefore less unpopu<strong>la</strong>r with smaller ISPs that wish<br />

to avoid a legal liability morass, which Directive 2000/31/EC (E-Commerce Directive) and<br />

other national ISP non-liability ‘safe harbor’ [sic] <strong>la</strong>ws are expressly <strong>de</strong>signed to prevent.<br />

Politicians in 2011 were reviewing the E-Commerce Directive (CoM 2010, pp. 10–<br />

11), and passing local <strong>la</strong>ws that favour, for instance, their copyright industries, such as the<br />

Digital Economy Act 2010 in the United Kingdom or the HADoPI <strong>la</strong>w in France. In the<br />

discussions to amend the E-Communications Framework via Directives 2009/136/EC and<br />

2009/140/EC, <strong>la</strong>rge well-resourced European incumbent ISPs saw the opportunity to make<br />

common cause with mobile operators (Wu 2007) and others, in an alliance to prevent transparency<br />

and permit filtering. The regu<strong>la</strong>tion of the Internet is erecting entry barriers with<br />

the connivance of the incumbent p<strong>la</strong>yers, with potentially enormous consequences for free<br />

speech, for free competition and for individual expression. This may be the correct policy<br />

option for a safer Internet policy (to prevent exposing children to illegal and/or offensive<br />

content), though it signals an abrupt change from the open Internet (Zittrain 2008). It is<br />

therefore vital that regu<strong>la</strong>tors address the question of the proper ‘lite’ approach to net neutrality<br />

to prevent harm to the current Internet, as well as beginning to address the heavier<br />

questions of positive –or tie<strong>red</strong>– breaches of network neutrality.<br />

Forms of private censorship by intermediaries have been increasing throughout the <strong>la</strong>st<br />

<strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> even as the <strong>la</strong>w continues to <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re those intermediaries (mainly ISPs, but increasingly<br />

also vi<strong>de</strong>o hosting companies such as YouTube, social networks such as Facebook, and<br />

search provi<strong>de</strong>rs such as Google) to be ‘Three Wise Monkeys’. These intermediaries are not<br />

subject to liability for their customers’ content un<strong>de</strong>r the Electronic Commerce Directive<br />

(EC/2000/31) so long as they have no actual or constructive knowledge of that content: if


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

they ‘hear no evil, see no evil and speak no evil’ (Mars<strong>de</strong>n, 2010a, pp. 105–149). Any net<br />

neutrality solution needs to be holistic, consi<strong>de</strong>ring ISPs’ roles in the round.<br />

Privacy inquiries can also impact on regu<strong>la</strong>tory control of traffic management, with<br />

the UK government taken to the European Court by the European Commission for approving<br />

the both secret and invasive behavioural advertising practices of British Telecom<br />

and PHoRM in 2006. The introduction of network neutrality rules into European <strong>la</strong>w was<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r the rubric of consumer information safeguards and privacy regu<strong>la</strong>tion, not competition<br />

rules, and the US Congress was in 2011 actively exploring privacy rules and controls on<br />

ISP behavioural advertising activities.<br />

Finally, regu<strong>la</strong>tions passed in licensing can affect network neutrality at a fundamental<br />

level. Interoperability requirements can form a basis for action where an ISP blocks an application.<br />

Furthermore, wireless ISPs may be requi<strong>red</strong> to provi<strong>de</strong> open access, as in the FCC<br />

auction of 700MHz Upper Block C frequencies in 2008 (Rosston and Topper 2010: 115-<br />

116), or in more general common carriage requirements traditionally imposed on public<br />

communications networks since before the dawn of mo<strong>de</strong>rn communications, with railways<br />

and telegraphs (Railways Act 1844).<br />

3.1. The future <strong>de</strong>velopment of net neutrality and the internet<br />

The future of the Internet is a non-trivial issue; in fact it is central to the future of productivity<br />

in most industries. It is an enabling technology, which means that the exchange of<br />

information on this open p<strong>la</strong>tform promises (and <strong>de</strong>livers) real efficiencies in the economy<br />

and society generally, as it helps col<strong>la</strong>boration and improvement (Carnoy et al., 1993). It is<br />

also socially enabling ‘Web 2.0’ or ‘the participative web’ (Schrage, 2000; Seely Brown and<br />

Duguid, 2000). That is, it has become a virtual p<strong>la</strong>yground, c<strong>la</strong>ssroom, <strong>la</strong>boratory and chat<br />

room (Palfrey and Gasser 2008; Tapscott, 1999). Moreover, small businesses and solo homebased<br />

workers <strong>de</strong>pend on the Internet. The promise of virtual worlds and massive online<br />

col<strong>la</strong>boration is to extend this impact even further by 2020.<br />

The ‘Wealth of Networks’ analysis of Benkler (2006) thinks of the Internet as a giant<br />

experiment, combining <strong>la</strong>boratory with user innovation and feedback, while Boyle (2008)<br />

<strong>de</strong>scribes a wi<strong>de</strong>r movement ‘Enclosing the Commons of the Mind’ and Post (2009) extends<br />

a comparison with Jeffersonian America. The open Internet is a commons for all to enjoy.<br />

That is the basis for c<strong>la</strong>ims that it should be preserved and regu<strong>la</strong>tion induced to prevent any<br />

more enclosure of that commons, while at the same time ensuring that the commons is not<br />

ruined by free-ri<strong>de</strong>rs – that there is no ‘Tragedy of the Commons’. The open Internet is by<br />

no means the only or necessarily the most important p<strong>la</strong>ce for public opinion to be formed,<br />

but it is the open public space that gives legitimacy to all these private or semi-private spaces.<br />

The problems of <strong>de</strong>velopment and the global Digital Divi<strong>de</strong> are intimately connected<br />

to net neutrality. Internet connectivity is still very expensive for most <strong>de</strong>veloping countries,<br />

<strong>de</strong>spite attempts to ensure local Internet peering points (exchanges) and new un<strong>de</strong>rsea<br />

cables, for instance serving East Africa. To flood the <strong>de</strong>veloping world’s ISPs with vi<strong>de</strong>o<br />

traffic, much of which came from major vi<strong>de</strong>o production countries such as India, Nigeria<br />

41


42 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

and of course Hollywood, could p<strong>la</strong>ce local ISPs in serious financial peril. Casualties in<br />

such un<strong>de</strong>rtakings inclu<strong>de</strong>, for instance, countries b<strong>la</strong>cklisted by major ISPs for producing<br />

<strong>la</strong>rge amounts of spam: Nigerian consumers have previously discove<strong>red</strong> that their email was<br />

blocked because the ISP was also used by spammers. The second <strong>de</strong>velopment problem that<br />

net neutrality <strong>de</strong>bate centres on is the wireless Internet. Most <strong>de</strong>veloping countries’ citizens<br />

have much lower bandwidth than the west, and most of their connectivity is mobile: India is<br />

probably the poster child for a country with at least ten times more mobile than fixed phone<br />

subscribers. In the next several years, the <strong>de</strong>veloping world Internet user will test the limits<br />

of mobile networks, and capacity as well as price might <strong>de</strong>termine the extent to which they<br />

can expect a rapidly <strong>de</strong>veloping or a Third World Internet experience. I f<strong>la</strong>g up <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

issues because they are critical. Universal service is still a pipe dream for many in the <strong>de</strong>veloping<br />

world, and when that arrives, the <strong>de</strong>finition it is given will <strong>de</strong>termine the minimum<br />

threshold that ISPs have to achieve. As Mueller (2007: 7) states, net neutrality ‘must also encompass<br />

a positive assertion of the broa<strong>de</strong>r social, economic and political value of universal<br />

and non-discriminatory access to Internet resources among those connected to the Internet’.<br />

The types of non-net neutrality employed in West Asia/North Africa in winter 2010-11<br />

were politically rather than economically motivated, that is, political censorship <strong>de</strong>signed to<br />

prevent citizens’ access to the Internet. Mueller (2007: 8) argues that the ten<strong>de</strong>ncy of governments<br />

in both repressive and traditionally <strong>de</strong>mocratic regimes to impose liability on ISPs<br />

to censor content for a plethora of reasons argues for a policy of robust non-interference.<br />

That is especially valuable in countries where there is much less discussion of how government<br />

<strong>de</strong>ployment of ISPs as censors can endanger user privacy and freedom of expression.<br />

Mueller suggests that the net neutrality metaphor could be used to hold all filtering and censorship<br />

practices up to the light, as well as other areas of Internet regu<strong>la</strong>tion, such as domain<br />

name governance. Network neutrality has become an important policy issue discussed at the<br />

United Nations Internet Governance Forum (IGF). The IGF discussions of net neutrality<br />

has substantially increased (IGF, 2008, 2009).<br />

We may expect to see more protest behaviour by ‘netizens’ who do not agree with net<br />

neutrality policies, especially where ISPs are seen to have failed to inform end-users fully<br />

about the implications of policy changes. Regu<strong>la</strong>tors and politicians are challenged publicly<br />

by such problems, particu<strong>la</strong>rly given the ubiquity of email, Twitter and social media protests<br />

against censorship, and there are two Pirate Party MEPs elected to the European Parliament.<br />

Research into social activism against corporate control of the Internet is a growing research<br />

field (Hart 2011).<br />

4. conclusions: future Policy researcH<br />

The Internet’s evolution is dynamic and complex. The avai<strong>la</strong>bility and <strong>de</strong>sign of a suitable<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tory response must reflect this dynamism, and also the responsiveness of regu<strong>la</strong>tors<br />

and market p<strong>la</strong>yers to each other. Therefore, national legis<strong>la</strong>tion should be future<br />

proof and avoid being overly prescriptive, to avoid a premature response to the emerg-


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

ing environment. The pace of change in the re<strong>la</strong>tion between architecture and content on<br />

the Internet requires continuous improvement in the regu<strong>la</strong>tor’s research and technological<br />

training. Regu<strong>la</strong>tors can monitor both commercial transactions and traffic shaping by ISPs<br />

to <strong>de</strong>tect potentially abusive discrimination. An ex ante requirement to <strong>de</strong>monstrate internal<br />

network metrics to content provi<strong>de</strong>r customers and consumers may be a practical solution,<br />

via a regu<strong>la</strong>tory or co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory reporting requirement. The need for better research towards<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the nature of congestion problems on the Internet and their effect on content<br />

and innovation is clear (Mars<strong>de</strong>n et al, 2008). These conclusions support a light-touch regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

regime involving reporting requirements and co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion with, as far as is possible,<br />

market-based solutions. Solutions may be international as well as local, and international<br />

coordination of best practice and knowledge will enable national regu<strong>la</strong>tors to keep up with<br />

the technology ‘arms race’.<br />

The European legal basis for regu<strong>la</strong>tory intervention is an enabling framework to prevent<br />

competition abuses and prevent discrimination, un<strong>de</strong>r which national regu<strong>la</strong>tors need<br />

the skills and evi<strong>de</strong>nce base to investigate unjustified discrimination. Regu<strong>la</strong>tors expecting<br />

a ‘smoking gun’ to present itself should be advised against such a reactive approach. A<br />

more proactive approach to monitoring and researching non-neutral behaviours will make<br />

network operators much more cognisant of their duties and obligations. A consumer- and<br />

citizen-orientated intervention <strong>de</strong>pends on preventing unregu<strong>la</strong>ted non-transparent controls<br />

exerted over traffic, whether imposed by ISPs for financial advantage or by governments<br />

eager to use this new technology to filter, censor and enforce copyright against their citizens.<br />

Unravelling the previous ISP limited liability regime risks removing the efficiency of that<br />

approach in permitting the free flow of information for economic and social advantage.<br />

5. references<br />

Ammori, M. (2010) How I lost the big one bigtime, at http://ammori.org/2010/04/07/<br />

how-i-lost-the-big-one-bigtime/<br />

Ayres, I. and J. Braithwaite, J. (1992) Responsive Regu<strong>la</strong>tion: Transcending the Deregu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

Debate. Hartford, CT: Yale University Press.<br />

Bauer, Johannes M. (2010) Learning from each other: promises and pitfalls of benchmarking<br />

in communications policy 12 Info 6, pp. 8-20.<br />

Benkler, Y. (1998a) ‘Communications Infrastructure Regu<strong>la</strong>tion and the Distribution of<br />

Control over Content’, Telecommunications Policy [online], 22(3), pp.183-196. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

from: http://www.benkler.org/PolTech.pdf [Accessed].<br />

Benkler, Y. (1998b) ‘overcoming Agoraphobia: Building the Commons of the Digitally<br />

Networked Environment’, Harvard Journal of Law and Technology [online], 11, pp.<br />

287-400. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.<strong>la</strong>w.nyu.edu/benklery/agoraphobia.pdf [Accessed].<br />

Benkler, Y. (2006) The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and<br />

Freedom. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.<br />

43


44 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

BEREC (2010) 42 BEREC Response to the European Commission’s consultation on<br />

the open Internet and net neutrality in Europe, at http://www.erg.eu.int/doc/berec/<br />

bor_10_42.pdf<br />

Berners Lee, Tim (2006) Net Neutrality: This is serious, 2006-06-21 16:35, at http://dig.<br />

csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/no<strong>de</strong>/144<br />

Bitag (2011) By-<strong>la</strong>ws of Broadband Industry Technical Advisory Group at http://members.<br />

bitag.org/kwspub/background_docs/BITAG_By<strong>la</strong>ws.pdf<br />

Boyle, J. (2008) The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind. New Haven, CT:<br />

Yale University Press.<br />

Burstein, D. (2008) Comcast’s Fair 250 Gig Bandwidth Cap, DSL Prime 21 october at<br />

http://www.dslprime.com/docsisreport/163-c/53-comcasts-fair-250-gig-bandwidthcap<br />

Burstein, D. (2011) Wireline Costs And Caps: A Few Facts, DSL Prime 6 March at http://<br />

www.dslprime.com/dslprime/42-d/4148-costs-and-caps<br />

Carnoy, M., Castells, M., Cohen, S. S. and Cardoso, F. H. (1993) The New Global<br />

Economy in the Information Age; Reflections on Our Changing World. New York: Macmil<strong>la</strong>n.<br />

Cave, M., Collins, R., van Eijk, N., Larouche, P., Prosperetti, L., <strong>de</strong> Streel, A. et al.<br />

(2009) ‘Statement by European Aca<strong>de</strong>mics on the Inappropriateness of Imposing Increased<br />

Internet Regu<strong>la</strong>tion in the EU’, 8 January 2009. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://papers.<br />

ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1329926 [Accessed].<br />

Cherry, Barbara A. (2006) Misusing Network Neutrality to Eliminate Common Carriage<br />

Threatens Free Speech and the Postal System, 33 N. KY. L. REV. 483.<br />

Cherry, Barbara (2008) Back to the Future: How Transportation Deregu<strong>la</strong>tory Policies<br />

Foreshadow Evolution of Communications Policies, The Information Society, p. 24.<br />

Cisco (2011) Visual Networking In<strong>de</strong>x (VNI) Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast at<br />

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/col<strong>la</strong>teral/ns341/ns525/ns537/ns705/ns827/<br />

white_paper_c11-520862.html<br />

C<strong>la</strong>rk, David D. and. Blumenthal, Marjory S (2011) The End-to-End Argument and<br />

Application Design: The Role of Trust, 63 Fed.Comm.L.J. 2 pp. 357-390.<br />

C<strong>la</strong>rk, D. (1988) The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols, Computer<br />

Communications Review 18:4, August, pp. 106-114.<br />

CoM (2002) 278 Better Regu<strong>la</strong>tion Action P<strong>la</strong>n.<br />

CoM (2010) 245, ‘A Digital Agenda for Europe. European Commission, Brussels. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

from: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital-agenda/documents/digita<strong>la</strong>genda-communication-en.pdf<br />

[Accessed].<br />

Comcast v. FCC (2010) No. 08-1291, <strong>de</strong>live<strong>red</strong> 6 April. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://pacer.cadc.<br />

uscourts.gov/common/opinions/201004/08-1291-1238302.pdf [Accessed].<br />

Crawford, S. (2011) The Big Squeeze: The Looming Cable Monopoly, forthcoming.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Crowcroft, J. (2011) The Affordance of Asymmetry or a Ren<strong>de</strong>zvous with the Random?<br />

Communications and Convergence Review, in print [draft version].<br />

CRTC (2011) Telecoms Decision 2011-44, ottawa, 25 January 2011, Usage-based billing<br />

for Gateway Access Services and third-party Internet access services, File number:<br />

8661-C12-201015975 at http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2011/2011-44.htm<br />

De Beer, J. (2009) ‘Net Neutrality in the Great White North (and its Impact on Canadian<br />

Culture)’, Telecommunications Journal of Australia, 59 (2), pp. 24.1-24.19.<br />

De So<strong>la</strong> Pool, I. (1983) Technologies of Freedom. Cambridge MA: Belknap.<br />

Deibert, R. J., Palfrey, J. G., Rohozinski, R. and Zittrain, J. (eds)(2010) Access Controlled:<br />

The Shaping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<br />

Digital Economy Act (2010) Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.opsi.gov.uk%2Facts%2Facts2010%<br />

2Fukpga_20100024_en_1&ei=LxwMToC-E56V4gaanIGbAQ&usg=AFQjCNH1_<br />

aWgbfrLbgPyhm8lpQDopaa_ww&sig2=UoKxFp6oDeyxFexURnrn3A [Accessed].<br />

Donahue, H. (2010) ‘The Network Neutrality Inquiry’, info, 12 (2), pp. 3-8.<br />

Dunstone, C. (2006) ‘Presentation by Carphone Warehouse/TalkTalk CEo at the 2006<br />

ofcom conference. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.ofcom.org.uk/event/2006conference/<br />

presentations/session3 [Accessed].<br />

Economi<strong>de</strong>s, N. and Tåg, J. (2007) ‘Net Neutrality on the Internet: A Two-Si<strong>de</strong>d Market<br />

Analysis’. Working Paper, NYU Center for Law and Economics, New York.<br />

European Commission (EC) (2010) ‘Consultation on the Future of the Universal Service<br />

obligation’. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/ecomm/<br />

library/public_consult/univeuniv_service_2010/in<strong>de</strong>x_en.htm [Accessed].<br />

European Union (EU) (2003) ‘Inter Institutional Agreement’. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=oJ:C:2003:321:0001:0005:EN:PDF<br />

[Accessed].<br />

Faulhaber, Gerald R. (2002) Network effects and merger analysis: instant messaging and<br />

the AoL–Time Warner case, 26 Telecommunications Policy 5-6, pp. 311-333.<br />

Faulhaber, Gerald R. (2010) Transparency and Broadband Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>rs, International<br />

Journal of Communication 4, pp. 738-757.<br />

FCC (2005) Appropriate Framework for Broadband Access to the Internet over Wireline<br />

Facilities et al., Policy Statement, 20 FCC Rcd 14986 (2005) (Internet Policy Statement).<br />

FCC (2010) In the Matter of Preserving the open Internet Broadband Industry Practices,<br />

GN Docket No. 09-191 WC Docket No. 07-52 REPoRT AND oRDER Adopted:<br />

December 21, 2010.<br />

Frie<strong>de</strong>n, R. (2010a) Winning the Silicon Sweepstakes: Can the United States Compete in<br />

Global Telecommunications? Hartford, CT: Yale University Press.<br />

Frie<strong>de</strong>n, Rob (2010b) Invoking and Avoiding the First Amendment: How Internet Service<br />

Provi<strong>de</strong>rs Leverage Their Status as Both Content Creators and Neutral Conduits, 12<br />

U. PA. J. CoNST. L. p. 1279.<br />

45


46 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Frie<strong>de</strong>n, Rob (2011) A Laye<strong>red</strong> and Nuanced Assessment of Network Neutrality Rationales,<br />

Tilburg TILEC Workshop on Law and Economics, 20 June at http://www.tilburguniversity.edu/research/institutes-and-research-groups/tilec/pdfs/events/20-21june2011/<br />

paper-robert-frie<strong>de</strong>n.pdf<br />

Gaines, S. E. and Kimber, C. (2001) ‘Redirecting Self-Regu<strong>la</strong>tion’, Environmental Law, 13<br />

(2), pp. 157-184.<br />

Geist, Michael (2011a) Unpacking The Policy Issues Behind Bandwidth Caps & Usage<br />

Based Billing, February 01, at http://www.michaelgeist.ca/content/view/5611/99999/<br />

Geist, Michael (2011b) Canada’s Usage Based Billing Controversy: How to Address the<br />

Wholesale and Retail Issues, March 2011, at http://www.michaelgeist.ca/component/<br />

option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,53/<br />

Harris, Susan & Elise Gerich, The NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an<br />

Era, 10 CoNNEXIoNS (April 1996), avai<strong>la</strong>ble at www.merit.edu/networkresearch/<br />

projecthistory/nsfnet/nsfnet_article.php<br />

Hart, Jeffrey A. (2011) The Net Neutrality Debate in the United States, Journal of Information<br />

Technology & Politics, Issue 1, 2011, Page 1.<br />

Hasslinger, G., Nunzi, G., Meirosu, C., Changpeng Fan, An<strong>de</strong>rsen, F.-U. (2011)<br />

Traffic engineering supported by Inherent Network Management: analysis of resource<br />

efficiency and cost saving potential, International Journal of Network Management, at<br />

section 2, 25 JAN, DoI: 10.1002/nem.770<br />

Internet Governance Forum (IGF) (2008) ‘Network Neutrality: Examining the Issues<br />

and Implications for Development’, Co-hosted Workshop, 4 December. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

from: http://techpolicyinstitute.org/events/show/77.html and http://www.intgovforum.org/cms/in<strong>de</strong>x.php/2008-igf-hy<strong>de</strong>rabad/event-reports/72-workshops/370-workshop-58-network-neutrality-examining-the-issues-and-implications-for<strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

[Accessed].<br />

Internet Governance Forum (IGF) (2009) ‘Programme, Format and Schedule for the<br />

2009 Meeting, Revision of 4 June 2009’. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.intgovforum.org/<br />

cms/2009/postings/ProgrammePaper.04.06.2009.rtf [Accessed].<br />

Kiedrowski, T. (2007) ‘Net Neutrality: ofcom’s View’. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.wwww.<br />

radioauthority.org.uk/media/speeches/2007/02/net_neutrality [Accessed].<br />

Labovitz, C., S. Iekel-Johnson, D. McPherson J. oberhei<strong>de</strong>, F. Jahanian, M. Karir<br />

(2009) ATLAS Internet observatory Annual Report, and their presentation to the<br />

North American Network operators Group –an industry body– NANoG (2009)<br />

http://www.nanog.org/meetings/nanog47/presentations/Monday/Labovitz_observeReport_N47_Mon.pdf<br />

Lemley, M. A. and Lessig, L. (1999) ‘Ex Parte Dec<strong>la</strong>ration of Professor Mark A. Lemley<br />

and Professor Lawrence Lessig in the Matter of: Application for Consent to the Transfer<br />

of Control of Licenses of Mediaone Group, Inc. to AT&T Corp CS Docket No.<br />

99-251 Before the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications Commission’.<br />

Lessig, L. (1999a) Co<strong>de</strong> and Other Laws of Cyberspace. New York: Basic Books.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Lessig, L. (1999b) ‘The Limits in open Co<strong>de</strong>: Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Standards and the Future of the<br />

Net’, Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 14 (2), pp. 759-770.<br />

Lessig, L. and Wu, T. (2003) ‘Letter to the FCC Ex parte, 22 August 2003. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from:<br />

www.timwu.org/wu_lessig_ [Accessed].<br />

Malik, o. (2010) Nov. 7: U.S. Mobile Data Traffic to Top 1 Exabyte, at http://gigaom.<br />

com/2010/11/07/in-2010-us-mobile-data-traffic-to-top-1-exabyte/<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2001) ‘The Start of End-to-End? Internet Protocol Television’, Intermedia,<br />

29, pp. 4-8.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2010a) Net Neutrality: Towards a Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory Solution. London: Bloomsbury<br />

Aca<strong>de</strong>mic.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2010b) ‘Appeals Court Demolishes FCC Legal Argument for Ancil<strong>la</strong>ry Jurisdiction<br />

without Title I Argument in Comcast’, 6 April. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://chrismars<strong>de</strong>n.blogspot.com/2010/04/appeals-court-<strong>de</strong>molishes-fcc-legal.html<br />

[Accessed].<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2011) Internet Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion: European Law and Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Legitimacy in<br />

Cyberspace, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press at http://www.cambridge.org/gb/<br />

knowledge/isbn/item6445008/?site_locale=en_GB<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C., Cave, J. et al. (2006) Assessing Indirect Impacts of the EC Proposals for Vi<strong>de</strong>o<br />

Regu<strong>la</strong>tion, TR-414 for Ofcom. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C., Simmons, S., Brown, I., Woods, L., Peake, A., Robinson, N. et al. (2008)<br />

‘options for and Effectiveness of Internet Self- and Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tion Phase 2: Case Study<br />

Report’ 15 January 2008. Prepa<strong>red</strong> for European Commission DG Information Society<br />

& Media. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1281374 [Accessed].<br />

Mayer-Schonberger, V. (2008) Demystifying Lessig, Wisconsin Law Review, 4, pp. 713-<br />

746.<br />

Meisel, J. P. (2010) ‘Trinko and Mandated Access to the Internet’, info, 12 (2), pp. 9-27.<br />

MINTS (2007) Methodology, page <strong>la</strong>st modified 30 August, at http://www.dtc.umn.edu/<br />

mints/methodology.html<br />

MINTS (2009) “MINTS pages updated, many new reports, further slight slowdown in<br />

wireline traffic growth rate” November 17 at http://www.dtc.umn.edu/mints/news/<br />

news_22.html<br />

Mueller Milton (1998) Universal Service: Competition, Interconnection, and Monopoly<br />

in the Making. AEI Press, Washington DC.<br />

Mueller, M. (2007) ‘Net Neutrality as Global Principle for Internet Governance’. Internet<br />

Governance Project Paper IGP07-003. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://internetgovernance.org/<br />

pdf/NetNeutralityGlobalPrinciple.pdf [Accessed].<br />

Noam, E. M. (1994) ‘Beyond Liberalization II: The Impending Doom of Common Carriage’,<br />

Telecommunications Policy, 18 (6), pp. 435-452.<br />

Noam, E. M. (2008) ‘Beyond Net Neutrality: Enduser Sovereignty, Columbia University<br />

Draft Paper for 34th Telecoms Policy Research Conference, 14 August.<br />

47


48 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Norwegian Co<strong>de</strong> (2009) ‘Gui<strong>de</strong>lines for Net Neutrality’ Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://www.npt.no/<br />

iKnowBase/Content/109604/Gui<strong>de</strong>lines%20for%20network%20neutrality.pdf [Accessed].<br />

odlyzko, A. and Levinson, D. (2007) Too expensive to meter: The influence of transaction<br />

costs in transportation and communication, draft at http://www.dtc.umn.<br />

edu/~odlyzko/doc/meteringexpensive.pdf<br />

oECD (2008) oECD Broadband Portal, Table 5(m): Time to reach bit/data caps at advertised<br />

speeds (Sept. 2008), at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/15/39575302.xls<br />

oECD (2010) oECD Broadband Portal, Table 1l: Percentage of fibre connections in total<br />

broadband among countries reporting fibre subscribers, June 2010, at http://www.<br />

oecd.org/dataoecd/21/58/39574845.xls<br />

ofcom (2006) Market Impact Assessment: BBC new on-<strong>de</strong>mand vi<strong>de</strong>o proposals, at http://<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs.ofcom.org.uk/market-data-research/tv-research/bbc-mias/on<strong>de</strong>mand/<br />

bbc-on<strong>de</strong>mand/<br />

oftel (2000) Draft Direction un<strong>de</strong>r Condition 45 of the Public Telecommunications Licence<br />

granted to British Telecommunications plc of a dispute between BT and MCI<br />

Worldcom concerning the provision of a F<strong>la</strong>t Rate Internet Access Call origination<br />

product (FRIACo), at http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/oftel/publications/internet/fria0400.htm,<br />

noting at point 3 that “BT cited concerns about network capacity<br />

and the principle of capacity charging”.<br />

Palfrey, J. and Gasser, U. (2008) Born Digital: Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the First Generation of Digital<br />

Natives. New York: Basic Books.<br />

Post, D. (2009) In Search of Jefferson’s Moose: Notes on the State of Cyberspace. New York:<br />

oxford University Press.<br />

Rei<strong>de</strong>nberg, J. (2005) Technology and Internet Jurisdiction, University of Pennsylvania<br />

Law Review, 153, p. 1951.<br />

Renda, A. (2008) ‘I own the Pipes, You Call the Tune: The Net Neutrality Debate and its (Ir)<br />

relevance for Europe’. CEPS Special Reports, Centre for European Policy Studies, Brussels.<br />

Rooney, Ben (2011) Net Neutrality Debate in Europe Is ‘over’ February 28, at http://<br />

blogs.wsj.com/tech-europe/2011/02/28/net-neutrality-<strong>de</strong>bate-in-europe-isover/?mod=google_news_blog<br />

Rosston, G.I. and Topper, M.D. (2010) An anti-trust analysis of the case for wireless net<br />

neutrality, Information Economics and Policy 22: 10, pp. 103-119.<br />

Saltzer J.H., D. Reed and D. C<strong>la</strong>rk (1981) End to End Arguments in System Design, Second<br />

International Conf. on Distributed Computing Systems, pp. 509-12<br />

Schrage, M. (2000) ‘The Debriefing: John Seely Brown’, Wi<strong>red</strong>, August, p. S.8.08.<br />

Seely Brown J. and Duguid, P. (2000) The Social Life of Information. Cambridge, MA:<br />

Harvard Business School Press.<br />

Sluijs J. P. (2010) Network Neutrality between False Positives and False Negatives: Introducing<br />

a European Approach to American Broadband Markets, Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications<br />

Law Journal, Vol. 62, p. 77.


Network Neutrality: History, regu<strong>la</strong>tion and future<br />

Tambini, D., Leonardi, D. and Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2008) Codifying Cyberspace: Communications<br />

Self-Regu<strong>la</strong>tion in the Age of Internet Convergence. London: Routledge.<br />

Tapscott, D. (1999) Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. New York: Mc-<br />

Graw Hill.<br />

Teubner, G. (1986) ‘The Transformation of Law in the Welfare State’, in G. Teubner (ed.),<br />

Dilemmas of Law in the Welfare State. Berlin: W. <strong>de</strong> Gruyter.<br />

Thinkbroadband (2009) Average mobile broadband speed clocks in at 0.9 meg, 10 June at<br />

http://www.thinkbroadband.com/news/p/2.html<br />

Vaizey, Ed (2011) Hansard HC Deb, 5 April 2011, c259WH at http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmhansrd/cm110405/halltext/110405h0002.<br />

htm#11040557000591<br />

Wac<strong>la</strong>wsky, J. G. (2005) ‘IMS 101: What You Need to Know Now’. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://<br />

www.op<strong>la</strong>n.org/documents/articles/IMS_need_to_know/fss_download/file [Accessed].<br />

Weiser, P. (2009) The Future of Internet Regu<strong>la</strong>tion, 43 U.C. Davis L. Rev. pp. 529-590.<br />

Werbach, Kevin (2005) The Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Computer Commission, 84 N.C. L. REV. 1, 21.<br />

Werbach, Kevin (2010) off the Hook, 95 CoRNELL L. REV. p.535.<br />

Wu, T. (2003a) ‘When Co<strong>de</strong> Isn’t Law’, Virginia Law Review [online], 89, p. 679. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=413201 [Accessed].<br />

Wu, T. (2003b) ‘Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination’, Journal of Telecommunications<br />

and High Technology Law [online], 2, pp. 141–172. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble from: http://ssrn.<br />

com/abstract=388863 [Accessed].<br />

Wu, T. (2007) ‘Wireless Net Neutrality: Cellu<strong>la</strong>r Carterfone and Consumer Choice in Mobile<br />

Broadband’. New America Foundation Wireless Future Program Working Paper<br />

#17, February.<br />

Yoo, C. (2010) The Changing Patterns of Internet Usage, 63 Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications Law.<br />

J. 1 pp.67-90 http://www.<strong>la</strong>w.indiana.edu/fclj/pubs/v63/no1/2010-Dec.-Vol.63-05_<br />

Yoo.pdf<br />

Zittrain, J. (2008) The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It. New Haven, CT: Yale<br />

University Press.<br />

49


COMUNICACIONES SOBRE NEUTRALIDAD DE LA RED


lA NeUtrAlIDAD De lA reD DesDe lA PersPeCtIVA<br />

De sU ArQUIteCtUrA POr CAPAs ¿De trANsPOrtIstAs<br />

PÚBlICOs A gestOres De CONteNIDOs?<br />

David Arjones Girál<strong>de</strong>z<br />

Doctorando en el Área <strong>de</strong> Derecho Administrativo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Vigo<br />

AbstrAct: This paper brings up an overview about the problem and significance of network neutrality<br />

from the perspective of a <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> Internet regu<strong>la</strong>tion, which states that legal Internet regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

should be governed by the <strong>la</strong>yers principle. The <strong>la</strong>w should respect the integrity of <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> Internet architecture,<br />

based on three basic <strong>la</strong>yers: the physical, the logical, and the content and application <strong>la</strong>yer.<br />

Due to the fact that this theory and its corol<strong>la</strong>ries have been accepted as a whole, we will show how<br />

the architecture which gives way to the broadband requires a neutral regu<strong>la</strong>tion and management on<br />

all its <strong>la</strong>yers. This neutral management creates a field which encourages the growth of innovation and<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment on the network, avoiding the market power abuse of the telecommunication companies.<br />

The solution to the shortage of bandwidth is not traffic management, but the solution could be the<br />

implementation of competition on all <strong>la</strong>yers and perhaps, the change of the business mo<strong>de</strong>l of telecommunication<br />

companies which subsidizes the outrageous bandwidth consume of a few consumers<br />

with the money of the rest, who will suffer the <strong>la</strong>ck of bandwidth.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: arquitectura <strong>red</strong>, banda ancha, capas, competencia, <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>l, network<br />

management, network neutrality, regu<strong>la</strong>ción.<br />

1. introducción. el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

Propiciados por el avance en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones y en<br />

especial en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo tecnológico <strong>de</strong> y en <strong>la</strong> banda ancha surgen continuamente nuevos<br />

<strong>retos</strong> y escollos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l sector, que pugna por proporcionar a los ciudadanos<br />

un servicio <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa y concurrencia empresarial.<br />

Así, se ha p<strong>la</strong>nteado en los últimos años un <strong>de</strong>bate a esca<strong>la</strong> internacional sobre los límites<br />

en el manejo y <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> banda ancha por parte <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>,<br />

propietarios y gestores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras por <strong>la</strong>s cuales fluye el servicio <strong>de</strong> banda ancha.<br />

El mismo se extien<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> postura <strong>de</strong> aquellos que <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> nu<strong>la</strong> intromisión <strong>de</strong> los<br />

operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en el tráfico <strong>de</strong> contenidos y aplicaciones –network neutrality o neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>–, a aquellos <strong>otros</strong>, fundamentalmente los propios operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones,<br />

que abogan porque se les permita bloquear o priorizar ciertas aplicaciones sobre otras,<br />

apoyándose en argumentos como <strong>la</strong> congestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> o <strong>la</strong> propiedad privada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma,<br />

pero siempre previo <strong>de</strong>sembolso <strong>de</strong> cuantiosas sumas <strong>de</strong> dinero por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores<br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

2


54 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate se ha suscitado vivamente en Estados Unidos, don<strong>de</strong> diferentes operadores<br />

en el mercado dada <strong>la</strong> ausencia <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción en <strong>la</strong> materia, comienzan a realizar bloqueos<br />

a <strong>de</strong>terminadas aplicaciones y servicios prestados a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> banda ancha, justificándose<br />

en <strong>la</strong> supuesta congestión que podría producirse en el tráfico <strong>de</strong> contenidos y aplicaciones<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. De entre los diversos asuntos que ya se han p<strong>la</strong>nteado sobre el particu<strong>la</strong>r,<br />

<strong>de</strong>stacan el caso Madison (2005) y el proceso contra Comcast (2007). En el primero <strong>de</strong><br />

ellos, <strong>la</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications Commission (FCC) 1 hubo <strong>de</strong> actuar contra <strong>la</strong> compañía <strong>de</strong><br />

telecomunicaciones Madison, que como quedó posteriormente probado, bloqueaba repetidamente<br />

los servicios <strong>de</strong> VoIP2 que transitaban por su <strong>red</strong>. En el segundo, hizo lo propio<br />

contra Comcast3 , que realizaba bloqueos <strong>de</strong> análogas características pero en re<strong>la</strong>ción con los<br />

servicios P2P4 que transitaban por <strong>la</strong>s líneas <strong>de</strong> este operador5 .<br />

Para enten<strong>de</strong>r en toda su dimensión el problema, resultará interesante recordar que el mo<strong>de</strong>lo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> neutral hace referencia a <strong>la</strong> or<strong>de</strong>nación <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> su misma<br />

aparición. Este mo<strong>de</strong>lo nos indica que no ha <strong>de</strong> existir ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> bloqueo o priorización <strong>de</strong><br />

los contenidos, aplicaciones o servicios que circu<strong>la</strong>n por <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, y don<strong>de</strong> los mismos, ya sean ofertados<br />

por prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios o volcados por meros particu<strong>la</strong>res, no requieren <strong>de</strong> una previa<br />

remuneración al operador <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, propietario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s por <strong>la</strong>s cuales circu<strong>la</strong>n<br />

aquellos6 . En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, se trata <strong>de</strong> abogar por un Internet libre, carente <strong>de</strong> barreras <strong>de</strong> entrada y<br />

don<strong>de</strong> todo el tráfico lícito ha <strong>de</strong> ser consi<strong>de</strong>rado <strong>de</strong> manera igualitaria, <strong>de</strong>terminando el avance<br />

1 Autoridad in<strong>de</strong>pendiente estadouni<strong>de</strong>nse <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones. (www.fcc.gov).<br />

2 Voice over Internet Protocol, consiste en toda aquel<strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> voz que se realiza utilizando el<br />

protocolo <strong>de</strong> Internet (IP).<br />

3 Cfr. FCC, Memorandum Opinion and Or<strong>de</strong>r, “In the Matters of Formal Comp<strong>la</strong>int of Free Press and<br />

Public Knowledge Against Comcast Corporation for Secretly Degrading Peer to Peer Applications, Broandband<br />

Industry Practices, Petition of Free Press et al. Dec<strong>la</strong>ratory Ruling that Degrading an Internet Application<br />

Vio<strong>la</strong>tes the FCC´s Internet Policy Statement and Does Not Mee tan Exception for “Reasonable<br />

Network Management”.1.08.2008.<br />

Disponible en: hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-08-183A1.pdf. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta:<br />

25 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

4 Peer to Peer, se <strong>de</strong>nominan <strong>de</strong> este modo a todos aquellos servicios que proporcionan el intercambio<br />

directo <strong>de</strong> información entre los diferentes usuarios <strong>de</strong>l mismo y don<strong>de</strong> no existe ningún tipo <strong>de</strong><br />

fuente central común proveedora <strong>de</strong> contenidos, lo que hace que cada uno <strong>de</strong> los usuarios sea simultáneamente<br />

<strong>de</strong>mandante y proveedor <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

5 En Europa los casos <strong>de</strong> bloqueos <strong>de</strong> contenidos por parte <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> no son una excepción.<br />

Se han producido esencialmente sobre los servicios P2P, VoIP o audiovisuales, recabando <strong>la</strong><br />

actuación <strong>de</strong>l regu<strong>la</strong>dor nacional en puntuales ocasiones, en países como Polonia, Lituania, Hungría,<br />

Grecia o Portugal. BEREC, “Response to the European Commission´s consultation on the open Internet<br />

and net neutrality in Europe”, 30.09.2010. Pág. 3. Disponible en: http://www.erg.eu.int/doc/berec/<br />

bor_10_42.pdf. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 22 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

6 Entre <strong>otros</strong>, <strong>para</strong> una pequeña ilustración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate: oFCoM, Traffic Management and “net neutrality”.<br />

A Discusion Paper. 24 June 2010, pág. 8. Disponible en: http://stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs.ofcom.org.uk/<br />

consultations/net-neutrality/ [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 03 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> bajo <strong>la</strong> premisa conocida como innovation without permission 7 , don<strong>de</strong> cada individuo<br />

–con ánimo <strong>de</strong> lucro o sin él– pue<strong>de</strong> crear nuevos contenidos y volcarlos libremente en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Frente a esta <strong>red</strong> neutral tal y como <strong>la</strong> conocemos en <strong>la</strong> actualidad, diversas voces<br />

han comenzado a <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>r una <strong>red</strong> gestionada por los operadores proveedores <strong>de</strong>l acceso<br />

a <strong>la</strong> banda ancha 8 . Estos <strong>de</strong> modo discrecional <strong>de</strong>cidirían qué, cómo y cuándo incorporan<br />

contenidos a sus re<strong>de</strong>s. En esta tesitura, los operadores proveedores exigirían a los diferentes<br />

prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios importantes sumas <strong>de</strong> dinero <strong>para</strong> que sus servicios, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>do, no<br />

se vean bloqueados y <strong>de</strong>l otro se presten <strong>de</strong> modo preferente y en mejores condiciones que<br />

los restantes, causando el corre<strong>la</strong>tivo perjuicio <strong>de</strong> estos.<br />

Ante esta situación, diferentes actores internacionales –principalmente los organismos regu<strong>la</strong>dores<br />

en materia <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones 9 – se han pronunciado con una mayor o menor contun<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

en pos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, no ya <strong>de</strong> un modo directo, tajante o imperativo, pero sí<br />

<strong>de</strong>jando entrever <strong>la</strong>s líneas básicas por <strong>la</strong>s que habría <strong>de</strong> transcurrir el futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción en<br />

<strong>la</strong> materia. Puntos en los que <strong>la</strong>s diferentes voces convergen son <strong>la</strong> necesaria transparencia entre el<br />

operador <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y el consumidor o el perjuicio que pue<strong>de</strong> conllevar <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> contenidos,<br />

ensalzando a su vez, el amplio campo a <strong>la</strong> innovación que proporciona <strong>la</strong> apertura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 10 .<br />

En esta línea han <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>stacarse, siquiera <strong>de</strong> modo sucinto, <strong>la</strong>s medidas recientemente<br />

tomadas por <strong>la</strong> FCC 11 . En el<strong>la</strong>s se da un primer paso –insuficiente <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> mi punto <strong>de</strong> vis-<br />

7 “the Internet has thrived because of its freedom and openness – the absence of any gatekeeper blocking<br />

<strong>la</strong>wful uses of the network or picking winners and losers online. Consumers and innovators do not have<br />

to seek permission before they use the Internet to <strong>la</strong>unch new technologies, start businesses, connect<br />

with friends, or share their views.” FCC: In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet Broadband Industry<br />

Practices. (Report and Or<strong>de</strong>r) 21.12.2010. Apartado I, párrafo: 3. Disponible: http://www.fcc.gov/<br />

Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2010/db1223/FCC-10-201A1.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 6 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2011]. En <strong>la</strong> misma línea, ATKINSoN, RoBERT D. & WEISER, PHILIP J. (2006) “A Third Way<br />

on Network Neutrality”, The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, mayo, pp. 5 y ss.<br />

8 La FCC consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>de</strong> entre los objetivos buscados por los operadores proveedores <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>red</strong>,<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>stacarse: <strong>la</strong> integración vertical <strong>de</strong> los mismos con los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> su mismo<br />

grupo empresarial, <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> un servicio <strong>de</strong> baja calidad en or<strong>de</strong>n a incitar el pago por parte <strong>de</strong><br />

los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos con el objetivo <strong>de</strong> lograr un servicio <strong>de</strong> mayor calidad, diferenciar el<br />

servicio prestado a sus propios clientes <strong>de</strong>l facilitado por los proveedores <strong>de</strong> acceso competidores, etc.<br />

FCC: In the Matter of Preserving… Op. cit. Apartado II, párrafo 21 y ss.<br />

9 BEREC, FCC, ARCEP, PTS, etc.<br />

10 De entre los documentos oficiales <strong>de</strong> más reciente publicación en <strong>la</strong> materia pue<strong>de</strong>n consultarse,<br />

entre <strong>otros</strong>: BEREC, “Response to the European Commission´s consultation on the open Internet and<br />

net neutrality in Europe”, 30.09.2010. Disponible en: http://www.erg.eu.int/doc/berec/bor_10_42.<br />

pdf. (25.01.2011). FCC, In the Matter of Preserving…Op. cit. oFCoM, “Traffic Management and<br />

“net neutrality”. A discussion paper”. 24.06.2010. Disponible: http://stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs.ofcom.org.uk/consultations/net-neutrality/<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 03 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011]. ARCEP, Internet and Network<br />

Neutrality. Proposals and recommendations. Sep. 2010. Disponible: http://www.arcep.fr/uploads/<br />

tx_gspublication/net-neutralite-orientations-sept2010-eng.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 20 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong><br />

2011].<br />

11 Cfr. FCC, In the Matter of Preserving…Op. cit.<br />

55


56 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

ta12 – <strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en beneficio último <strong>de</strong> los consumidores y <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información. Las mismas enuncian cuatro principios básicos<br />

en <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha: transparencia <strong>de</strong> cara a los consumidores13 ;<br />

prohibición <strong>de</strong> bloqueos <strong>de</strong> contenidos y aplicaciones; no discriminación irrazonable <strong>de</strong><br />

contenidos y posibilidad <strong>de</strong> gestión razonable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>14 .<br />

Por su parte, en Europa <strong>la</strong> situación se observa <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un prisma parcialmente distinto<br />

dada <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción sectorial existente y <strong>la</strong>s especificida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> este mercado. A este <strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Atlántico es un mantra continuamente repetido <strong>la</strong> innecesaria intervención ex ante <strong>para</strong> asegurar<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>seada neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>15 . El motivo, dicen, hay que buscarlo en <strong>la</strong> situación<br />

<strong>de</strong> los mercados y en <strong>la</strong>s faculta<strong>de</strong>s concedidas a los regu<strong>la</strong>dores nacionales, que facultan a <strong>la</strong><br />

solución ex post <strong>de</strong> estos problemas en caso <strong>de</strong> su aparición16 .<br />

En <strong>la</strong>s siguientes líneas, lejos <strong>de</strong> realizar un repaso por <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> este encarnizado<br />

<strong>de</strong>bate, tanto <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s posiciones adoptadas por los diferentes regu<strong>la</strong>dores como<br />

por los p<strong>la</strong>nteamientos doctrinales al respecto, se preten<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>jar constancia y hacer una<br />

pequeña reflexión <strong>de</strong>l lugar en el que hemos <strong>de</strong> ubicar el mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> neutral que se<br />

persigue.<br />

12 Son c<strong>la</strong>ras <strong>la</strong>s discrepancias en <strong>la</strong> materia objeto <strong>de</strong> análisis, siendo reve<strong>la</strong>dor que <strong>la</strong> aprobación <strong>de</strong><br />

estas medidas en el seno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> FCC se ha realizado por diferencia <strong>de</strong> un solo voto (3 votos favorables<br />

frente a 2).<br />

13 Transparencia que propicie el conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l consumidor <strong>de</strong> los problemas <strong>de</strong> congestión <strong>de</strong> los<br />

que se pue<strong>de</strong> ver aquejada <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> aplicable <strong>de</strong> ser supuesto necesario, <strong>la</strong><br />

posibilidad discriminación <strong>de</strong> ciertos contenidos web y un <strong>la</strong>rgo etcétera. FCC, In the Matter of Preserving…<br />

Op. cit. Apartado III, párrafo 56 y ss.<br />

Recientemente, el 13 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong>l pasado año 2010, <strong>la</strong> Vicepresi<strong>de</strong>nta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, Neelie<br />

Kroes, manifestaba ante <strong>la</strong> se<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>l regu<strong>la</strong>dor francés <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones (ARCEP) que <strong>la</strong> transparencia<br />

<strong>para</strong> con el consumidor era “no negociable”. Disponible en: http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/153.<br />

14 Se trata este <strong>de</strong>l punto más <strong>de</strong>licado <strong>de</strong>l presente pronunciamiento. En opinión propia, el regu<strong>la</strong>dor<br />

estadouni<strong>de</strong>nse mediante esta estipu<strong>la</strong>ción abre una vía legal <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> entrada <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong><br />

banda ancha en <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> un modo seudodiscrecional, ya que, como en el propio texto se<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> observar –párrafos 82 y ss–, el regu<strong>la</strong>dor no hace más que sujetar <strong>la</strong> gestión y discriminación<br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos a criterios harto confusos e in<strong>de</strong>terminados que se ponen a <strong>la</strong> plena disposición <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> voluntad <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>red</strong>, fomentando <strong>la</strong> proliferación <strong>de</strong> acuerdos ilegales por<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminados proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

15 Importa <strong>de</strong>stacar aquí, <strong>la</strong> moción presentada por los GRUPoS PARLAMENTARIoS SoCIALISTA,<br />

ENTESA CATALANA DE PRoGRÉS, CATALÁN EN EL SENADo DE CoNVERGÈNCIA<br />

I UNIÓ, DE SENADoRES NACIoNALISTAS Y MIXTo, por <strong>la</strong> que se insta al Gobierno a<br />

modificar <strong>la</strong> normativa españo<strong>la</strong> en <strong>la</strong> materia a fin <strong>de</strong> garantizar el cumplimiento <strong>de</strong>l principio <strong>de</strong><br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones que operan en España. Boletín<br />

General <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Cortes Generales. Senado. 29.11.2010. Nº 554. Pág. 17. Disponible: http://www.<br />

senado.es/legis9/publicaciones/html/textos/I0554.html (27.01.2011).<br />

16 Por todos, ver: BEREC, “Response to the European…Op. cit.


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

Con este fin, se ha creído oportuno traer a co<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>la</strong> teoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas<br />

17 <strong>para</strong> hacer notar que <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> que se preten<strong>de</strong> no es otra cosa que incluir<br />

neutralidad en el último es<strong>la</strong>bón que forma el servicio <strong>de</strong> banda ancha. Una última capa que<br />

ha <strong>de</strong> ser neutral, <strong>de</strong>l mismo modo que lo son <strong>la</strong>s capas inferiores en <strong>la</strong> ca<strong>de</strong>na <strong>de</strong> valor –<strong>la</strong>s<br />

infraestructuras y los protocolos que por el<strong>la</strong>s fluyen–, dando solución a <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong><br />

cuellos <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong>, tanto en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo geográfico <strong>de</strong> infraestructuras como en <strong>la</strong> propia<br />

capacidad intrínseca <strong>de</strong> éstas.<br />

Avanzando en <strong>la</strong> exposición, se observará cómo <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción por<br />

capas evitaría por absurdo todo <strong>de</strong>bate sobre el control <strong>de</strong> los contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. La posibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> gestionar <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, ya sea en los términos en que <strong>la</strong> FCC lo consi<strong>de</strong>ra o no, supone<br />

un abuso <strong>de</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> mercado <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, que en nada han <strong>de</strong><br />

interferir en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> una efectiva competencia libre en <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios,<br />

contenidos y aplicaciones en <strong>la</strong> web.<br />

2. <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción Por caPas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancHa<br />

2.1. una aproximación a <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

La teoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas <strong>de</strong>rivada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, en sus diferentes<br />

variantes y evoluciones 18 , parece ser <strong>la</strong> que mejor se adapta a <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones.<br />

La misma establece una fuerte unión entre <strong>la</strong>s características tecnológicas <strong>de</strong>l objeto <strong>de</strong><br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción y su propia regu<strong>la</strong>ción, dando lugar, en <strong>la</strong> práctica, a <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

que se rige por los mismos principios –o arquitectura– que <strong>la</strong> propia <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> banda ancha 19 .<br />

Para el presente análisis partiremos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ya convencional estructura simplificada <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha en tres capas 20 : <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> infraestructura física, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

infraestructura lógica y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> contenidos 21 .<br />

17 La teoría generalmente mejor aceptada como punto guía a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>r el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones.<br />

18 Destacan por sus aportaciones a <strong>la</strong> teoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas: BENKLER, LESSIG, SICKER,<br />

SoLUM o CHUNG.<br />

19 Es alentador que <strong>la</strong> propia organización <strong>de</strong> Naciones Unidas se haya hecho eco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> teoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas, manifestando que: “the <strong>la</strong>yers principle and its corol<strong>la</strong>ries are fundamental for<br />

establishing a rational and workable policy and regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework for Internet governance”. UNITED<br />

NATIoNS, Information Economy Report 2006. Pág. 276 y ss. Disponible: http://www.unctad.org/en/<br />

docs/sdteecb20061ch7_en.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 20 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

20 Para una mejor comprensión inicial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mentada división y estructuración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s capas, pue<strong>de</strong> consultarse<br />

el Informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Naciones Unidas anteriormente citado, don<strong>de</strong> se realiza una exposición gráfica <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas realizando una com<strong>para</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma con el sector <strong>de</strong> correo postal.<br />

21 Cfr. BENKLER, Y. (2006). The Wealth of Networks: how social production transform markets and freedom.<br />

Ed. 1ª. Yale University Press. LESSIG, L. (2001). The future of i<strong>de</strong>as. The fate of the commons in<br />

a connected world. Ed. 1ª. New York: Random House. Disponible en línea: http://the-future-of-i<strong>de</strong>as.<br />

57


58 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

La primera capa está formada por <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones que proporcionan<br />

los servicios <strong>de</strong> transmisión en el servicio <strong>de</strong> banda ancha: <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s mismas, los<br />

postes que le dan apoyo, los puntos <strong>de</strong> acceso a interconexión, etc. Es esta <strong>la</strong> capa que ha<br />

sufrido y sufre una mayor carga regu<strong>la</strong>toria, que se manifiesta en <strong>la</strong>s obligaciones <strong>de</strong> interconexión<br />

entre <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> los diferentes operadores 22 , obligaciones <strong>de</strong> acceso 23 , u obligaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicio público en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo geográfico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura 24 , entre muchas otras.<br />

La capa lógica se i<strong>de</strong>ntifica con los diferentes protocolos y tecnologías que permiten <strong>la</strong><br />

prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha, es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s diferentes leyes lógicas que or<strong>de</strong>nan <strong>la</strong><br />

información que circu<strong>la</strong> por <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras y que finaliza mediante su materialización<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones y contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Entre ellos, <strong>de</strong> modo ilustrativo, se encuentran el<br />

protocolo IP, TCP, HPPT, FTP 25 , etc.<br />

La última capa, <strong>de</strong> contenidos y aplicaciones 26 es en <strong>la</strong> que se suscita el presente <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Es <strong>la</strong> capa que se encuentra directamente en contacto con<br />

los consumidores finales, siendo <strong>la</strong> que aporta el valor añadido que los usuarios buscan y<br />

encuentran en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, ya que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> sin contenidos no es nada 27 .<br />

Está formada por <strong>la</strong>s diferentes utilida<strong>de</strong>s que un consumidor pue<strong>de</strong> encontrar en <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> y que van <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios audiovisuales hasta aplicaciones <strong>de</strong> contenido<br />

cultural o científico, pasando por servicios VoIP 28 y un <strong>la</strong>rgo etcétera. Se trata <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> capa que<br />

com [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 20 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011]. Conviene seña<strong>la</strong>r en este punto que <strong>la</strong>s diferentes teorías<br />

doctrinales en referencia a <strong>la</strong> arquitectura que forma <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y conforme a <strong>la</strong> cual ha <strong>de</strong> dividirse su regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

legal, <strong>de</strong>rivan <strong>de</strong>l mo<strong>de</strong>lo inicial <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do en los años 80 por <strong>la</strong> ISo (International Standars<br />

organization). Este mo<strong>de</strong>lo sería el <strong>de</strong> Interconexión <strong>de</strong> sistemas abiertos (oSI), que dividía <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en<br />

siete capas diferentes: aplicaciones, presentaciones, sesiones, transporte, <strong>red</strong>, en<strong>la</strong>ce <strong>de</strong> datos y física.<br />

22 Los operadores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas tendrán el <strong>de</strong>recho y, cuando se solicite<br />

por <strong>otros</strong> operadores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> negociar <strong>la</strong> interconexión<br />

mutua con el fin <strong>de</strong> prestar servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas disponibles al público,<br />

con el objeto <strong>de</strong> garantizar así <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios y su interoperabilidad. Art. 11.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LGT.<br />

23 Art. 11 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LGT.<br />

24 En extenso: CARLÓN RUIZ, M.(2007). El servicio universal <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones. Ed. 1º. Madrid,<br />

Thomson- Civitas.<br />

25 Internet Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, File Transfer Protocol, respectivamente.<br />

26 Esta capa, <strong>de</strong>pendiendo <strong>la</strong> precisión <strong>de</strong>l análisis empleado pue<strong>de</strong> ser subdividida en dos capas: <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones. En este sentido, LAWRENCE B. SoLUM y MINN CHUN,<br />

entien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> seis capas: <strong>la</strong> capa física, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> acceso, <strong>la</strong> correspondiente al protocolo <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet, <strong>la</strong> capa <strong>de</strong> transporte, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> contendidos. En SoLUM, L., & CHUN, M.<br />

(2003). «The Layers Principle: Internet Architecture and the Law». University of San Diego School of<br />

Law Public Law and Legal Theory. Research Paper 55.<br />

27 Cfr. LESSIG, L. (2001). The future of i<strong>de</strong>as. The fate of the commons in a connected world. Ed. 1ª. New York:<br />

Random House. Disponible en línea: http://the-future-of-i<strong>de</strong>as.com [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 20 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

28 Importante papel tienen los servicios <strong>de</strong> VoIP <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> estructuración por capas. Éstos, aun siendo<br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> voz en competencia con el servicio <strong>de</strong> voz convencional, han <strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse <strong>de</strong>l mismo


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

menor carga regu<strong>la</strong>toria ha experimentado a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha. La<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma se ha centrado en <strong>la</strong> prohibición <strong>de</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> aquellos contenidos<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rados como ilícitos, bien por infringir <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales o, al caso, <strong>la</strong><br />

vulneración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propiedad intelectual.<br />

2.2. <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y su necesaria regu<strong>la</strong>ción neutral<br />

La verda<strong>de</strong>ra aplicación <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas implica, por <strong>de</strong>finición, que existen<br />

diferentes mercados en los que se entien<strong>de</strong> ha <strong>de</strong> imperar una efectiva competencia y en<br />

los que ha <strong>de</strong> aplicarse una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica adaptada a sus especiales características. A<br />

su vez, <strong>la</strong> se<strong>para</strong>ción entre <strong>la</strong>s capas no pue<strong>de</strong> ser vio<strong>la</strong>da, lo que supone que el regu<strong>la</strong>dor no<br />

podrá permitir que un operador aproveche su po<strong>de</strong>r o mera posición en <strong>la</strong> escalera <strong>de</strong> valor<br />

<strong>para</strong> abusar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma frente a los operadores <strong>de</strong> otras capas29 .<br />

Así entendida, <strong>la</strong> neutralidad ha sido, hasta <strong>la</strong> fecha, el eje dominante en <strong>la</strong>s diferentes capas<br />

que conforman el mercado <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha. Garantizando ésta se está garantizando<br />

el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo libre <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia, <strong>la</strong> inexistencia <strong>de</strong> abuso <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> mercado y se evita <strong>la</strong><br />

integración vertical <strong>de</strong> los operadores –y con ello su respectivo dominio en el servicio–.<br />

La capa <strong>de</strong> infraestructuras físicas ha concentrado el grueso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> fuerza regu<strong>la</strong>toria<br />

en el sector, no en vano es <strong>la</strong> capa primigenia y en <strong>la</strong> que se apoyan <strong>la</strong>s restantes, que se ha<br />

enfrentado ante un importante cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong> como lo es el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo geográfico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

infraestructuras. Consi<strong>de</strong>rando <strong>la</strong> infraestructura física como monopolio natural, se crearon<br />

lo que po<strong>de</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>nominar como re<strong>de</strong>s neutras. Por estas re<strong>de</strong>s habían <strong>de</strong> circu<strong>la</strong>r los servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> los diferentes operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, in<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> su propiedad<br />

privada, lo que no obstaba a <strong>la</strong> interposición <strong>de</strong> los conocidos como peajes <strong>de</strong> paso. Se<br />

articu<strong>la</strong> así un fuerte régimen <strong>de</strong> obligaciones <strong>de</strong> acceso y <strong>de</strong> interconexión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s –entre<br />

otras– que <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s limitaciones existentes30 consigue superar <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s inherentes<br />

al cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong>.<br />

modo –a priori– que <strong>la</strong>s restantes aplicaciones web –un blog, por ejemplo–, por lo que, el mero hecho<br />

<strong>de</strong> ser un servicio <strong>de</strong> voz prestado bajo un protocolo diferente al servicio <strong>de</strong> voz convencional no hace<br />

nacer ipso iure <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica <strong>de</strong> los mismos <strong>para</strong> gestionar su competencia<br />

con los servicios <strong>de</strong> voz convencionales. Es el logro <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica <strong>de</strong> los mismos el<br />

objetivo que buscan los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> voz convencionales, argumentando a su vez, que<br />

los servicios <strong>de</strong> VoIP contribuyen masivamente a <strong>la</strong> congestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> –así, se observa cómo los<br />

contenidos web más aquejados <strong>de</strong> bloqueos han sido, junto con los servicios P2P, los servicios VoIP–.<br />

Sobre el particu<strong>la</strong>r, pue<strong>de</strong>n consultarse: MoNTERo PASCUAL, JUAN J. (2005). «La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong><br />

los servicios <strong>de</strong> voz por internet.» Revista <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Telecomunicaciones e Infraestructuras en Red.<br />

Nº 22, pp. 39-55. GRETEL (2004). El <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> VoIP y sus implicaciones regu<strong>la</strong>torias. Colegio<br />

oficial <strong>de</strong> Ingenieros <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicación, Madrid.<br />

29 SoLUM, L., & CHUN, M. (2003). «The Layers Principle: Internet Architecture and the Law». University<br />

of San Diego School of Law Public Law and Legal Theory. Research Paper 55.<br />

30 Principalmente una fuerte oposición <strong>de</strong> los operadores incumbentes.<br />

59


60 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

En <strong>la</strong> capa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura lógica, <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción converge en el mismo sentido: <strong>la</strong><br />

neutralidad. Así, en <strong>la</strong> vigente LGT, en su artículo 3 apartado f), se establece como principio<br />

y objetivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley el fomento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad tecnológica 31 . Aun estableciéndose este<br />

como principio legal, <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción en <strong>la</strong> materia ha sido parca y a lo sumo vigi<strong>la</strong>nte.<br />

Han sido los propios actores <strong>de</strong>l mercado los que, conscientes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> necesaria convergencia<br />

tecnológica –neutralidad 32 – <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> un servicio <strong>de</strong> calidad, sin fronteras<br />

geográficas y disponible <strong>para</strong> todo tipo <strong>de</strong> usuarios in<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura<br />

a <strong>la</strong> que tuvieren acceso, han creado estándares tecnológicos y parámetros <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>ntro<br />

<strong>de</strong> foros internacionales 33 don<strong>de</strong> se discute y se incuba el futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnología subyacente<br />

en el servicio <strong>de</strong> banda ancha. De entre ellos, cabe <strong>de</strong>stacar: <strong>la</strong> ITU (International<br />

Telecommunication Union), ETSI (European Telecommunications Standars Institute), IAB<br />

(Internet Architecture Board), IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), ICANN (Internet<br />

Corporation for Asigned Names and Numbers), etc.<br />

El último es<strong>la</strong>bón <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ca<strong>de</strong>na <strong>de</strong> valor que da lugar a <strong>la</strong> banda ancha, <strong>la</strong> capa <strong>de</strong> contenidos,<br />

ha gozado siempre <strong>de</strong> una <strong>la</strong>guna regu<strong>la</strong>toria que ha permitido que se or<strong>de</strong>ne <strong>de</strong><br />

acuerdo a <strong>la</strong>s fuerzas <strong>de</strong>l mercado. Estas, indicativo es, han hecho que primara <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> toda su evolución. El objetivo último <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción por<br />

capas es <strong>la</strong> aplicación mínima <strong>de</strong> normas regu<strong>la</strong>doras, y con más importancia si cabe en <strong>la</strong><br />

capa <strong>de</strong> contenidos, ya que es en el<strong>la</strong> don<strong>de</strong> se produce <strong>la</strong> verda<strong>de</strong>ra creación <strong>de</strong> valor <strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> sociedad. Hasta el momento, <strong>la</strong> carencia <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción ha permitido <strong>la</strong> autoafirmación <strong>de</strong>l<br />

mercado <strong>de</strong> contenidos, que dada <strong>la</strong> abundancia <strong>de</strong> ancho <strong>de</strong> banda disponible a través <strong>de</strong>l<br />

cual prestar estos servicios, había optado por <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Ahora bien, el avance en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> contenidos que atraen a los consumidores y<br />

que absorben un gran ancho <strong>de</strong> banda, ha propiciado <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> facto <strong>de</strong> un nuevo cuello<br />

31 En este sentido también po<strong>de</strong>mos mencionar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad tecnológica en <strong>la</strong> Administración Pública,<br />

por todos consúltese: BoIX PALoP, A. (2007). «La neutralidad tecnológica como exigencia regu<strong>la</strong>toria<br />

en el acceso electrónico a los servicios.» Revista General <strong>de</strong> Derecho Administrativo. Nº 16.<br />

32 Entendiendo <strong>la</strong> neutralidad tecnológica como <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> acceso por parte <strong>de</strong> todos los usuarios<br />

a todo tipo <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones y contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ubicación física en <strong>la</strong> que<br />

se encuentren y <strong>de</strong>l concreto operador <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> a través <strong>de</strong>l que tengan acceso a <strong>la</strong> misma, toda vez que<br />

<strong>la</strong> tecnología que fluye por <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> se encuentra homogeneizada con indiferencia <strong>de</strong> su ubicación geográfica,<br />

posibilitando <strong>la</strong> interconexión entre todos los usuarios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma y el volcado <strong>de</strong> contenidos<br />

a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. A sensu contrario, <strong>la</strong> expresión neutralidad tecnológica también suele hacer mención a<br />

<strong>la</strong> actividad regu<strong>la</strong>dora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones «que lejos <strong>de</strong> centrarse en <strong>la</strong> tecnología, presta atención<br />

a los efectos que emanan <strong>de</strong> su uso, por ello, <strong>la</strong> técnica legis<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>de</strong>be basarse en una regu<strong>la</strong>ción sostenible,<br />

subsidiaria y proporcionada a <strong>la</strong> vez que transparente (…)», don<strong>de</strong> a su vez, «<strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción inspirada en<br />

el principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong>be evitar efectos <strong>de</strong> discriminación entre otras tecnologías al mismo tiempo<br />

que favorecer el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s TIC.» Cfr. CULLEL MARCH, C.; «El principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad tecnológica<br />

y <strong>de</strong> servicios en <strong>la</strong> UE: <strong>la</strong> liberalización <strong>de</strong>l espectro radioeléctrico» IDP. Revista <strong>de</strong> Internet,<br />

Derecho y Política, UoC, n.º 11, 2010. [Artículo en línea, disponible: http://idp.uoc.edu] [Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 20 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

33 De carácter privado, público o en ocasiones público-privados.


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

<strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong> en el servicio <strong>de</strong> banda ancha: su propio ancho <strong>de</strong> banda. Es ahora el momento<br />

<strong>de</strong> preguntarse si el legis<strong>la</strong>dor ha <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>r este nuevo cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong>, o por el contrario,<br />

<strong>de</strong>jar el mismo en <strong>la</strong>s manos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fuerzas <strong>de</strong>l mercado, <strong>la</strong>s fuerzas <strong>de</strong> los diferentes mercados<br />

intervinientes.<br />

En efecto, el <strong>de</strong>bate actual se centra en permitir <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> por parte <strong>de</strong>l operador<br />

<strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, pero ¿no supondría esto <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> teoría regu<strong>la</strong>toria<br />

por capas, don<strong>de</strong> el operador estará pasando a contro<strong>la</strong>r un mercado que le ha <strong>de</strong> ser totalmente<br />

ajeno?<br />

Los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones han pasado, dada <strong>la</strong> posición en <strong>la</strong> ca<strong>de</strong>na <strong>de</strong> valor<br />

que ocupan y su ingente po<strong>de</strong>río económico, <strong>de</strong> ser meros transportistas <strong>de</strong> servicios a ser los<br />

propios prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios. La regu<strong>la</strong>ción en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones ha venido<br />

caracterizada por lograr <strong>la</strong> efectiva puesta a disposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

–consi<strong>de</strong>radas essential facilities– a los diferentes operadores <strong>de</strong>l mercado. Las empresas <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

se han entendido siempre como common carriers, como operadores sujetos a<br />

una amplia regu<strong>la</strong>ción sectorial, que tienen como objetivo hacer llegar un <strong>de</strong>terminado servicio<br />

–mediante sus re<strong>de</strong>s– a todos los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> una manera igualitaria y sin discriminaciones.<br />

Si <strong>la</strong> naturaleza <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s compañías <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones ha <strong>de</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>rse como el<br />

mero transporte <strong>de</strong> servicios (voz, datos…), en nada han <strong>de</strong> interferir éstos en los contenidos<br />

que se transmiten a través <strong>de</strong> sus re<strong>de</strong>s. Así, siendo “transportistas públicos 34 ” sujetos a<br />

diversas obligaciones <strong>de</strong> servicio público, han <strong>de</strong> realizar un transporte in<strong>de</strong>pendiente, ajeno<br />

al contenido <strong>de</strong> los paquetes <strong>de</strong> datos que circulen por <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y dando cumplimiento así a <strong>la</strong><br />

estructuración por capas <strong>de</strong>l servicio.<br />

Los agentes regu<strong>la</strong>dores han <strong>de</strong> tener siempre presente <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> dos gran<strong>de</strong>s<br />

mercados interre<strong>la</strong>cionados, pero necesariamente in<strong>de</strong>pendientes, <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r garantizar <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia efectiva en cada uno <strong>de</strong> ellos y el beneficio último <strong>de</strong>l consumidor 35 . De un<br />

<strong>la</strong>do, los diferentes mercados <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>red</strong> –minorista o mayorista–, en uno u otro punto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ca<strong>de</strong>na <strong>de</strong> valor, que tienen como objetivo último dar al ciudadano una conexión con<br />

los mínimos requerimientos legales establecidos. Del otro, se encontraría el mercado <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios, contenidos y aplicaciones existentes <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Dada <strong>la</strong> posición que ocupan los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, <strong>la</strong>s diferentes políticas<br />

que los mismos apliquen a <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, bloqueando o priorizando unos contenidos<br />

34 La FCC entien<strong>de</strong> que ha <strong>de</strong> diferenciarse c<strong>la</strong>ramente el marco <strong>de</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong>l “transportista público”<br />

con infraestructuras privativas, <strong>de</strong>l marco <strong>la</strong>xo por excelencia en el que se movería el propiamente<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rado transportista privado, abogando, <strong>de</strong>l mismo modo, por <strong>la</strong> reconsi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> posición<br />

<strong>de</strong> los primeros como meros transportistas al servicio <strong>de</strong>l mercado y <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano y no excluyendo,<br />

c<strong>la</strong>ro está, su legítima búsqueda <strong>de</strong>l beneficio económico. FCC, “In the Matter of Preserving…”, Op.<br />

cit. Apartado III, párrafo. 46 y ss.<br />

35 Como seña<strong>la</strong> BEREC: “se<strong>para</strong>tion between the network <strong>la</strong>yer and the content/application <strong>la</strong>yer, potentially<br />

allows competition and innovation throughout the value chain. It also implies low entry barriers on<br />

the open p<strong>la</strong>tform of the Internet that have provi<strong>de</strong>d particu<strong>la</strong>rly fertile ground for new content, applications<br />

and services to <strong>de</strong>velop”. BEREC, “Response to the European… Op. cit. Pág. 4.<br />

61


62 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

sobre <strong>otros</strong>, no sería más que aprovechar su posición en el mercado <strong>de</strong> acceso. El objetivo<br />

buscado radicaría en beneficiar a <strong>la</strong>s empresas pertenecientes a su mismo grupo empresarial<br />

o por <strong>la</strong> contra, propiciar el cobro a los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos por <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> un<br />

servicio <strong>de</strong> transporte –ya que en <strong>de</strong>finitiva no pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>finirse <strong>de</strong> otro modo– en mejores o<br />

peores condiciones. Estas actuaciones provocarían una elevada influencia en <strong>la</strong>s elecciones<br />

libres que los consumidores realicen, a <strong>la</strong> vez que <strong>de</strong>saparecería <strong>la</strong> competencia homogénea<br />

–en igualdad <strong>de</strong> condiciones ex ante– <strong>de</strong> los diferentes proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> internet 36 ,<br />

con ánimo <strong>de</strong> lucro o sin él.<br />

Las diferentes discusiones que se levantan en pos <strong>de</strong> permitir una mayor o menor gestión<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> mediante el cobro por <strong>la</strong> prestación preferencial <strong>de</strong> servicios, <strong>de</strong>vienen incongruentes<br />

una vez se analiza <strong>la</strong> posición que han tenido y <strong>de</strong>ben tener los operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> a<br />

tenor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas.<br />

Las medidas regu<strong>la</strong>torias a tomar han <strong>de</strong> pasar por frenar el ascenso <strong>de</strong> posiciones <strong>de</strong> estos<br />

operadores en el mercado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha y el fomento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en <strong>la</strong>s tres capas<br />

diferenciadas. En esta línea se pronunciaba ya en el 2009 el regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

sueco, PTS, quien indicaba que lejos <strong>de</strong> inmiscuirse en un <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> posible permisión<br />

<strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> contenidos en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, el objetivo regu<strong>la</strong>torio habría <strong>de</strong> seguir siendo el fomento<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia a todos los niveles 37 . El fomento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en <strong>la</strong>s capas <strong>de</strong> infraestructuras,<br />

tecnologías y contenidos conllevaría que cada una actuase sobre <strong>la</strong>s restantes a modo<br />

<strong>de</strong> catalizador <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia competencia e innovación, en los términos que ahora indicamos.<br />

A pesar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> se<strong>para</strong>ción por capas y el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas como compartimentos<br />

estancos, no se evita que <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> cada una potencie <strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s capas superiores y/o inferiores. Las re<strong>la</strong>ciones entre <strong>la</strong>s mismas son siempre<br />

directamente proporcionales, lo que provoca que el aumento <strong>de</strong> competencia en cualquiera<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas aumente <strong>la</strong> competencia en <strong>la</strong>s restantes 38 . Así, hasta el momento el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha ha <strong>de</strong>rivado <strong>de</strong>l motor que supuso <strong>la</strong> evolución en los contenidos y aplicaciones<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, que ha sido el catalizador que ha avivado <strong>la</strong> generación <strong>de</strong> nuevos protocolos<br />

<strong>de</strong> transporte más avanzados, a <strong>la</strong> vez que han hecho surgir <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> nueva generación 39<br />

(NGN, <strong>la</strong> banda ultra ancha).<br />

36 Así lo apunta el BEREC, que –entre <strong>otros</strong>– <strong>la</strong> intervención <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

en el mercado <strong>de</strong> servicio pue<strong>de</strong> llevar a <strong>la</strong> discriminación empresarial dado el potencial riesgo <strong>de</strong> integración<br />

vertical –y sus consecuencias anticompetitivas–, o <strong>la</strong> disminución a <strong>la</strong>rgo p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> internet, propiciada por <strong>la</strong> coartación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación y libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. BEREC, “Response<br />

to the European…” Op. cit. Págs. 4 y ss.<br />

37 Cfr. PTS, Gui<strong>de</strong>lines for Internet Neutrality. 24.02.2009. Disponible en: http://www.pts.se/upload/<br />

Rapporter/Internet/2009/natneutralitet-2009-6-eng.pdf.[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 25 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

38 Cfr. SICKER DoUGLAS C. & MINDEL JoSHUA L. (2002). «Refinements of a <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>l for<br />

telecommunications policy.» Journal on Telecommunications & High Technology Law. Vol. 1, pp. 310 y ss.<br />

39 Consúltese, FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA, LIoNEL D. (2008) «La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> nueva generación (NGN). Perspectivas <strong>de</strong> evolución en España.» Revista <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s Telecomunicaciones, Transportes e Infraestructuras en <strong>red</strong>. Nº 32, pp. 75-126.


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

Frenar el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo en libre competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> capa <strong>de</strong> contenidos y aplicaciones es<br />

tanto como <strong>red</strong>ucir el valor añadido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, coartar <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, el <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa, a <strong>la</strong> vez que se censura discrecionalmente el mayor foro <strong>de</strong> diálogo<br />

existente a nivel internacional 40 .<br />

La solución a esta problemática probablemente no se encuentre en crear un nuevo y<br />

profuso mercado regu<strong>la</strong>do en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones que dé salida a <strong>la</strong> congestión<br />

<strong>de</strong> ese cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong>. Quizá, al menos <strong>de</strong> momento, ha <strong>de</strong> pensarse en garantizar ex<br />

ante el ejercicio libre <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l mercado <strong>de</strong> servicios, contenidos y<br />

aplicaciones en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Des<strong>de</strong> este punto <strong>de</strong> partida, los propios intervinientes <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>rán<br />

–al caso <strong>de</strong> ser necesario– estrategias comerciales que pongan fin a <strong>la</strong> supuesta saturación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, al nuevo cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong>.<br />

La existencia <strong>de</strong> un cuello <strong>de</strong> botel<strong>la</strong> ha <strong>de</strong> enmarcarse <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> un espacio temporal<br />

<strong>de</strong> medio-<strong>la</strong>rgo p<strong>la</strong>zo, no tratándose <strong>de</strong> un problema <strong>de</strong>finitivo e insubsanable por <strong>la</strong>s propias<br />

fuerzas que or<strong>de</strong>nan el mercado. El <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> nueva generación supondrá<br />

<strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un mayor ancho <strong>de</strong> banda, <strong>de</strong> mayor calidad y don<strong>de</strong> tendrán cabida más<br />

servicios y mejores aplicaciones. A su vez, <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> picos <strong>de</strong> congestión o cuellos <strong>de</strong><br />

botel<strong>la</strong> 41 no ha <strong>de</strong> venir “solucionada” discrecionalmente por el operador <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> turno –ajeno al juego <strong>de</strong>l mercado <strong>de</strong> contenidos– u organismo regu<strong>la</strong>dor competente,<br />

sino por los propios intervinientes, los propios consumidores con su elección <strong>de</strong><br />

contenidos. Estos forzarán <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> aquellos servicios in<strong>de</strong>seados y que ocupen <strong>de</strong><br />

manera ineficiente ancho <strong>de</strong> banda. Como también afirma <strong>la</strong> FCC 42 , <strong>la</strong>s tarifas p<strong>la</strong>nas, aunque<br />

buena estrategia <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo masivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha, conllevan el co<strong>la</strong>pso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> con aplicaciones y contenidos no <strong>de</strong>mandados o <strong>de</strong>mandados en exceso, contribuyendo<br />

<strong>de</strong> manera escalofriante a <strong>la</strong> supuesta saturación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda ancha, y don<strong>de</strong> unos consumidores<br />

subvencionan el acceso masivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> a <strong>red</strong>, que <strong>de</strong>viene en una menor calidad en el<br />

servicio recibido por el primero.<br />

Quizá sea hora <strong>de</strong> modificar <strong>la</strong> estrategia comercial aplicada –medida poco popu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s haya 43 – <strong>para</strong> sufragar los problemas <strong>de</strong> congestión <strong>de</strong> tráfico. Entre <strong>la</strong>s opciones,<br />

tarificar en función <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda consumida y premiar a aquellos consumidores que menos<br />

40 Así, <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, entien<strong>de</strong> en <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/EC, <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 25 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 que: “Dado que Internet es esencial <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> educación y el ejercicio<br />

práctico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información, por lo que toda restricción impuesta<br />

al ejercicio <strong>de</strong> esos <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales <strong>de</strong>berá ajustarse al Convenio Europeo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> los<br />

Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales.”<br />

41 oFCoM, consi<strong>de</strong>ra que los picos <strong>de</strong> congestión son muy puntuales, a <strong>la</strong> par que <strong>la</strong>s rec<strong>la</strong>maciones<br />

formales <strong>de</strong> los usuarios <strong>de</strong>rivadas <strong>de</strong> los mismos son inexistentes. oFCoM, Traffic Management…<br />

Op. cit. Pág. 15 y ss. En el mismo sentido, BEREC y ARCEP, entre <strong>otros</strong>.<br />

42 FCC, In the Matter of Preserving…Op. cit. Apartado III, párrafo 70 y ss.<br />

43 Más populista, sin duda, se presenta argumentar fa<strong>la</strong>zmente el cobro <strong>de</strong> importantes cánones a gran<strong>de</strong>s<br />

colosos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> -Google, Yahoo, YouTube, etc-, so pretexto <strong>de</strong> sus impronunciables beneficios<br />

obtenidos a costa <strong>de</strong> co<strong>la</strong>psar <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y perjudicar al pequeño blog particu<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

63


64 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

ancho <strong>de</strong> banda absorban, haciendo así <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> un espacio neutral y libre, don<strong>de</strong> todos los<br />

servicios se presten <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> unas condiciones comúnmente aceptadas <strong>de</strong> calidad y don<strong>de</strong><br />

neutralidad no es sinónimo <strong>de</strong> co<strong>la</strong>pso, ineficiencia o innecesaridad <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

3. conclusión<br />

Una vez hecho un breve repaso por <strong>la</strong> teoría regu<strong>la</strong>toria por capas y sus implicaciones<br />

<strong>para</strong> con <strong>la</strong> neutralidad, <strong>la</strong> conclusión a <strong>la</strong> que llegamos ha <strong>de</strong> quedar c<strong>la</strong>ra. La falta <strong>de</strong><br />

neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> contenidos web es diametralmente opuesta al principio<br />

<strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por capas. Tal situación subyugaría el mercado <strong>de</strong> contenidos una vez que se<br />

permite <strong>la</strong> gestión discrecional y aleatoria <strong>de</strong>l mismo por parte <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong>s operadores económicos<br />

pertenecientes a una capa y mercado distinto, que nada han <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cir al respecto. Así,<br />

los pasos a dar pasan por <strong>de</strong>limitar c<strong>la</strong>ramente los mercados intervinientes en el servicio <strong>de</strong><br />

banda ancha, <strong>para</strong>, sumiéndose los operadores al juego comercial y regu<strong>la</strong>ción propia <strong>de</strong> su<br />

mercado, alcanzar un elevado grado competencial en cada uno <strong>de</strong> los mismos.<br />

4. bibliografÍa bÁsica<br />

Benkler, Y. (2006). The Wealth of Networks: how social production transform markets and<br />

freedom. Ed. 1ª. Yale University Press.<br />

De La Quadra-Salcedo Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Del Castillo, T. (Dir.) (2009). Telecomunicaciones,<br />

<strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> colección «Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>ción económica». Ed. 1ª. Madrid: Iustel.<br />

Jordan S. (2009). «Implications of Internet Architecture upon Net Neutrality». ACM Transactions<br />

on Internet Technology. Vol. 9, nº. 2, pp. (5)1-28.<br />

Laguna De Paz, J. (2009). «Internet en un cruce <strong>de</strong> caminos: ¿neutralidad o gestión razonable<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras?», Revista Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Derecho Administrativo. Vol. 141,<br />

pp. 43-62.<br />

Molly Shaffer Van Houweling (2002). «Cultivating open information p<strong>la</strong>tforms: a <strong>la</strong>nd<br />

trust mo<strong>de</strong>l», Journal on Telecommunications & High Technology Law. Vol. 1, pp. 309-<br />

324.<br />

Reed, D. (2006). «Critiquing the <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>tory mo<strong>de</strong>l». Journal on Telecommunications<br />

& High Technology Law. Vol. 4, pp. 281-298.<br />

Sicker D. & Min<strong>de</strong>l Joshua L. (2002). «Refinements of a <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>l for telecommunications<br />

policy.» Journal on Telecommunications & High Technology Law. Vol. 1, pp.<br />

69-94.<br />

Sicker, D., & Blumensaadt, L. (2006). «Misun<strong>de</strong>rstanding the <strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>l(s)». Journal<br />

on Telecommunications & High Technology Law. Vol. 4, pp. 299-320.<br />

Solum, L., & Chun, M. (2003). «The Layers Principle: Internet Architecture and the Law».<br />

University of San Diego School of Law Public Law and Legal Theory. Research Paper 55.


<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong> su arquitectura por capas ¿<strong>de</strong> transportistas…<br />

Valcárcel Fernán<strong>de</strong>z, P. (2011). «Documentos y archivos electrónicos». En Administración<br />

electrónica y ciudadanos, Madrid: Thomson-Civitas, pp. 531-631.<br />

Whitt Richard, S. (2004). «A Horizontal Leap Forward: Formu<strong>la</strong>ting a New Communications<br />

Public Policy Framework Based on the Network Layers Mo<strong>de</strong>l.» Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications<br />

Law Journal. Vol. 56, nº 3, pp. 587-672.<br />

Wu, T. (2003). «Network neutrality, Broadband discrimination», Journal on Telecommunications<br />

& High Technology Law. Vol. 2, pp. 141-176.<br />

65


lA NeUtrAlIDAD De reD y lAs lIBertADes eN lA<br />

refOrmA De lAs COmUNICACIONes eleCtróNICAs De<br />

lA UNIóN eUrOPeA: ¿estáN PreseNtes eN tODA eUrOPA?<br />

Cristina Cullell March<br />

Profesora ayudante en <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Ciencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universitat Internacional <strong>de</strong> Catalunya (UIC). Doctora en Ciencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación<br />

AbstrAct: La reforma europea <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> 2009 introduce nuevas garantías<br />

<strong>para</strong> un internet más abierto y neutral a <strong>la</strong> vez que protege los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> acceso<br />

a internet. Las nuevas normas reconocen que el acceso a internet es un <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental como<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión e información. La Directiva 2009/136/CE prevé <strong>de</strong> forma explícita que cualquier<br />

medida llevada a cabo por los estados miembros sobre el acceso o uso <strong>de</strong> servicios y aplicaciones a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones <strong>de</strong>be respetar los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> los<br />

ciudadanos recogidas en el Convenio Europeo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales. A su vez, <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> 2009 también autoriza a <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción a fijar una calidad mínima <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y a promover<br />

<strong>la</strong> transparencia y <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> UE.<br />

Esta comunicación preten<strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificar los mecanismos establecidos por <strong>la</strong> UE a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> asegurar<br />

que estas liberta<strong>de</strong>s están protegidas en los países europeos. Para alcanzar estos objetivos, <strong>la</strong> creación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones Electrónicas (oRECE) será c<strong>la</strong>ve ya<br />

que fortalece y coordina <strong>la</strong> implementación <strong>de</strong>l nuevo marco jurídico a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión. Des<strong>de</strong> un<br />

punto <strong>de</strong> vista metodológico, esta comunicación se basará en una revisión bibliográfica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> literatura<br />

especializada en el campo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho y <strong>la</strong> ciencia política. La consulta <strong>de</strong> documentos oficiales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

instituciones europeas como resoluciones <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, Informes, Libros B<strong>la</strong>ncos, Comunicaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión y <strong>de</strong> los organismos especializados como el oRECE.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: neutralidad, transparencia, oRECE, <strong>red</strong>, calidad <strong>de</strong> servicio.<br />

1. introducción. el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

El 25 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011, se <strong>de</strong>berán incorporar a los or<strong>de</strong>namientos jurídicos nacionales<br />

<strong>la</strong>s nuevas normas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea en materia <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

aprobadas a finales <strong>de</strong> 2009. Se trata <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/CE por <strong>la</strong> que se modifican<br />

<strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/21/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva a un marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor común <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicaciones electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/19/CE <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas, y <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/20/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> autorización <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s y servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas. otro pi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> reforma es <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/136/CE por<br />

<strong>la</strong> que se modifican <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/22/CE <strong>de</strong>l servicio universal y los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los<br />

usuarios en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad<br />

en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (CE) 2006/2004 sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

3


68 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cooperación en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los consumidores. La reforma también incluye <strong>la</strong><br />

creación <strong>de</strong> un organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones Electrónicas<br />

(oRECE) que favorece una mayor seguridad y cohesión normativa en <strong>la</strong> UE.<br />

Con esta reforma <strong>la</strong> UE quiere garantizar un sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones más<br />

competitivo que ofrezca mejores servicios a los clientes tales como facilitar el cambio <strong>de</strong> operador<br />

<strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones en un solo día sin cambiar <strong>de</strong> número <strong>de</strong> teléfono o el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a una mayor c<strong>la</strong>ridad sobre los servicios ofrecidos a los consumidores que podría manifestarse<br />

en <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>. La reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> 2009 incorpora<br />

por primera vez preceptos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, es <strong>de</strong>cir, asegurar que cualquier<br />

comunicación electrónica que circu<strong>la</strong> a través <strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong> es tratada <strong>de</strong> igual manera.<br />

En esta comunicación abordaremos <strong>la</strong> importancia que tiene un acceso abierto, sin<br />

limitaciones <strong>de</strong> ningún tipo, a internet en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información; en<br />

segundo lugar, expondremos <strong>la</strong> protección jurídica que ofrece el or<strong>de</strong>namiento comunitario<br />

a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>para</strong> pasar a concretar <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s comunitarias en<br />

el<strong>la</strong>. Finalmente, centraremos nuestra atención en los mecanismos previstos <strong>para</strong> asegurar el<br />

cumplimiento <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>namiento comunitario a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión y <strong>la</strong> importancia que<br />

tiene <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong>l oRECE <strong>para</strong> asegurar una cohesión interna en <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

comunitario por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción (ANR).<br />

2. <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información: internet como bien<br />

colectiVo<br />

La revolución digital, impulsada por <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación,<br />

ha modificado radicalmente nuestras formas <strong>de</strong> pensar, actuar y comunicar en diferentes<br />

ámbitos <strong>de</strong> nuestras vidas. Des<strong>de</strong> un punto <strong>de</strong> vista económico, <strong>la</strong> digitalización ha<br />

reestructurado <strong>la</strong>s formas económicas y <strong>de</strong> negocio; y a nivel social ha creado nuevas formas<br />

<strong>de</strong> entretenimiento y ocio a <strong>la</strong> vez que se ha favorecido <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong> nuevas modalida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> crear conocimientos, educar a <strong>la</strong> pob<strong>la</strong>ción y transmitir información.<br />

Reconociendo que esta nueva dinámica exige una discusión a esca<strong>la</strong> mundial, <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Internacional <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones (UIT) <strong>de</strong>cidió celebrar una Cumbre Mundial sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información (CMSI) 1 e inscribir<strong>la</strong> en el programa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Naciones Unidas 2 .<br />

La celebración <strong>de</strong> esta conferencia constituye un buen ejemplo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> re-<br />

1 La Cumbre Mundial sobre <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información (CMSI), celebrada en Ginebra (2003) y<br />

Túnez (2005), reunió a representantes <strong>de</strong> gobiernos, <strong>la</strong> sociedad civil y el sector industrial <strong>para</strong> abordar<br />

una amplia gama <strong>de</strong> temas re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong>s TIC <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo. Finalmente, los gobiernos<br />

llegaron a un acuerdo sobre una serie <strong>de</strong> compromisos y acciones <strong>de</strong>stinados a fomentar <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong><br />

una sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información inclusiva. En concreto, en el P<strong>la</strong>n <strong>de</strong> Acción <strong>de</strong> Ginebra se <strong>de</strong>finieron<br />

diez objetivos, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> diversas recomendaciones basadas en <strong>la</strong>s diversas líneas <strong>de</strong> acción.<br />

2 <strong>otros</strong> organismos <strong>de</strong> Naciones Unidas que también participaron en <strong>la</strong> Cumbre Mundial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información fueron UNCTAD, <strong>la</strong> UNESCo y <strong>la</strong> UNDP.


<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> …<br />

gu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> internet, en el<strong>la</strong> se estableció una estrategia c<strong>la</strong>ra <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> construcción <strong>de</strong> una<br />

Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información Global. Tal y como se estipu<strong>la</strong> en <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> Principios<br />

Construir <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información: un <strong>de</strong>safío global <strong>para</strong> el nuevo Milenio los representantes<br />

<strong>de</strong> todos los pueblos <strong>de</strong>l mundo expresaron su <strong>de</strong>seo y compromiso <strong>de</strong> “construir una<br />

Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información centrada en <strong>la</strong> persona, integradora y orientada al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo, en<br />

que todos puedan crear, consultar, utilizar y compartir <strong>la</strong> información y el conocimiento,<br />

<strong>para</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s personas, <strong>la</strong>s comunida<strong>de</strong>s y los pueblos puedan emplear plenamente sus posibilida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

en <strong>la</strong> promoción <strong>de</strong> su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo sostenible y en <strong>la</strong> mejora <strong>de</strong> su calidad <strong>de</strong> vida,<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong> los propósitos y principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Naciones Unidas y respetando<br />

plenamente y <strong>de</strong>fendiendo <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración Universal <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos” 3 .<br />

El compromiso <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> construcción <strong>de</strong> esta Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información Global adquirido<br />

en Ginebra está muy ligado a <strong>la</strong> consecución <strong>de</strong> los objetivos <strong>de</strong> Desarrollo <strong>de</strong>l Milenio<br />

(oDM) acordados en <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong>l Milenio adoptada por <strong>la</strong> Asamblea General <strong>de</strong><br />

Naciones Unidas el año 2000 4 . En el<strong>la</strong>, los representantes <strong>de</strong> todos los pueblos <strong>de</strong>l mundo<br />

expresan su “<strong>de</strong>safío <strong>de</strong> encauzar el potencial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

<strong>para</strong> promover los objetivos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong>l Milenio”. Entre los<br />

objetivos <strong>de</strong>l Milenio <strong>de</strong>bemos subrayar <strong>la</strong> educación universal y <strong>la</strong> mejora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> salud humana<br />

<strong>para</strong> cuya consecución resulta imprescindible el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> banda ancha. Las<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> alta velocidad pue<strong>de</strong>n transportar aplicaciones avanzadas que enriquecen <strong>la</strong> educación<br />

y mejoran <strong>la</strong>s prestaciones y finalida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> salud en muchos países en vías <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo.<br />

Dejando a un <strong>la</strong>do cuestiones re<strong>la</strong>tivas al avance tecnológico vincu<strong>la</strong>das al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

humano, <strong>de</strong>bemos tener presente que <strong>la</strong> piedra angu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> esta Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

<strong>la</strong> constituye <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> opinión e información. Por ello en <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> Principios<br />

Construir <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información: un <strong>de</strong>safío global <strong>para</strong> el nuevo Milenio los representantes<br />

nacionales reafirmaron como fundamento esencial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información,<br />

y según se estipu<strong>la</strong> en el Artículo 19 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración Universal <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos, que<br />

“todo individuo tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> opinión y <strong>de</strong> expresión, que este <strong>de</strong>recho incluye<br />

el <strong>de</strong> no ser molestado a causa <strong>de</strong> sus opiniones, el <strong>de</strong> investigar y recibir información y<br />

opiniones, y el <strong>de</strong> difundir<strong>la</strong>s, sin limitación <strong>de</strong> fronteras, por cualquier medio <strong>de</strong> expresión”<br />

ya que <strong>la</strong> comunicación constituye el eje fundamental <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y es<br />

una necesidad humana básica y el fundamento <strong>de</strong> toda organización social. Por ello, todas<br />

<strong>la</strong>s personas <strong>de</strong>ben tener <strong>la</strong> oportunidad <strong>de</strong> participar en el<strong>la</strong> sin restricciones y en igualdad<br />

<strong>de</strong> condiciones. En una sociedad hiperconectada como <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información tener<br />

acceso a un internet abierto pue<strong>de</strong> ser crucial. Así se reconoce a nivel regional europeo ya<br />

que el artículo 1.3. <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/136/CE prevé que “…<strong>la</strong>s medidas nacionales re-<br />

3 Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> Principios. Construir <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información: un <strong>de</strong>safío global <strong>para</strong> el Nuevo<br />

Milenio. Primera fase <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CMSI Ginebra, 2003. http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dopes.html.<br />

4 Los objetivos <strong>de</strong>l Milenio son <strong>la</strong> erradicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pobreza extrema y el hambre, educación universal,<br />

igualdad entre los géneros, <strong>red</strong>ucir <strong>la</strong> mortalidad <strong>de</strong> los niños, mejorar <strong>la</strong> salud materna, combatir el<br />

SIDA, sostenibilidad <strong>de</strong>l medio ambiente, fomentar una asociación mundial.<br />

69


70 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>la</strong>tivas al acceso o al uso por parte <strong>de</strong> los usuarios finales <strong>de</strong> los servicios y <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas respetarán los <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s fundamentales<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas, también en lo que se refiere a <strong>la</strong> intimidad y a un proceso<br />

con <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>bidas garantías, tal como se <strong>de</strong>fine en el artículo 6 <strong>de</strong>l Convenio Europeo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales”.<br />

Plenamente inmersos en esta sociedad aparecen nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>para</strong> garantizar el correcto<br />

ejercicio <strong>de</strong> estas liberta<strong>de</strong>s y una <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s es el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> acceso libre a internet. Así es, <strong>la</strong> importancia<br />

<strong>de</strong> internet <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo social y económico <strong>de</strong> todas <strong>la</strong>s naciones <strong>de</strong>l mundo hace<br />

que el acceso a esta <strong>red</strong> también pueda constituir una condición sine qua non <strong>para</strong> el ejercicio <strong>de</strong><br />

algunos <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales como <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y <strong>de</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> era digital.<br />

En este sentido, internet es el que mejor representa los principios <strong>de</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y pensamiento<br />

ya que ha dado lugar a gran<strong>de</strong>s avances sociales tales como podría ser <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocratización<br />

<strong>de</strong>l acceso al saber, favorecer <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos en el <strong>de</strong>bate social y político,<br />

facilitar promoción <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>as novedosas, comercialización universal <strong>de</strong> todo tipo <strong>de</strong> productos y<br />

servicios, favorecer <strong>la</strong> cooperación y <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> riqueza, etc. Por todo ello, se hace necesario <strong>la</strong><br />

creación <strong>de</strong> unas reg<strong>la</strong>s <strong>para</strong> preservar una internet universal ya que se trata <strong>de</strong> un bien colectivo<br />

que no <strong>de</strong>be ser transformado <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> unos intereses o actores muy conc<strong>retos</strong>.<br />

Como <strong>de</strong>cíamos, internet es una pieza angu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> nuestra sociedad.<br />

No obstante, el aumento <strong>de</strong> tráfico –sobre todo <strong>de</strong> ví<strong>de</strong>o– a través <strong>de</strong> esta <strong>red</strong> así como los<br />

esfuerzos <strong>de</strong> los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos <strong>para</strong> prevenir el crimen cibernético han favorecido el <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

sobre su neutralidad. El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> aparece en un contexto caracterizado<br />

por el incremento <strong>de</strong> tráfico <strong>de</strong> datos, el crecimiento <strong>de</strong> internautas y <strong>la</strong> necesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> llevar a cabo inversiones <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> banda ancha (Mars<strong>de</strong>n, 2010). Este cúmulo<br />

<strong>de</strong> circunstancias ha hecho que <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> un internet abierto<br />

–que en su momento fue su principio fundador– corran el riesgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparecer. La Unión<br />

Europea ha comenzado a actuar sobre esta cuestión a fin <strong>de</strong> asegurar un internet universal<br />

abierto accesible a través <strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong> neutral a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión. La neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

representa un principio <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción fundamental <strong>para</strong> el correcto <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> los nuevos<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos digitales, se <strong>de</strong>be asegurar un acceso a internet libre, es <strong>de</strong>cir, que <strong>la</strong> información<br />

que circu<strong>la</strong> a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> no experimenta ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> discriminación que beneficie<br />

intereses distintos a los <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> cibernautas.<br />

3. <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> unión euroPea:<br />

<strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> 2009<br />

A diferencia <strong>de</strong> lo que suce<strong>de</strong> con <strong>la</strong> neutralidad tecnológica y <strong>de</strong> servicios que han<br />

quedado consagrados normativamente en <strong>la</strong> reforma europea <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2009 5 , los articu<strong>la</strong>dos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/CE y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/136/CE<br />

5 El principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad tecnológica ya se preveía en <strong>la</strong> primera versión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva marco<br />

2002/21/CE como mecanismo <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción en base al cual los regu<strong>la</strong>dores <strong>de</strong>bían <strong>de</strong>jar que el mer-


<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> …<br />

no recogen <strong>de</strong> forma expresa <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>. La única referencia a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

internet se encuentra en un anexo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/CE que incluye <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> internet. En el<strong>la</strong>, el ejecutivo europeo manifiesta su<br />

compromiso a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> “preservar un carácter abierto y neutral <strong>de</strong> internet”. Con esta Dec<strong>la</strong>ración,<br />

sin trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia jurídica pero <strong>de</strong> indiscutible valor político, <strong>la</strong> Comisión otorga<br />

gran importancia a esta cuestión y consagra <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> internet como un objetivo<br />

político y un principio regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong>be ser fomentado por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación.<br />

A pesar <strong>de</strong> que en el or<strong>de</strong>namiento europeo no existe una <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong>, sí existe una voluntad <strong>de</strong> favorecer <strong>la</strong> preservación <strong>de</strong> un internet abierto y una <strong>red</strong> neutral.<br />

En este sentido, cabe <strong>de</strong>stacar el artículo 8.4 g) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva Marco (reformada por<br />

<strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/CE) <strong>de</strong>l cual pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>spren<strong>de</strong>rse una primera y ligera aproximación<br />

conceptual cuando se obliga a <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación a promover “los<br />

intereses <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea, entre otras cosas: promoviendo <strong>la</strong> capacidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> los usuarios finales <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r y distribuir <strong>la</strong> información o utilizar <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones<br />

y los servicios <strong>de</strong> su elección”. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, según el or<strong>de</strong>namiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE un primer aspecto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> internet estría re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong> libre elección y supondría garantizar<br />

capacidad a los usuarios <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r, distribuir o utilizar todo aquello que libremente escojan<br />

sin discriminación alguna sobre su elección 6 .<br />

Según <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción europea existe un segundo elemento constitutivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> internet: <strong>la</strong> transparencia. La Directiva <strong>de</strong> Servicio Universal (reformada por <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2009/136/CE) establece en su artículo 20.1 b) que en <strong>la</strong> celebración <strong>de</strong> contratos <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> conexión o comunicaciones electrónicas, este contrato <strong>de</strong>berá incluir como mínimo<br />

los servicios prestados y en particu<strong>la</strong>r: información sobre cualquier otra condición que limite<br />

el acceso o <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> los servicios y <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones; los niveles mínimos <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong><br />

servicio que se ofrecen, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, el p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> conexión inicial, así como, en su caso,<br />

<strong>otros</strong> parámetros <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio, que establezcan <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación.<br />

Finalmente, también <strong>de</strong>be incluir información sobre cualquier procedimiento<br />

establecido por <strong>la</strong> empresa <strong>para</strong> medir y gestionar el tráfico <strong>de</strong> forma que se evite agotar o<br />

saturar el en<strong>la</strong>ce <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, o cualquier otro procedimiento que pueda afectar <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l<br />

servicio.<br />

Cabe tener en cuenta que <strong>la</strong> transparencia no solo se refiere al contrato <strong>de</strong> conexión<br />

o <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas sino que también incluye <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong><br />

informar en casos <strong>de</strong> cambios en <strong>la</strong>s condiciones <strong>de</strong> acceso. Así lo prevé el artículo 21.3 c)<br />

y d) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> Servicio Universal cuando estipu<strong>la</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s empresas proveedoras <strong>de</strong><br />

re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>berán, por un <strong>la</strong>do, informar a los abonados <strong>de</strong> los cambios en <strong>la</strong>s condiciones que<br />

cado <strong>de</strong>cidiera qué tecnología utilizar <strong>para</strong> un uso en particu<strong>la</strong>r. Por su parte, <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

se trata <strong>de</strong> un concepto más reciente surgido <strong>de</strong>l potencial que brindan <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías y<br />

en esencia supone que los regu<strong>la</strong>dores <strong>de</strong>ben incentivar un uso más flexible <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s autorizando<br />

el uso <strong>de</strong> cualquier banda <strong>de</strong> frecuencia <strong>para</strong> cualquier servicio (Cullell-March, 2010).<br />

6 Algunos autores justifican posibles actuaciones discriminatorias por parte <strong>de</strong> los ISP <strong>para</strong> asegurar una<br />

calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio, especialmente en casos <strong>de</strong> congestión <strong>de</strong> tráfico en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> (Cave y Crocioni, 2007).<br />

71


72 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

limiten el acceso o <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> los servicios y <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones, cuando tales condiciones<br />

estén permitidas; y por otro, proporcionar información sobre cualquier procedimiento establecido<br />

por el proveedor <strong>para</strong> medir y gestionar el tráfico <strong>de</strong> forma que se evite agotar o<br />

saturar el en<strong>la</strong>ce <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Finalmente, <strong>de</strong>jando a un <strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transparencia en el momento <strong>de</strong><br />

celebración <strong>de</strong>l contrato y <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> informar sobre cualquier cambio <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l<br />

tráfico en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, el tercer elemento constitutivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> UE consiste en <strong>la</strong><br />

limitación <strong>de</strong> prácticas restrictivas <strong>de</strong>l tráfico en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> a fin <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio y<br />

prevenir con ello su <strong>de</strong>gradación, a causa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> obstaculización o ralentización <strong>de</strong>l tráfico en <strong>la</strong>s<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s 7 . A este fin, el artículo 22.3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> Servicio Universal otorga a <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación <strong>la</strong> potestad <strong>de</strong> establecer unos requisitos mínimos <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l<br />

servicio a <strong>la</strong> empresa o empresas proveedoras <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones.<br />

En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, observamos como <strong>la</strong> capacidad <strong>de</strong> elección, <strong>la</strong> transparencia y <strong>la</strong> calidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l servicio son los tres elementos c<strong>la</strong>ve en <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

que también otorga nuevos po<strong>de</strong>res <strong>de</strong> supervisión <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea. Como se<br />

prevé en <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> Internet anexa a <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2009/140/CE, el ejecutivo europeo se obliga a supervisar <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> estas disposiciones<br />

en los estados miembros, convirtiéndose en <strong>la</strong> garante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s “liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> internet” <strong>de</strong> los<br />

ciudadanos europeos. Los estados miembros también tendrán un papel <strong>de</strong>stacado ya que serán<br />

los encargados <strong>de</strong> garantizar su aplicación en sus respectivos territorios; sobre este punto<br />

pivotará precisamente <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong>l oRECE como <strong>de</strong>stacado actor <strong>de</strong> coordinación en<br />

aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción europea, evitando <strong>de</strong>sajustes normativos entre or<strong>de</strong>namientos jurídicos<br />

<strong>de</strong> diferentes estados miembros y, en <strong>de</strong>finitiva, garantizando unos mismos <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

a los internautas <strong>de</strong> toda <strong>la</strong> UE.<br />

4. <strong>la</strong>s intituciones euroPeas ante <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> internet:<br />

<strong>la</strong> comisión, el Par<strong>la</strong>mento y el orece<br />

Una vez incorporadas disposiciones re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en el or<strong>de</strong>namiento<br />

europeo, en noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2011 <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea y el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo organizaron<br />

conjuntamente una conferencia sobre “Internet Abierto y <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> Red en Europa”,<br />

cuyo objetivo era <strong>de</strong>batir <strong>la</strong>s aportaciones <strong>de</strong> los diferentes sectores participantes en <strong>la</strong> consulta<br />

pública organizada por <strong>la</strong> Comisión. De aquel<strong>la</strong>s jornadas se <strong>de</strong>sprendió un consenso<br />

general sobre <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong> mantener un internet abierto.<br />

7 Para algunos autores como Gregory Sidak <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Georgetown <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> ir ligada al precio. Como afirma Sidak los <strong>de</strong>fensores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> se oponen al<br />

establecimiento <strong>de</strong> tarifas <strong>para</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos <strong>de</strong> internet pero no se pronuncian sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> pago por parte <strong>de</strong>l usuario final. En este sentido, el autor afirma que existen usuarios<br />

que puedan estar dispuestos a pagar <strong>para</strong> tener preferencia en el tráfico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, especialmente en<br />

algunos servicios conc<strong>retos</strong> como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser el <strong>de</strong> apuestas online (Sidak, 2007).


<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> …<br />

Preservar un internet abierto ha sido una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s principales preocupaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea y ya <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un principio ha existido un compromiso c<strong>la</strong>ro por parte <strong>de</strong>l<br />

ejecutivo europeo <strong>para</strong> asegurarlo. Un ejemplo <strong>de</strong> ello es <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración anexa a <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2009/140/CE sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> Internet en <strong>la</strong> UE. En el<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>de</strong>ja c<strong>la</strong>ro que<br />

son <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>la</strong>s encargadas <strong>de</strong> fomentar un internet libre y<br />

abierto y al mismo tiempo asume un rol <strong>de</strong> supervisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> reforma<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2009 re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Asimismo, en esta Dec<strong>la</strong>ración anexa a <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2009/140/CE, <strong>la</strong> Comisión refuerza los requisitos <strong>de</strong> transparencia y afianza <strong>la</strong>s competencias<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación <strong>para</strong> prevenir <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>gradación <strong>de</strong> los<br />

servicios y <strong>la</strong> obstaculización o entorpecimiento <strong>de</strong>l tráfico en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s públicas 8 .<br />

otra competencia importante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>de</strong>stinada proteger <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

se refiere a reportar información <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s evoluciones <strong>de</strong>l mercado <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong>s “liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> internet”, a otras instituciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión como el Par<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

Europeo y el Consejo. En sus informes también expone si consi<strong>de</strong>ra necesario establecer<br />

directrices adicionales, y hacer uso <strong>de</strong> sus atribuciones legis<strong>la</strong>tivas <strong>de</strong>stinadas preservar una<br />

correcta competencia en el mercado.<br />

La primera información <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Par<strong>la</strong>mento y al Consejo ha tenido lugar en<br />

abril <strong>de</strong> 2011 con <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación sobre internet abierto y neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en Europa [CoM(2011)222final]. En este documento el ejecutivo europeo <strong>de</strong>tecta<br />

algunos puntos conflictivos como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> lo que pue<strong>de</strong> constituir una gestión<br />

<strong>de</strong> tráfico razonable y los abusos que se producen por parte <strong>de</strong> algunos operadores especialmente<br />

a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> ralentizar 9 ciertos tipos <strong>de</strong> tráfico y por lo tanto afectar <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l<br />

contenido (Comisión Europea, 2011:5). El ejecutivo europeo también pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto<br />

algunas preocupaciones manifestadas en <strong>la</strong> consulta pública como pue<strong>de</strong> ser el bloqueo <strong>de</strong><br />

algunos servicios como los <strong>de</strong> VoIP, y el peligro <strong>de</strong> que pudiera exten<strong>de</strong>rse a <strong>otros</strong> servicios<br />

como <strong>la</strong> televisión por internet. otra cuestión que pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto <strong>la</strong> Comisión en este<br />

documento es <strong>la</strong> necesidad que tiene el consumidor <strong>de</strong> obtener información a<strong>de</strong>cuada sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong>s posibles limitaciones en <strong>la</strong> gestión que puedan repercutir en el volumen <strong>de</strong>l tráfico<br />

contratado, <strong>la</strong> información proporcionada <strong>de</strong>be permitir a los usuarios tomar <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>cisiones<br />

a<strong>de</strong>cuadas.<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo en una Resolución 10 sin prece<strong>de</strong>ntes anima a <strong>la</strong><br />

Comisión a introducir <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y vincu<strong>la</strong>r<strong>la</strong> a <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> Derechos Digitales.<br />

8 En esta misma dirección se pronuncia <strong>la</strong> Vicepresi<strong>de</strong>nta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión y Comisaria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agenda<br />

Digital Neelie Kroes que refuerza el compromiso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión con <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en un<br />

discurso “Internet nos pertenece a todos” pronunciado el 19 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011. http://europa.eu/rapid/<br />

pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/11/285&format=HTML&aged=0&<strong>la</strong>nguage=EN&gui<br />

Language=en.<br />

9 Conocido como throttling en inglés<br />

10 Resolución <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2010, sobre una nueva Agenda Digital <strong>para</strong><br />

Europa: 2015.eu. Puntos 27, 28 y 31 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Resolución.<br />

73


74 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

En concreto dicha resolución subraya que todos los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE <strong>de</strong>ben ser informados<br />

<strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>rechos y obligaciones digitales básicos mediante una Carta Europea <strong>de</strong> los<br />

Derechos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos y los consumidores en el entorno digital. El Par<strong>la</strong>mento también<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ra que esta Carta <strong>de</strong> Derechos Digitales <strong>de</strong>be consi<strong>de</strong>rarse <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l marco general<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales 11 . Asimismo, el Par<strong>la</strong>mento insiste en que se <strong>de</strong>be garantizar<br />

un internet abierto en el que los usuarios puedan acce<strong>de</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> información, distribuir<strong>la</strong> o<br />

ejecutar aplicaciones y servicios <strong>de</strong> su elección. Para ello, pi<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> Comisión, al organismo<br />

<strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones Electrónicas (oRECE) y a <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación (ANR) que promuevan <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones <strong>para</strong> asegurar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

Ello nos conduce a hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> otro organismo europeo <strong>de</strong> reciente creación como es el<br />

oRECE. En concreto, trataremos los mecanismos <strong>de</strong> cooperación entre el oRECE y <strong>la</strong>s<br />

Autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>ción Nacionales (ARN) en <strong>la</strong> preservación <strong>de</strong> una neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea. Y es que como hemos tenido ocasión <strong>de</strong> comprobar, el or<strong>de</strong>namiento<br />

europeo reconoce abiertamente <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y tras<strong>la</strong>da <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> su<br />

aplicación a los estados miembros ya que serán ellos los encargados <strong>de</strong> garantizar<strong>la</strong> en sus<br />

respectivos territorios. Esta situación pue<strong>de</strong> crear ciertas <strong>de</strong>sigualda<strong>de</strong>s sobre el grado <strong>de</strong><br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en los diferentes países europeos, especialmente a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar<br />

los niveles mínimos <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong> un servicio.<br />

A fin <strong>de</strong> evitar <strong>de</strong>sequilibrios entre or<strong>de</strong>namientos jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los estados miembros,<br />

con <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> 2009 también se aprueba el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento 1211/2009 por el que se establece<br />

el organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones Electrónicas (oRECE) 12 .<br />

Este nuevo organismo regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong>be contribuir a garantizar <strong>la</strong> coherencia y <strong>la</strong> armonización<br />

normativa en <strong>la</strong> Unión así como difundir buenas prácticas regu<strong>la</strong>doras entre <strong>la</strong>s ANR, e<strong>la</strong>borar<br />

informes y proporcionar asesoramiento en materia <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación <strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong><br />

coordinación entre el resto <strong>de</strong> autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción. Tanto <strong>la</strong> Comisión como <strong>la</strong>s ANR<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben tener plenamente en cuenta sus dictámenes, recomendaciones, directrices, asesoramiento<br />

<strong>para</strong> ejercer <strong>la</strong>s buenas prácticas en materia <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación 13 .<br />

De entrada, observamos que <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> este organismo europeo sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> es <strong>de</strong> no intervención por consi<strong>de</strong>rar prematuro una regu<strong>la</strong>ción mayor con<br />

respeto a <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> a nivel Europeo, ya que, a su enten<strong>de</strong>r, el actual marco ju-<br />

11 El Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo hace una mención especial a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad que constituye un<br />

valor fundamental e insta a <strong>la</strong> Comisión a presentar una propuesta <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> adaptación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

<strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos al actual contexto digital. Asimismo, el Par<strong>la</strong>mento pi<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> Comisión y a<br />

los Estados miembros que tomen nuevas medidas <strong>para</strong> mejorar <strong>la</strong> seguridad digital, luchar contra <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>lincuencia cibernética y el spam, mejorar <strong>la</strong> confianza <strong>de</strong> los usuarios y asegurar el ciberespacio <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión Europea contra todo tipo <strong>de</strong> crímenes y <strong>de</strong>litos. Finalmente, anima a los Estados miembros<br />

a ratificar el Convenio sobre <strong>de</strong>lincuencia cibernética <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa.<br />

12 Este organismo europeo <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción está integrado por un Consejo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores formado por<br />

representantes <strong>de</strong> cada Estado miembro.<br />

13 Así lo prevé el artículo 3.3 <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento 1211/2009 por el que se crea el oRECE.


<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> …<br />

rídico es suficiente <strong>para</strong> encauzar estas cuestiones que ya se están solventado sin necesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> medidas jurídicas adicionales. Esto se <strong>de</strong>spren<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión <strong>de</strong>l oRECE a tenor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

consulta pública sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> organizada por <strong>la</strong> Comisión, y subraya que si el<br />

marco normativo es suficiente o no <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>rá <strong>de</strong> cómo es transpuesto e implementado en<br />

los estados miembros (oRECEa, 2010). Sin embargo, reconoce que pue<strong>de</strong>n existir problemas<br />

en el futuro y, a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>tectarlos, <strong>la</strong>s ANR son <strong>la</strong>s mejor situadas <strong>para</strong> monitorizar<br />

una apertura y neutralidad real <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Entre los problemas futuros que pue<strong>de</strong>n eventualmente<br />

aparecer, el informe <strong>de</strong>staca el grado <strong>de</strong> discriminación (que ocasionalmente pue<strong>de</strong><br />

tener efectos anticompetitivos <strong>para</strong> el mercado); limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación en contenidos y<br />

aplicaciones que pue<strong>de</strong> tener consecuencias negativas <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> economía digital; o finalmente<br />

<strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio <strong>de</strong> transparencia en <strong>la</strong> información relevante a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> contratar<br />

que pue<strong>de</strong> perjudicar los intereses <strong>de</strong>l consumidor.<br />

Durante el 2011, período previsto <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> transposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa europea a<br />

los or<strong>de</strong>namientos nacionales, y a <strong>la</strong> espera <strong>de</strong> concretar <strong>la</strong> forma en que ésta tendrá lugar,<br />

comprobamos que <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> es uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>safíos emergentes que <strong>de</strong>staca el<br />

programa <strong>de</strong> trabajo <strong>de</strong>l oRECE <strong>para</strong> este año (oRECE, 2010b) 14 . Sobre esta cuestión,<br />

<strong>la</strong> autoridad europea ha i<strong>de</strong>ntificado unos puntos c<strong>la</strong>ve sobre los cuales se <strong>de</strong>berá analizar<br />

<strong>para</strong> prevenir dificulta<strong>de</strong>s futuras. La primera <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s hace referencia a <strong>la</strong> transparencia<br />

en <strong>la</strong> información concebida como condición necesaria <strong>para</strong> tener una verda<strong>de</strong>ra libertad<br />

<strong>de</strong> elección mediante <strong>la</strong> com<strong>para</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> ofertas; <strong>para</strong> ello se <strong>de</strong>berá <strong>de</strong>terminar qué se entien<strong>de</strong><br />

por información relevante. En segundo lugar observamos como el grado <strong>de</strong> calidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l servicio también <strong>de</strong>be concretarse y coordinarse al máximo a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE ya que<br />

<strong>la</strong>s ANR <strong>de</strong>ben establecer los requisitos mínimos a partir <strong>de</strong> los cuales se consi<strong>de</strong>rará que<br />

<strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong> un servicio <strong>de</strong> conexión a internet es a<strong>de</strong>cuado. Por último, el oRECE ha<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificado otro peligro <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>: <strong>la</strong> discriminación. Des <strong>de</strong>l momento<br />

en que los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> internet priorizan un tráfico sobre otro están<br />

discriminando al segundo, según el oRECE en estos casos será importante <strong>de</strong>terminar<br />

si los comportamientos discriminatorios son permitidos o no, y si tiene consecuencias<br />

anticompetitivas.<br />

Igualmente, en el informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, se pi<strong>de</strong> al oRE-<br />

CE que lleve a cabo un ejercicio riguroso <strong>de</strong> análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> situación respecto a cuestiones<br />

cruciales <strong>para</strong> conseguir un internet abierto y neutral, como <strong>la</strong>s barreras al cambio <strong>de</strong> operador,<br />

el bloqueo o el estrangu<strong>la</strong>miento <strong>de</strong>l tráfico por internet (por ejemplo, <strong>de</strong>l tráfico <strong>de</strong> voz<br />

por los servicios <strong>de</strong> internet), <strong>la</strong> transparencia y <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio. A mediados <strong>de</strong> 2011<br />

el oRECE está trabajando <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>tectar prácticas <strong>de</strong> bloqueo <strong>de</strong> ciertos tipos <strong>de</strong> tráfico y a<br />

finales <strong>de</strong> este año está prevista <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> un Informe sobre <strong>la</strong> Transparencia y los requisitos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Calidad <strong>de</strong>l Servicio. Solo en el caso que el informe final <strong>de</strong>l oRECE concluya<br />

que existen problemas <strong>de</strong>stacables en <strong>la</strong> UE, <strong>la</strong> Comisión evaluará <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> medidas<br />

más estrictas <strong>para</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

14 Este programa se aprobó en diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 http://www.erg.eu.int/doc/berec/bor_10_43_1.pdf.<br />

75


76 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

5. conclusiones<br />

Transcurrido un tiempo <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> 2009 –prevista <strong>para</strong><br />

finales <strong>de</strong> mayo 2011– en los países europeos será momento <strong>de</strong> evaluar si <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea requiere o no una regu<strong>la</strong>ción complementaria. Sobre<br />

esta cuestión, el oRECE tendrá un protagonismo <strong>de</strong>stacado ya que su informe será c<strong>la</strong>ve<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>cidir si el marco legis<strong>la</strong>tivo actual es suficiente <strong>para</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en<br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión. Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, podría darse el caso que el problema fuese singu<strong>la</strong>r y se encontrara<br />

en <strong>la</strong> transposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa europea a un or<strong>de</strong>namiento interno. Una cuestión que<br />

también ocuparía al oRECE cuya función es <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> contribuir a armonizar y cohesionar los<br />

or<strong>de</strong>namientos jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los países europeos. En este caso, <strong>la</strong> asistencia <strong>de</strong>l oRECE a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

ANR <strong>para</strong> coordinar <strong>la</strong> imp<strong>la</strong>ntación sería c<strong>la</strong>ve <strong>para</strong> asegurar un internet abierto y una <strong>red</strong><br />

plenamente neutral en toda <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

Determinar si el problema es general <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción europea vigente o particu<strong>la</strong>r –sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong> transposición a nivel nacional <strong>de</strong> un estado en concreto– será tarea <strong>de</strong>l oRECE. En<br />

este último caso, <strong>la</strong> solución consistiría en hacer un seguimiento más exhaustivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> implementación<br />

en los países que experimentan más dificulta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa europea. Y es que son los estados miembros los responsables <strong>de</strong> garantizar<br />

<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en sus respectivos territorios, y podría suce<strong>de</strong>r que los mecanismos<br />

introducidos a nivel interno fueran insuficientes. Únicamente mediante el establecimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> buenas prácticas regu<strong>la</strong>doras favorecidas por una estrecha cooperación entre autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción nacional y el oRECE podremos hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> unos <strong>de</strong>rechos digitales comunes<br />

entre todos los ciudadanos europeos.<br />

En cualquier caso, no <strong>de</strong>bemos per<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> vista que asegurar un internet abierto no<br />

solo <strong>de</strong>be constituir un objetivo político y económico primordial sino que también <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

establecerse mecanismos a<strong>de</strong>cuados <strong>para</strong> garantizarlo; y <strong>la</strong> UE tiene una oportunidad única<br />

<strong>para</strong> convertirse en un referente mundial en <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> internet.<br />

6. bibliografÍa<br />

Asamblea Nacional Francesa (2011) Rapport d’information sur <strong>la</strong> neutralité <strong>de</strong> l’internet<br />

et les réseaux. (Depositado 13 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011) http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/<br />

pdf/rap-info/i3336.pdf [Consultado mayo 2011].<br />

Comisión Europea (2011) Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Par<strong>la</strong>mento, al Consejo, al<br />

Comité Económico y Social y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones sobre Internet abierto y neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> en Europa [CoM(2011)222final]. 19/4/2011.<br />

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CoM:2011:0222:FIN:ES:PDF<br />

[consultado mayo 2011].<br />

Cave, M. y Croconi, P. (2007) “Does Europe need a Network Neutrality Rules?”. International<br />

Journal of Communication. Volume 1 [Special Section on Net Neutrality].<br />

669-679.


<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> …<br />

Cullell March, C. (2010) “El principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad tecnológica y <strong>de</strong> servicios en <strong>la</strong><br />

UE: <strong>la</strong> liberalización <strong>de</strong>l espacio radioeléctrico”. Revista <strong>de</strong> Internet Derecho y Política.<br />

Volumen 11.<br />

oRECE (2010a) Respuesta <strong>de</strong>l oRECE a <strong>la</strong> Consulta Pública <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea sobre<br />

“Internet Abierto y <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> Red”. http://erg.eu.int/doc/berec/bor_10_42.<br />

pdf [consultado mayo 2011].<br />

oRECE (2010b) Programa <strong>de</strong> Trabajo 2011 http://www.erg.eu.int/doc/berec/bor_10_43_1.<br />

pdf [consultado mayo 2011].<br />

Faulhaber, G. (2007) “Network Neutrality: The Debate Evolves”. International Journal of<br />

Communication. Volume 1 [Special Section on Net Neutrality]. 680-700.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. (2010) Net Neutrality in Europe: Towards a co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory solution. London:<br />

Bloomsbury Aca<strong>de</strong>mic.<br />

Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo (2010) Resolución <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2010, sobre una nueva Agenda<br />

Digital <strong>para</strong> Europa: 2015.eu. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/si<strong>de</strong>s/getDoc.<br />

do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2010-0133+0+DoC+XML+V0//ES [consultado<br />

mayo 2011].<br />

Sidak, J.G. (2007) “What is the Network Neutrality Debate Really About?” International<br />

Journal of Communication. Volume 1 [Special Section on Net Neutrality]. 377-388.<br />

Unión Internacional De Las Telecomunicaciones (2003) Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> Principios.<br />

Construir <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información: un <strong>de</strong>safío global <strong>para</strong> el Nuevo Milenio. http://<br />

www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dop-es.html [Consultado mayo 2011].<br />

normativa:<br />

Directiva 2009/136/CE, <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y el Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 25 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong><br />

2009, por <strong>la</strong> que se modifican <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/22/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al servicio universal y<br />

los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales<br />

y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y el<br />

Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (CE) no 2006/2004 sobre <strong>la</strong> cooperación en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los<br />

consumidores. Diario Oficial L337 <strong>de</strong> 18/12/2009.<br />

Directiva 2009/140/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y el Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 25 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009,<br />

por <strong>la</strong> que se modifican <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/21/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva a un marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor común<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/19/CE<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tiva al acceso a <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas y recursos asociados, y a su<br />

interconexión, y <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/20/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> autorización <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s y servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas.<br />

Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (CE) 1211/2009 <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 25 <strong>de</strong> noviembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2009, por el que se establece el organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones<br />

Electrónicas (oRECE) y <strong>la</strong> oficina. Diario Oficial L337 <strong>de</strong> 18/12/2009.<br />

77


The NeT as a public space: is NeT-NeuTraliTy<br />

Necessary To preserve oN-liNe<br />

freedom of expressioN?<br />

4<br />

C<strong>la</strong>ra Marsan Raventós<br />

PhD, European University Institute.<br />

Public Law Professor at Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya.<br />

AbstrAct: The aim of this paper is to analyze from a constitutional theory perspective the so-called<br />

Net-neutrality. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, it will treat two sets of questions. The first one wishes to engage with the<br />

nature of the Net (public or private?) and tackle the issue of the breach of constitutional rights and<br />

freedoms through the Net. The focus will be p<strong>la</strong>ced on the freedom of expression and censorship. The<br />

second, instead, offers an overview of the actors that can influence the nature and content of internet.<br />

Telecommunication Technologies have brought new spaces in which people interact. The most prominent<br />

of these new spaces is the Net, where individuals communicate in manners that fall as much into<br />

a private-space interaction pattern (e.g. e-mailing), as into a public-space one (e.g. forums, blogs, etc).<br />

The first element that this paper explores is how the so-called neutrality of the Net re<strong>la</strong>tes to the nature<br />

of this space and, in particu<strong>la</strong>r, to on-line freedom of expression.<br />

When consi<strong>de</strong>ring the <strong>la</strong>tter we will see how public and private entities have a direct influence in<br />

<strong>de</strong>termining the future of on-line freedom of expression. Traditionally, fundamental rights have been<br />

a tool to protect individuals from abuses of power by public authorities (the State); yet, the State is<br />

no longer autonomous to perform this ba<strong>la</strong>ncing between goods when the <strong>la</strong>tter c<strong>la</strong>sh in this hybrid<br />

space of the Net. Moreover, when public authorities succeed in regu<strong>la</strong>ting the Net to protect private<br />

rights (e.g. the freedom of expression or the protection of one’s private life) and other public goods<br />

(e.g. security), is the State carrying out its role as ultimate guarantor of fundamental rights? Or is it<br />

trying to censor Net-content and control this space? And, finally, does the fact that private entities<br />

have a clear role in the possibilities of freedom of expression change how the Net should be regu<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

to protect this liberty?<br />

Ultimately, these questions oblige us to look at who is <strong>de</strong>ciding on the neutrality of the Net. Who<br />

participates from this neutrality? Who <strong>de</strong>signs its contours and ensures that it is respected? Do private<br />

companies have a share on the public monopole for the protection of the public good? Or, finally, is<br />

this neutrality completely alien to public authorities and, hence, any direct or indirect intervention<br />

by them should be <strong>la</strong>beled as a breach of neutrality (e.g. as a mechanism of censorship vis-à-vis the<br />

freedom of expression)?<br />

Keywords: public-space/private space; Net-neutrality; fundamental rights; freedom of expression;<br />

censorship; multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r cooperation; international standards; certification system.<br />

1. IntroductIon: SpaceS, net neutralIty and Freedom oF<br />

expreSSIon<br />

Imagine a city with no streets but one single central square from where citizens can access<br />

any space of this city (a shop, a café, their workp<strong>la</strong>ce…). The purpose of imagining such


80 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

city is to introduce an assumption that is key to the <strong>de</strong>velopment of this paper, namely that<br />

the Net is no longer a tool or a channel to communicate but a space that has been gradually<br />

conque<strong>red</strong> by individuals and organizations 1 .<br />

Being the Net the <strong>la</strong>test space we have created –and one that is constantly transformed–<br />

has forced us to <strong>de</strong>al with the question of the nature of this space. In the physical world we<br />

are used to the public space / private space dichotomy but does it apply to the Net?<br />

This is a particu<strong>la</strong>rly crucial question for Net regu<strong>la</strong>tors since the nature of spaces<br />

has always conditioned the manner these have been regu<strong>la</strong>ted. Public spaces are intensively<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ted due to the function they perform. They are those loci where individuals and public<br />

authorities interact, where tolerance among all the people has to be ensu<strong>red</strong>. Contrarily,<br />

private spaces are only regu<strong>la</strong>ted in their connection to public spaces or for particu<strong>la</strong>r public<br />

needs (e.g. crime prevention).<br />

In the following pages we will start to unravel the “space” question from a human<br />

rights-based perspective. We will address the tension that exists between the protection of a<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r individual right (freedom of expression) and the need to regu<strong>la</strong>te and limit such<br />

right in the Net. Moreover, we will re<strong>la</strong>te the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of freedom of expression in the Net<br />

with the “space” question for the first <strong>de</strong>pends on preliminary assumptions such as how we<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstand this space called the Net and, particu<strong>la</strong>rly, how we <strong>de</strong>scribe its attributes (e.g. as<br />

a “neutral” space?).<br />

2. tHe re<strong>la</strong>tionsHiP between net neutrality and Public sPace<br />

Following the dichotomy introduced above we should stress that our daily actions may<br />

be also c<strong>la</strong>ssified as public or private. Generally, we c<strong>la</strong>ssify them in connection to the space<br />

where they take p<strong>la</strong>ce. Although there are in<strong>de</strong>ed grey zones where private and public mingle<br />

and, for instance, a private action takes p<strong>la</strong>ce in a public space, there is no doubt that public<br />

affairs happen in public spaces. We could not conceive a public <strong>de</strong>monstration in a private<br />

home or voting for the new government in a private space where no public supervision of<br />

the process would be possible.<br />

From the examples we have just used we can foresee that public action <strong>de</strong>scribes different<br />

events that are critical for individual and societal <strong>de</strong>velopment. They generally involve<br />

individual and collective use of the freedom of expression; monitoring public authorities;<br />

connecting with others, etc. It follows from this that freedom of expression is present in<br />

both, public and private spaces, but it is particu<strong>la</strong>rly precious to enjoy this liberty in the public<br />

sphere. That is, one can be censo<strong>red</strong> in the private (maybe due to authoritarian parents),<br />

1 An example of a thesis that treats the Net as a public space can be seen in Zatz’s article, where the<br />

author applies the American doctrine of the “public forum” to the Internet. ZATZ, N. D. (1998).<br />

“Si<strong>de</strong>walks in Cyberspace: Making Space for Public Forums in the Electronic Environment.” Harvard<br />

Journal of Law & Technology, 12-1, pp. 149-240.


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

but where censorship is likely to appear is where it can be regu<strong>la</strong>ted by public authorities;<br />

that is, in the public space.<br />

Freedom of expression has a dual dimension; one regards the content or the message<br />

expressed, whereas the second regards the possibilities that the message reaches the audience<br />

targeted by the author of the message. Public space is, thus, the possibility of having the<br />

second dimension that we have just refer<strong>red</strong> to, i.e. to reach the people we want to communicate<br />

to 2 . This allows us to <strong>de</strong>fine censorship as the action that aims at cutting the connection<br />

between the messenger and the recipient (rather than one focused on the message itself).<br />

This is how public space re<strong>la</strong>tes to censorship and freedom of expression, and how we need<br />

to keep it in mind when thinking about the Net as a public space.<br />

Let us pick up the i<strong>de</strong>as connected to “public space” highlighted until now. on the<br />

one hand, we have <strong>de</strong>picted public spaces as those that concentrate regu<strong>la</strong>tion. Moreover,<br />

we have stated that public spaces are those p<strong>la</strong>ces where tolerance among individuals and<br />

public authorities has to be ensu<strong>red</strong>. Finally, we have pointed out that the public space is<br />

the battleground for freedom of expression, where the <strong>la</strong>ter is most valued since it is right<br />

where it is at risk. In sum, we might be censo<strong>red</strong> while speaking in a square or in a market if<br />

our message is incompatible with the tolerance that has to exist in public spaces (in society);<br />

a censorship that will be carried out by public authorities and authorized by regu<strong>la</strong>tions 3 .<br />

Let us now p<strong>la</strong>ce the same example in the Net. If I write in a blog or an open forum<br />

about a highly sensitive topic do I face the risk of being censo<strong>red</strong>? By whom? Following<br />

which regu<strong>la</strong>tion? And which will be the <strong>para</strong>meter used to measure my statement and <strong>de</strong>termine<br />

that it is incompatible with what is tolerated? We will find very different answers to<br />

these questions; from those arguing that the Net is neutral and, hence, that no censorship<br />

may take p<strong>la</strong>ce; to those sustaining that anything that can be censo<strong>red</strong> in the “physical world”<br />

can also be censo<strong>red</strong> in the Net. All these answers, though, will be given from a case-by-case<br />

perspective; that is, looking at a particu<strong>la</strong>r legal or<strong>de</strong>r, a particu<strong>la</strong>r society and a particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

case of censorship in that legal or<strong>de</strong>r. What seems that we can agree on in a quite straight<br />

forward manner is that the Net is the best space to spread messages and, consequently, quite<br />

reasonable to expect censorship; it is too tempting by those negatively <strong>de</strong>scribed in the internet<br />

not to censor their critics if they have the means to do so.<br />

Before we can start digging on this complicated matter we should e<strong>la</strong>borate on how<br />

Net Neutrality is re<strong>la</strong>ted to public space. We cannot answer this question straight-forward<br />

for Net Neutrality is a rich and contested concept. It has been <strong>de</strong>fined from many different<br />

perspectives although its economic approach has dominated the <strong>de</strong>bate. The <strong>la</strong>tter suggests<br />

that Net Neutrality appea<strong>red</strong> when members of the IT community and scho<strong>la</strong>rs started to<br />

worry about the fact that network owners would treat internet packages differently and, by<br />

2 It is very interesting how Zatz e<strong>la</strong>borates these aspects in the context of the American doctrine of the<br />

“public forum.” Id. at pp. 161 et sq.<br />

3 This process is imagined in a Democratic society that is built, among other values, on the Rule of <strong>la</strong>w<br />

principle.<br />

81


82 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

doing so, would favor a given Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r (ISP) or on-line Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

(oSP) over another 4 . Consequently, network owners would privilege certain “data packages”<br />

over others (e.g. giving priority to data packages of bank transactions over e-mails) 5 ,<br />

establishing internet traffic preferences that would condition the use of the Net (e.g. which<br />

internet usages take priority over which; which are faster and more accessible; etc). The possibility,<br />

thus, of having first-c<strong>la</strong>ss data packages and second-c<strong>la</strong>ss ones was what trigge<strong>red</strong> the<br />

<strong>de</strong>mand for a Neutral Net.<br />

In Zhu’s paper we find a comprehensive analysis of the implications of Net Neutrality<br />

(and Net Neutrality Bills in the US) from such economic perspective –including<br />

its impact in technological <strong>de</strong>velopment and quality of service in the Net. Surprisingly,<br />

though, the author barely tackles the questions that surrounds the choices that internet<br />

owners can make while breaching the neutrality of the Net. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, there is no<br />

analysis on the value-judgment nature of these choices6 , which is essential to any analysis<br />

on Net Neutrality.<br />

We can <strong>de</strong>part from Tim Wu and Lawrence Lessig’s proposal, which Zhu presents as<br />

the origin of the concept of network neutrality. The proposal argues, among other things,<br />

that state authorities may only restrict the use of broadband when users adopt “publicly <strong>de</strong>trimental<br />

behaviors.” 7 I believe that we could substitute the professor’s expression by “what<br />

is permissible in the society” or “what would not be accepted if becoming known –in the<br />

public space” without making the slightest change in its meaning. The threshold established<br />

for the breach of network equality (and neutrality) is thus public morality. The <strong>la</strong>tter is the<br />

value-judgment that will allow unlimited or limited freedom in the Net if we un<strong>de</strong>rstand the<br />

<strong>la</strong>tter as the freedom to use the Net in any imaginative manner as any other individual could<br />

do. What this value-judgment threshold also points at is the fact that Network neutrality<br />

may only appear if the use of the Net is tolerated in society –which allows us to clearly see<br />

the connection between Network neutrality and the concept of public space. We just have<br />

to recall the “tolerance function” that we have attached to public spaces to see that, if public<br />

morality is used as a <strong>para</strong>meter to permit or <strong>de</strong>ny internet communications, the Net must<br />

be (at least in some of its parts) a public space8 .<br />

4 ZHU, K. (2007). “Bringing neutrality to network neutrality.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol.<br />

22, at p. 627.<br />

5 Id. at p. 628. For technical <strong>de</strong>finitions such as “data package” –which in Zhu’s article is “package” see<br />

its technical overview in pp. 616 and 617.<br />

6 Although he cannot avoid mentioning that such value-judgment is there and it is important. Id. at p.<br />

634.<br />

7 Id. at p. 627.<br />

8 In private spaces there can obviously also operate value-judgments that would impe<strong>de</strong> particu<strong>la</strong>r communications;<br />

nonetheless, those will not be generally assessed from a societal perspective but from the<br />

individuals’ that operate in that private space perspective


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

If one of Zhu’s point is to signal that Net neutrality cannot be “<strong>de</strong>bated in the abstract<br />

without consi<strong>de</strong>ring the un<strong>de</strong>rlying engineering realities,” 9 I would add that neither can it<br />

be discussed without consi<strong>de</strong>ring the un<strong>de</strong>rlying value-judgment questions that Wu and<br />

Lessig <strong>de</strong>fined; that is, to consi<strong>de</strong>r what should be free from any public or private interference,<br />

as well as what is reprehensible from a societal point of view and, consequently, potentially<br />

censorable.<br />

on the one hand, Wu and Lessig’s c<strong>la</strong>im that Net regu<strong>la</strong>tions must ensure the respect<br />

of public morality seems to be very positive for it is a prove that in this new social space there<br />

is room for public spaces. The <strong>la</strong>tter are essential to any community, at any time and in any<br />

part of the world for its “tolerance function.” That is, public spaces are where the multitu<strong>de</strong><br />

connects and tolerates individual options within the public modus operandi. Without public<br />

spaces societies could not function for its <strong>de</strong>velopment rests in the socio-economic interaction<br />

among individuals and groups. Not surprisingly, the most important spaces in cities<br />

were the p<strong>la</strong>ce par excellence for socio-economic exchanges: the Agora in a Greek polis, the<br />

Roman Forum or any main square in contemporary cities and vil<strong>la</strong>ges. If the Net is a new<br />

space we have gained, one that is taking up quickly much of the socio-economic exchange<br />

that used to happen in the physical public space, should not we consi<strong>de</strong>r that there must be<br />

an on-line public space? A cyber-agora such as the one <strong>de</strong>picted in the imaginary city that<br />

has introduced this paper?<br />

on the other hand, using this value-judgment to regu<strong>la</strong>te the Net is not <strong>de</strong>prived from<br />

<strong>de</strong>ep problems that are not yet solved. The Net, as a space, is often compa<strong>red</strong> to one p<strong>la</strong>ce<br />

(like the imaginary city we have been referring to). This space though is the most diverse<br />

and complex ever seen; inhabited by anyone with the technical resources to connect to it.<br />

Regardless of gen<strong>de</strong>r, culture, religion10…anyone can reach the cyber-agora so, the question<br />

is, which social values have to be taken into consi<strong>de</strong>ration when applying the criteria<br />

proposed by Wu and Lessig? Who will regu<strong>la</strong>te Net neutrality? Who will <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> what falls<br />

outsi<strong>de</strong> what is socially acceptable and, thus, outsi<strong>de</strong> the umbrel<strong>la</strong> of the right to equal access<br />

and participation to the Net? At the end of the day the question is about who holds<br />

the legitimacy to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> on the values that have to apply in any regu<strong>la</strong>tion that restricts or<br />

influences the neutrality of the Net.<br />

These are no easy questions; in fact, they are quite irresolvable questions although we<br />

will suggest a path to get a little bit closer to a solution. This path has a basic pil<strong>la</strong>r that can<br />

9 See supra footnote 4, at p. 634.<br />

10 Although we cannot disregard the “digital divi<strong>de</strong>” that is produced by socioeconomic, gen<strong>de</strong>r, race…<br />

differences and that divi<strong>de</strong> the world’s popu<strong>la</strong>tion between those with access and those without access<br />

to the Net. To put an example, the internet user penetration in 2009 in Europe was of 62,7%;<br />

41,7% in the Americas, whereas it was of 19,1% in Asia and the Pacific or of 7,5% in Africa. International<br />

Telecommunication Union (ITU). World Telecommunication/ICT Development Report<br />

2010. Monitoring the WSIS targets. A mid-term review (avai<strong>la</strong>ble at www.itu.int), at p.202.<br />

83


84 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

be <strong>la</strong>beled as “global multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r negotiation.” 11 In other words, it will be argued that<br />

neither can Net regu<strong>la</strong>tions be exclusively conceived within the state bor<strong>de</strong>r, nor can they be<br />

the regu<strong>la</strong>tory effort of the legis<strong>la</strong>tor. All interested parties in the Net, at a global level have<br />

to find the mechanisms to establish regu<strong>la</strong>tions applicable to all of them. The main reasons<br />

for such an approach are, on the one hand, the bor<strong>de</strong>rless nature of internet and 12 , on the<br />

other, the fact that internet governance is not only in the hands of governments but also of<br />

multinationals and individuals. We will <strong>de</strong>velop further the first reason now for it is directly<br />

connect to the i<strong>de</strong>as sketched in this section, while we will e<strong>la</strong>borate the second one <strong>la</strong>ter on.<br />

When <strong>de</strong>aling with the diversity that characterizes the public space in the Net we are<br />

confronted with the challenge to select the values that are common to such broad collective.<br />

We just have to recall how universal human rights or other values enshrined in international<br />

treaties (e.g. the protection of the environment) have been <strong>la</strong>beled as “imperialistic values.” 13<br />

For quite a big part of the world, those values reflect Western i<strong>de</strong>als that due to the geopolitical<br />

dominance of Europe and, <strong>la</strong>ter, the US, have been imposed in International fora and sold as<br />

universal. As these countries have been losing its hegemony and other states have started to<br />

have a share on it (China, Brazil, India…) the discussion has gained momentum. Here, it is no<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce to analyze the <strong>de</strong>bate in <strong>de</strong>pth; yet, it is unavoidable to point at it for the exact same discussion<br />

is now taking p<strong>la</strong>ce in the Net and, particu<strong>la</strong>rly, in the freedom that each state should<br />

have in shaping the Net as they wish –restricting it, filtering it…making it partial rather than<br />

neutral. In or<strong>de</strong>r to exemplify it, if Iran or China argue that they block Western-value webresources<br />

because they are against their social values 14 , are they breaching neutrality or are they<br />

building up their own Net space, neutral from within according to their societal values, but<br />

partly disconnected from the global public space of the Net? But let us not just focus on China<br />

or Iran, the countries that are most often cited to <strong>de</strong>scribe the jeopardy to Net neutrality; the<br />

US is also creating filters on web content 15 ; so is the UK or Ire<strong>la</strong>nd 16 .<br />

11 Although I have not read anywhere this <strong>la</strong>bel, the multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach is not new; it is rather<br />

the approach that has been taken by some international organizations, NGos, IT companies and<br />

aca<strong>de</strong>mics. We will present it more in full <strong>la</strong>ter in the paper.<br />

12 Although quite generally we can talk about a “bor<strong>de</strong>rless internet” we cannot disregard that there are<br />

bor<strong>de</strong>rs due to the filters applied in some geographic areas. We will exp<strong>la</strong>in those filters in the following<br />

pages.<br />

13 An example of this view is offe<strong>red</strong> by J. Tully’s work. TULLY, J. (2008). “on <strong>la</strong>w, Democracy and<br />

Imperialism”, in TIERNEY, S. & CHRISToDoULIDIS, E. A. (eds), Political Theory and Public<br />

Law. 1ª ed. London: Ashgate.<br />

14 The promotion of Internet freedom may be seen as a disguised form of aggressive Western imperialism.<br />

Ma Zhaoxu (of the Chinese Foreign Ministry) pointed out after US Secretary of State’s speech<br />

that “We urge the US to respect facts and stop attacking China un<strong>de</strong>r the excuse of the so-called freedom<br />

of Internet.” See www.infowar-monitor.Net/2011/04/the-securitization-nationalization-and-contestation-of-cyberspace.<br />

15 US <strong>la</strong>ws on internet filtering (e.g. applied in public libraries) can be found at: www.ncsl.org.<br />

16 See the case of Internet filtering in Ire<strong>la</strong>nd at www.edri.org (4th May 2011).


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

These cases allow us to move towards the second reason un<strong>de</strong>rpinning the “global<br />

multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach.” Before that, though, we can conclu<strong>de</strong> this first reasoning by<br />

pointing out that if we want a Net that is neutral and global, the way to shape it will have<br />

to come from an equally neutral and global framework. Here, for neutrality we cannot consi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

a non-biased or aseptic position but one that takes all the diversity connected through<br />

the Net into account. Therefore, supranational agreements will have to be privileged over<br />

national regu<strong>la</strong>tions for the question of the nature of the Net can only be addressed from a<br />

global perspective.<br />

We have asked whether we should consi<strong>de</strong>r having a cyber-agora in the Net; a public<br />

space where any user –regardless of its localization– can step in. We would answer affirmatively<br />

to this question and highlight that it is urgent to ensure these spaces in the Net. This<br />

urge to create and preserve on-line public spaces comes from the “tolerance function” that<br />

has been mentioned. For a society, diversity implies richness but also more costs to allow<br />

individual freedom in the public sphere. The Net is the space with the most diverse society<br />

we have ever seen. Despite we cannot talk of the whole world connected, any space before<br />

has allowed the interaction between individuals and organizations from so many diverse<br />

backgrounds, races, religions, etc. Is not then such a diverse society one that needs even<br />

more to use that “tolerance principle,” to ensure that global encounters maximize individual<br />

freedom without encroaching on anyone’s ability to operate in the same space?<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to conclu<strong>de</strong> this section we could sum up the basic elements consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> until<br />

now and, thus, offer an early <strong>de</strong>finition of the re<strong>la</strong>tionship between network neutrality<br />

and the public space. The optimal in a <strong>de</strong>mocratic society is to have public spaces where<br />

individuals are free to express themselves, facing censorship in very few occasions (for censorship<br />

has to operate only if public morality is really at stake). In or<strong>de</strong>r to express in the<br />

public space, one has to be able to access that space, without barriers whatsoever 17 . When<br />

looking at a simi<strong>la</strong>r space in the Net, we should find one that, first, is open to anyone and,<br />

second, minimizes the possibilities of censorship for only in that case freedom of expression<br />

can flourish. For us, such a space is the one to be called Net Neutral public space. In other<br />

words, Net-Neutrality is the way in which public space is <strong>de</strong>limited in the Net. While in a<br />

city there are certain physical boundaries that <strong>de</strong>termine what is public and what is private,<br />

in the Net, “neutrality” operates as that boun<strong>de</strong>r.<br />

3. i<strong>de</strong>ntifying tHose tHat craft network Public sPaces<br />

This section aims at scrutinizing state and non-state actions against Net neutrality. In<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r, we will refer to breaches of freedom of expression and access in the Net. By doing<br />

so, we will assess how much the Net is neutral and, consequently, if freedom of expression<br />

in the Net is ensu<strong>red</strong>. We will therefore look at those that are responsible of shaping the Net,<br />

17 See how Zatz contextualizes “access to recipients” as a core ing<strong>red</strong>ient of the public forum doctrine.<br />

See supra footnote 1.<br />

85


86 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

which will help us in two manners. Firstly, it will give us more information about the type<br />

of network we are <strong>de</strong>aling with, for the <strong>la</strong>tter is the result of the needs and objectives of its<br />

crafters. Secondly, it will tell us how human rights and, in particu<strong>la</strong>r freedom of expression,<br />

are <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d, promoted or encroached in the Net.<br />

3.1. The role of states against net neutrality<br />

Human rights have been coined as a tool to protect citizens from power abuses of<br />

public authorities. This led civil and political rights to appear as well as keeps on being the<br />

major function of human rights at a national and international levels. We have started this<br />

paper equating the Net to a public space and, thus, to a space where citizens may encounter,<br />

direct or indirectly, boundaries established by public authorities. As a result, our point of<br />

<strong>de</strong>parture is that human rights vio<strong>la</strong>tions by states can also happen in the Net. The most<br />

visible of these vio<strong>la</strong>tions is when states have tried to censor communications. Freedom of<br />

expression is thus one civil liberty that can easily be compromised, particu<strong>la</strong>rly since states<br />

have started to pass antiterrorist legis<strong>la</strong>tion 18 . The European Union, the Council of Europe<br />

and their member states respectively, have these regu<strong>la</strong>tions 19 . Moreover, we have had clear<br />

examples of states silencing the Net such as China (with its known “Great Firewall”) and<br />

more recently Egypt 20 . These states exemplify the re<strong>la</strong>tively small group of countries that<br />

are able to censor internet content and that have proved to use such faculty. Although the<br />

network changes substantially from one country to another, in all cases such restriction of<br />

the freedom of expression in the Net is possible due to the power that state authorities have<br />

upon ISPs 21 .<br />

one can often have the impression that the constraints on the freedom of expression<br />

in the Net onlyconcern those countries that, are known for imposing serious restrictions on<br />

this right in the “physical world”. Differently, this paper wishes to give visibility to indicators<br />

that some non-profit organizations and aca<strong>de</strong>mics are trying to bring our attention to,<br />

which <strong>de</strong>scribe a rather different scenario. These indicators present a network always more<br />

restricted, less open and neutral at a global scale rather than localized in these states with<br />

the reputation of being totalitarian. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, the open Net Initiative (oNI) has been<br />

18 For a well-documented and argued account on censorship through anti-terrorist legis<strong>la</strong>tion see Banisar,<br />

D. (2008). Speaking of terror. A survey of the effects of counter-terrorism legis<strong>la</strong>tion on freedom of the<br />

media in Europe. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.<br />

19 In this context, some regu<strong>la</strong>tions have been highly problematic. An example is the Directive for Data<br />

Retention in Telecommunications Traffic (EC Directive 2006/24/EC ). The <strong>la</strong>tter and its implementation<br />

in many member states have been challenged for their encroachments on the rights to privacy<br />

and freedom of expression –see e.g. ECJ’s ruling 2009/C 82/03 of 10th February 2009 and BVerfG, 1<br />

BvR 256/08 vom 2.3.2010, Absatz-Nr. (1 - 345).<br />

20 A brief but well documented <strong>de</strong>scription of these cases (and other simi<strong>la</strong>r ones) can be found at: www.<br />

yaleglobal.yale.edu.<br />

21 Sometimes, also upon oSPs such as happens with Google and Yahoo in China or, more recently<br />

Facebook.


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

assessing the freedom of the Net in several countries. This study has showed that not to see<br />

governments openly using filtering techniques does not mean that censorship is not there; it<br />

means that the mechanisms for censoring are rapidly changing in the <strong>la</strong>st years—becoming<br />

less apparent and, thus, more difficult to monitor (by human rights <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>rs), and that<br />

their use is becoming more attractive to governments. In fact, the <strong>la</strong>tter are being seduced by<br />

these new techniques for two main reasons; the first one re<strong>la</strong>tes to their international reputation,<br />

for the use of less obvious tools to control the internet allows them to avoid carrying<br />

the same <strong>la</strong>bel that is currently attached to China or Iran when it comes to their restriction<br />

of the Net 22 . The other has to do with the facilities to circumvent Net censorship when the<br />

<strong>la</strong>tter is done by blocking access to given Net resources. In fact, China or Iran’s blocking of<br />

Net content can be overcome through Tor and other mirrors 23 .<br />

In oNI’s study there is a particu<strong>la</strong>rly helpful c<strong>la</strong>ssification of censor techniques, each<br />

of them appertains to a different generation. Such division has emerged from the study of<br />

RUNET (Рунет in Russian), which is the name given to all internet content in Russian –<br />

which is primarily accessed in Russia and the Commonwealth of In<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt States (CIS)<br />

that used to be part of the Soviet Union. The division came after analyzing censorship and<br />

finding that only in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan one could see “Chinese-style” internet<br />

censorship 24 . The question was whether no censorship existed in the other countries and<br />

the results pointed at new generation of filtering techniques. Hence, internet censorship<br />

persisted although disguised in a manner not yet known by most internet users.<br />

Through the study, evi<strong>de</strong>nce was found that other techniques where used, which were<br />

<strong>la</strong>beled as second and third generation control techniques. The first are essentially integrated<br />

by legal norms and technical <strong>de</strong>vices, which allow selecting when and where information<br />

will be <strong>de</strong>nied (as opposed to the first-generation techniques that constantly block certain<br />

internet contents) 25 . Within this second generation techniques, the authors i<strong>de</strong>ntify two<br />

types of tools: those with an “overt” track and those with a “covert” track. The overt track<br />

presents the “soft si<strong>de</strong>” of internet control, which ranges from <strong>de</strong>famation <strong>la</strong>ws to pornography<br />

ones 26 . With the covert track state authorities select the time to act (e.g. elections; an<br />

important summit; an international event such as the olympic games); is a selective interference<br />

on the Net that can vary in its intensity and forms in which it is produced. With this<br />

covert track techniques, <strong>de</strong>vices are set to block particu<strong>la</strong>r targets and allow this blocking<br />

22 oNI talks about China, Burma, North Korea, Cuba and Saudi Arabia as those states that have erected<br />

digital firewalls to restrict the content accessible by their citizens and their freedom of expression.<br />

DEIBERT, R., PALFREY, J., RoHoZINSKI, R. and ZITTRAIN, J. (ed) (2010). Access controlled.<br />

The zapping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace. 1ª ed. Massachusetts: MIT, at p. 15.<br />

23 one does not have to be an expert in or<strong>de</strong>r to do so. Some internet freedom organizations provi<strong>de</strong><br />

advice to perform these operations. See e.g. http://advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org or www.youtube.<br />

com/freedom4internet.<br />

24 See supra footnote at pp. 15 et seq.<br />

25 Id. at p. 24.<br />

26 An example is the Irish case mentioned above. See supra footnote 16.<br />

87


88 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

to appear legitimate due to the over track (legis<strong>la</strong>tion that foresees legitimate internet filtering<br />

or blocking). The i<strong>de</strong>a in short is to create the conditions that allow blocking internet<br />

resources thanks to regu<strong>la</strong>tions that, a priory, are not meant to be used for this purpose. We<br />

can exemplify this through a legis<strong>la</strong>tion that <strong>de</strong>mands any blogger to register its blog and<br />

that allows, when the blogger is registe<strong>red</strong>, to monitor the <strong>la</strong>tter; differently, when the blogger<br />

has not complied with the registration procedure to avoid being monito<strong>red</strong>, he or she<br />

can face his/her blog being blocked for not complying with the registration requirements 27 .<br />

Finally, these third generation techniques also use cyber-warfare techniques (psychological<br />

techniques to confuse internet users), intensifying particu<strong>la</strong>r search results, <strong>de</strong>leting others,<br />

modifying contents, etc 28 .<br />

Although oNI’s study seems to provi<strong>de</strong> a solid ground to argue that Net neutrality and,<br />

in particu<strong>la</strong>r, freedom of expression in the Net faces a difficult future, we do not need to<br />

go far east –to the countries that were surveyed– in or<strong>de</strong>r to see that no state is missing the<br />

chance to regu<strong>la</strong>te internet contents. At a EU level it has been proposed to establish a “virtual<br />

Schengen bor<strong>de</strong>r,” 29 a cyber-bor<strong>de</strong>r that would filter internet contents thanks to b<strong>la</strong>cklists<br />

strategically p<strong>la</strong>ced and, thus, leave outsi<strong>de</strong> the EU those un<strong>de</strong>si<strong>red</strong> contents. Canada<br />

has also established blocking regu<strong>la</strong>tions and even the country that has always stepped in<br />

to <strong>de</strong>fend freedom of expression and the freedom of the Net, the US, has also started regu<strong>la</strong>ting<br />

internet filtering in some spaces (e.g. public libraries) 30 . All these moves from states<br />

towards the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of internet content give us three reasons to worry about the future of<br />

Net neutrality and the freedom of expression in the Net. First, these new techniques are extremely<br />

“difficult to measure and often require in-<strong>de</strong>pth fieldwork to verify.” 31 Second, these<br />

measures “seek to normalize control and the exercise of power in cyberspace;” 32 third, many<br />

of this practices control follow a privatization process which contributes to the fuzziness of<br />

actors that can be responsible for the filtering of internet contents.<br />

27 For the examples that oNI extracts from studying Russia and the CIS see supra footnote 22 at pp.<br />

24 and 25. For an exten<strong>de</strong>d list of examples on Internet control see also the annual study prepa<strong>red</strong> by<br />

Freedom House at www.freedomhouse.org. The <strong>la</strong>ter offers the analysis of 37 countries, among which<br />

several European ones.<br />

28 This shows how much sates are engaged in a cyber-warfare race. See supra footnote 22 at p. 31.<br />

29 See the summary of this proposal in www.edri.org in its bulletin from 4th May 2010.<br />

30 For the Canadian case see supra footnote 22 at p. 5. For the US see supra footnote 15 and MoRo-<br />

ZoV, E. (2011). “Taming Cyberspace.” In<strong>de</strong>x on Censorship, 40, pp. 50-55.<br />

31 See supra footnote 22 at p. 17 and 28 for the particu<strong>la</strong>r example of the internet briga<strong>de</strong>s that exist in<br />

China. These briga<strong>de</strong>s exemplify the difficulties to target the state as responsible form blocking and<br />

filtering since individuals are the ones doing part of the job (posting messages pro regime, opening<br />

blogs to <strong>de</strong>fend the regime, etc.). See also the work done by the Berkman Center for Internet and Society<br />

in their 2010 report on “Distributed Denial of Services Attacks Against In<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt Media and<br />

Human Rights Sites,” avai<strong>la</strong>ble at www.infowar-monitor.Net/2011/04/ongoing-attacks-on-humanrights-websites-and-the-problem-of-attribution.<br />

32 See supra footnote 22 at p. 6.


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

3.2. The role of private parties against net neutrality<br />

The fuzziness we have just allu<strong>de</strong>d to has to be contextualized in the framework of<br />

a globalized world, where an always fiercer and bor<strong>de</strong>rless capitalism has allowed certain<br />

private entities to have a share on state power. In fact, it is not knew to hear about a disempowe<strong>red</strong><br />

state in a globalized world where the first seems to be no longer the only central<br />

actor in international politics or, at least, not anymore an autonomous actor; one that is able<br />

to impose its will upon its citizens without any other state or non state authority having an<br />

influence on that. Quite the opposite, multinationals, international organizations, particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

lobbies...there are multiple organizations (public and private) that stir this globalised world<br />

and that have significant chances to influence state politics and, ultimately, the behavior of<br />

state authorities upon its citizens. Among these actors we cannot forget IT companies.<br />

The share in state power of these companies was quite low as they were numerous<br />

and fragmented from one state territory to another. Yet, there is gradually the concern that<br />

these companies are starting to form bigger entities, able to condition quite significantly the<br />

possibilities of accessing the Net, as well as <strong>de</strong>termining the conditions in which the Net is<br />

used. IT companies get to <strong>de</strong>sign most of the world’s network. That is, with the exception of<br />

those countries that keep on restricting the market and excluding ISPs from establishing in<br />

their territories 33 , IT companies have mainly drawn the world from a telecommunications<br />

perspective. In addition, they control the p<strong>la</strong>tform from which people interact for their job,<br />

social re<strong>la</strong>tionships, etc. (e-mail, blogging, social networks). In sum, the powerful position<br />

in which these companies stand cannot be overlooked.<br />

Does the fact that IT companies have power to constrict individual’s use of internet<br />

mean that the first will use it to un<strong>de</strong>rmine freedom of expression? Not necessarily; in fact,<br />

IT companies have interests in maintaining the Net as free and open as possible for, until<br />

now, this is precisely what has ma<strong>de</strong> the Net popu<strong>la</strong>r and a successful business. The problem<br />

appears when states are able to lobby on IT’s and make them act against a free internet. In<br />

this scenario, it is again relevant to mention oNI’s findings for they go beyond the picture<br />

that we have soon in mind. We tend to think that, if states are able to coerce ITs to filter internet<br />

content, this filtering will be done by ISPs. This is true but oNI shows how, more and<br />

more, oSPs are the ones engaging in censorship. From Linked-in to Yahoo, Skype or MSN,<br />

oNI has records on internet filtering performed by these big technological firms. Why do<br />

they do it? And what is at stake? on the one hand, states are gradually regu<strong>la</strong>ting oSPs’ and<br />

ISPs’ liability, which means that not complying with e.g. copyright <strong>la</strong>w would imply for<br />

these companies the need for litigation. As a result, companies start cutting possible conflicts<br />

from scratch, trying to avoid possible state sanctions or litigation. The problem is that those<br />

suffering the IT’s new strategy are internet users. As it has been argued, “freedom of speech<br />

stands no chance in front of the cowboy-style private ISP justice.” 34<br />

33 E.g. Turkmenistan, Id. at p. 22.<br />

34 Following a fictitious case created by a non-profit organization, in or<strong>de</strong>r to assess freedom of expression<br />

in the Nether<strong>la</strong>nds; this organization make several oSPs believe that someone was using their<br />

89


90 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Bearing in mind the second and third generations of internet controls; in particu<strong>la</strong>r, the<br />

wave of national legis<strong>la</strong>tion that <strong>de</strong>als with illegal internet content –copyright; pornography;<br />

public or<strong>de</strong>r; militant Is<strong>la</strong>mic content in the context of the fight against terrorism; etc–will likely<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce ISPs and oSPs in the position of voluntarily censoring from the source –at user level– what<br />

they think that would put them in a position of breaching state regu<strong>la</strong>tions. As a result, we can<br />

affirm that, today, freedom of expression in the internet is put at stake not only by public authorities<br />

but also by private parties, which jeopardizes the so-called neutrality of the Net. Having<br />

mapped some of the facts that point towards a less free internet, let us look at how Net neutrality<br />

could be preserved or enhanced and, consequently, freedom of expression in the Net.<br />

4. net neutrality tHrougH a global multi-stakeHol<strong>de</strong>r<br />

aPProacH<br />

Neutrality is some point between multiple points of view, where the first is re<strong>la</strong>ted to<br />

the others [we can say that the neutral point is sympathetic to all other points], but where it<br />

does not engage with one of them in particu<strong>la</strong>r [the neutral perspective cannot engage or be<br />

biased towards one of the other points in a stronger manner than towards the others]. From<br />

such abstract <strong>de</strong>finition one can see how difficult (if not impossible) would be to <strong>de</strong>sign a<br />

neutral network from any cultural, religious, gen<strong>de</strong>r,..perspective.<br />

It is difficult to shape what is to be tolerated in the public forum for any individual of<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>net and, thus, it is difficult to pin down and <strong>de</strong>scribe the concept of neutrality <strong>de</strong>tached<br />

from a particu<strong>la</strong>r context. That it is difficult, though, does not mean that is not <strong>de</strong>sirable<br />

to try to reach international agreements when on-line freedom of expression is at stake.<br />

The route-map towards such an i<strong>de</strong>al, though, cannot be achieved but through a global<br />

multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach. We have to take into consi<strong>de</strong>ration different users, states and ITs<br />

from around the world if we want to be able to sit on the table for negotiations a quite representative<br />

array of the elements that have to be taken into account to regu<strong>la</strong>te the Net neutrality.<br />

Moreover, we need governments, IT companies and users on board for the equilibrium between<br />

the interests that they represent is intrinsic to any potential international agreement on<br />

Net-neutrality. This i<strong>de</strong>a can also be expressed as follows. Firstly, we do not want governments<br />

to own IT resources for they can substantially control the Net; secondly, we do not want governments<br />

holding too much power over IT companies for they can make the <strong>la</strong>tter act against<br />

Net neutrality as it has been showed. Thirdly, we do not want either IT companies to have too<br />

much power for they could privilege their private (economic) interests over freedom of expression<br />

as much as states can privilege their political agenda over such human right.<br />

Finally, an international norm on Net neutrality would also provi<strong>de</strong> us with a global<br />

common ground for Net regu<strong>la</strong>tors that would avoid the “forum shopping” announced by<br />

services while breaching copyright regu<strong>la</strong>tions. The result was that all oSPs took the information<br />

down after asking the individual to do it him/herself. The case can be found at http://74.125.45.132/<br />

search?q=cache:IKhZFWp5TkcJ:www.bof.nl/docs/researchpaperSANE.pdf


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

many aca<strong>de</strong>mics 35 , which <strong>de</strong>scribes the bad effects of a highly fragmented world map of internet<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions (particu<strong>la</strong>rly vis-à-vis regu<strong>la</strong>tion focused on the re<strong>la</strong>tionship between the<br />

Net and crime prevention and human rights protection).<br />

If the global multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach is the path we have to follow, how should it<br />

be articu<strong>la</strong>ted? We have plenty of examples of international and regional forums specialized<br />

in ITs and the <strong>la</strong>w. Just on freedom of expression and censorship there are multiple<br />

projects going on 36 . Although we welcome these forums for they are responsible for having<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ced the multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r approach at the centre of the international agenda, we<br />

believe it is time to go further and start preparing an international treaty on Net neutrality<br />

and the freedom in/of the net. Here, I would like to echo R. Beibert’s words when he<br />

proposes to tackle the internet as the environment 37 . It is surely not very attractive right<br />

from the outset for we all know that environmental protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion and politics is<br />

hard to apply within states and, particu<strong>la</strong>rly, at an international level. Despite the difficulties<br />

that regu<strong>la</strong>ting at an international level Net neutrality and the freedom in/of the Net<br />

will bring [disparities that have been gradually surpassed in the terrain of human rights<br />

and that will gradually be surpassed in environmental <strong>la</strong>w] we have to try and push for<br />

international regu<strong>la</strong>tions on this matter.<br />

In the context of an international agreement we should also consi<strong>de</strong>r the <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

of certifications that would promote a friendly environment for Net neutrality and<br />

the protection of the freedom of expression in the Net. Certifications would give economic<br />

incentives to ITs to adopt these values, would give certainty to their customers and, finally,<br />

would also oblige states to respect the standards that these certifications oblige an IT to follow<br />

as part of the international agreement. Moreover, since international conventions would<br />

apply to states, these certifications would be the connection between state responsibility and<br />

private sector representatives in the terrain of Net neutrality and the freedom in/of the Net.<br />

Last but not least, we have to bear in mind the problem of legitimacy. We might talk<br />

about “multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r” cooperation and point at the different types of organizations that<br />

35 The <strong>la</strong>tter refers to the event in which states would regu<strong>la</strong>te different types of responsibility vis-à-vis<br />

the protection of human rights; children; economic interests (copyright, etc.) in the Net. Thus, users<br />

and ITs would change the state from which they would operate, trying to avoid the <strong>la</strong>w that should<br />

be applicable to them and, at the end of the day, turning those <strong>la</strong>ws useless due to that “forum shopping.”<br />

TERUEL LoZANo, G.M. (2011). “Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en internet, control <strong>de</strong> contenidos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s páginas web y sus garantías constitucionales.” Revista Aranzadi <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho y nuevas tecnologías,<br />

Vol. 25, at p. 83. Also HARRIS, C.; RoWBoTHAM, J. and STEVENSoN, K. (2009). “Truth,<br />

<strong>la</strong>w and hate in the virtual marketp<strong>la</strong>ce of i<strong>de</strong>as: perspectives on the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of Internet content.”<br />

Information & Communication Technology Law, 2, at p. 170.<br />

36 one of the upcoming events where this issue will find a forum is the 2011 Internet Governance<br />

Forum that will be held in Nairobi (see www.intgovforum.org/cms). Here, the Global Netwok Initiative<br />

must also be mentioned for it tackles corporate responsibility (in particu<strong>la</strong>r, Google, Yahoo and<br />

Microdoft will un<strong>de</strong>rgo GNI’s assessment in 2011). See at www.globalnetworkinitiative.org.<br />

37 DEIBERT, R. (2010) “Blogging Dangerously.” In<strong>de</strong>x on Censorship, 39, p. 90.<br />

91


92 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

should sit in the negotiations table but, who is really going to sit there? Who holds legitimacy<br />

to engage in the discussion of global standards to endure Net neutrality?<br />

As it came up in the 3rd session of the Council of Europe’s conference on internet Freedom<br />

38 , in the Tunis meeting there is already the <strong>de</strong>finition of the principle of the multi<strong>la</strong>teral<br />

“stakehol<strong>de</strong>r” negotiation—there is a <strong>de</strong>finition of each category (state, private company...).<br />

Nonetheless, there is neither consensus on which is the role of each of the i<strong>de</strong>ntified stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs,<br />

nor on whether the <strong>la</strong>tter hold the legitimacy to speak in the name of a wi<strong>de</strong> range<br />

of individuals and institutions. This is in fact one of the possible reasons for which an early<br />

international regu<strong>la</strong>tion might be compromised from the outset.<br />

This could be solved by arranging systems for accountability and legitimacy within<br />

each stakehol<strong>de</strong>r category. ITs should propose their negotiators; NGos as well and so should<br />

states. Although this could not give the legitimacy that <strong>la</strong>ws tend to have at a national and<br />

international levels, at least would grant us with a <strong>de</strong>parture point from which an international<br />

forum on Net neutrality and freedom of/in the Net could be organized and, luckily,<br />

have an agreement on some general principles.<br />

5. concluding remarks<br />

We have looked at the framework in which individuals express on-line. Such framework<br />

consists of a space that is closely re<strong>la</strong>ted to our public spaces and, thus, where individuals<br />

need to see their freedom of expression protected.<br />

Today, it is more frequent to find practices that seek to restrict on-line content rather than<br />

to promote Net neutrality and freedom of expression in the Net. Due to the global nature<br />

of the Net, its users and regu<strong>la</strong>tors; the fight against internet censorship and an always more<br />

controlled Net has to be soon promoted at the appropriate forum. The <strong>la</strong>tter would be an international<br />

one that, differently from the forums that have been taking p<strong>la</strong>ce up to today, really<br />

offers us an opportunity to have an international regu<strong>la</strong>tion on Net neutrality. This regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

should, above all, contain the main precautions to ensure freedom of expression in internet; in<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r, it should create a framework for a certification system to stimu<strong>la</strong>te private parties<br />

to comply with the principles set in this international regu<strong>la</strong>tion, while also offering to private<br />

parties a global common ground that would give them certainty and protection to offer a free<br />

Net in any state where they operate and that is party to the agreement.<br />

6. bibliograPHy<br />

Banisar, D. (2008). Speaking of terror. A survey of the effects of counter-terrorism legis<strong>la</strong>tion on<br />

freedom of the media in Europe. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.<br />

38 The Conference can be followed at: www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/media-dataprotection/confinternet-freedom/Default_en.asp.


the Net as a public space: Is Net-neutrality necessary to preserve on-line freedom of expression?<br />

Deibert, R., Palfrey, J., Rohozinski, R. and Zittrain, J. (ed) (2010). Access controlled.<br />

The zapping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace. 1ª ed. Massachusetts: MIT.<br />

Deibert, R. (2010) “Blogging Dangerously.” In<strong>de</strong>x on Censorship, 39, pp. 88-90.<br />

Harris, C.; Rowbotham, J. and Stevenson, K. (2009). “Truth, <strong>la</strong>w and hate in the virtual<br />

marketp<strong>la</strong>ce of i<strong>de</strong>as: perspectives on the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of internet content.” Information<br />

& Communication Technology Law, 2, pp. 155-184.<br />

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). World Telecommunication / ICT<br />

Development Report 2010. Monitoring the WSIS targets. A mid-term review. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at www.itu.int.<br />

Morozov, E. (2011). “Taming Cyberspace.” In<strong>de</strong>x on Censorship, 40, pp. 50-55.<br />

Teruel Lozano, G.M. (2011). “Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en internet, control <strong>de</strong> contenidos <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s páginas web y sus garantías constitucionales.” Revista Aranzadi <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho y nuevas<br />

tecnologías, Vol. 25, pp. 81-103.<br />

Tully, J. (2008). “on <strong>la</strong>w, Democracy and Imperialism”, in Tierney, S. & Christodoulidis,<br />

E. A. (eds), Political Theory and Public Law. 1ª ed. London: Ashgate.<br />

Zatz, N. D. (1998). “Si<strong>de</strong>walks in Cyberspace: Making Space for Public Forums in the<br />

Electronic Environment.” Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 12-1, pp. 149-240.<br />

Zhu, K. (2007). “Bringing neutrality to network neutrality.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal,<br />

Vol. 22, pp. 615-646.<br />

93


sIN NeUtrAlIDAD eN lA reD<br />

¿DóNDe lA lógICA UNIVersAl De lA INNOVACIóN?<br />

Helena Nadal Sánchez<br />

Miembro <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong> Innovación Docente “Metodología Interdisciplinar Jurídico-Político-Filosófíca” <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Área <strong>de</strong> Filosofía <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Burgos. Doctoranda <strong>de</strong>l Departamento <strong>de</strong> Derecho Público.<br />

Profesora <strong>de</strong>l Curso <strong>de</strong> Postgrado Especialista en Mediación Familiar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma Universidad<br />

resumen: Con <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> que los Proveedores <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet discriminen los accesos<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> mediante un nuevo sistema <strong>de</strong> cobro al usuario en función <strong>de</strong> los servicios que éste contrate,<br />

<strong>de</strong>saparece <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Augurar todas <strong>la</strong>s implicaciones <strong>de</strong> este hecho es imposible,<br />

pero sí es lícito aventurar algunas consecuencias inmediatas <strong>para</strong> el campo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

investigación.<br />

Los principales puntos <strong>de</strong> reflexión que articu<strong>la</strong>n este trabajo son: <strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ción entre capitalismo y<br />

restricciones <strong>de</strong> contenidos en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, el fin <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> participación ciudadana en nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s<br />

poco cohesionadas, el bloqueo <strong>de</strong>l intercambio intelectual como freno a <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación, <strong>la</strong><br />

incapacidad <strong>de</strong> los seres humanos <strong>para</strong> influir en <strong>la</strong> configuración <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento, <strong>la</strong> conversión <strong>de</strong>l<br />

saber en objeto <strong>de</strong> mercado y el atentado contra el <strong>de</strong>recho a escoger el camino preferido <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

científico o intelectual.<br />

Finalmente se <strong>de</strong>staca el hecho <strong>de</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>bate por <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto nuevamente<br />

<strong>la</strong>s contradicciones entre los valores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia y <strong>la</strong> legitimación <strong>de</strong>l crecimiento<br />

económico ilimitado.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: neutralidad, acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>de</strong>mocracia, innovación, universal.<br />

introducción<br />

Por primera vez el ser humano pue<strong>de</strong> afirmar que <strong>la</strong> realidad está <strong>de</strong>sdob<strong>la</strong>da. Más allá<br />

<strong>de</strong> trasfondos metafísicos o religiosos que pue<strong>de</strong>n dotar <strong>de</strong> sentido a <strong>la</strong> existencia, hoy en día<br />

no es aventurado <strong>de</strong>cir que el ciberespacio se ha constituido como realidad alternativa y <strong>para</strong><br />

muchos fundante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> realidad actual. El modo como ha condicionado Internet no sólo a<br />

<strong>la</strong>s culturas <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cuales se tiene acceso a su <strong>red</strong>, sino indirectamente al resto <strong>de</strong>l p<strong>la</strong>neta<br />

justifica que cada cambio en el<strong>la</strong> sea observado y analizado con especial atención.<br />

Internet como <strong>red</strong> <strong>para</strong>digmática nos pone <strong>de</strong> nuevo ante el <strong>de</strong>safío <strong>de</strong> cómo regu<strong>la</strong>r los<br />

ámbitos humanos. Se constituye así como un campo <strong>de</strong> observación que permite estudiar <strong>la</strong>s<br />

progresivas necesida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> un espacio sin fronteras, que traspasa el po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los diferentes<br />

gobiernos. En este sentido, <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> no sólo está transformando nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s sino también<br />

nuestras concepciones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> economía y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación.<br />

El objetivo <strong>de</strong> este trabajo no es tanto analizar cómo se regu<strong>la</strong> Internet sino intentar<br />

vislumbrar <strong>la</strong>s posibles implicaciones que tiene <strong>para</strong> el área <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación y <strong>la</strong> innovación,<br />

el cómo regu<strong>la</strong>rlo.<br />

5


96 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

El potencial <strong>de</strong> Internet se nos escapa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mentes. La revolución digital, al igual que<br />

ya ocurriera con otras, como <strong>la</strong> revolución industrial, <strong>de</strong>ja a los hombres <strong>de</strong> su tiempo <strong>la</strong><br />

incógnita <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s consecuencias que traerá ese nuevo giro en <strong>la</strong> historia humana. Por lo que<br />

respecta a <strong>la</strong> investigación y a <strong>la</strong> innovación, Internet ha supuesto principalmente el acceso<br />

fácil a <strong>la</strong> documentación y en consecuencia <strong>la</strong> globalización <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento.<br />

En or<strong>de</strong>n al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l presente trabajo, el primer apartado está <strong>de</strong>dicado a esc<strong>la</strong>recer<br />

diferentes significados e implicaciones <strong>de</strong> lo que supone una <strong>red</strong> neutral; el segundo<br />

centra el análisis en <strong>la</strong>s pretensiones <strong>de</strong> los Proveedores <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>de</strong> discriminar<br />

el acceso a los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> mediante sistemas <strong>de</strong> pagos diferenciados en función<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s prestaciones que contrate el usuario; en el tercero se reivindica el acceso a Internet<br />

en abierto como una consecución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mocracias que no <strong>de</strong>be verse retrocedida; en el<br />

apartado cuarto y final <strong>la</strong> reflexión se centra en <strong>la</strong>s consecuencias que tiene <strong>para</strong> el ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>la</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong>l acceso a Internet. Cierra este estudio<br />

una conclusión <strong>de</strong>dicada a proponer otro modo <strong>de</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>r el crecimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> a favor<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s que <strong>la</strong> hacen posible, es <strong>de</strong>cir: todas.<br />

1. diferentes asPectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

La neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> consiste en que <strong>la</strong> conexión a Internet incluya todas <strong>la</strong>s páginas<br />

web y servicios por igual o dicho <strong>de</strong> un modo más genérico, una <strong>red</strong> neutral es <strong>la</strong> que permite<br />

<strong>la</strong> comunicación punto a punto sin alterar su contenido1 . Esto implica en líneas generales<br />

que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s se ha convertido en una realidad autónoma que supera <strong>la</strong>s fronteras estatales<br />

y que el usuario <strong>la</strong> entien<strong>de</strong> como un espacio privilegiado <strong>de</strong> liberta<strong>de</strong>s, tanto por lo<br />

que respecta al acceso a servicios como por lo que respecta a <strong>la</strong> difusión y proyección <strong>de</strong> sus<br />

propias producciones i<strong>de</strong>ológicas o intelectuales. “Des<strong>de</strong> algunos puntos <strong>de</strong> vista, Internet<br />

es el espacio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad. Un lugar exento <strong>de</strong> intervenciones públicas en el que los cibernautas<br />

disfrutan <strong>de</strong> un po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> acción ilimitado. Sobre todo <strong>para</strong> comunicar y expresarse,<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>r experiencias <strong>de</strong> investigación y culturales <strong>de</strong> cualquier tipo, trascendiendo<br />

o no <strong>la</strong>s fronteras <strong>de</strong> los Estados. Esta libertad no sólo es inmensa sino que tiene muy difícil<br />

limitación” (Muñoz 2000: 151).<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre si es posible regu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> (tanto si lo es <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista técnico<br />

como si lo es <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista legal) y cómo <strong>de</strong>bería hacerse es can<strong>de</strong>nte en nuestros<br />

días. Chile ha sido pionero en garantizar <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> postura opuesta,<br />

diversos países como Estados Unidos, España o Francia están legis<strong>la</strong>ndo contra dicha neutralidad.<br />

En el primer caso se entien<strong>de</strong> el espacio cibernético como un logro tecnológico que<br />

permite una completa libertad <strong>para</strong> los usuarios a excepción <strong>de</strong> lo que concierne a controles<br />

parentales que sí están contemp<strong>la</strong>dos por ley. En el segundo, se consi<strong>de</strong>ra en líneas generales<br />

1 “<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>”. Wikipedia.


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

que <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> internet permitirá “satisfacer <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s generaciones presentes<br />

sin comprometer <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l futuro <strong>para</strong> aten<strong>de</strong>r sus propias necesida<strong>de</strong>s” 2 .<br />

En España ha entrado en vigor <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el día 6 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011 <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Economía<br />

Sostenible, cuya Disposición final cuadragésimo tercera (más conocida como ‘Ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’) es re<strong>la</strong>tiva<br />

a <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> webs y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propiedad intelectual. A favor <strong>de</strong> dicha ley 3 se<br />

sitúan quienes argumentan que <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>scargas sin consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l autor no son legales,<br />

que el canon es <strong>para</strong> compensar <strong>la</strong> copia privada y que es discutible que <strong>la</strong> ‘Ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’ pisotee<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, ya que finalmente se ha incorporado <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> un juez<br />

en diferentes momentos <strong>de</strong>l procedimiento estableciendo un sistema con ciertas garantías<br />

(Gavilán 2011). Joan Navarro (2011) hace notar que “Quienes abogan por <strong>la</strong> ‘libertad’ y <strong>la</strong><br />

‘gratuidad’ en <strong>la</strong> Red, en realidad <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n el lucrativo negocio <strong>de</strong> quienes no pagan por los<br />

contenidos por los que intermedian” y aña<strong>de</strong> “Es falso que exista un <strong>de</strong>bate entre propiedad<br />

intelectual y libertad. Sin libertad no hay creación ni propiedad intelectual, y quien <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong><br />

los abusos no <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad, sino los privilegios (sean éstos tecnológicos o <strong>de</strong> casta)”<br />

<strong>para</strong> culminar exponiendo que “<strong>la</strong> ley Sin<strong>de</strong> no criminaliza a los usuarios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, persigue<br />

a quien abusa, oculto tras <strong>la</strong> tecnología o el anonimato, <strong>de</strong>l trabajo, curiosamente siempre<br />

intelectual, <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong>”. En contra <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mencionada ley 4 se sitúan quienes consi<strong>de</strong>ran que <strong>la</strong><br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> es imprescindible en el acceso, difusión y expresión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cultura y que<br />

su eliminación sólo estaría favoreciendo a los intermediarios que se enriquecen a costa <strong>de</strong><br />

hacerse con los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los creadores. Aña<strong>de</strong>n que en este sentido <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong>, que impulse <strong>la</strong>s alternativas al ‘Copyright’ como <strong>la</strong>s licencias ‘Creative Commons’ como<br />

base <strong>de</strong> una economía libre <strong>de</strong> injerencias y por tanto más mo<strong>de</strong>rna y productiva.<br />

Manuel Castells <strong>de</strong>scribe el problema re<strong>la</strong>tivo al control <strong>de</strong> Internet 5 como una transformación<br />

tecnológica y cultural ante <strong>la</strong> cual:<br />

Los <strong>de</strong>tentores <strong>de</strong>l po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> información a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> historia, es <strong>de</strong>cir,<br />

los estados y <strong>la</strong>s iglesias, reaccionaron con preocupación y, en los estados no <strong>de</strong>mocráticos,<br />

con hostilidad, tratando <strong>de</strong> restablecer el control administrativo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> expresión<br />

y <strong>la</strong> comunicación. Pero <strong>la</strong> ejecución <strong>de</strong>l proyecto estatista sobre Internet se encuentra<br />

con obstáculos consi<strong>de</strong>rables. En los países <strong>de</strong>mocráticos, Internet se consolida como<br />

instrumento esencial <strong>de</strong> expresión, información y comunicación horizontal entre los<br />

ciudadanos y recibe <strong>la</strong> protección constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s. En todos los países,<br />

menos en <strong>la</strong>s teocracias, <strong>la</strong> importancia económica y tecnológica <strong>de</strong> Internet, excluye<br />

que se pueda ignorar o relegar su amplio uso en <strong>la</strong> sociedad. Más aún, <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ología <strong>de</strong><br />

progreso mediante <strong>la</strong> tecnología hace <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> promoción <strong>de</strong> Internet un valor legitimador<br />

2 Ley 2/2011, <strong>de</strong> 4 <strong>de</strong> marzo, <strong>de</strong> Economía Sostenible. Artículo 2. Economía sostenible.<br />

3 En el marco político votaron a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ‘ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’: PSoE, PP y CIU.<br />

4 En el marco político votaron en contra <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ‘ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’: IU-ICV-EUiA, UpyD, PNV, BNG y Coalición<br />

Canaria.<br />

5 Manuel Castells (2009) trata exhaustivamente los problemas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intervención en <strong>la</strong> esfera <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones.<br />

97


98 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>para</strong> gobiernos que fundan su estrategia en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo económico <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l marco<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> globalización. De ahí el complicado encaje <strong>de</strong> bolillos político entre <strong>la</strong> libertad y<br />

el control por parte <strong>de</strong> los Estados. (Castells 2001:1).<br />

Frente a <strong>la</strong> importancia concedida por Castells a Internet en <strong>la</strong> cohesión social, Jürgen<br />

Habermas 6 argumenta que:<br />

El Internet genera una fuerza centrífuga. Suelta una o<strong>la</strong> anárquica <strong>de</strong> circuitos <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

altamente fragmentados que <strong>de</strong> manera infrecuente se tras<strong>la</strong>pan. C<strong>la</strong>ro, <strong>la</strong><br />

naturaleza espontánea e igualitaria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación ilimitada pue<strong>de</strong> tener efectos<br />

subversivos en regímenes autoritarios. Pero <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en sí no produce esfera política alguna.<br />

Su estructura no está hecha <strong>para</strong> enfocar <strong>la</strong> atención <strong>de</strong> un público disperso <strong>de</strong><br />

ciudadanos que forman opiniones <strong>de</strong> manera simultánea en los mismos temas y contribuciones<br />

que han sido escrutados y filtrados por expertos.<br />

Como toda construcción humana, también Internet está ligado no sólo a valores culturales<br />

o políticos, sino también a cuestiones económicas. Si el <strong>de</strong>bate por <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> parece centrarse en <strong>la</strong> conveniencia <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ciones como <strong>la</strong> ‘ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’ en España o<br />

<strong>la</strong> ‘ley Hadopi’ en Francia, existe otra faceta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> cuestionada no ya<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> los gobiernos sino por <strong>la</strong> intención <strong>de</strong> los Proveedores <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet o ISPs<br />

<strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r qué servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet ofrecen a sus usuarios y establecer tarifas específicas<br />

por esos servicios. Respecto a esta intención <strong>de</strong> los ISPs se <strong>de</strong>sp<strong>la</strong>za <strong>la</strong> reflexión <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>l p<strong>la</strong>no político-jurídico al p<strong>la</strong>no económico. Esto<br />

no quiere <strong>de</strong>cir que sus implicaciones sean únicamente económicas, más bien al contrario,<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ntean un problema que <strong>de</strong>riva en múltiples efectos que afectan también al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación.<br />

De este último fenómeno, es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>de</strong> cómo <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> contenidos y servicios<br />

por parte <strong>de</strong> los ISPs impactan en <strong>la</strong> innovación, el progreso intelectual y el acceso universal<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>la</strong> Comunicación (TICs) se hace cargo este trabajo.<br />

2. <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> los isP<br />

En líneas generales se pue<strong>de</strong> afirmar que disfrutamos <strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong> neutral, es <strong>de</strong>cir, libre<br />

<strong>de</strong> restricciones en el contenido y servicios, por lo que respecta a cómo acce<strong>de</strong>mos a el<strong>la</strong> a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> nuestros ISPs.<br />

Sin embargo los Proveedores <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet cada vez consi<strong>de</strong>ran mayores<br />

ventajas en <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> diferentes c<strong>la</strong>ses <strong>de</strong> páginas web, p<strong>la</strong>taformas y servicios. El<br />

país don<strong>de</strong> esta circunstancia ha cobrado mayor relieve es Estados Unidos, don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral<br />

Comunications Commision (FCC) analiza <strong>la</strong> conveniencia <strong>de</strong> mantener Internet en abierto<br />

(o neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>) o permitir a los ISP <strong>la</strong> discriminación en los accesos a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Pero<br />

6 Cfr. “Habermas y Castells, dos visiones <strong>de</strong> Internet”. Para un análisis en <strong>de</strong>talle <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> teoría <strong>de</strong> Habermas<br />

sobre Internet véase Froomkin (2003).


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

también en Europa diversas compañías <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones han seguido <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

norteamericanas y han encargado a <strong>la</strong> consultora A. T. Kearney un estudio sobre mo<strong>de</strong>los<br />

alternativos <strong>de</strong> acceso a Internet en los que se contemp<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> servicios por<br />

parte <strong>de</strong> los ISPs.<br />

Actualmente el usuario todavía pue<strong>de</strong> utilizar Internet tanto como quiera y como quiera<br />

por lo que respecta a los modos <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>; sin embargo, si los ISPs llegaran a<br />

contro<strong>la</strong>r dicho acceso entonces podrían legalmente limitar <strong>la</strong>s velocida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> diferentes<br />

páginas web y servicios (<strong>de</strong> hecho ya se está haciendo esto con <strong>de</strong>scargas ilegales) y le cobrarían<br />

al usuario <strong>de</strong>pendiendo <strong>de</strong>l tipo <strong>de</strong> uso que contrate con su proveedor. Yendo más allá,<br />

esto podría suponer que cada ISP llegara a bloquear servicios que ofrecen <strong>otros</strong> proveedores,<br />

como por ejemplo, el correo electrónico, permitiendo únicamente el acceso al suyo propio.<br />

Las razones que sostienen los ISPs a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> discriminación están re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con<br />

el congestionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Durante los años 1990, ante el aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda <strong>la</strong>s<br />

mayores compañías <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones empezaron a proveer <strong>de</strong> un acceso privado a los<br />

usuarios y empezaron a cobrar por este servicio. Con el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo exponencial <strong>de</strong> Internet,<br />

los ISP se vieron obligados a invertir cada vez más en <strong>la</strong> actualización <strong>de</strong> técnica e infraestructuras<br />

con el fin <strong>de</strong> abarcar el aumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. A día <strong>de</strong> hoy, los<br />

proveedores consi<strong>de</strong>ran que el modo <strong>de</strong> acceso a Internet no discriminado provoca un congestionamiento<br />

cada vez mayor y que este inconveniente lo está sufriendo el propio usuario.<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> theopeninter.net (2010) se ofrece una guía sobre Internet en abierto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que<br />

<strong>de</strong>stacan una serie <strong>de</strong> razones a favor <strong>de</strong> no discriminación <strong>de</strong> proveedores; tales razones recogen<br />

el sentir <strong>de</strong> quienes están en contra <strong>de</strong> que el acceso a Internet sea selectivo: un acceso<br />

abierto a Internet es <strong>la</strong> gran tecnología unificadora <strong>de</strong> nuestra época y su control no <strong>de</strong>bería<br />

estar a merced <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s corporaciones; a<strong>de</strong>más un acceso abierto a Internet estimu<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia,<br />

ayuda a prevenir injusticias en re<strong>la</strong>ción a los precios por su utilización, promueve<br />

<strong>la</strong> innovación, es más digno <strong>de</strong> confianza y más honesto, favorece los negocios y protege <strong>la</strong><br />

libertad <strong>de</strong> conocimiento. Todas estas razones son suficientes <strong>para</strong> abogar a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> no<br />

discriminación <strong>de</strong> los ISP, pero a<strong>de</strong>más hay otras que se estima que se sitúan a <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong>l<br />

problema y <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s específicamente trata este trabajo.<br />

Por el contrario en el informe A viable future for Internet, <strong>la</strong> consultora A. T. Kearney<br />

(2011: 1-3) explica cómo Internet, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> proporcionar importantes beneficios sociales<br />

sostiene una parte <strong>de</strong>cisiva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actividad económica y justifica su estudio sobre cómo pue<strong>de</strong><br />

continuar el crecimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> modo tal que siga asegurando los beneficios mencionados.<br />

La consultora sostiene que el tráfico reciente ha experimentado un crecimiento<br />

pronosticable a medio p<strong>la</strong>zo pero impresionante en un futuro, lo cual implica <strong>de</strong>safíos serios<br />

respecto a <strong>la</strong> viabilidad <strong>de</strong>l mo<strong>de</strong>lo actual <strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>para</strong> lo sucesivo.<br />

Si bien es cierto que <strong>la</strong> tecnología todavía pue<strong>de</strong> proporcionar una parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> solución,<br />

incrementando <strong>la</strong> capacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s o utilizando nuevas técnicas <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico,<br />

<strong>de</strong>staca que estas medidas no son suficientes ya que éstas respon<strong>de</strong>n al actual mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet que conlleva problemas como <strong>la</strong> limitación <strong>de</strong> incentivos económicos <strong>para</strong> los ISPs<br />

(<strong>de</strong>nominados “over the Top”) y que <strong>la</strong> inversión que se <strong>de</strong>stina a dar soluciones <strong>de</strong> congestionamiento<br />

en realidad es débil.<br />

99


100 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Así que se proponen otras opciones posibles <strong>para</strong> nuevos mo<strong>de</strong>los que puedan resolver<br />

los problemas <strong>de</strong>scritos y asegurar, <strong>de</strong> una manera a<strong>de</strong>cuada, el progresivo incremento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> en beneficio <strong>de</strong> todos.<br />

La consultora propone cuatro opciones no excluyentes, que consisten en: incrementar<br />

los precios al usuario con <strong>la</strong> probabilidad <strong>de</strong> aumentar el volumen <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>scargas en el caso<br />

<strong>de</strong> que éste lo necesite, que los comerciantes paguen por el tráfico que genera su actividad,<br />

ofrecer mayor cantidad <strong>de</strong> servicios contratados directamente con el proveedor, como es el<br />

caso <strong>de</strong> los servicios Premium o aumentar servicios propios <strong>de</strong>l proveedor que operen en<br />

<strong>para</strong>lelo con el actual mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

En cualquier caso, y ese es el dato esencial <strong>de</strong>l informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> consultora, se sostiene <strong>la</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> que in<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s que se elijan tanto <strong>la</strong> estructura como el<br />

tipo <strong>de</strong> facturación <strong>de</strong> los cargos <strong>de</strong>bería evolucionar bajo <strong>la</strong>s fuerzas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia legal<br />

<strong>para</strong> alcanzar un equilibrio como ocurre en <strong>otros</strong> mercados bi<strong>la</strong>terales.<br />

3. reiVindicando un acceso en abierto<br />

Nuestra sociedad tecnológica se rige por tres principios: capitalismo, <strong>de</strong>mocracia y hedonismo<br />

moral. Los tres han dado consistencia a nuestra postmo<strong>de</strong>rnidad, nos han servido<br />

<strong>de</strong> referencia. Sin embargo, los problemas que p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> rompen el<br />

equilibrio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tríada y abren una escisión entre cada uno <strong>de</strong> ellos.<br />

La i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> consultora <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a Internet con un producto <strong>de</strong> mercado nos<br />

recuerda que nos regimos por los principios económicos <strong>de</strong> capitalismo. Su pretensión <strong>de</strong><br />

que los pagos por el acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> se regulen por <strong>la</strong>s leyes <strong>de</strong>l mercado convierten a <strong>la</strong> “gran<br />

tecnología unificadora” en una propiedad, en una mercancía que queda incluida bajo el<br />

<strong>para</strong>digma <strong>de</strong> que toda re<strong>la</strong>ción social <strong>de</strong>be regirse por re<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong> compra-venta; aunque<br />

esto ponga en contradicción los aspectos cuantitativos y cualitativos <strong>de</strong>l progreso humano.<br />

Con <strong>la</strong> técnica bajo el capitalismo suce<strong>de</strong> lo mismo que con cualquier otro aspecto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

cultura actual: el capitalismo <strong>la</strong> ha hecho posible y <strong>la</strong> ha adulterado, ha abierto <strong>la</strong>s puertas<br />

a <strong>la</strong> creatividad, al bienestar y a <strong>la</strong> belleza y ha procurado siempre someterlo todo a<br />

<strong>la</strong> ley <strong>de</strong>l máximo beneficio. Por suerte o por <strong>de</strong>sgracia, <strong>la</strong> tecnología como <strong>la</strong> pintura,<br />

<strong>la</strong> literatura, <strong>la</strong> religión o el <strong>de</strong>porte ni son ajenas al resto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s sociales ni se<br />

limitan a reflejar mecánicamente <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> otras partes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> estructura social.<br />

La tecnología actual es inse<strong>para</strong>ble <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciencia y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> industria, y estas es una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

principales activida<strong>de</strong>s económicas. Pero estaríamos ciegos, si pretendiéramos <strong>red</strong>ucir<br />

todos los problemas <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo tecnológico y también todos los valores o disvalores<br />

que en él se encierran a los problemas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> economía y a los valores o disvalores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

actividad económica. (Quintanil<strong>la</strong> 2005: 140)<br />

Nos movemos a<strong>de</strong>más en <strong>la</strong> tesitura <strong>de</strong>l <strong>para</strong>digma teórico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia liberal<br />

formal, que el Estado or<strong>de</strong>naba <strong>la</strong> sociedad mediante reg<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> no interferencia entre los<br />

individuos. “El objetivo <strong>de</strong>l Estado <strong>de</strong>mocrático en este <strong>para</strong>digma era, o bien proteger <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona que se consi<strong>de</strong>raban universales y consustanciales a <strong>la</strong> naturaleza humana


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

101<br />

y, en consecuencia, anteriores al Estado, e inalienables –en <strong>la</strong> versión contractualista <strong>de</strong>l<br />

liberalismo–, o bien al esfera <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> acción <strong>de</strong> los individuos como seres sociales libres frente a<br />

<strong>la</strong> amenaza <strong>de</strong> sus semejantes o <strong>la</strong> arbitrariedad <strong>de</strong> los gobernantes –en <strong>la</strong> versión utilitarista<br />

<strong>de</strong>l liberalismo–, o bien ambas cosas al mismo tiempo” (Caminal 2010: 211).<br />

Ambas cosas a un tiempo es lo que asumen los ISPs: por una parte entien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> propiedad<br />

como un <strong>de</strong>recho inherente a <strong>la</strong> condición humana y que todo es susceptible <strong>de</strong><br />

ser poseído, incluso un posible bien social como Internet. Des<strong>de</strong> el <strong>para</strong>digma neoliberal<br />

trascien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a inicial <strong>de</strong> sociedad mercantil como sociedad abierta. Locke puso límites<br />

a esa sociedad, “(…) al libre juego <strong>de</strong>l uso privado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propiedad. Se trata, c<strong>la</strong>ro está, <strong>de</strong><br />

límites i<strong>de</strong>ológicos, que no serían respetados en posteriores mo<strong>de</strong>los liberales <strong>de</strong> inspiración<br />

lockeana. Locke creía en una moralidad individual, <strong>de</strong> corte agrarista, que <strong>de</strong>terminaría los<br />

intercambios <strong>de</strong> mercado; creía que el hombre tiene <strong>de</strong>beres <strong>para</strong> consigo mismo, <strong>de</strong>terminados<br />

por <strong>la</strong> ley <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> naturaleza; consi<strong>de</strong>raba <strong>la</strong> exigencia moral <strong>de</strong> poner límites a <strong>la</strong> apropiación<br />

privada (c<strong>la</strong>úsu<strong>la</strong> lockeana). En cambio los neoliberales contemporáneos no hab<strong>la</strong>n<br />

<strong>de</strong> virtu<strong>de</strong>s ni <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>beres, <strong>de</strong>smoralizan el vínculo social, liberan el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> propiedad<br />

<strong>de</strong> toda cláusu<strong>la</strong> legitimadora” (Bermudo 2001: II-219); por otra, entien<strong>de</strong>n su pretensión<br />

como un <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> todo ser libre que no <strong>de</strong>be verse amenazado por terceros.<br />

Capitalismo y <strong>de</strong>mocracia en el sentido neoliberal <strong>de</strong>l término sirven a los intereses<br />

<strong>de</strong> los ISPs, pero <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia también es el punto <strong>de</strong> partida <strong>de</strong> quienes <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> no<br />

discriminación por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores. Entendida ahora como el gobierno que encarna<br />

<strong>la</strong> voluntad general, <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s se reconvierte en una exigencia <strong>de</strong><br />

no comerciar con bienes públicos, <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los cuales se consi<strong>de</strong>ra Internet, dicha protección<br />

“contiene los elementos sustentadores <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> organización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong>mocrática<br />

y pluralista, <strong>de</strong>fensora <strong>de</strong> expectativas <strong>de</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> conciencia, <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos humanos y <strong>de</strong><br />

igualdad <strong>de</strong> todos los ciudadanos” (López 2009: 290).<br />

Esta postura a favor <strong>de</strong> Internet en abierto es fruto no <strong>de</strong> una consi<strong>de</strong>ración arbitraria<br />

sino porque el TCP/IP fue <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do <strong>para</strong> una <strong>red</strong> neutral, sin restricción <strong>de</strong> contenidos<br />

y servicios, y si bien es cierto que progresivamente los padres <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> estos protocolos,<br />

Vint Cerf y Tim Beners-Lee, han ido estimando <strong>la</strong> conveniencia <strong>de</strong> una posible vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia o<br />

<strong>red</strong>ireccionamiento, no han estimado oportuno <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> los ISPs 7 , sino que consi<strong>de</strong>ran<br />

que los ISPs <strong>de</strong>ben tarificar en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> velocidad y no a <strong>la</strong> capacidad, <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

que así se <strong>de</strong>fienda <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 8 .<br />

Parale<strong>la</strong>mente ocurre que problemas como este son tratados por <strong>la</strong> opinión pública<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el p<strong>red</strong>ominante hedonismo moral al que nos tiene acostumbrada <strong>la</strong> sociedad tecnificada.<br />

Lejos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>batir <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> supuestos ético-políticos enten<strong>de</strong>mos que el<br />

p<strong>la</strong>cer es el modo <strong>de</strong> vida que satisface todos nuestros <strong>de</strong>seos; enten<strong>de</strong>mos que <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

es un conjunto <strong>de</strong> individuos que buscan <strong>la</strong> gratificación personal sustentada en <strong>la</strong> adquisición<br />

constante <strong>de</strong> bienes. En este mo<strong>de</strong>lo, el consumo <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> ser causa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

7 Goldman (2005)<br />

8 Contreras (2009)


102 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

económica <strong>para</strong> serlo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia psicológica entre individuos y <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong><br />

los ISPs <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> enfocarse como un asunto social que pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>ucir beneficios comunes <strong>para</strong><br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rarlo una afrenta contra una especie <strong>de</strong> regalo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología hecho <strong>para</strong> el hombre<br />

postmo<strong>de</strong>rno que está al servicio <strong>de</strong> sus nuevas necesida<strong>de</strong>s. La competencia psicológica se<br />

constituye <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> una cultura <strong>de</strong> consumo masivo <strong>de</strong> bienes y posibilida<strong>de</strong>s que hasta<br />

ahora se habían consi<strong>de</strong>rado inaccesibles. Este hecho hace que lo los significados <strong>de</strong> términos<br />

como ‘<strong>de</strong>rechos’ y ‘liberta<strong>de</strong>s’ se acomo<strong>de</strong>n a perspectivas hedonistas y pierdan <strong>la</strong> fuerza reivindicativa<br />

que han tenido a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> su historia. De hecho, frecuentemente se i<strong>de</strong>ntifica<br />

<strong>la</strong> legitimidad <strong>de</strong> nuestros gobernantes con su capacidad <strong>de</strong> mantener nuestro bienestar<br />

económico exclusivamente.<br />

Y sin embargo este es un problema crucial porque <strong>la</strong> diferencia tecnológica marca <strong>la</strong><br />

diferencia social y el acceso discriminado a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>red</strong>undará en un <strong>de</strong>sigual progreso cultural,<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> los logros alcanzados por esta última. El dominio <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet trae consigo el dominio <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento a nivel mundial; recuér<strong>de</strong>se que técnicamente,<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> no posee fronteras. Si <strong>la</strong> tecnología nació con el objetivo <strong>de</strong> cubrir <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

p<strong>la</strong>nteadas por <strong>la</strong> sociedad, con <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> proveedores habremos conseguido<br />

un paso más en <strong>la</strong> inversión <strong>de</strong> ese objetivo, en favor <strong>de</strong> que el propio medio genere más necesida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

y con ello más <strong>de</strong>sigualda<strong>de</strong>s en el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información. Falta frecuentemente el<br />

recurso a los “<strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> participación social en el aseguramiento <strong>de</strong> un mínimo vital y en<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong> vida” (Belloso 1999: 209) que asegura el Estado Social <strong>de</strong> Derecho.<br />

Únicamente el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información nos permite avanzar como socieda<strong>de</strong>s porque<br />

es <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> discusión abierta en torno a problemas, necesida<strong>de</strong>s, implicaciones y alternativas.<br />

Sólo <strong>la</strong> discusión abierta fortalece <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia y <strong>la</strong> libera <strong>de</strong>l control económico y<br />

tecnocrático. En consecuencia, el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información es el primer principio <strong>de</strong>mocrático.<br />

otra cuestión es si nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s, asentadas en una moral hedonista están reivindicando<br />

dicho acceso siendo conscientes <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información es <strong>la</strong> base <strong>para</strong> influir en <strong>la</strong><br />

configuración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s y no un mero bien <strong>de</strong> satisfacción individual.<br />

Pero el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información no es pi<strong>la</strong>r únicamente <strong>de</strong> una sociedad <strong>de</strong>mocrática<br />

sino también un elemento fundamental en <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación científica e intelectual,<br />

que a su vez también es <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong>l progreso social.<br />

Ya en el siglo XVIII <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s científicas se crearon con el fin <strong>de</strong> poner en común<br />

los trabajos <strong>de</strong> los científicos, entendiendo que con ello se favorecían futuras innovaciones,<br />

pero a<strong>de</strong>más, como es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Aca<strong>de</strong>mias Inconformistas <strong>de</strong> Ing<strong>la</strong>terra, conectaron <strong>la</strong>s<br />

investigaciones con el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo industrial (Mason 2001-3: 32). Des<strong>de</strong> entonces <strong>la</strong> forma <strong>de</strong><br />

evolucionar el conocimiento no ha cambiado en lo sustancial: <strong>la</strong> innovación necesita también<br />

<strong>de</strong>l contacto entre investigadores, aunque contamos con ventajas sustanciales. Indudablemente<br />

<strong>la</strong> rapi<strong>de</strong>z con <strong>la</strong> que nos suministrara información <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong> enorme cantidad <strong>de</strong><br />

datos que nos proporciona han revolucionado <strong>la</strong> producción <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento, pero sobre<br />

todo contamos con el potencial que tiene el ciberespacio a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> poner en contacto a<br />

los investigadores; si bien en los siglos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s científicas (XVIII y XIX) <strong>la</strong> ciencia<br />

y los avances en el conocimiento se podrían calificar <strong>de</strong> nacionales, hoy disponemos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

técnica <strong>para</strong> convertirlos en universales. “Durante el siglo dieciocho, los filósofos naturales


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

103<br />

<strong>de</strong> Francia y Gran Bretaña fueron los más importantes <strong>de</strong>l mundo científico. (…) Sus activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

fueron complementarias, inclinándose los franceses hacia <strong>la</strong> interpretación teórica<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> naturaleza y los ingleses, hacia <strong>la</strong> investigación empírica. (…) En <strong>la</strong>s primeras décadas<br />

<strong>de</strong>l siglo diecinueve los franceses estaban a <strong>la</strong> cabeza <strong>de</strong>l mundo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciencia, pero no mantuvieron<br />

su impulso y <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> década <strong>de</strong> los cincuenta y los sesenta los británicos se hal<strong>la</strong>ban<br />

<strong>de</strong> nuevo a <strong>la</strong> cabeza. Con todo, <strong>la</strong> primacía británica no duró mucho, pues <strong>para</strong> finales <strong>de</strong><br />

siglo Alemania había superado a Ing<strong>la</strong>terra y a Francia por lo que <strong>la</strong> ciencia se refiere” (Mason<br />

2001-4: 59).<br />

4. consecuencias Para <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innoVación<br />

El bloqueo <strong>de</strong>l intercambio intelectual que sobrevendría ante <strong>la</strong> explotación <strong>de</strong>l ciberespacio<br />

por los ISPs supondría un freno a <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación, <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l ámbito académico<br />

indudablemente, pero también a <strong>la</strong> innovación en general. Sólo en apariencia el conferir<br />

mayores ventajas a <strong>de</strong>terminados servicios favorecería <strong>la</strong> especialización y el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l<br />

conocimiento. No se cuestiona que tener un acceso más rápido, más eficaz y más específico<br />

a <strong>de</strong>terminadas instituciones o áreas <strong>de</strong> documentación como Universida<strong>de</strong>s, Institutos <strong>de</strong><br />

Investigación o publicaciones on-line implicaría a corto p<strong>la</strong>zo mayores facilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> el<br />

investigador siempre que pudiera acce<strong>de</strong>r a el<strong>la</strong>s. Al fin y al cabo, estamos acostumbrados a<br />

pagar por el conocimiento y <strong>para</strong> realizar activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> investigación. La cuestión es si es lo<br />

i<strong>de</strong>al y si esto no ha sido al fin y a <strong>la</strong> postre restrictivo <strong>para</strong> quienes no han podido acce<strong>de</strong>r a<br />

estos medios. Si <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> había venido a facilitar <strong>la</strong> generalización <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento ¿por qué<br />

dar un paso atrás en esta cuestión?<br />

Si se <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a según <strong>la</strong> cual <strong>la</strong> innovación o <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong>ben quedar relegadas<br />

a una élite económica, eliminando el acceso universal a estos ámbitos es posible que no<br />

haya tenido en cuenta reflexiones <strong>de</strong>l tipo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que sostiene Cañas (2008: 13)<br />

En <strong>la</strong> soledad <strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>spachos o ro<strong>de</strong>ados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s a<strong>la</strong>banzas y los ha<strong>la</strong>gos <strong>de</strong> sus subordinados,<br />

los directores generales, los inversores po<strong>de</strong>rosos, los ingenieros imprescindibles<br />

en un proyecto o los investigadores solicitados por todas <strong>la</strong>s universida<strong>de</strong>s pue<strong>de</strong>n pensar<br />

que <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>n sólo <strong>de</strong> sí mismos, <strong>de</strong> sus méritos, <strong>de</strong> sus conocimientos, <strong>de</strong> su valía,<br />

<strong>de</strong> su competencia, <strong>de</strong> su voluntad inquebrantable… (…) Están equivocados. Des<strong>de</strong><br />

antes <strong>de</strong> nacer y hasta el preciso momento en que morimos, los humanos <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>mos<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>más en muchos sentidos, unos muy manifiestos y <strong>otros</strong> más sutiles. Este es un<br />

hecho básico, crucial <strong>para</strong> aplicar <strong>la</strong> razón a <strong>la</strong> conducta humana.<br />

La innovación obe<strong>de</strong>ce o <strong>de</strong>be obe<strong>de</strong>cer primordialmente a <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mandas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad.<br />

Durante el siglo XIX <strong>la</strong> industria química alemana incrementó sus beneficios vincu<strong>la</strong>ndo<br />

sus necesida<strong>de</strong>s tecnológicas con <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>nificación científica. A partir <strong>de</strong> ese momento el<br />

saber empezó a conectarse con <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s reales, hecho que culminó durante <strong>la</strong> segunda<br />

mitad <strong>de</strong>l siglo XX con <strong>la</strong> I+D (Innovación y Desarrollo) financiada por diversos gobiernos.<br />

La innovación pasó así <strong>de</strong> ser una actividad autónoma a estar al servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

estatales por <strong>la</strong>s que era dirigida. Progresivamente este mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> financiación estatal fue


104 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

incluyendo a otras empresas productoras <strong>de</strong> tecnología y con el<strong>la</strong>s a <strong>la</strong> propia ciudadanía en<br />

<strong>la</strong> toma <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones. A <strong>la</strong> par se ha ido imponiendo el concepto capitalista <strong>de</strong> ‘competencia’<br />

aplicado al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación entendiendo ésta como no como <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong>stinada<br />

a resolver necesida<strong>de</strong>s sociales sino a incrementar beneficios económicos.<br />

Si el acceso abierto a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> podría consi<strong>de</strong>rarse una innovación <strong>de</strong> carácter mayoritariamente<br />

social (entendiendo por tal que <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong> se beneficia una gran parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad), con<br />

el control <strong>de</strong> su acceso por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet, su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo se<br />

incluiría en los mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> innovación tecnológica al servicio <strong>de</strong> los beneficios <strong>de</strong> empresas<br />

privadas. Esto, que en nuestra sociedad es frecuente y no necesariamente perjudicial sí lo<br />

sería en este caso ya que los ISPs estarían contro<strong>la</strong>ndo el canal principal <strong>de</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong>l<br />

conocimiento.<br />

También es cierto que estas empresas <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones han asumido los costes<br />

financieros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación necesaria <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>r estas estructuras que han permitido el<br />

crecimiento <strong>de</strong> Internet hasta convertir<strong>la</strong> en lo que hoy conocemos. Frente a <strong>la</strong> innovación<br />

básica, es <strong>de</strong>cir, a <strong>la</strong>rgo p<strong>la</strong>zo, que es <strong>la</strong> que suelen asumir los propios gobiernos, estas empresas<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>n tecnologías más rentables a medio y corto p<strong>la</strong>zo. Sin embargo, una cosa<br />

es invertir en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y otra distinta es convertir<strong>la</strong> en objeto <strong>de</strong> su propiedad y<br />

someter<strong>la</strong> a <strong>la</strong>s leyes <strong>de</strong>l mercado. El impacto que esto provocaría en <strong>la</strong> sociedad, <strong>la</strong> política<br />

y <strong>la</strong> cultura es difícil <strong>de</strong> evaluar pero innegablemente provocaría <strong>la</strong> incapacidad <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos<br />

<strong>para</strong> influir conscientemente en <strong>la</strong> configuración <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento.<br />

De ahí a convertir el saber en objeto <strong>de</strong> mercado sólo hay un paso. De ello, al menos<br />

en el mundo académico vamos teniendo algunos indicios, ya antes <strong>de</strong> que se haya impuesto<br />

<strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> proveedores. El acceso a los principales bancos <strong>de</strong> datos es prohibitivo<br />

y por tanto discriminatorio <strong>para</strong> un usuario privado, que únicamente pue<strong>de</strong> utilizar estos<br />

servicios formando parte <strong>de</strong> alguna <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s instituciones que pue<strong>de</strong>n financiar dichos accesos,<br />

como por ejemplo <strong>la</strong>s universida<strong>de</strong>s; en caso contrario el investigador en cuestión se encontrará<br />

en una situación <strong>de</strong> franca <strong>de</strong>sventaja <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> esta “cultura universitaria tecnomeritocrática,<br />

es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong> cultura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación por <strong>la</strong> investigación. (…) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> apertura<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> que lo más importante es <strong>la</strong> excelencia académica y <strong>la</strong><br />

excelencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación” (Castells 2002: 4). La <strong>para</strong>doja es que <strong>la</strong>s propias productoras<br />

<strong>de</strong> innovación y conocimiento son <strong>la</strong>s que posteriormente tienen que pagar por acce<strong>de</strong>r a<br />

esas producciones; por eso, <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> trabajos <strong>de</strong> investigación y tesis doctorales en<br />

abierto y <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los repositorios <strong>de</strong> cada universidad es una medida a<strong>de</strong>cuada <strong>para</strong> paliar<br />

el comercio <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento.<br />

Con todo ello no se está sosteniendo una visión utópica <strong>de</strong> Internet según <strong>la</strong> cual <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

“aporta un arrol<strong>la</strong>dor o im<strong>para</strong>ble potencial <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunida<strong>de</strong>s en vías <strong>de</strong><br />

liberación, <strong>para</strong> el crecimiento exponencial <strong>de</strong>l capital humano y social y <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> realización<br />

<strong>de</strong> una plena participación <strong>de</strong>mocrática <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas en toda <strong>de</strong>cisión política”, <strong>la</strong>s bonda<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet no han “erradicado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> humanidad el azote <strong>de</strong>l odio, los prejuicios, <strong>la</strong><br />

venganza, <strong>la</strong> pobreza ni <strong>la</strong> enfermedad, ni los erradicará” (Katz y Rice 2005: 15). Únicamente<br />

se está <strong>de</strong>stacando el valor <strong>de</strong> mantener Internet en abierto como modo más universal <strong>de</strong><br />

acceso al conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l que actualmente disponemos.


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

5. conclusiones<br />

105<br />

Cada vez más <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s se adaptan a <strong>la</strong>s exigencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> técnica y no al contrario,<br />

como fue en un principio. Se pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cir que los parámetros <strong>de</strong>l crecimiento económico<br />

han <strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> estar en pugna con los valores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia <strong>para</strong> prácticamente sustituirlos<br />

y <strong>la</strong> innovación tecnológica llevada a cabo por empresas privadas ha terminado prácticamente<br />

aca<strong>para</strong>ndo <strong>la</strong> técnica y <strong>la</strong> innovación tecnológica en su propio beneficio.<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> p<strong>la</strong>ntea al usuario, pero también al ciudadano en<br />

general <strong>la</strong> oportunidad <strong>de</strong> recuperar los valores <strong>de</strong>mocráticos, esto es, <strong>de</strong> reivindicar intereses<br />

colectivos frente <strong>la</strong>s pretensiones <strong>de</strong> los ISPs. A pesar <strong>de</strong> que nuestra sociedad se <strong>de</strong>fine como<br />

‘<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información’ o ‘<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación’ en realidad esto no <strong>la</strong> convierte en una sociedad<br />

tan cohesionada como pudiera parecer, sus intereses se encuentran muy sectorizados y <strong>la</strong><br />

esfera pública es débil, lo cual no <strong>de</strong>be confundirse con <strong>la</strong> tan <strong>de</strong>stacada capacidad <strong>de</strong> convocatoria<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

La verda<strong>de</strong>ra <strong>de</strong>mocratización se da en <strong>la</strong> esfera pública y no en <strong>la</strong> sintonía <strong>de</strong> múltiples<br />

fragmentos sociales. Si los ISPs discriminan los accesos a Internet están dividiendo<br />

aún más a <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía. Si bien es cierto que, a pesar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s innegables ventajas que ofrece<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, ya se han constatado indicios <strong>de</strong> ais<strong>la</strong>miento entre usuarios habituales y si aquel<strong>la</strong><br />

queda sectorizada, este efecto podría multiplicarse, siendo así que no sólo el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l<br />

conocimiento sino <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> otras áreas humanas quedarían a merced <strong>de</strong> los intereses<br />

mercantiles <strong>de</strong> cada proveedor y el ciudadano se vería aún más <strong>de</strong>scohesionado y con ello<br />

<strong>de</strong>finitivamente más <strong>de</strong>bilitado <strong>para</strong> organizarse y hacer frente a cualquier amenaza o abuso<br />

<strong>de</strong> carácter global.<br />

Los valores <strong>de</strong>mocráticos, pues, emergen cuando <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> verse como<br />

el modo <strong>de</strong> aumentar sin límites <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Internet, ya que es precisamente ahí, en<br />

<strong>la</strong> aparente necesidad <strong>de</strong> aumento sin límites <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s prestaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> don<strong>de</strong> los ISPs encuentran<br />

<strong>la</strong> mayor justificación <strong>para</strong> imponer su i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> servicios. Ante<br />

un crecimiento ilimitado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda <strong>de</strong> los usuarios, como está sucediendo en <strong>la</strong> actualidad,<br />

los proveedores encuentran al campo abonado <strong>para</strong> incrementar dichas prestaciones<br />

a cambio <strong>de</strong> asumir <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> como un valor <strong>de</strong> mercado aunque con ello acaben con uno <strong>de</strong><br />

los gran<strong>de</strong>s logros <strong>de</strong> Internet: hacer posible el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> prácticamente<br />

cualquier parte <strong>de</strong>l mundo.<br />

Ciertamente, este y <strong>otros</strong> logros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s han sido posibles gracias a <strong>la</strong> inversión<br />

en infraestructuras que han venido realizando los propios proveedores, pero si como ha<br />

ocurrido con el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> casi todo avance tecnológico, nos acabamos encontrando con<br />

el dilema <strong>de</strong> si <strong>para</strong> aumentar el progreso y el bienestar, <strong>la</strong> propia especie humana <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong><br />

ser beneficiaria <strong>para</strong> ser pagana. Así <strong>la</strong>s cosas parece más razonable <strong>de</strong>batir no tanto sobre si<br />

es legal y/o <strong>de</strong>seable que los ISPs puedan hacerse dueños <strong>de</strong>l acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, sino más bien<br />

sobre si es posible someter el crecimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> a parámetros <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo sostenible que<br />

<strong>la</strong> conviertan verda<strong>de</strong>ramente en un instrumento generalizado a favor <strong>de</strong>l progreso humano<br />

y con un crecimiento más ajustado a <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s humanas y no tanto a <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l mercado.


106 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Si los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet logran finalmente discriminar el acceso a <strong>la</strong><br />

que podría ser <strong>la</strong> principal fuente <strong>de</strong> información y comunicación, no quedará lugar entonces<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> soberanía individual ni <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocrática al estar este fértil modo <strong>de</strong> acceso al<br />

conocimiento y a <strong>la</strong> realidad pre<strong>de</strong>terminado por los intereses económicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s<br />

compañías.<br />

6. bibliografÍa citada<br />

A. T. Kearney, Inc. (2010): A viable future mo<strong>de</strong>l for the Internet. Chicago: Marketing &<br />

Communications [www.atkearney.com][Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 05/05/11].<br />

Belloso, Nuria (1999). «Del Estado <strong>de</strong> Bienestar a <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> Bienestar: <strong>la</strong> reconstrucción<br />

filosófico-política <strong>de</strong> su legitimidad» en Belloso, Nuria (coord.).Para que algo cambie<br />

en <strong>la</strong> teoría jurídica. Burgos: Universidad <strong>de</strong> Burgos.<br />

Bermudo, José Manuel (2001): Filosofía política. Barcelona: Ediciones <strong>de</strong>l Serbal. Vol. II.<br />

Caminal, Miquel (1996): Manual <strong>de</strong> ciencia política. Madrid: Tecnos. D.L. 2010.<br />

Castells, Manuel (2006). «Internet, libertad y sociedad: una perspectiva analítica». [http://<br />

www.uoc.edu/web/esp/<strong>la</strong>universidad/inaugural01/intro_conc_imp.html]. [Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 20/04/11].<br />

Ibid. (2002). «La dimensión cultural <strong>de</strong> Internet» [http://www.uoc.edu/culturaxxi/esp/articles/castells0502/castells0502_imp.html].<br />

Institut <strong>de</strong> cultura: Debates culturales. UoC<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 11/05/11].<br />

Ibid. (2009). Comunicación y po<strong>de</strong>r. Madrid: Alianza.<br />

Contreras, Rufino (2009): «Vinton Cerf y Tim Beners-Lee abogan por <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet» [http://www.computing.es/Noticias/200904210013/Vinton-Cerf-y-Tim-<br />

Berners-Lee-abogan-por-<strong>la</strong>-neutralidad-<strong>de</strong>-Internet.aspx]. Computing.es. Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 10/05/11].<br />

Froomkin, Michael A. (2003): «Habermas@discourse.net:Toward a critical theory of Cyberspace».<br />

Harvard Law Review. Vol. 116. January 2003. Nr. 3.<br />

Gavilán, Pablo (2011). «Yo estoy a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ley Sin<strong>de</strong>».[http://pablogavi<strong>la</strong>n.com/ 2011/02/<br />

yo-estoy-a-favor-<strong>de</strong>-<strong>la</strong>-ley-sin<strong>de</strong>/]. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 10/04/11].<br />

Goldman, Albert (2005). «Cerf Says Symmetry is Beautiful» [http://www.isp-p<strong>la</strong>net.com/<br />

news/2005/cerf-f2c.html.]. ISP-P<strong>la</strong>net. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 15/05/11].<br />

Katz, James E., Rice, Ronald E. (2002). Consecuencias sociales <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> Internet. Barcelona:<br />

Editorial UoC. D.L. 2005.<br />

Mason, Stephen E. (1985). Historia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciencias. Madrid: Alianza. D.L. 2001.<br />

López, Miguel ángel (2009).«Laicismo día tras día. Para una fundamentación filosóficopolítica»<br />

en Nuñez, Paloma, Espinosa, Javier (coords.).Filosofía y política en el siglo XXI.<br />

Europa y el nuevo or<strong>de</strong>n cosmopolita. Madrid: Akal.


sin neutralidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ¿dón<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica universal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> innovación?<br />

107<br />

Navarro, Joan (2011). «A favor <strong>de</strong> Internet… y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ‘ley Sin<strong>de</strong>’». El País.com. [http://elpais.<br />

com/artículo/opinión/favor/Internet/ley/sin<strong>de</strong>/elpepiopi/20110127_12/Tes?print=1]<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 30/03/11].<br />

Muñoz,Santiago (2000). La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Po<strong>de</strong>r y Derecho en Internet. Madrid: Taurus.<br />

Quntanil<strong>la</strong>, Miguel Ángel (1989). Tecnología: un enfoque filosófico y <strong>otros</strong> ensayos <strong>de</strong> filosofía<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología. México: Fondo <strong>de</strong> Cultura Económica. D.L. 2005<br />

«A Gui<strong>de</strong> to the open Internet” (2010) [http://theopeninter.net]. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta:<br />

01/05/11].<br />

«Habermas y Castells: dos visiones <strong>de</strong> Internet» (2011). Nexos en línea [http://<strong>red</strong>accion.<br />

nexos.com.nex/?p=1350]. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 19/05/11].<br />

Ley 2/2011, <strong>de</strong> 4 <strong>de</strong> marzo, <strong>de</strong> Economía sostenible. BoE. Núm. 55. Sec. I. Pág. 25033.<br />

«<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>». Wikipedia. La enciclopedia libre.[http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/<strong>Neutralidad</strong>_<strong>de</strong>_<strong>red</strong>]<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 01/04/11].


INterNet ABIertA, NeUtrAlIDAD De lA reD<br />

y DefeNsA De lA COmPeteNCIA<br />

Jose Manuel Pérez Marzabal<br />

Abogado. Co<strong>la</strong>borador Docente, Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

AbstrAct: La <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red está <strong>de</strong> actualidad tanto en EEUU como en Europa y, <strong>la</strong><br />

Comisión Europea ha pedido al organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones Electrónicas<br />

(BEREC) que lleve a cabo un análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> situación respecto a cuestiones cruciales <strong>para</strong> conseguir<br />

una Internet abierta y neutral, como <strong>la</strong>s barreras al cambio <strong>de</strong> operador, el bloqueo o el estrangu<strong>la</strong>miento<br />

<strong>de</strong>l tráfico por Internet. En <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación se ofrece una rápida y somera visión<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red <strong>de</strong>l marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea y<br />

<strong>la</strong>s posibles aplicaciones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red. Existen varios mercados implicados en el ecosistema <strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>de</strong> acuerdo a su diseño:<br />

mercados <strong>de</strong> infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s y servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicación electrónica, mercados <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> organización <strong>de</strong> Internet, mercados <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y mercados <strong>de</strong> contenidos. En cada una <strong>de</strong> estas capas <strong>de</strong>berá aplicarse <strong>la</strong> normativa “antitrust”. Esta<br />

ponencia se centra en contextualizar <strong>la</strong>s implicaciones legales <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> Internet, así como el rol <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y el ecosistema <strong>de</strong> innovación generado por su<br />

arquitectura.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, Internet, <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia, antitrust, innovación,<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s, regu<strong>la</strong>ción, telecomunicaciones, comunicaciones electrónicas.<br />

1. introducción<br />

“I will take a backseat to no one in my commitment to network neutrality,<br />

because once provi<strong>de</strong>rs start to privilege some applications or web sites over others,<br />

then the smaller voices get squeezed out, and we all lose.<br />

The Internet is perhaps the most open network in history. We have to keep it that way.”<br />

Barack obama, Presi<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong> EE.UU., en su campaña electoral <strong>de</strong> Noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2007<br />

La <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red está en primera página <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actualidad en Internet tanto<br />

en EE.UU. como en Europa a raíz <strong>de</strong>l compromiso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea <strong>para</strong> asegurar<br />

que el principio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Internet abierta se aplica en <strong>la</strong> práctica, así como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong><br />

Julius Genachowski, Presi<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones (“FCC”, en su<br />

6


110 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

acrónimo en inglés), ante un subcomité <strong>de</strong>l Congreso <strong>de</strong> los EE.UU acerca <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red 1 .<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate se <strong>de</strong>be a que los operadores <strong>de</strong> telefonía y cable perciben que tienen una<br />

c<strong>la</strong>ra oportunidad comercial <strong>de</strong> aumentar sus ingresos y ampliar su mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> negocio si<br />

pudiesen contro<strong>la</strong>r el acceso a <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones 2 , repercutiendo<br />

costes en función <strong>de</strong>l ancho <strong>de</strong> banda consumido, como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada “tasa<br />

Google”, y ofrecer niveles diferenciados <strong>de</strong> servicio a sus clientes, justificados por lo que<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ran un uso extensivo <strong>de</strong> sus infraestructuras, aspectos <strong>de</strong> seguridad, y por el ritmo<br />

creciente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha que según los expertos pue<strong>de</strong> provocar<br />

un co<strong>la</strong>pso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura <strong>de</strong> Internet 3 . obviando que el pago <strong>de</strong> los usuarios por acceso<br />

cubre todos los costes.<br />

Esta ponencia se centra en contextualizar <strong>la</strong>s implicaciones legales <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perspectiva<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> Internet o, por mejor <strong>de</strong>cir, interre<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

entre <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y antitrust, así como <strong>la</strong> posible aplicación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar una Internet abierta y el ecosistema <strong>de</strong> innovación generado<br />

por su arquitectura 4 .<br />

El objeto <strong>de</strong> este estudio presenta notables dificulta<strong>de</strong>s por su complejidad intrínseca.<br />

Sin embargo, preten<strong>de</strong> afrontar un consi<strong>de</strong>rable nivel <strong>de</strong> amplitud y profundidad en todas<br />

1 “…while critically important, antitrust <strong>la</strong>ws alone would not a<strong>de</strong>quately preserve the freedom and openness<br />

of the Internet or provi<strong>de</strong> enough certainty and confi<strong>de</strong>nce to drive investment in our innovation<br />

future. Antitrust enforcement is expensive to pursue, takes a long time, and kicks in only after damage is<br />

done. Especially for start-ups in a fast-moving area like the Internet, that’s not a practical solution”. Asimismo,<br />

el Presi<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> FCC replicó a <strong>la</strong> propuesta <strong>de</strong>l Partido Republicano <strong>de</strong> promulgar normativa<br />

antitrust específica <strong>para</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red: “Some have suggested that Congress adopt new<br />

antitrust <strong>la</strong>ws addressing Internet openness. But that too would be a problematic approach, ill-suited to the<br />

fast-changing nature of Internet technology. As the Supreme Court has pointed out, while statutes are hard<br />

to change in light of new <strong>de</strong>velopments in network technology or markets, expert administrative agencies<br />

have flexible processes for <strong>de</strong>aling with the unexpected and are, accordingly, better suited for handling this<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r issue”. Se pue<strong>de</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a su <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ración completa en http://transition.fcc.gov/commissioners/<br />

genachowski/statements.html [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

2 Más opaco es el mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> negocio basado en obtención <strong>de</strong> ingresos vía publicidad <strong>de</strong> algunos prestadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet vía Phorm. Vi<strong>de</strong> Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C.T. (2010) Net Neutrality. Towards a<br />

Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory Solution. Bloomsbury Aca<strong>de</strong>mic. Londres. pp. 77-81; The Phorm Files. The Register.<br />

29 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008. Disponible en http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/02/29/phorm_roundup/<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta, 23 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

3 En EEUU <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>o en streaming Netflix ya supera al protocolo <strong>para</strong> intercambio <strong>de</strong><br />

ficheros <strong>de</strong> igual a igual (“P2P”, en su acrónimo en inglés) BitTorrent y los sitios web http en el uso<br />

<strong>de</strong> tráfico <strong>de</strong> Internet: Schonfeld, E. (2011) Netflix Now the Largest Single Source of Internet Traffic<br />

in North America. Disponible en http://techcrunch.com/2011/05/17/netflix-<strong>la</strong>rgest-internet-traffic/<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta, 21 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

4 En este sentido, vi<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s excelentes monografías: Tuomi, I. (2002) Networks of Innovation. Change<br />

and Meaning in the Age of the Internet. oxford University Press. New York; Van Schewick, B. (2010)<br />

Internet Architecture and Innovation. The MIT Press. Cambridge.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

111<br />

<strong>la</strong>s cuestiones abordadas. A<strong>de</strong>más quisiera servir <strong>de</strong> reflexión y aportar i<strong>de</strong>as en el amplio<br />

<strong>de</strong>bate respecto a <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red 5 , toda vez que existen elementos comunes entre <strong>la</strong><br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en este sector<br />

específico pero también intereses divergentes que requieren <strong>de</strong> una armonización <strong>para</strong> su<br />

coherente aplicación.<br />

Expuesto el enfoque que proponemos, el artículo se estructurará como sigue: en primer<br />

término, se <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>rá sucintamente el contexto tecnológico y social <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Red; tomando este contexto como referencia, en <strong>la</strong> segunda parte, explicaremos el marco<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>torio actual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y el statu quo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada Agenda<br />

Digital 6 . En <strong>la</strong> tercera parte, se formu<strong>la</strong>n brevemente una propuesta <strong>de</strong> medidas al objeto<br />

<strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> Agenda Digital venga acompañada <strong>de</strong> una armonización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

y <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar<br />

una Internet abierta y <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red. Finalmente, cerramos el presente artículo<br />

con nuestras conclusiones.<br />

2. el <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

2.1. antece<strong>de</strong>ntes y convergencia <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Algunos <strong>de</strong> los acontecimientos recientes más emocionantes y <strong>de</strong>safiantes han surgido<br />

en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> alta tecnología. Parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> doctrina, me atrevería a <strong>de</strong>cir también <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

industria, tien<strong>de</strong> a analizar Internet <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un ina<strong>de</strong>cuado nivel <strong>de</strong> abstracción, centrándose<br />

en Internet como un mero “medio”, cuando -por diseño- casi todas <strong>la</strong>s innovaciones y aplicaciones<br />

se encuentran a nivel <strong>de</strong> aplicación y protocolos asociados 7 .<br />

La historia nos <strong>de</strong>muestra que <strong>la</strong>s innovaciones tecnológicas implican a medio y <strong>la</strong>rgo<br />

p<strong>la</strong>zo cambios profundos en <strong>la</strong>s estructuras sociales. Ello es especialmente cierto en el caso<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> revolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación que ha marcado <strong>la</strong><br />

transición al siglo XXI y cuyo potencial se aglutina en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s. Ello no obstante, los<br />

principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> experiencia nos invita a tener caute<strong>la</strong>. Los <strong>de</strong>sastres <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura <strong>de</strong><br />

fibra óptica, y el escaso rendimiento <strong>de</strong> los servicios 3G en telefonía móvil, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

explosión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> burbuja tecnológica en los mercados financieros, nos han enseñado que no<br />

siempre el mercado alcanza <strong>la</strong>s expectativas previamente generadas.<br />

5 Para algunas opiniones críticas con <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, vi<strong>de</strong><br />

Farber D. y Katz M. (2007) Hold off on Network Neutrality, Washington Post. 19 <strong>de</strong> enero. Disponible<br />

en http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/18/AR2007011801508.<br />

html [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta, 23 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]; Baumol, W. J., et al. (2007) Economists’ Statement<br />

on Network Neutrality Policy. AEI-Brookings Joint Center Working Paper N. RP07-08.<br />

6 http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital-agenda/in<strong>de</strong>x_en.htm<br />

7 Wu, T. (1999). Internet v Application: An Introduction to Application-Cente<strong>red</strong> Internet Analysis,<br />

Virginia Law Review 86.


112 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

En este contexto, <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad social corporativa y el comportamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s empresas<br />

más potentes en el mercado son cada vez más discutidas sin que se hayan <strong>de</strong>terminado<br />

unas c<strong>la</strong>ras reg<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l juego al respecto por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s competentes, lo que repercute<br />

negativamente en <strong>la</strong> innovación. En todo caso, parece c<strong>la</strong>ro que <strong>la</strong> economía digital<br />

requiere un soporte <strong>institucional</strong> y regu<strong>la</strong>torio <strong>para</strong> un óptimo funcionamiento.<br />

Los progresos técnicos recientes contribuyen a difuminar <strong>la</strong>s barreras entre <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones,<br />

<strong>la</strong> televisión, e Internet. Mientras que <strong>la</strong> tecnología con conmutador <strong>de</strong> circuito<br />

es substituida pau<strong>la</strong>tinamente por <strong>la</strong> interconexión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s IP 8 , se producen cambios<br />

significativos en los mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong>l negocio, <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong> los operadores económicos y su<br />

estructura empresarial. Esto requiere nuevas formas <strong>de</strong> organización y <strong>de</strong> interre<strong>la</strong>ción entre<br />

los actores <strong>de</strong>l mercado, tales como los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, los prestadores <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> valor añadido y <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones web inteligentes.<br />

Nuevas cuestiones relevantes aparecen en <strong>la</strong> agenda como <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>la</strong>tivas al acceso a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> nueva generación y <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los servicios Internet <strong>de</strong> nueva generación 9 , así<br />

como nuevas formas <strong>de</strong> discriminación potencial y <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia tecnológica en el ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> “<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red”. Todo ello tiene mucho que ver con <strong>la</strong> misma<br />

estructura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, que es neutral. Eso significa que toda <strong>la</strong> información que viaja por el<strong>la</strong><br />

es tratada en condiciones <strong>de</strong> igualdad, in<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> quien <strong>la</strong> emita y <strong>la</strong> reciba y<br />

<strong>de</strong> cuál sea su contenido, como es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> telefonía por Internet.<br />

El centro <strong>de</strong> gravedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> computación sigue alejándose <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>nador personal en<br />

dirección a Internet, un cambio <strong>de</strong> <strong>para</strong>digma que incrementa <strong>la</strong> trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l acceso<br />

a Internet. La Red es un espacio universal y <strong>de</strong>scentralizado. Esa es su gran virtud, y está<br />

basada originalmente en una especie <strong>de</strong> axioma, o <strong>de</strong> ley no vincu<strong>la</strong>nte, que rige sus protocolos<br />

<strong>de</strong> programación: el principio <strong>de</strong>l “end-to-end”, que pue<strong>de</strong> significar <strong>de</strong> terminal a<br />

terminal 10 , <strong>de</strong> usuario a usuario, o entre colegas (“P2P”, en su acrónimo en inglés).<br />

Este principio, que es el cimiento <strong>de</strong>l juego internacional <strong>de</strong> protocolos (“ITP”, en su<br />

acrónimo en inglés), conmina a los programadores a situar los controles lo más cerca posible<br />

<strong>de</strong> los usuarios, o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> fuente y el usuario. Los protocolos que rigen el intercambio <strong>de</strong> información<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben estar en los márgenes <strong>de</strong>l sistema, por <strong>de</strong>cirlo <strong>de</strong> forma gráfica.<br />

La neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ha permitido hasta el presente, que cualquiera pueda poner en<br />

marcha un nuevo servicio o innovación sin pedir autorización previa. Por ejemplo, los servi-<br />

8 Protocolo <strong>de</strong> Internet, IP <strong>de</strong> sus sig<strong>la</strong>s en inglés Internet Protocol<br />

9 Al respecto, vi<strong>de</strong> Lemley, M. A. y Lessig, L. (2001). The End of End-to-End: Preserving the Architecture<br />

of the Internet in the Broadband Era, University of California Los Angeles Law Review, 48, pp. 925-972.<br />

10 Para una perspectiva visual <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate acerca <strong>de</strong> los implicaciones <strong>de</strong>l principio <strong>de</strong>l “end-to-end”, vi<strong>de</strong><br />

Benkler, Y., e2e Map, 1 <strong>de</strong> Diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2000, disponible en http://cyber<strong>la</strong>w.stanford.edu/e2e/e2e_<br />

map.html [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 23 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]; Para un estudio más profundo, vi<strong>de</strong> Blumenthal,<br />

M., S., End-to-End and Subsequents Paradigms, Law Review Michigan State University-Detroit<br />

C.L. 709, 717, 2002; Lessig, L., The Architecture of Innovation, 51 Duke Law Journal 1783, 2002;<br />

Lemley, M., A., Lessig, L., The End of End-to-End: Preserving the Architecture of the Internet in the<br />

Broadband Era, 48 UCLA Law Review 925, 2001.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

113<br />

cios <strong>de</strong> radio, ví<strong>de</strong>o, streaming, VoIP, P2P o los protocolos <strong>de</strong> http [el protocolo <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r<br />

a los or<strong>de</strong>nadores remotos] o el ssh [el protocolo <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a or<strong>de</strong>nadores remotos], pero<br />

no ocurre lo mismo en Internet por móvil, don<strong>de</strong> no existe tal neutralidad.<br />

Asimismo, <strong>la</strong> convergencia 11 digital también ha tenido efectos indirectos en <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong><br />

una sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que <strong>de</strong>safía sectores tradicionales como los <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicación, radiodifusión,<br />

y contenidos. Todo ello anticipa <strong>la</strong> génesis <strong>de</strong> nuevos mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> negocio emergentes<br />

en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> nueva generación que permitirán <strong>la</strong> segregación <strong>de</strong>l acceso a <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> contenidos. Ello implicará un potencial ataque a <strong>la</strong>s estructuras actuales <strong>de</strong><br />

integración vertical <strong>de</strong> los operadores <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas y, tal vez, permitan fragmentar<br />

<strong>la</strong>s estructuras <strong>de</strong> monopolio, duopolio u oligopolio que todavía persisten en el sector <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones 12 . En resumen, nos encontramos ante una cuestión realmente compleja.<br />

Las revoluciones tecnológicas no es un tema <strong>de</strong> solución evi<strong>de</strong>nte, y llevan implícitas<br />

dos aspectos relevantes que <strong>de</strong>finen su presente y futuro: por un <strong>la</strong>do, los estándares tecnológicos<br />

y por otro, <strong>de</strong>cisiones políticas profundas. Detrás <strong>de</strong> estas <strong>de</strong>cisiones encontraremos<br />

el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet, que probablemente <strong>de</strong>je <strong>de</strong> ser <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s tal cual es conocida hoy<br />

<strong>para</strong> convertirse en el medio por don<strong>de</strong> se brindarán distintos servicios: tales como, telefonía,<br />

datos, vi<strong>de</strong>o, televisión, y cable 13 .<br />

A título ilustrativo, hay distintos actores que incidirán directamente en el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong><br />

VoIP: por ejemplo, los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones incumbentes, <strong>la</strong>s entrantes en el<br />

mercado, los proveedores <strong>de</strong> tecnología, los usuarios y el Estado. La tecnología ya está disponible,<br />

sólo resta que los actores continúen con el proceso <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sregu<strong>la</strong>ción iniciado en 2000,<br />

discutan sobre <strong>la</strong>s tarifas <strong>de</strong>l servicio <strong>de</strong> Internet y piensen <strong>la</strong> tecnología en una c<strong>la</strong>ve política.<br />

Algunos están <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con que el Estado fije <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> juego, mientras que los más<br />

liberales no quieren saber nada <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción. VoIP es una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías disruptivas que<br />

está generando y generará muchos cambios en el mercado y en <strong>la</strong> sociedad, tal cual ocurrió<br />

con <strong>la</strong> invención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> telefonía fija. En este contexto, una cuestión subyacente que asusta al<br />

mercado es: ¿se convertirá Internet en un servicio público?<br />

2.2. métrica <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

Como ya hemos apuntado previamente, <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red está <strong>de</strong> actualidad<br />

tanto en EEUU como en Europa a raíz <strong>de</strong> que los gran<strong>de</strong>s operadores <strong>de</strong> telefonía y cable<br />

11 La Comisión Europea, tras admitir <strong>la</strong> dificultad <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>finir<strong>la</strong>, <strong>de</strong>termina que <strong>la</strong> convergencia es <strong>la</strong> capacidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> diferentes p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> transportar tipos <strong>de</strong> servicios esencialmente simi<strong>la</strong>res, o <strong>la</strong><br />

aproximación <strong>de</strong> dispositivos <strong>de</strong> consumo tales como el teléfono, <strong>la</strong> televisión y el or<strong>de</strong>nador personal.<br />

Hacia una economía europea dinámica. Libro ver<strong>de</strong> sobre el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> un mercado común <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios y equipos <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, CoM(87)290, Bruse<strong>la</strong>s, 30 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 1987.<br />

12 Szyszczak, E. (2007) The Regu<strong>la</strong>tion of the State in Competitive Markets in the EU. Hart Publishing.<br />

Port<strong>la</strong>nd. Pág. 150.<br />

13 Pérez Marzabal, J.M. (2007) Convergencia digital, interconexión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s IP y otras (r)evoluciones<br />

tecnológicas. Revista <strong>de</strong> Contratación Electrónica. N. 79. Pág. 8.


114 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

se han dado cuenta <strong>de</strong> que su mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> negocio se incrementaría si pudiesen contro<strong>la</strong>r el<br />

acceso a <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, imponiendo un pago en función<br />

<strong>de</strong>l ancho <strong>de</strong> banda consumido, y ofrecer niveles diferenciados <strong>de</strong> servicio a sus clientes,<br />

que justifican por lo que consi<strong>de</strong>ran un uso extensivo <strong>de</strong> sus infraestructuras y por el ritmo<br />

creciente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> banda ancha que según los expertos pue<strong>de</strong> provocar<br />

un co<strong>la</strong>pso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> arquitectura <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

Estas <strong>de</strong>mandas contrastan con <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red que existe <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong><br />

el origen <strong>de</strong> Internet. Una <strong>red</strong> universal en <strong>la</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información circu<strong>la</strong> en paquetes que<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n tomar diversas rutas <strong>para</strong> posteriormente unirse en el punto <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>stino, con total in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

<strong>de</strong> su contenido. A efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, todos los paquetes, sin importar su origen,<br />

son exactamente iguales.<br />

La <strong>red</strong> es una infraestructura completamente neutra, sin intermediario alguno entre<br />

quien envía y recibe. Gracias a este escaso grado <strong>de</strong> control y regu<strong>la</strong>ción, <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ha sido capaz<br />

<strong>de</strong> alumbrar un ecosistema <strong>de</strong> innovación y se ha convertido en el vehículo <strong>de</strong> transmisión<br />

<strong>de</strong> información más eficiente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> historia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> humanidad, y ha permitido que microempresas<br />

y start-ups compitan directamente con <strong>la</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s multinacionales.<br />

Aunque no se conoce una <strong>de</strong>finición formal <strong>de</strong> dicho término a nivel comunitario,<br />

“<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red” 14 , el artículo 8, apartado 4, letra g), <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva marco15 , exige<br />

que <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación promuevan los intereses <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea favoreciendo <strong>la</strong> capacidad <strong>de</strong> los usuarios finales <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r y distribuir<br />

<strong>la</strong> información o utilizar <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones y los servicios <strong>de</strong> su elección.<br />

Las discusiones sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red comenzaron en EE.UU, en torno a cual<br />

<strong>de</strong>bía ser <strong>la</strong> función <strong>de</strong>l gobierno norteamericano hacia aquellos prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet que quisieran ofrecer diferentes niveles <strong>de</strong> servicio a diferentes precios. Resultó ser<br />

un <strong>de</strong>bate <strong>de</strong> extrema complejidad dado su carácter transversal, puesto que combina argumentos<br />

técnicos, económicos, legales e incluso i<strong>de</strong>ológicos.<br />

La esencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones fundamentales <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate se<br />

refieren, ante todo, a <strong>la</strong> mejor manera <strong>de</strong> mantener <strong>la</strong> apertura <strong>de</strong> esta p<strong>la</strong>taforma y <strong>de</strong> garantizar<br />

que pueda seguir prestando servicios <strong>de</strong> alta calidad a todo el mundo y facilitando<br />

<strong>la</strong> innovación16 , al tiempo que contribuye al disfrute <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, tales<br />

como <strong>la</strong> libre expresión y <strong>la</strong> libre actividad empresarial, y al respeto <strong>de</strong> los mismos.<br />

14 La acepción mo<strong>de</strong>rna <strong>de</strong>l término “<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red” traducción <strong>de</strong> su homónimo inglés network<br />

neutrality u open Internet, fue introducido en 2005 por Tim Wu, Profesor <strong>de</strong> Columbia. Vi<strong>de</strong><br />

su FAQ Network Neutrality en http://www.timwu.org/network_neutrality.html [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta<br />

17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

15 Directiva 2002/21/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2002 (Directiva<br />

marco).<br />

16 A modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo, vi<strong>de</strong> Wu, T. (2003) Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination. Journal on<br />

Telecommunications and High Technology. N. 2. L. 141, 151.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

115<br />

Buena parte <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> se centrará en <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico<br />

y en <strong>la</strong>s condiciones en que resulta razonable. Se acepta generalmente que los operadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s tienen que adoptar ciertas prácticas <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico <strong>para</strong> garantizar un uso<br />

eficiente <strong>de</strong> sus re<strong>de</strong>s y que ciertos servicios IP, como por ejemplo <strong>la</strong> IPTV en tiempo real y<br />

<strong>la</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>oconferencia, pue<strong>de</strong>n exigir una gestión particu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l tráfico a fin <strong>de</strong> garantizar una<br />

calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio elevada y pre<strong>de</strong>finida. Sin embargo, el hecho <strong>de</strong> que algunos operadores,<br />

por razones que nada tienen que ver con <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico, puedan bloquear o <strong>de</strong>gradar<br />

servicios legales (en particu<strong>la</strong>r los <strong>de</strong> voz sobre IP) que compiten con sus propios servicios<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse contrario al carácter abierto <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

La transparencia constituye asimismo una parte esencial <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Una información a<strong>de</strong>cuada sobre <strong>la</strong>s posibles limitaciones o sobre <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l<br />

tráfico permite a los consumidores elegir con conocimiento <strong>de</strong> causa.<br />

2.3. contexto internacional<br />

En EEUU, <strong>la</strong> Comisión Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones (“FCC”, en su acrónimo en<br />

inglés) 17 ha <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rado reiteradamente su compromiso con <strong>la</strong> preservación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> apertura <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet 18 . A tal efecto, en 2005 adoptó cuatro principios c<strong>la</strong>ve que básicamente establecen<br />

que los operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> no podrán impedir a los usuarios acce<strong>de</strong>r a todo contenido legal,<br />

aplicaciones o servicios <strong>de</strong> su elección, ni podrán prohibir a los usuarios que conecten a <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> dispositivos que no resulten perjudiciales <strong>para</strong> ésta, y que fomentan <strong>la</strong> competencia entre<br />

los proveedores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s, servicios y contenidos 19 .<br />

Sin embargo, todo este entramado <strong>de</strong> principios parecía que se <strong>de</strong>rrumbaba con <strong>la</strong><br />

sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Ape<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong>l Distrito <strong>de</strong> Columbia, “el caso Comcast” 20 , que<br />

afirmaba que <strong>la</strong> Comisión Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones carece <strong>de</strong> autoridad <strong>para</strong> sancionar<br />

a Comcast por haber llevado a cabo prácticas <strong>de</strong> discriminación <strong>de</strong> tráfico en su <strong>red</strong>. Pero,<br />

en realidad, <strong>la</strong> sentencia se limita a resaltar <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> una norma legal que reconozca el<br />

principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad <strong>para</strong> que pueda ser exigible jurídicamente, no bastando <strong>la</strong>s meras<br />

<strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>institucional</strong>es.<br />

En diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2010, <strong>la</strong> FCC emitió una resolución que introduce nuevas normas en<br />

materia <strong>de</strong> transparencia y ac<strong>la</strong>ra cuáles son los tipos <strong>de</strong> bloqueo permitidos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda<br />

ancha fija y móvil. En principio, los proveedores <strong>de</strong> banda ancha fija no pue<strong>de</strong>n bloquear los<br />

contenidos y servciios lícitos ni los dispositivos y aplicaciones no perjudiciales, incluidos los<br />

que compiten con sus propios servicios telefónicos <strong>de</strong> voz o ví<strong>de</strong>o. En el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> banda an-<br />

17 http://www.fcc.gov/<br />

18 Como ejemplo <strong>de</strong>l compromiso <strong>de</strong> transparencia, <strong>la</strong> FCC inauguró el sitio web http://www.openInternet.gov<br />

<strong>para</strong> facilitar <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong>l público.<br />

19 FCC (2005) Policy paper on network management and neutrality. Disponible en http://hraunfoss.<br />

fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-05-151A1.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 22 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

20 Comcast Corp v. Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications Commission and United States, No. 08-1291, 2010.


116 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cha móvil, se optó por un p<strong>la</strong>nteamiento gradual. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, por el momento, sólo se impi<strong>de</strong><br />

específicamente a los proveedores bloquear los sitios web lícitos y <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones VoIP o <strong>de</strong><br />

vi<strong>de</strong>otelefonía que compitan con sus propios servicios telefónicos <strong>de</strong> voz o ví<strong>de</strong>o.<br />

<strong>otros</strong> países han adoptado directrices no vincu<strong>la</strong>ntes con re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Red. En Noruega, <strong>la</strong> Autoridad <strong>de</strong> Correos y Telecomunicaciones (“NPT” 21 , en su acrónimo<br />

en inglés), en co<strong>la</strong>boración con <strong>la</strong>s partes interesadas, adoptó en febrero <strong>de</strong> 2009 un acuerdo<br />

voluntario que otorgaba a los usuarios el <strong>de</strong>recho a disfrutar <strong>de</strong> una conexión a Internet 22 :<br />

i) <strong>de</strong> capacidad y calidad pre<strong>de</strong>finidas,<br />

ii) que les permita usar los contenidos, servicios y aplicaciones que elijan, y<br />

iii) en <strong>la</strong> que no haya discriminación re<strong>la</strong>cionada con el tipo <strong>de</strong> aplicación, servicio o contenido.<br />

Mientras tanto, en Canadá, <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>de</strong> Radiotelevisión y Telecomunicaciones<br />

(“CRTC” 23 , en su acrónimo en inglés) publicó en octubre <strong>de</strong> 2009 un nuevo marco sobre<br />

neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> que impone a los proveedores <strong>de</strong> Internet unas obligaciones reforzadas<br />

en materia <strong>de</strong> transparencia y sólo les permite emplear <strong>la</strong>s técnicas <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico<br />

como último recurso 24 . Sin embargo, los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones canadienses han<br />

implementado, entre otras medidas 25 , <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico vía límites <strong>de</strong> acceso 26 .<br />

Chile parece ser el primer país que ha abordado directamente el principio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red en su legis<strong>la</strong>ción. En agosto <strong>de</strong> 2010, su Par<strong>la</strong>mento adoptó una nueva ley que 27 ,<br />

en esencia, restringe el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> Internet a gestionar los contenidos, al<br />

tiempo que refuerza <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos y los usuarios <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

21 Sitio web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> NPT en http://www.npt.no/portal/page/portal/PG_NPT_No_No/PAG_NPT_<br />

No_HoME [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

22 NPT (2009) Network Neutrality. Gui<strong>de</strong>lines for network neutrality. Version 1.0. 24 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2009. Accesible en http://www.npt.no/portal/page/portal/PG_NPT_No_EN/PAG_NPT_EN_<br />

HoME/PAG_SEARCH [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

23 Telecom Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Policy CRTC 2009-657 (Review of the Internet traffic management practices<br />

of Internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs). 21 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2009, accesible en http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/homeaccueil.htm<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

24 http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2009/2009-657.htm [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

25 La <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red se perturba en <strong>la</strong> práctica con técnicas tan distintas como gestión <strong>de</strong> tráfico,<br />

diferentes calida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> servicio, discriminación en precios, priorizaciones <strong>de</strong> tráficos, <strong>de</strong>gradación y<br />

bloqueo <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones.<br />

26 Doctorow, C. (2011). Welcome to the Canadian Internet, now stop using it. Boing Boing http://boingboing.net/2011/02/02/welcome-to-the-canad.html<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]. Para un resumen<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s prácticas constatadas hasta <strong>la</strong> fecha en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, vi<strong>de</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y Social Europeo y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones.<br />

La internet abierta y <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en Europa. CoM(2011) 222 final. pp. 6-8; y, Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C. T.<br />

(2008) Net Neutrality: The European Debate. Journal of Internet Law. Vol. 12. N. 2. pp 1 y ss.<br />

27 Vi<strong>de</strong> el Boletín 4915 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cámara <strong>de</strong> Diputados <strong>de</strong> Chile en http://www.camara.cl/pley/pley_<strong>de</strong>talle.<br />

aspx?prmID=5300&prmBL=4915-19 [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

3. asPectos regu<strong>la</strong>torios<br />

3.1. antece<strong>de</strong>ntes y liberalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones<br />

117<br />

Sin duda el primer campo <strong>de</strong> acción <strong>para</strong> fomentar <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y el<br />

mercado electrónico es el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas.<br />

El XXXI Informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión sobre Política <strong>de</strong> Competencia <strong>de</strong> 2001 apuntaba <strong>la</strong><br />

existencia <strong>de</strong> problemas <strong>de</strong> competencia en <strong>la</strong> infraestructura <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones utilizada<br />

<strong>para</strong> el tráfico <strong>de</strong> Internet, especialmente en los mercados <strong>de</strong> acceso a Internet, <strong>de</strong> banda<br />

ancha y <strong>de</strong> banda estrecha, y en los mercados re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> conectividad e Internet 28 .<br />

En los albores y primeros <strong>de</strong>sarrollos <strong>de</strong> Internet era especialmente l<strong>la</strong>mativa <strong>la</strong> falta<br />

<strong>de</strong> competencia existente en sectores c<strong>la</strong>ve <strong>de</strong> infraestructura, como son <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s troncales<br />

(“backbone networks”) o re<strong>de</strong>s principales a <strong>la</strong>s que se comunican <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s secundarias <strong>para</strong><br />

que pueda circu<strong>la</strong>r por todo el mundo el inmenso tráfico <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> Internet, y el bucle<br />

local <strong>de</strong> abonado (“local loop”), que permite el acceso <strong>de</strong> esa sucesión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s que es Internet<br />

a todos los hogares.<br />

Para superar estos problemas ha sido y es fundamental <strong>la</strong> intensiva política <strong>de</strong> liberalización<br />

en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones, con especial inci<strong>de</strong>ncia en el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas. Y también <strong>la</strong> promulgación <strong>de</strong> normas específicas <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> competencia en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones, <strong>de</strong> aplicación prioritaria a <strong>la</strong>s normas<br />

generales sobre competencia, y cuyo principal objetivo es permitir un control ex ante <strong>de</strong> los<br />

operadores que dispongan <strong>de</strong> un peso significativo en el mercado.<br />

La liberalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones y <strong>la</strong>s obligaciones impuestas a los operadores<br />

dominantes, here<strong>de</strong>ros <strong>de</strong> los antiguos monopolios públicos, <strong>para</strong> que (con base en <strong>la</strong><br />

doctrina jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s “essential facilities” 29 ) permitan a operadores competidores el<br />

acceso a su infraestructura <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s en condiciones transparentes, equitativas y no discriminatorias,<br />

a fin <strong>de</strong> que puedan prestar libremente en el mercado servicios <strong>de</strong> telecomunicación<br />

(como el acceso a Internet), han incrementado extraordinariamente <strong>la</strong> competencia en este<br />

sector básico (mo<strong>de</strong>rando el po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los operadores dominantes), lo cual ha servido a posteriori<br />

<strong>para</strong> fomentar <strong>la</strong> inversión en infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> y en servicios <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong> misma<br />

por parte <strong>de</strong> los operadores que han ido entrando en el mercado. Todo ello ha permitido, a<br />

<strong>la</strong> postre, un acceso cada vez más fácil y rápido a Internet y a <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

<strong>para</strong> todos los ciudadanos, los que incluye <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> espacios<br />

propios <strong>para</strong> el almacenamiento y transmisión <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

28 Punto 214.<br />

29 La “essential facilities doctrine” surgió en <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia estadouni<strong>de</strong>nse sobre <strong>de</strong>recho “antitrust” y,<br />

aunque no existe una <strong>de</strong>finición c<strong>la</strong>ra <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma, con el<strong>la</strong> quiere indicarse el mandato o imposición<br />

a un operador económico titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> una prestación (producto o servicio) esencial (escasa) en un mercado<br />

concreto <strong>para</strong> que permita el acceso <strong>de</strong> terceros a esa prestación a un precio razonable. Para una<br />

explicación extensa <strong>de</strong> esta doctrina en diferentes países, véase el documento oCDE/GD(96)113.


118 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Las instituciones comunitarias han sido perfectamente conscientes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> importancia<br />

<strong>de</strong> incidir en <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> liberalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones <strong>para</strong> conseguir el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información, garantizando <strong>la</strong> aparición y consolidación <strong>de</strong> operadores<br />

alternativos a los <strong>de</strong>tentadores <strong>de</strong> los antiguos monopolios estatales, <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios y <strong>la</strong> intervención mínima <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Administración en el sector,<br />

sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s imprescindibles <strong>la</strong>bores <strong>de</strong> supervisión en aspectos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con el<br />

servicio público, el dominio público y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia. Esto se ha traducido en<br />

<strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un complejo marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones en el subsector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones electrónicas, <strong>de</strong>stacando <strong>la</strong>s siguientes disposiciones.<br />

No obstante, como ya se ha insistido en repetidas ocasiones, <strong>la</strong> liberalización no se<br />

traduce en una absoluta <strong>de</strong>sregu<strong>la</strong>ción, sino más bien en una neorregu<strong>la</strong>ción. Para proteger<br />

<strong>la</strong> libre competencia en este importante sector, entre otras medidas, se refuerzan <strong>la</strong>s competencias<br />

y faculta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales regu<strong>la</strong>torias en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> supervisión<br />

y regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los mercados, mediante un sistema por el cual estos organismos realizarán<br />

análisis periódicos <strong>de</strong> los distintos mercados <strong>de</strong> referencia, <strong>de</strong>tectando aquellos que no se<br />

estén <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>ndo en un contexto <strong>de</strong> competencia efectiva e imponiendo en ese caso, obligaciones<br />

específicas a los operadores con po<strong>de</strong>r significativo en el mercado.<br />

Resulta especialmente novedoso en este terreno el cambio en <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong><br />

operadores, pasando <strong>de</strong> un concepto formal, basado en <strong>la</strong> superación <strong>de</strong> una <strong>de</strong>terminada cuota<br />

<strong>de</strong> mercado (<strong>de</strong>l 25%), a otro material, basado en <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> dominio o <strong>de</strong> fuerza <strong>de</strong>l operador<br />

que le permite actuar con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> sus competidores o <strong>de</strong> los consumidores que sean<br />

personas físicas y usuarios (y por lo tanto más cercano al tradicional <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia).<br />

De esta normativa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> época <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> liberalización <strong>de</strong>be enfatizarse <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> imp<strong>la</strong>ntación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> acceso <strong>de</strong> terceros a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 30 , <strong>de</strong>cisivo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> constitución <strong>de</strong><br />

nuevas iniciativas y servicios en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> mundiales que, así,<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n conectarse con los servidores europeos. Su regu<strong>la</strong>ción primera está muy próxima a<br />

<strong>la</strong> doctrina norteamericana <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s facilida<strong>de</strong>s esenciales (“essential facilities”) 31 , que proce<strong>de</strong><br />

30 Decisiones como <strong>la</strong> recaída en el asunto Worldcom/MCI afrontó un problema <strong>de</strong> infraestructura<br />

en se<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> los famosos prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet, recurriendo, entre <strong>otros</strong> argumentos a <strong>la</strong><br />

doctrina <strong>de</strong> los “recursos esenciales”. Asunto IV/M 1069 [1999], oJ L 116/1.<br />

31 La doctrina sobre <strong>la</strong>s essential facilities proce<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> un venerable principio anglosajón que <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong><br />

que el acceso a <strong>de</strong>terminados recursos, activos y propieda<strong>de</strong>s que esté afectado por el interés público<br />

sea abierto. Vi<strong>de</strong> Hamilton, W., H., Affection with Public Interest, 39 YALE L.J. 1089, 1100-01<br />

(1930). Vi<strong>de</strong> también Pitofsky, R., Patterson, D., Hooks, J., The Essential Facilites Doctrine un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

U.S. Antitrust Law, Antitrust Law Journal 70, 2002, págs. 443-462. Para un estudio más profundo <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> doctrina <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s essential facilities en EEUU y <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea, vi<strong>de</strong> Díez Estel<strong>la</strong>, F., La doctrina<br />

<strong>de</strong>l abuso en los mercados conexos: <strong>de</strong>l “monopoly leveraging” a <strong>la</strong>s “essential facilities”, Law Journal<br />

439, 1994. Ridyard, Essential Facilities and the opoly leveraging” a <strong>la</strong>s “essential facilites”, Revista <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho Mercantil, nº 248, 2003, págs.. 584-604. Areeda, Essential Facilities: An Epithet in Need of<br />

Limiting Principles, 58 Antitrust Law Journal 841, 1990. Temple Lang, Defining Legitimatte Competition:<br />

Companies’ Duties to Supply Competitors and Access to Essential Facilites, 18 Fordham International<br />

Law Journal 439. Ridyard, Essential Facilities and the obligation to Supply Competitors


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

119<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho antitrust <strong>de</strong> principios <strong>de</strong>l siglo XX y se vincu<strong>la</strong>, en <strong>la</strong> actualidad, al artículo 102<br />

(antiguo 82) <strong>de</strong>l Tratado CE. Se ha aplicado a todos los supuestos en que se contro<strong>la</strong> una<br />

infraestructura esencial por un monopolista, el competidor es incapaz <strong>de</strong> duplicar o emu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

<strong>la</strong> infraestructura esencial y el monopolista niega el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infraestructura.<br />

La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estas situaciones se acompaña <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s objeciones que pue<strong>de</strong>n oponerse<br />

por el operador dominante (en esencia, que resulte imposible técnica o económicamente el<br />

empleo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> por otro) y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s condiciones <strong>de</strong> acceso. La reg<strong>la</strong> se incorporó al Derecho<br />

comunitario inmediatamente, antes incluso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> liberalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones (a<br />

modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo, sentencias <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia comunitario en los asuntos Commercial<br />

Solvents, <strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 1974 32 ; United Brands, <strong>de</strong> 14 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 1978 33 ).<br />

3.2. marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones modificado<br />

La apertura <strong>de</strong>l mercado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones a <strong>la</strong> competencia tuvo un efecto catalizador<br />

en un sector antes reservado a los monopolios u oligopolios. Con el fin <strong>de</strong> encauzar<br />

esta evolución, <strong>la</strong>s instancias responsables europeas han adoptado una legis<strong>la</strong>ción que está en<br />

consonancia con el progreso tecnológico y con <strong>la</strong>s exigencias <strong>de</strong>l mercado. Esta evolución se<br />

ha traducido en <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> un marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas cuyo<br />

objetivo principal es reforzar <strong>la</strong> competencia, facilitando <strong>la</strong> entrada en el mercado <strong>de</strong> nuevos<br />

operadores, y estimu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> inversión en este sector.<br />

En Julio <strong>de</strong> 2006 <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea requirió bajo el concepto <strong>de</strong> “neutralidad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>” que los regu<strong>la</strong>dores podían imponer un requisito <strong>de</strong> mínimo nivel <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l<br />

servicio al objeto <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los consumidores y usuarios.<br />

Posteriormente, <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea puso en marcha una consulta pública 34 sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

Internet abierta y <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red en Europa, que tuvo lugar entre el 30 <strong>de</strong> junio y<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r UK and EC Competition, 17 European Competition Law Review 438, 1996. Lipsky, Sidak,<br />

Essential Facilities, 51 Stanford Law Review 1187, 1999. Korah, Access to Essential Facilities un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

the Commerce Act in the Light of Experience in Australia, The European Union and the United States,<br />

31 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 231, 2000. Capobianco, The Essential Facility<br />

Doctrine: Simi<strong>la</strong>rities and Differences between the American and European Approaches, 26 EL Rev<br />

548, 2001. Doherty, Just What are Essential Facilities?, 38 Common Market Law Review 397, 2001.<br />

Pitofsky, Patterson, Hooks, The Essential Facilities Doctrine un<strong>de</strong>r US Antitrust Law, 70 Antitrust<br />

Law Journal 443, 2002. Bavasso, Essential Facilities in EC Law: the Rise of an “Epithet” and the<br />

Consolidation of a Doctrine in the Communications Sector, Yearbook of European Law, oxford<br />

University Press, editores Eeckhout and Tridimas, 2003, cap. 2.<br />

32 Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 1974, Asuntos acumu<strong>la</strong>dos 6 y 7-73, Istituto Chemioterapico<br />

Italiano S.P.A. y Comercial Solvents Corporation contra Comisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Europeas.<br />

33 Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> 14 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 1978, Asunto Plátanos Chiquita 27/76, United<br />

Brands Company y United Brands Continental BV contra Comisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas.<br />

34 El documento <strong>de</strong> consulta figura en http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/ecomm/library/<br />

public_consult/net_neutrality/in<strong>de</strong>x_en.htm [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 17 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]


120 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

el 30 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2010, que ha sido objeto <strong>de</strong> una Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europa<br />

al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo 35 presentado por Neelie Kroes 36 , Vicepresi<strong>de</strong>nta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea y responsable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agenda Digital 37 , el pasado 19 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011 38 .<br />

La Comunicación <strong>de</strong>staca <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> asegurar que los ciudadanos y <strong>la</strong>s empresas<br />

puedan acce<strong>de</strong>r fácilmente a una Internet abierta y neutral. Asimismo, afirma que <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea se mantendrá vigi<strong>la</strong>nte <strong>para</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s nuevas normas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea<br />

en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas sobre transparencia, calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio y<br />

capacidad <strong>de</strong> cambiar <strong>de</strong> operador, que está previsto que entren en vigor el 25 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong><br />

2011, se apliquen <strong>de</strong> manera que que<strong>de</strong> asegurado en <strong>la</strong> práctica el respeto al principio <strong>de</strong><br />

una Internet abierta y neutral.<br />

A modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo, <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea prestará especial atención a <strong>la</strong> concurrencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> restricciones generalizadas <strong>de</strong> servicios y aplicaciones legales y a que <strong>la</strong>s conexiones <strong>de</strong><br />

banda ancha <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos y <strong>la</strong>s empresas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea sean tan rápidas como<br />

se anuncia en <strong>la</strong> publicidad <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

La Comisión ha pedido al organismo <strong>de</strong> Regu<strong>la</strong>dores Europeos <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones<br />

Electrónicas (BEREC) que lleve a cabo un ejercicio riguroso <strong>de</strong> análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> situación respecto<br />

a cuestiones críticas <strong>para</strong> preservar una Internet abierta y neutral, como <strong>la</strong>s barreras al<br />

cambio <strong>de</strong> operador, el bloqueo o el estrangu<strong>la</strong>miento <strong>de</strong>l tráfico por Internet (por ejemplo,<br />

los servicios <strong>de</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> voz <strong>de</strong>l protocolo <strong>de</strong> Internet), <strong>la</strong> transparencia y <strong>la</strong> calidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l servicio.<br />

Asimismo, se establece en <strong>la</strong> Comunicación que <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea se reserva el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> evaluar, a <strong>la</strong> luz <strong>de</strong> los artículos 101 y 102 <strong>de</strong>l TFUE, cualquier comportamiento<br />

re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> tráfico que pueda restringir o falsear <strong>la</strong> competencia. A pesar<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s críticas <strong>de</strong> los activistas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, hay que precisar que <strong>la</strong> Comunicación<br />

no excluye <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> adoptar un marco regu<strong>la</strong>torio ad hoc.<br />

35 Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y Social<br />

Europeo y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones <strong>de</strong> 19 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011 [CoM(2011) 222] (La Internet abierta<br />

y <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red en Europa) [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 16 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/docs_autres_institutions/commission_europeenne/<br />

com/2011/0222/CoM_CoM(2011)0222_ES.pdf<br />

36 Sus últimas conferencias acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red están accesibles en http://europa.eu/rapid/<br />

pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/153 y http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.<br />

do?reference=SPEECH/11/285 [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 16 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

37 Sitio web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agenda Digital en http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital-agenda/in<strong>de</strong>x_<br />

en.htm [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 16 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

38 Los activistas pro <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red han criticado <strong>la</strong> Comunicación por <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> medidas efectivas<br />

a pesar <strong>de</strong> haberse i<strong>de</strong>ntificado casos <strong>de</strong> bloqueo o restriccion <strong>de</strong> ciertos tipos <strong>de</strong> tráfico (a modo<br />

<strong>de</strong> ejemplo, vi<strong>de</strong> este artículo don<strong>de</strong> La Quadrature da Net, un grupo que aboga por los <strong>de</strong>rechos y<br />

liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos en Internet, critican el posicionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea en<br />

http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net/en/net-neutrality-the-european-commission-gives-up-on-users-andinnovators<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 16 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]).


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

121<br />

Abundando, el marco modificado en 2009 tien<strong>de</strong> a favorecer <strong>la</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong>l carácter<br />

abierto y neutral <strong>de</strong> Internet. De acuerdo a <strong>la</strong> normativa revisada, a partir <strong>de</strong>l 25 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011, será requisito legal en <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE que <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>mentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones faciliten que los usuarios <strong>de</strong> Internet puedan<br />

“acce<strong>de</strong>r y distribuir <strong>la</strong> información o utilizar <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones y los servicios <strong>de</strong> su elección” 39 .<br />

otras normas importantes <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red son los nuevos requisitos<br />

sobre transparencia hacia los consumidores 40 que tienen <strong>de</strong>recho a elegir a su proveedor <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet basándose en información a<strong>de</strong>cuada sobre posibles restricciones al acceso a <strong>de</strong>terminados<br />

servicios, velocida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> conexión reales y posibles límites <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s velocida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet. Específicamente, los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios estarán obligados a informar a los<br />

consumidores, con carácter previo a <strong>la</strong> firma <strong>de</strong>l contrato, <strong>de</strong>l carácter exacto <strong>de</strong>l servicio<br />

al que se suscriben, incluidas <strong>la</strong>s técnicas <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico y su efecto en <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l<br />

servicio, así como <strong>de</strong> otras limitaciones (a modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo, cualquier restricción que limite<br />

el acceso a servicios o aplicaciones, o <strong>la</strong> cuestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s velocida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> conexión).<br />

En lo que se refiere al cambio <strong>de</strong> operador, los consumidores podrán efectuarlo, conservando<br />

sus números, en el p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong> un día hábil. A<strong>de</strong>más, los operadores tienen que ofrecer a<br />

los usuarios <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> firmar un contrato <strong>de</strong> una duración máxima <strong>de</strong> 12 meses. La<br />

nueva normativa garantiza también que <strong>la</strong>s condiciones y procedimientos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> resolución<br />

<strong>de</strong>l contrato no constituyan un factor disuasorio <strong>para</strong> cambiar <strong>de</strong> proveedor <strong>de</strong> servicios 41 .<br />

Asimismo, se faculta a los regu<strong>la</strong>dores nacionales, previa consulta con <strong>la</strong> Comisión, <strong>para</strong><br />

intervenir fijando unos requisitos mínimos <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>para</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> 42 , garantizando así un buen nivel <strong>de</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l servicio.<br />

Todas estas disposiciones, contenidas en el marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor revisado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, <strong>de</strong>berán<br />

haber sido incorporadas por los Estados miembros a su Derecho interno el 25 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong><br />

2011 a más tardar. A<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE protege a <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas con re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> sus datos personales, en particu<strong>la</strong>r cuando se adopten <strong>de</strong>cisiones que afectan<br />

significativamente a <strong>la</strong>s personas sobre <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong> un tratamiento automatizado <strong>de</strong> sus datos<br />

personales. Cualquier actividad re<strong>la</strong>cionada con el bloqueo o <strong>la</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong>l tráfico que tenga<br />

esa base <strong>de</strong>berá respetar, en consecuencia, los requisitos en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos 43 .<br />

Por último, los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong>ben respetar <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> Derechos Fundamentales <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> UE cuando apliquen <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, y esto también afecta a <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong>l marco<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones revisado, que podría afectar al ejercicio <strong>de</strong> algunos <strong>de</strong> esos <strong>de</strong>rechos 44 .<br />

39 Art. 8, apartado 4, letra g), <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva Marco sobre Telecomunicaciones, Directiva 2002/21/CE,<br />

modificada por <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/140/EC.<br />

40 Artículo 21 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> servicio universal.<br />

41 Art. 30, apartado 6, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> servicio universal.<br />

42 Artículo 22, apartado 3, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> servicio universal.<br />

43 Directivas sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos (95/46/CE) y sobre intimidad (2002/58/CE).<br />

44 En consonancia con <strong>la</strong> “Estrategia <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación efectiva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Fundamentales<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea” CoM(2010) 573 final <strong>de</strong> 19 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2010.


122 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Ello no obstante, el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo legis<strong>la</strong>tivo hasta el presente ha generado tres sistemas regu<strong>la</strong>dores<br />

bien diferenciados: un sistema muy regu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

que enfocan <strong>red</strong> y servicios; otro sistema menos regu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>para</strong> los contenidos, y un sistema<br />

aun menos sometido a regu<strong>la</strong>ción sectorial específico como es el <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong> nueva generación.<br />

En estos mercados cabe distinguir entre re<strong>de</strong>s y servicios, que en ocasiones adoptan una<br />

re<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> integración vertical, con el consiguiente peligro a <strong>la</strong> competencia. Frente a dicho<br />

peligro, como veremos a continuación, tenemos no sólo el viejo <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia,<br />

sino <strong>otros</strong> instrumentos que pue<strong>de</strong>n ser más efectivos <strong>de</strong>pendiendo <strong>de</strong>l caso, como es <strong>la</strong> propia<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción y <strong>la</strong> competencia sucesiva <strong>de</strong> tecnologías como proceso <strong>de</strong> creación empresarial 45 .<br />

En el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s “viejas” telecomunicaciones y los contenidos<br />

mediante <strong>la</strong>s nuevas ten<strong>de</strong>ncias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> interconexión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s IP, los “operadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>” que<br />

facilitan <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras, construidas en gran medida gracias a los subsidios gubernamentales,<br />

intentan sacar partido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> explosión <strong>de</strong> banda ancha en <strong>la</strong> que invierten miles <strong>de</strong><br />

millones y asegurarse que recuperan su inversión, pidiendo regu<strong>la</strong>ciones que les concedan<br />

más libertad en sus re<strong>la</strong>ciones versus los “usuarios” <strong>de</strong> su <strong>red</strong>. Por otra parte, <strong>la</strong>s empresas<br />

cuyo negocio se basa en <strong>la</strong> innovación sobre <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> pero que necesitan <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras<br />

<strong>para</strong> proporcionar sus servicios 46 (A modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo 47 , Amazon, Google 48 , eBay,<br />

Intel, Microsoft, Skype, y Yahoo) 49 , <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 50 .<br />

En vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s evoluciones técnicas en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> discusión regu<strong>la</strong>dora, parece haber<br />

una cierta presión por adaptar el marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor 51 . La dualidad entre un sector histórico<br />

45 Vi<strong>de</strong> Lessig, L., Innovation, Regu<strong>la</strong>tion, and the Internet, The American Prospect, Vol. 11, N. 10, 27<br />

<strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2000.<br />

46 La propia Comisión, con ocasión <strong>de</strong>l asunto Vizzavi, se ve forzada a reconocer que se encuentra ante<br />

un mercado, el <strong>de</strong> los portales, en <strong>la</strong> frontera entre <strong>la</strong> infraestructura y el comercio electrónico, XXX<br />

Informe sobre <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> competencia 2000, SEC (2001) 694 final, ap. 212, en este caso concreto,<br />

entre <strong>la</strong> infraestructura técnica y <strong>la</strong> provisión <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

47 Dos nuevos mo<strong>de</strong>los empiezan a emerger en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, aunque aún <strong>de</strong>ben <strong>de</strong>mostrar que hacen dinero:<br />

<strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales <strong>de</strong> usuarios (como MySpace, el sitio web más visitado <strong>de</strong> EEUUU) y los motores <strong>de</strong><br />

recomendación <strong>de</strong> contenidos (como <strong>la</strong> españo<strong>la</strong> Mystrands).<br />

48 En el supuesto <strong>de</strong> Google, po<strong>de</strong>mos mantener algunas reservas a raíz <strong>de</strong> su acuerdo con el operador <strong>de</strong><br />

telecomunicaciones Verizon. Vi<strong>de</strong> The official Google Blog (12 <strong>de</strong> agosto <strong>de</strong> 2010) Facts about our<br />

network neutrality policy proposal. Disponible en http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/08/factsabout-our-network-neutrality.html<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 23 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

49 Vi<strong>de</strong> sitios web como http://www.savetheinternet.com/=faq con el soporte, entre <strong>otros</strong>, <strong>de</strong> Microsoft.<br />

La visión <strong>de</strong> Google al respecto se encuentra en http://www.google.com/help/netneutrality.html.<br />

50 Para comprobar el nivel <strong>de</strong> profundidad <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en los Estados Unidos,<br />

vi<strong>de</strong> Network Neutrality in the United States en http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_neutrality_<br />

in_the_US<br />

51 Las compañías <strong>de</strong> contenidos (como Google, Ebay o Yahoo) y <strong>la</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s empresas <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

discuten <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> hace meses en el Senado estadouni<strong>de</strong>nse si <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red <strong>de</strong>be<br />

garantizarse por ley, como quieren <strong>la</strong>s primeras, o si se <strong>de</strong>be permitir a <strong>la</strong>s operadoras cobrar más a


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

123<br />

fuertemente regu<strong>la</strong>do y que precisa <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong>s inversiones, con el emergente mercado libre y<br />

gratuito <strong>de</strong> Internet, ha provocado un choque <strong>de</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> negocio <strong>de</strong>l que asistimos sólo<br />

a sus comienzos. En lo que ambos contendientes están <strong>de</strong> acuerdo es que el principal motor<br />

<strong>de</strong> crecimiento será el intercambio por Internet.<br />

La ten<strong>de</strong>ncia resulta en una serie <strong>de</strong> conflictos entre el mundo tecnológicamente neutro<br />

pero intensamente regu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones y el mundo tecnológicamente menos<br />

neutro, pero también menos regu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong>l mundo <strong>de</strong> Internet. El <strong>de</strong>bate acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> es resultado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s perspectivas divergentes <strong>de</strong> los actores en el mercado y <strong>la</strong><br />

forma en que intervención <strong>de</strong>bería tomar o no parte.<br />

4. internet abierta, neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

comPetencia<br />

4.1. consi<strong>de</strong>raciones generales<br />

Hemos dicho que <strong>la</strong> convergencia e integración <strong>de</strong> servicios es una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ten<strong>de</strong>ncias<br />

<strong>de</strong> reestructuración que caracterizan hoy <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong>l sector referido. La integración <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones nos lleva, a su vez, a una realidad más amplia, los nuevos<br />

mercados tecnológicos, que abarcan telecomunicaciones, informática, radiodifusión y contenidos,<br />

pero también servicios financieros, comercio electrónico, etcétera. Todo integrado<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s que es Internet. De esta forma, <strong>la</strong> integración <strong>de</strong> nuevos servicios tecnológicos,<br />

utilizando diversas p<strong>la</strong>taformas electrónicas <strong>para</strong> su distribución a los consumidores es<br />

una vía fundamental <strong>para</strong> el crecimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada “nueva economía” 52 .<br />

Ante esta realidad, ha surgido una polémica <strong>de</strong> carácter general: ¿cómo <strong>de</strong>be ser <strong>la</strong> política<br />

<strong>de</strong> competencia en los sectores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> nueva economía? Los pronunciamientos al respecto,<br />

extrapo<strong>la</strong>bles al contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, surgidos en torno al <strong>de</strong>bate sobre<br />

Microsoft 53 o sobre <strong>la</strong> pretérita fusión AoL-Time Warner 54 , se divi<strong>de</strong>n en dos posturas casi<br />

quien consuma más ancho <strong>de</strong> banda, incluidos los usuarios que intercambian archivos mediante re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

P2P. El <strong>de</strong>bate ya ha saltado el charco, y Telefónica ha <strong>la</strong>nzado el primer aviso <strong>para</strong> navegantes. Si<br />

el regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>la</strong> obliga a compartir <strong>la</strong>s nuevas infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> fibra óptica que está tendiendo <strong>para</strong><br />

aten<strong>de</strong>r <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda <strong>de</strong> capacidad, habrá que estudiar limitar <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>scargas <strong>de</strong> Internet, bien <strong>red</strong>uciendo<br />

<strong>la</strong> velocidad o bien cobrando más a quien realice un uso intensivo.<br />

52 Vi<strong>de</strong> Posner, R., A. (2001) Antitrust in the New Economy, 68, Antitrust L.J. 925, 925. En este artículo,<br />

el autor se refiere a <strong>la</strong> “nueva economía” como <strong>la</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s industrias <strong>de</strong> Internet, <strong>la</strong><br />

computación y el software, y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones.<br />

53 Para un estudio más <strong>de</strong>tal<strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong>l caso en Estados Unidos, vi<strong>de</strong> Cuervo García, A., Sandulli, F.D.,<br />

Creación empresarial y dominio <strong>de</strong> mercado: el caso <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>partamento <strong>de</strong> justicia <strong>de</strong> los Estados<br />

Unidos contra Microsoft, ICE, Julio 2003, N. 808, págs. 217-234.<br />

54 AoL/Time Warner (2000, Asunto IV/M. 1845, AoL/Time Warner). AoL, el proveedor <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

más importante <strong>de</strong> EEUU en ese momento y único con presencia paneuropea, se integraba con Time<br />

Warner, una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mayores empresas <strong>de</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación y entretenimiento. Por otra parte,


124 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

antagónicas: los que <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n una aplicación más estricta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia,<br />

y aquellos más liberales, que <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n una visión más permisiva 55 . Cuando repasamos los<br />

conceptos legales y jurispru<strong>de</strong>nciales con que se ha e<strong>la</strong>borado el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia tanto en Estados Unidos como en Europa, se constata que <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> ellos<br />

no resultan pacíficamente aplicables al sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones.<br />

Mientras tanto, como hipótesis <strong>de</strong> trabajo, <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

podrían llevar a cabo <strong>la</strong> supervisión y seguimiento continuado <strong>de</strong> diferentes mercados,<br />

examinando <strong>de</strong> manera constante grados <strong>de</strong> concentración y competencia en los mismos,<br />

acuerdos que se celebren por los operadores en dichos mercados y cualquier otro elemento<br />

que sugiriera una ten<strong>de</strong>ncia al oligopolio. En todo caso, ello exige dotar <strong>de</strong> más medios a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia 56 .<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, se presentan serias dudas sobre <strong>la</strong> capacidad y medios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia <strong>para</strong> llevar a cabo un efectivo control continuado <strong>de</strong> un sector específico tan complejo<br />

como el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comuninaciones electrónicas. Tal operación presenta pocas posibilida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> éxito y ciertamente unos costes muy importantes. No obstante, su “contribución al fortalecimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los consumidores”, 57 podría compensar todos sus inconvenientes.<br />

Aunque este estudio se refiere fundamentalmente a <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa sobre<br />

competencia en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas, <strong>la</strong>s premisas que contienen son igualmente válidas, mutatis mutandis, a <strong>la</strong> Internet<br />

móvil 58 .<br />

4.2. Principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

La competencia constituye uno <strong>de</strong> los principales rectores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> economía <strong>de</strong> mercado<br />

y una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s primeras manifestaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa o iniciativa económica. La<br />

competencia beneficia a todos los que participan en el mercado, especialmente a los consumidores<br />

y también al interés público en el funcionamiento eficiente <strong>de</strong>l mercado que<br />

favorece el progreso social, tecnológico y económico.<br />

inicialmente estaba previsto llevar a cabo en <strong>para</strong>lelo <strong>la</strong> fusión <strong>de</strong> Time Warner y EMI, una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

empresas lí<strong>de</strong>res <strong>de</strong>l panorama discográfico mundial. La fusión sólo consiguió ser aprobada tras el<br />

abandono <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> operación <strong>para</strong>le<strong>la</strong> Time Warner/EMI y <strong>la</strong> asunción <strong>de</strong> importantes compromisos, en<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r, los re<strong>la</strong>tivos a terminar los vínculos entre Bertelsmann y AoL.<br />

55 En este sentido, Yoo. C. S. (2007) What Can Antitrust Law Contribute to the Network Neutrality<br />

Debate. International Journal of Communication. Pág. 517.<br />

56 Precisamente, es en el ámbito <strong>institucional</strong> encuentra Richard Posner <strong>la</strong> mayor <strong>de</strong>bilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política<br />

<strong>de</strong> competencia. A <strong>la</strong> rápida evolución <strong>de</strong>l medio, que dificulta su comprensión, se une <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong><br />

recursos técnicos <strong>para</strong> aprehen<strong>de</strong>r el nuevo medio. Posner, R., A., Antitrust in the New Economy, 68<br />

Antitrust Law Journal, N.3, 2001, págs. 925-943.<br />

57 Art. 3 t) <strong>de</strong>l Tratado Constitutivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunidad Europea.<br />

58 Para un análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>la</strong> Internet móvil, vi<strong>de</strong> Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C.T. (2010) Net Neutrality.<br />

Towards a Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory Solution. op. cit. Cap. 7.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

125<br />

En los mercados competitivos, <strong>la</strong> producción es mayor y el uso <strong>de</strong> recursos más eficiente,<br />

obligando a los operadores económicos a ajustar sus costes y ofrecer mejores prestaciones<br />

a precios más <strong>red</strong>ucidos <strong>para</strong> atraer el favor <strong>de</strong> los consumidores, árbitros <strong>de</strong>l sistema competitivo.<br />

En último término, los principales beneficiarios <strong>de</strong> un sistema competitivo eficiente<br />

son los consumidores y <strong>la</strong> sociedad en su conjunto. Por eso se hace necesaria una política <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia que combata <strong>de</strong> forma eficaz <strong>la</strong>s prácticas anticompetitivas.<br />

Aplicada <strong>para</strong>le<strong>la</strong>mente al marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor ex ante, <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción sobre competencia ha<br />

contribuido a <strong>la</strong> eficiencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entrada en el mercado combatiendo los abusos <strong>de</strong> posición<br />

dominante <strong>de</strong> los operadores regu<strong>la</strong>dos. Ello no obstante, <strong>la</strong> idoneidad <strong>de</strong>l marco competitivo<br />

como garante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> apertura <strong>de</strong> Internet pue<strong>de</strong> verse afectada por <strong>la</strong> posible existencia <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>ficiencias <strong>de</strong>l mercado, prácticas oligopolistas, puntos <strong>de</strong> estrangu<strong>la</strong>miento que dificultan<br />

<strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> alta calidad a los consumidores, y asimetría en <strong>la</strong> información 59 .<br />

¿Cuál <strong>de</strong>be ser el papel <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia en este contexto?<br />

Un sistema económico que parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa y basado en <strong>la</strong> libre competencia,<br />

en <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> una competencia no falseada, exige que los operadores económicos<br />

puedan acce<strong>de</strong>r al mercado y competir en él en condiciones <strong>de</strong> igualdad. Para ello <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

eliminarse los obstáculos <strong>para</strong> el acceso al mercado por parte <strong>de</strong> todos los participantes que<br />

así lo <strong>de</strong>seen, sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> posibildiad <strong>de</strong> introducir restricciones mínimas, justificadas<br />

por razones <strong>de</strong> interés general y am<strong>para</strong>das por una ley. En este sentido, <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

estructura <strong>de</strong>l mercado aparece como una finalidad fundamental <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia.<br />

Así, en British Airways el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Primera Instancia estableció que “El <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> competencia se dirige a proteger <strong>la</strong> estructura <strong>de</strong>l mercado contra <strong>la</strong>s distorsiones artificiales<br />

y protege así lo mejor posible los intereses <strong>de</strong> los consumidores a medio y <strong>la</strong>rgo p<strong>la</strong>zo” 60 .<br />

En el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red, <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n p<strong>la</strong>ntearse <strong>la</strong>s siguientes cuestiones:<br />

• ¿Es a<strong>de</strong>cuada <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> competencia <strong>para</strong> perseguir estos fines?<br />

• ¿Cuál es el rol apropiado <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia respecto a<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red?<br />

• ¿Se impi<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entrada al mercado <strong>de</strong> empresas eficientes sin <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red?<br />

• ¿Qué ocurriría si una p<strong>la</strong>taforma con posición <strong>de</strong> dominio en Internet pagase <strong>para</strong><br />

garantizar que el funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> su p<strong>la</strong>taforma se hace con un retraso mínimo,<br />

mientras que <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> sus competidores no lo garantizan? ¿No incrementaría su notoria<br />

posición <strong>de</strong> dominio?<br />

59 Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y Social<br />

Europeo y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones. La internet abierta y <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en Europa.<br />

CoM(2011) 222 final. Pág. 4.<br />

60 Apartado 264 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong> 17 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2003, British Airways vs. Comisión Europea (As.<br />

T-219/99. Rec. P. II-05917).


126 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• ¿En un entorno <strong>de</strong> convergencia digital se consi<strong>de</strong>ran los contenidos <strong>de</strong> Internet como<br />

un mercado conexo al <strong>de</strong> acceso?<br />

Hemos visto cómo uno <strong>de</strong> los objetivos básicos <strong>de</strong>l Derecho comunitario es potenciar<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> acceso y prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios a mercados <strong>de</strong> infraestructuras y <strong>de</strong> prestación<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios en línea, en un entorno abierto <strong>de</strong> libre competencia. Se trata <strong>de</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong><br />

competencia en un espacio global que es <strong>de</strong> por sí altamente competitivo. Y precisamente<br />

por ese carácter fuertemente competitivo y por <strong>la</strong>s peculiarida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l medio, es un espacio<br />

comercial susceptible <strong>de</strong> verse amenazado por comportamientos que pue<strong>de</strong>n lesionar o falsear<br />

<strong>la</strong> libre competencia. Por eso, conviene que el <strong>de</strong>recho “antitrust” se aplique sin reservas<br />

a cualesquiera comportamientos realizados en los mercados <strong>de</strong> Internet susceptibles <strong>de</strong> encajar<br />

en cualquiera <strong>de</strong> los ilícitos tipificados en <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia.<br />

En el entorno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red y <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> telecomunicación<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos, que se concreta en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas,<br />

resulta crítico el libre acceso al mercado en términos <strong>de</strong> libre competencia al objeto <strong>de</strong> garantizar<br />

el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l mercado electrónico y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. En un entorno<br />

competitivo, se incentiva a los operadores a que adapten sus precios y se abstengan <strong>de</strong> imponer<br />

restricciones a aplicaciones popu<strong>la</strong>res entre los usuarios, como es el caso <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> voz<br />

sobre el protocolo Internet (“VoIP”, en su acrónimo en inglés) o el vi<strong>de</strong>o bajo <strong>de</strong>manda.<br />

Parece necesario por tanto, proseguir el camino iniciado hacia <strong>la</strong> “libertad plena” <strong>de</strong><br />

Adam Smith 61 , y avanzar en los procesos <strong>de</strong> liberalización en sectores como el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones,<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s reformas estructurales y, también, en <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia<br />

material en los análisis <strong>de</strong> los expedientes referidos a conductas restrictivas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia,<br />

así como el uso <strong>de</strong> elementos cuantitativos y <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s herramientas <strong>de</strong>l análisis<br />

económico <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho 62 .<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> los principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia, <strong>la</strong> innovación y<br />

<strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los consumidores, justifican <strong>la</strong> oportunidad <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s administraciones públicas<br />

continúen promoviendo <strong>la</strong> competencia y <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción ineficiente,<br />

resuelvan los problemas p<strong>la</strong>nteados y refuercen <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia.<br />

Su relevancia, y el problema <strong>de</strong> su ejecución, requieren una mejora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s dotaciones humanas,<br />

tecnológicas, y materiales <strong>de</strong> sus órganos.<br />

4.3. neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

La competencia juega su papel más relevante en los sectores en los que <strong>la</strong> innovación<br />

es dinámica y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda crece rápidamente como es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones elec-<br />

61 Smith, A. (1961). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, reimpreso en C.<br />

Edwin (editor), Methuen, UK, 1961.<br />

62 Para un estudio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> relevancia <strong>de</strong>l análisis económico en <strong>la</strong> normativa antitrust, vi<strong>de</strong> Hylton, K., N.<br />

(2003) Antitrust Law. Economic Theory and Common Law Evolution, Cambridge University Press,<br />

Cambridge.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

127<br />

trónicas. Asimismo, <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Jurídico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas<br />

muestra una creciente voluntad <strong>de</strong> aplicar el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia al sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones electrónicas. A modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo, <strong>la</strong> sentencia Deutsche Telekom, mientras<br />

que en los EE.UU. será más complicado aplicar el <strong>de</strong>recho antitrust 63 a prácticas objeto<br />

<strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> FCC como estableció el TS norteamericano en <strong>la</strong> Sentencia<br />

Trinko que trataba <strong>de</strong> obligar a un operador a compartir <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> una infrestructura<br />

con competidores 64 .<br />

En dicha sentencia, se establece que <strong>la</strong> mera posición <strong>de</strong> dominio y <strong>la</strong> conducta concomitante<br />

consistente en cargar precios elevados no sólo no es ilegal, sino que a<strong>de</strong>más constituye<br />

un importante elemento <strong>de</strong> un sistema <strong>de</strong> libre mercado, ya que atrae el talento empresarial,<br />

incentiva <strong>la</strong> asunción <strong>de</strong> riesgos que genera <strong>la</strong> innovación y el crrecimiento económico.<br />

El asunto Trinko pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto que <strong>la</strong> afirmación realizada respecto <strong>de</strong> los precios inequitativos<br />

es extensible a <strong>otros</strong> casos <strong>de</strong> abuso <strong>de</strong> posición dominante tales como <strong>la</strong> negativa<br />

a facilitar el acceso a una infraestructura esencial 65 .<br />

Así, el TS americano seña<strong>la</strong> que <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> dominio <strong>la</strong> obtiene <strong>la</strong> empresa, entre<br />

otras formas lícitas, cuando configura una infraestructura que <strong>la</strong> coloca en una posición<br />

única <strong>para</strong> aten<strong>de</strong>r a sus clientes. En consecuencia, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo al TS americano, obligar a<br />

estas empresas a compartir lo que constituye su ventaja competitiva entra en contradicción<br />

con <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas antitrust, porque pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sincentivar al monopolista o su<br />

competidor, <strong>para</strong> invertir en infraestructuras 66 .<br />

63 Para consultar direcciones relevantes en <strong>la</strong> World Wi<strong>de</strong> Web <strong>de</strong> algunos organismos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia o “antitrust” véase en http://europa.eu.int/ (El servidor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea dispone <strong>de</strong> un buscador); http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg04/dg4home.htm (La página<br />

Web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Dirección General <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Competencia (DGIV); http://www.open.gov.uk/oft/ofthome.htm<br />

(La página web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> office of Fair Trading); http://www.open.gov.uk/mmc/mmchome.htm (La página<br />

web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Monopolies and Mergers Commission); http://www.bmwi.<strong>de</strong>/bka.html (La página<br />

web <strong>de</strong>l Bun<strong>de</strong>skartel<strong>la</strong>mt facilita información sobre el <strong>de</strong>recho alemán y su praxis, así como <strong>de</strong> su<br />

jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia); http://www.usdoj.gov/ (La página web <strong>de</strong>l Department of Justice <strong>de</strong> los EE.UU.);<br />

http://www.ftc.gov/ (La dirección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission <strong>de</strong> los EE.UU.);<br />

http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/in<strong>de</strong>x.html (La dirección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Antitrust Division <strong>de</strong> los<br />

EE.UU.); http://www.meh.es/dgpedc/dc/ (En esta dirección <strong>de</strong>l Ministerio <strong>de</strong> Economía y Hacienda<br />

se acce<strong>de</strong> a los recursos <strong>de</strong>l Servicio <strong>de</strong> Defensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Competencia).<br />

64 Verizon Communications Inv. V. Law office of Curtis V. Trinko (124 S.Ct. 872, 2004); Para un<br />

análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia, vi<strong>de</strong> Jones, A., y Sufrin, B. (2011). EU Competition Law. Text, Cases, and<br />

Materials. 4ª Ed. oxford University Press. New York. pp. 524-525.<br />

65 Águi<strong>la</strong>-Real, J. A. Delimitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> noción <strong>de</strong> abuso <strong>de</strong> una posición <strong>de</strong> dominio en Martínez Lage,<br />

S., y Petitbó, J. A. (Directores). (2006) El abuso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> dominio. Marcial Pons. Madrid.<br />

Pág. 204.<br />

66 “Compelling [firms with unique facilities] to share the source of their advantage is in some tension<br />

with the un<strong>de</strong>rlying purpose of antitrust <strong>la</strong>w, since it may lessen the incentive for the monopolist,<br />

the rival, or both to invest in those economically beneficial facilities. Enforced sharing also requires<br />

antitrust courts to act as central p<strong>la</strong>nners, i<strong>de</strong>ntifying the proper price, quantity, and other terms of<br />

<strong>de</strong>aling –a role for which they are ill-suited.”. 540 US 396 (2004), <strong>para</strong>. 407.


128 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

El caso Trinko refleja bien <strong>la</strong> tensión entre <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas y el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia 67 . El TS norteamericano ha establecido que<br />

si <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong>l dominante es objeto <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> criterios <strong>de</strong> competencia –como<br />

suce<strong>de</strong> con <strong>la</strong>s leyes <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones y <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong>l monopolista <strong>de</strong>l bucle local- no<br />

<strong>de</strong>bería aplicarse el Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia a<strong>de</strong>más afirmándose que <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

empresas en los sectores regu<strong>la</strong>dos <strong>de</strong>be enjuiciarse <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción específica 68 .<br />

La sentencia Trinko ha sido objeto <strong>de</strong> críticas y, como hemos apuntado previamente, refleja<br />

una visión diferente a <strong>la</strong> mantenida en Europa don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, en el asunto<br />

Deutsche Telekom 69 , afirmó que <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción no justificaba <strong>la</strong> inaplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

normas sobre competencia. En ese caso, se acusó a Deutsche Telekom <strong>de</strong> fijar unas tarifas a sus<br />

clientes finales tan bajas en com<strong>para</strong>ción con el precio que cobraba a los competidores por el<br />

acceso al bucle local (<strong>de</strong>l cual es el propietario exclusivo) que hacía imposible <strong>para</strong> éstos obtener<br />

un beneficio revendiendo los servicios a los consumidores. Deutsche Telekom se <strong>de</strong>fendió<br />

afirmando que sus tarifas habían sido aprobadas por <strong>la</strong> Administración alemana.<br />

La Comisión utilizó <strong>la</strong> doctrina tradicional aplicable a cualquier conducta regu<strong>la</strong>da: el<br />

Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia encuentra aplicación siempre que <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>je espacio <strong>para</strong><br />

una conducta autónoma por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> empresa, lo que ocurría, respecto a <strong>la</strong>s tarifas, en el<br />

caso <strong>de</strong> Deutsche Telekom, <strong>de</strong> modo que <strong>la</strong> Comisión impuso una multa a esta empresa por<br />

“exprimir los márgenes” <strong>de</strong> los competidores.<br />

En el caso Deutsche Telekom 70 , y a diferencia <strong>de</strong> lo que sucedió en el caso Trinko,<br />

resultaba incomprensible que <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción nacional (o <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma por parte<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s alemanas) permitiera al incumbente “exprimir el margen” <strong>de</strong> sus rivales.<br />

La diferencia entre EEUU y <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea se entien<strong>de</strong> si se tiene en consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

que en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas seguimos en presencia <strong>de</strong> una multiplicidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> mercados nacionales y siguen existiendo multiplicidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos especiales<br />

atribuidos por los Estados a operadores <strong>de</strong>terminados, regu<strong>la</strong>ciones que, a menudo, incitan<br />

a estas empresas a explotar <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> dominio generada a su favor.<br />

67 Vi<strong>de</strong> Weiser, P., J. (2005) The Re<strong>la</strong>tionship of Antitrust and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion In a Deregu<strong>la</strong>tory Era. Antitrust<br />

Bulletin. 20. pp. 1 y ss., seña<strong>la</strong>ndo <strong>la</strong>s limitaciones a <strong>la</strong>s faculta<strong>de</strong>s sancionadoras <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> FCC;<br />

Nuechterlein, J. E., Weiser, P. J. (2007) Digital Crossroads. American Telecommunications Policy in<br />

the Internet Age. MIT Press. Cambridge. pp. 417-419; Yoo, C. S., op. cit., pág. 530.<br />

68 Crítico con este mo<strong>de</strong>lo Wu, T. (2010) The Master Switch. The Rise and Fall of Information Empires.<br />

Random House. London. pp. 312-313.<br />

69 Decisión, 2003/707/CE <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión, <strong>de</strong> 21 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2003, en un procedimiento con arreglo<br />

al artículo 82 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado CE (Asunto CoMP/ C-1/37.451, 37.578, 37.579 –Deutsche Telekom<br />

AG) (Do L 263, p. 9).<br />

70 Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Primera Instancia, <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2008, en el asunto T-271/03, Deutche<br />

Telekom/Comisión; El Recurso <strong>de</strong> Casación interpuesto por Deutsche Telekom fue posteriormente<br />

<strong>de</strong>sestimado. Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia (Sa<strong>la</strong> Segunda), <strong>de</strong> 14 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2010 – Deutsche<br />

Telekom AG/Comisión Europea, Vodafone D2 GmbH, anteriormente Vodafone AG & Co. KG,<br />

anteriormente Arcor AG & Co. KG y <strong>otros</strong>.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

129<br />

Hay que recordar que los titu<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s infraestructuras <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

son hoy en su mayoría los operadores históricos más importantes <strong>de</strong> cada uno <strong>de</strong> los Estados<br />

miembros. De ahí que el Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, el art. 102, tenga<br />

un papel relevante con re<strong>la</strong>ción al art. 106 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>para</strong> asegurar que los operadores así<br />

favorecidos por los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos nacionales no adopten medidas o se comportan <strong>de</strong> forma que<br />

distorsionan el funcionamiento competitivo <strong>de</strong>l mercado europeo.<br />

Las evoluciones tecnológicas y <strong>la</strong> preeminencia <strong>de</strong> Internet han supuesto <strong>para</strong> los regu<strong>la</strong>dores<br />

un reto y una oportunidad al mismo tiempo 71 . Sería positivo que lo aprovechasen<br />

<strong>para</strong> adoptar una aproximación coherente a <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

y facilitar <strong>la</strong> convergencia entre <strong>la</strong> política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia y <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica <strong>de</strong>l<br />

nuevo escenario. Di<strong>la</strong>tar en el tiempo este cambio necesario podría llevarnos a un círculo<br />

perverso en el que, en vez <strong>de</strong> adaptar <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción y sus objetivos a <strong>la</strong> situación <strong>de</strong> los mercados,<br />

<strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción sea una traba <strong>para</strong> que los mercados superen cuanto antes <strong>la</strong> herencia aún<br />

muy visible <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> situación monopolística <strong>de</strong> partida.<br />

5. a modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión<br />

El <strong>de</strong>bate <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> está vincu<strong>la</strong>do a un conflicto <strong>de</strong> intereses económicos<br />

<strong>de</strong> los gran<strong>de</strong>s operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones con los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos y<br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> Internet. Asimismo, <strong>la</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s p<strong>la</strong>ntea cuestiones que tienen una<br />

respuesta óptima a <strong>la</strong>rgo p<strong>la</strong>zo, que <strong>de</strong>be i<strong>de</strong>ntificarse, y unas razones <strong>de</strong> oportunidad que<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben estar bien presentes en cada momento <strong>para</strong> ir adoptando medidas que favorezcan el<br />

progreso hacia una situación estable.<br />

La gran novedad <strong>de</strong>l nuevo marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas radica,<br />

fundamentalmente y como se ha venido <strong>de</strong>scribiendo, en <strong>la</strong> adopción sistemática <strong>de</strong><br />

conceptos e instrumentos teóricos <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Competencia. A nuestro enten<strong>de</strong>r el<br />

Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Competencia dispone <strong>de</strong> instrumentos suficientemente sólidos y, al mismo<br />

tiempo, flexibles, <strong>para</strong> afrontar <strong>la</strong> problemática <strong>de</strong>l nuevo entorno. El proceso <strong>de</strong> adaptación<br />

se centrará en <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> esos instrumentos, como tantas otras veces ha sucedido en <strong>la</strong><br />

historia <strong>de</strong>l Derecho Comunitario.<br />

Si nuestro punto <strong>de</strong> partida es <strong>la</strong> asunción <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> liberalización y <strong>la</strong> preservación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> neutralidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> o “Internet abierta” suponen el mo<strong>de</strong>lo más eficiente <strong>de</strong> asignación<br />

<strong>de</strong> recursos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong>l propio sector, este nuevo enfoque es positivo. Una aplicación,<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> manera más eficiente, rápida y transparente posible, <strong>de</strong>l nuevo mo<strong>de</strong>lo regu<strong>la</strong>dor,<br />

favorecerá el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo, no sólo <strong>de</strong>l nivel <strong>de</strong> competencia sectorial, sino <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada<br />

Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea.<br />

71 Weiser se refiere a <strong>la</strong> “Internet-centric Network”, Weiser, P., J., Toward A Next Generation Regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

Strategy, Loyo<strong>la</strong> University Law Journal, Vol. 35, págs. 41-85; Weiser, P., J., Law and Information<br />

P<strong>la</strong>tforms, J. Telecom & High Technology L, 2002, págs. 1-35 en http://www.colorado.edu/<strong>la</strong>w/jthtl/<br />

WeiserInformationP<strong>la</strong>tforms.pdf


130 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

En un contexto marcado por <strong>la</strong> intensa innovación tecnológica y <strong>la</strong> constante transformación<br />

en <strong>la</strong> estructura competitiva <strong>de</strong> los mercados <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones que tienen<br />

un notable impacto en <strong>la</strong>s economías <strong>de</strong> los mercados y en <strong>la</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong><br />

negocio previamente se<strong>para</strong>dos, el <strong>de</strong>bate en torno a <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red muestra que<br />

<strong>la</strong> batal<strong>la</strong> por <strong>la</strong> primera posición en <strong>la</strong> era <strong>de</strong> Internet tendrá lugar entre los operadores <strong>de</strong><br />

re<strong>de</strong>s y los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios y contenidos. La aparición <strong>de</strong> conglomerados transnacionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación, software y comunicaciones electrónicas, así como el surgimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> nuevos monopolios, no sólo afecta a <strong>la</strong> competencia económica en los mercados<br />

<strong>de</strong> productos y servicios, sino que también afecta a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong>l individuo 72 .<br />

En consecuencia, <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones subyacentes al <strong>de</strong>bate son los costes económicos y el retorno<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> inversión realizada por los operadores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s. Internet es <strong>de</strong>masiado importante<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>jarlo en manos <strong>de</strong> los operadores y <strong>la</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s empresas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> industria <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

Abundando, <strong>la</strong>s acciones <strong>de</strong> los operadores dominantes también pue<strong>de</strong>n generar efectos anticompetitivos<br />

en lo que se conoce como mercados re<strong>la</strong>cionados o adyacentes. Por todo ello,<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red es esencial <strong>para</strong> preservar el ecosistema <strong>de</strong> Internet y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

en el nuevo mo<strong>de</strong>lo social y empresarial <strong>de</strong> Web2.0 73 .<br />

Todo ello p<strong>la</strong>ntea importantes <strong>retos</strong> en cuanto a <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> reforzar los instrumentos<br />

disponibles <strong>para</strong> luchar contra <strong>la</strong>s prácticas restrictivas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia y realizar un<br />

buen seguimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s conductas empresariales. Resulta c<strong>la</strong>ra <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> contar con<br />

un marco a<strong>de</strong>cuado <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> coordinación <strong>de</strong> ambas políticas y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s instituciones que <strong>la</strong>s<br />

aplican <strong>para</strong> que, utilizando los instrumentos disponibles <strong>de</strong> forma consistente, se promueva<br />

<strong>la</strong> competencia efectiva en estos mercados.<br />

Abundando, parece que el <strong>de</strong>bate regu<strong>la</strong>torio, en plena efervescencia en los EEUU y<br />

Europa tendrá por tanto una continuación en torno a <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los mercados <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

Nuevos tipos <strong>de</strong> acceso, (no) discriminación, regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong> los servicios, y<br />

fijación <strong>de</strong> precios serán cuestiones que <strong>de</strong>ban tratarse con <strong>de</strong>tenimiento en un futuro inmediato.<br />

En nuestra opinión, estas cuestiones adquirirán especial trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia y necesitarán<br />

<strong>de</strong> un tratamiento sólido, coherente y “neutral” <strong>para</strong> no perjudicar al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo económico,<br />

<strong>la</strong> innovación, y el bienestar <strong>de</strong> los consumidores en <strong>la</strong> era <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

¿Qué po<strong>de</strong>mos concluir <strong>de</strong> todo lo anterior? Resulta complejo aportar un final concluyente<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s consi<strong>de</strong>raciones que prece<strong>de</strong>n cuando <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones tratadas son tan amplias, y<br />

sobre todo, cuando se refiere a cuestiones cuya trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>sborda ampliamente el ámbito<br />

jurídico o económico y se sitúa en el núcleo mismo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad, <strong>de</strong>l mercado y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

entre los agentes que queremos configurar en un entorno <strong>de</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

No obstante, pue<strong>de</strong>n aventurarse al menos algunas reflexiones finales:<br />

72 Elkin-Koren, N., Salzberger, M. (2004) Law, Economics and Cyberspace. The Effects of Cyberspace<br />

on the Economic Analysis of Law, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pág. 140.<br />

73 Para una <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Web2.0 y sus implicaciones, vi<strong>de</strong> o’Reilly, T. (2007) What is Web2.0:<br />

Design Patterns and Business Mo<strong>de</strong>ls for the Next Generation of Software. Communications &<br />

Strategies. N. 1. Primer Trimestre. Pág. 17.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

131<br />

En mi opinión los sistemas y arquitecturas abiertos <strong>de</strong> Internet no sólo son positivos, sino que<br />

también son <strong>la</strong> manera <strong>de</strong> promover <strong>la</strong> competencia en un mundo interconectado. El valor social<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet resi<strong>de</strong> en su capacidad <strong>para</strong> facilitar <strong>la</strong> interoperabilidad y ello implica, entre <strong>otros</strong>, que<br />

Internet esté sujeta a los efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong> 74 , tanto a nivel <strong>de</strong> infraestructura como <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones. En<br />

mi opinión, los sistemas y arquitecturas abiertos <strong>de</strong> Internet no sólo son positivos, sino que también<br />

son <strong>la</strong> manera <strong>de</strong> promover <strong>la</strong> innovación y <strong>la</strong> competencia en un mundo interconectado.<br />

En estos supuestos, <strong>la</strong> normativa sectorial y <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

forman una realidad que no po<strong>de</strong>mos contemp<strong>la</strong>r se<strong>para</strong>da si <strong>de</strong>seamos hacer un análisis jurídico<br />

con rigor. El ecosistema <strong>de</strong> Internet, a su vez argumenta a favor <strong>de</strong>l acceso abierto a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

o, dicho <strong>de</strong> otro modo, <strong>la</strong> preservación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red. Tales resultados pue<strong>de</strong>n lograrse<br />

a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción, a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción sobre competencia, o preferiblemente<br />

ambas cosas. I<strong>de</strong>almente, el entorno competitivo y el marco regu<strong>la</strong>torio permitirán que prevalezca<br />

<strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong>l mercado, y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia no requiera su aplicación ex<br />

post más allá que <strong>para</strong> garantizar que <strong>la</strong> <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red no es <strong>de</strong> alguna manera subvertida.<br />

Adquiriendo gran relevancia <strong>la</strong> doctrina <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s essential facilities y <strong>de</strong> los mercados conexos.<br />

La segunda lección que po<strong>de</strong>mos apren<strong>de</strong>r, creo, es que <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal<br />

Jurídico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas muestra una creciente voluntad <strong>de</strong> aplicar el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia al sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas. A modo <strong>de</strong> ejemplo,<br />

<strong>la</strong> sentencia Deutsche Telekom, mientras que los EE.UU. será más complicado aplicar el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho antitrust a prácticas objeto <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> FCC como estableció el TS<br />

norteamericano, en <strong>la</strong> Sentencia Trinko que trataba <strong>de</strong> obligar a un operador a compartir <strong>la</strong><br />

utilización <strong>de</strong> una infrestructura con competidores.<br />

La diferencia entre EEUU y <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea se entien<strong>de</strong> si se tiene en consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia regu<strong>la</strong>toria comunitaria 75 , así como <strong>la</strong> realidad <strong>de</strong> que en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas seguimos en presencia <strong>de</strong> una multiplicidad <strong>de</strong> mercados nacionales<br />

y siguen existiendo multiplicidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos especiales atribuidos por los Estados a operadores<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminados, regu<strong>la</strong>ciones que, a menudo, incitan a estas empresas a explotar <strong>la</strong><br />

posición <strong>de</strong> dominio generada a su favor.<br />

6. bibliografÍa<br />

Benkler, Y. (2006). The Wealth of Networks. How Social Production Transforms Markets<br />

and Freedom. New Haven. Yale University Press.<br />

74 Para una <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> “efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>”, vi<strong>de</strong> Katz, Shapiro, C. (1985). Network Externalities, Competition,<br />

and Compatibility. American Economic Review. N. 75(3). Pág. 424; Para un análisis <strong>de</strong> los efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> bienes digitales, vi<strong>de</strong> Shapiro, C., y Varian, H. Information Rules. A Strategic Gui<strong>de</strong><br />

to the Network Economy. Harvard Business School Press. Boston. 1999. Capítulos 7-9.; Para un análisis<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s implicaciones legales <strong>de</strong> los efectos económicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>red</strong>, vi<strong>de</strong> Lemley, M., y McGowan (1998). Legal<br />

Implications of Network Economic Effects. California Law Review. Núm 86(3). pp. 479-611.<br />

75 Vi<strong>de</strong> arriba epígrafe, “Aspectos regu<strong>la</strong>torios”.


132 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Buendía Sierra, J.L. (2005) Access issues in the Internet area: betweeen competition <strong>la</strong>w<br />

and sector-specific regu<strong>la</strong>tion, Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia europeo y español. Volumen<br />

VI, Edición a cargo <strong>de</strong> Luis ortiz B<strong>la</strong>nco y Álvaro Ramos Gómez, Ed. Dykinson.<br />

Boyle, J. (2008). The Public Domain. Enclosing the Commons of the Mind. New Haven.<br />

Yale University Press.<br />

Cuervo García, A., Sandulli, F.D. (Julio 2003) Creación empresarial y dominio <strong>de</strong> mercado:<br />

el caso <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>partamento <strong>de</strong> justicia <strong>de</strong> los Estados Unidos contra Microsoft. ICE.<br />

N. 808, págs. 217-234.<br />

Economi<strong>de</strong>s, N., y Täg, J. (2007). Net Neutrality on the Internet: A Two-si<strong>de</strong>d Market<br />

Analysis. Working Paper 07-45, NET Institute.<br />

Elkin-Koren, N., Salzberger, M. (2004) Law, Economics and Cyberspace. The Effects of<br />

Cyberspace on the Economic Analysis of Law, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.<br />

Geist, M. (2005). Telecommunications Policy Review Submission. University of ottawa<br />

Faculty of Law.<br />

Gue<strong>la</strong>r, F. (Martes, 21 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2003) Comunicaciones electrónicas: Un marco regu<strong>la</strong>dor<br />

europeo “competitivo”, La Ley, Año XXIV, N. 5701.<br />

Jones, A., y Sufrin, B. (2011) EU Competition Law. Text, Cases, and Materials. 4ª Edición.<br />

oxford. oxford University Press.<br />

Kusbalija, J. (2010) Internet Governance. 4ª Edición. Ginebra. Diplofoundation.<br />

Lemley, M. A. y Lessig, L. (2001). The End of End-to-End: Preserving the Architecture of the<br />

Internet in the Broadband Era, University of California Los Angeles Law Review, 48,<br />

pp. 925-972.<br />

Lessig, L. (2001). The Future of I<strong>de</strong>as. The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World.<br />

New York. Vintage Books.<br />

Mac Sithigh, D. (2011). Regu<strong>la</strong>ting the Medium: Reactions to Network Neutrality in<br />

the European Union and Canada. Journal of Internet Law. Vol. 14, Núm. 8. pp. 3-12.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C.T., (2007). Net Neutrality and Consumer Access to Content. 4:4 SCRIPTed<br />

407 http://www.<strong>la</strong>w.ed.ac.uk/ahrc/script-ed/vol4-4/mars<strong>de</strong>n.asp [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta:<br />

15 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C.T. (2008). Net Neutrality: The European Debate. Journal of Internet Law. Vol.<br />

12, Núm. 2. pp. 1-11.<br />

Mars<strong>de</strong>n, C.T. (2010). Net Neutrality. Towards a Co-regu<strong>la</strong>tory Solution. New York.<br />

Bloomsbury Aca<strong>de</strong>mic.<br />

Martínez, P. (2010). <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. El País. 5 <strong>de</strong> Noviembre. http://www.elpais.<br />

com/articulo/tecnologia/<strong>Neutralidad</strong>/<strong>red</strong>/elpeputec/20100511elpeputec_10/Tesc<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 16 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

Nuechterlein, J.E., y Weiser, P.J. (2007) Digital Crossroads. American Telecommunications<br />

Policy in the Internet Age. Cambridge, Massachussetts. The MIT Press.<br />

o’Reilly, T. (2007) What is Web2.0: Design Patterns and Business Mo<strong>de</strong>ls for the Next<br />

Generation of Software. Communications & Strategies. N. 1. Primer Trimestre. Pág. 17.


Internet abierta, <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia<br />

133<br />

Martínez Lage, S., y Petitbò, A., J. (Directores). (2006) El abuso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> posición <strong>de</strong> dominio.<br />

Marcial Pons. Madrid.<br />

Pérez Marzabal, J.M. (2007). Convergencia Digital, interconexión <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s IP, y otras (r)<br />

evoluciones tecnológicas: hacia <strong>la</strong> convergencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> competencia y <strong>la</strong><br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas en <strong>la</strong> sociedad en <strong>red</strong>. Revista <strong>de</strong> Contratación<br />

Electrónica. Número 79, pp. 3-44.<br />

Posner, R., A. (2001) Antitrust in the New Economy, 68, Antitrust Law Journal 925 - 943<br />

Sidak, J. G. (2006). A Consumer-Welfare Approach to Network Neutrality Regu<strong>la</strong>tion of<br />

the Internet. Journal of Competition Law & Economics, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 349-474.<br />

Szyszczak, E. (2007) The Regu<strong>la</strong>tion of the State in Competitive Markets in the EU. Hart<br />

Publishing.<br />

Tuomi, I. (2002) Networks of Innovation. Change and Meaning in the Age of the Internet.<br />

New York. oxford University Press.<br />

Van Schewick, B. (2007). Towards an Economic Framework for Network Neutrality Regu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law. Vol. 5. pp. 329-391.<br />

Van Schewick, B. (2010). Internet Architecture and Innovation. Cambridge, Massachusetts.<br />

The MIT Press.<br />

Varios autores. (2010). <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> Red. Efecto sobre el marco regu<strong>la</strong>torio actual y<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong>s actuaciones <strong>de</strong> los principales agentes <strong>de</strong>l sector. Deloitte.<br />

Weiser, P. (2011) Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and the Information Age. Journal of Telecommunications<br />

and High Technology Law. Vol. 9. N. 2011.<br />

Weiser, P., J. (2005) The Re<strong>la</strong>tionship of Antitrust and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion In a Deregu<strong>la</strong>tory Era.<br />

Antitrust Bulletin. 20. pp. 1 y ss.<br />

Wu, T. (1999). Internet v Application: An Introduction to Application-Cente<strong>red</strong> Internet Analysis,<br />

Virginia Law Review 86.<br />

Wu, T. (2003). Network Neutrality. Broadband Discrimination. Journal of Telecommunications<br />

and High Technology Law. Vol. 2. Pág. 141.<br />

Wu, T. (2010) The Master Switch. The Rise and Fall of Information Empires. Random<br />

House. London.<br />

Zittrain, J. (2009). The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It. Yale University Press.<br />

Yoo, C. S. (2004). Would Mandating Broadband Network Neutrality Help or Hurt Competition?<br />

A Comment on the End-to-End Debate. Journal of Telecommunications and<br />

High Technology Law, Vol. 3.<br />

Yoo, C.S. (2007). What Can Antitrust Contribute to the Network Neutrality Debate? International<br />

Journal of Communication. pp. 493-530.


COMUNICACIONES SOBRE<br />

PROPIEDAD INTELECTUAL EN INTERNET


‘PIRACY. IT’S A CRIME.’ – THE CRIMINALISATION PROCESS<br />

OF DIGITAL COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT<br />

7<br />

Benjamin Farrand<br />

European University Institute<br />

AbstrAct: This paper seeks to analyse the trend in copyright protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion in the EU.<br />

Taking into account an increasingly evi<strong>de</strong>nt ‘shift’ in the discourse of policy-makers regarding online<br />

copyright infringement, this paper will evaluate the <strong>de</strong>velopment of increasingly restrictive and<br />

prohibitive digital copyright <strong>la</strong>ws, <strong>de</strong>monstrating how copyright infringement, an area traditionally<br />

associated with civil penalties, is subject to a creeping discourse of criminal liability and security rhetoric.<br />

Increasingly, digital piracy is being associated with more serious issues such as organised crime<br />

and terrorism, as well as being used interchangeably with counterfeiting, leading to confusion and<br />

misinformation in the piracy <strong>de</strong>bate.<br />

Whereas research in this field has traditionally focused on legal <strong>de</strong>velopments as they occur and expost<br />

assessments of the legis<strong>la</strong>tion in question, this paper seeks to establish the existence of a trend,<br />

taking into account why and how this trend has <strong>de</strong>veloped. In or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve this aim, this paper<br />

will not only consi<strong>de</strong>r key legal documents and cases, but will also look at policy-forming documents<br />

such as Commission Reports, as well as press releases of non-governmental actors in the field of copyright<br />

such as music industry representatives. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, these documents will be analysed in or<strong>de</strong>r<br />

to <strong>de</strong>termine how copyright infringement is phrased, showing the change in the perception of the<br />

problem being one of internal market regu<strong>la</strong>tion into one of crime and security. Finally, these findings<br />

will be applied to recent <strong>de</strong>velopments at the EU level such as the European Commission proposal for<br />

a Directive for Criminal Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights, in or<strong>de</strong>r to <strong>de</strong>monstrate how<br />

these anti-piracy measures have grave ramifications for the Internet and Internet users.<br />

1. The ConCepT and <strong>de</strong>velopmenT of digiTal CopyrighT<br />

The popu<strong>la</strong>rity of downloading music on the Internet has <strong>la</strong>rgely coinci<strong>de</strong>d with, and<br />

is also partly responsible for the wi<strong>de</strong>spread popu<strong>la</strong>rity of the Internet. As one author has<br />

stated, ‘the digitisation of content, in fact, combined with the increasing adoption of broadband<br />

distribution technologies, represents a revolution and a challenge that may be the greatest opportunity<br />

for the growth of new business and the transformation of the traditional distribution mo<strong>de</strong>ls’ 1 .<br />

As Professor Samuelson has stated, digital media has six primary characteristics, which by<br />

their nature both allow for the mass distribution of media in a way not previously possible,<br />

and pose potential challenges for contemporary Intellectual Property regimes 2 . These<br />

1 Lucchi, N. (2006) ‘Digital Media & Intellectual Property’, Springer at p.11.<br />

2 See Samuelson, P. (1990) ‘Digital Media and the Changing Face of Intellectual Property Law’[1990]<br />

16 Rutgers Computer & Tech LJ 323.


138 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

characteristics inclu<strong>de</strong> the ease of digital replication, the ease of transmission, compactness<br />

of works in digital form and new ‘search and link’ capabilities. This means that the average<br />

MP3 file enco<strong>de</strong>d at 192kbps can be copied in less than a second, transfer<strong>red</strong> (given current<br />

average download speeds) in un<strong>de</strong>r a minute, and sto<strong>red</strong> on a different computer, consuming<br />

only 5MB of a 90GB hard-drive. Furthermore, using search engines such as Google,<br />

legal and illicit downloads of this music can be easily i<strong>de</strong>ntified in a search, and subsequently<br />

downloa<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

There are two major arguments in favour of copyright protection. The first is that of<br />

economic efficiency –this theory consi<strong>de</strong>rs that copyrightable works such as music have a<br />

value to society, and without copyright protection, the production of such works would fail<br />

to happen at an optimal level. For example, recording an album involves consi<strong>de</strong>rable costs,<br />

including the recording itself in a studio, production and advertising. If that work was to<br />

then be copied at little cost to the copier, and then <strong>red</strong>istributed on a mass scale in such a<br />

way as the original would not be bought, these costs could not be recouped. This becomes<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>rly pertinent given the ease at which music can be digitally copied and distributed<br />

through the Internet. The legal protection given by copyright is inten<strong>de</strong>d to rectify this<br />

“market failure” by providing incentives that encourage the production and dissemination<br />

of works...’(providing) a legal means by which those who invest time and <strong>la</strong>bour in producing...<br />

goods can be confi<strong>de</strong>nt that they will not only be able to recoup that investment, but also reap a<br />

profit proportional to the popu<strong>la</strong>rity of their work’ 3 . The second of these arguments focuses on<br />

the rights of the author themselves. One principle of an authors right is that it is fair and<br />

equitable that the author be rewar<strong>de</strong>d for the time and effort that went into the production<br />

of the work; while this appears to mirror the economic efficiency justification for copyright<br />

protection, it re<strong>la</strong>tes instead to what the author may ‘<strong>de</strong>serve’, rather than what is economically<br />

viable.<br />

1.1. napster opens the floodgates: - infringement goes digital<br />

Rather than viewing this technology as an innovative and exciting way to open up a<br />

new market for the distribution of copyrighted works, the creative industries <strong>la</strong>rgely saw the<br />

Internet as a serious threat to an existing business mo<strong>de</strong>l. With music companies slow on<br />

the uptake, the first major music distribution service was created and run by a college stu<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

with a strong interest in music, a peer-to-peer music distribution p<strong>la</strong>tform infamously<br />

known as Napster. By installing the software and creating a profile, users could share their<br />

music library with other users. The <strong>de</strong>tails of their avai<strong>la</strong>ble music files was contained on<br />

Napster’s centralised database system, allowing users to browse other users’ libraries, and if<br />

a user was online, download songs from that library. Going public in June 1999, Napster<br />

was the first popu<strong>la</strong>r programme for the distribution of digital media. By January 2000, 5<br />

million Internet users had downloa<strong>de</strong>d the software and 60% of the University of Indiana’s<br />

3 Bentley, L. and Sherman. B.(2004) ‘Intellectual Property Law’, 6 th Ed, Oxford University Press at<br />

p.35.


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

139<br />

bandwidth was being taken up by Napster-based file transfers 4 . By the end of the year, music<br />

file transfers had increased exponentially 5 , with a host of copycats releasing their own versions<br />

of the media p<strong>la</strong>tform. At its peak in 2001, Napster had 26.4 million users accessing<br />

the service, representing 85% of the estimated online popu<strong>la</strong>tion at that time 6 . In the words<br />

of one writer, ‘copyright now faced a technology which dramatically reimagined how and by<br />

whom culture is produced, sold, distributed, and consumed. At the same moment, those industries<br />

most invested in copyright found themselves scrambling to keep up with the accelerated states of<br />

the so-called knowledge economy’ 7 . Through the use of such technology, it was possible for<br />

consumers of creative content to be the distributors of such content as well, cutting the right<br />

hol<strong>de</strong>rs out of the supply chain.<br />

Inevitably, the first copyright infringement <strong>la</strong>wsuits were quick to materialise – in a<br />

case brought in 2000 and <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d in February 2001, A&M Records, Inc brought an action<br />

against Napster on the grounds that Napster’s users were directly infringing the record<br />

<strong>la</strong>bel’s copyright over many of the works being distributed, and that Napster was guilty of<br />

contributory and vicarious infringement of the copyright through making possible the infringement<br />

by Napster users. A&M Records believed that merely the creation and making<br />

avai<strong>la</strong>ble of the software was enough to constitute contributory infringement. In the case of<br />

A&M Records Inc v Napster Inc 8 , it was ultimately <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d by the US Court of Appeals for the<br />

Ninth Circuit that Napster was in fact guilty of contributory and vicarious infringement 9 .<br />

Refusing to or<strong>de</strong>r the service to cease, the Court instead stated that the operators of Napster<br />

had a duty to police the service, preventing the downloading of unauthorised material. Unable<br />

to do so, the operators <strong>de</strong>activated the service in July 2001. Nevertheless, the cat was<br />

now out of the virtual bag –once Napster went offline, several new services established themselves,<br />

including eMule, LimeWire, Soulseek and Grokster. Furthermore, non-centralised<br />

methods of distributing content were <strong>de</strong>veloped, such as BitTorrent, which allows for users<br />

to download directly from each-other, with no central database, making tracking infringement<br />

more complicated. Websites would not host any content, but hosted ‘Trackers’, which<br />

would provi<strong>de</strong> the BitTorrent software with information telling it where such digital content<br />

may be avai<strong>la</strong>ble. The Pirate Bay, for example, operated a tracker service, rather than<br />

a content-hosting service. The threat of piracy took on a greater meaning for the creative<br />

industries –no longer was piracy an issue of international tra<strong>de</strong>, limited to the enforcement<br />

4 Topham, G. (27/07/2000) ‘Napster’, The Guardian, accessible at http://www.guardian.co.uk/<br />

world/2000/jul/27/qanda.cybercinema (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

5 Net News, (15/10/2000) ‘No Killing the Napster Hydra’, The Observer, accessible at http://www.<br />

guardian.co.uk/technology/2000/oct/15/business.theobserver (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

6 Press Release,(20/07/2001) ‘Global Napster usage plummets but new file-sharing alternatives gaining<br />

ground, reports Jupiter Media Matrix’, ComScore, accessible at http://www.comscore.com/press/<br />

release.asp?id=249 (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

7 Gillespie, T.(2007) ‘Wi<strong>red</strong> Shut: - Copyright and the shape of digital culture’, MIT Press at p.5.<br />

8 A&M Records, Inc (and others) v Napster, Inc, 239 F.3d 1004 (9 th Cir. 2001).<br />

9 Ibid at p.1027 of the judgement.


140 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

of IP rights in other States, but now represented an ‘enemy within’. Previously frequent<br />

purchasers of content were now downloading that content for free, with the result that what<br />

was once a p<strong>red</strong>ominantly external issue was quickly <strong>de</strong>veloping a pervasive internal element.<br />

1.2. european digital copyright legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

Copyright has traditionally been consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as an issue of civil <strong>la</strong>w rather than of criminal<br />

<strong>la</strong>w. As such, measures taken to harmonise aspects of copyright <strong>la</strong>w at the European level<br />

have usually been based on market integration justifications. Commission consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> this<br />

as being a priority was ma<strong>de</strong> apparent in a Green Paper released in the <strong>la</strong>te 1980s entitled<br />

‘Copyright and the Challenge of Technology’ 10 . This Green Paper stated that:<br />

‘the Community must ensure the proper functioning of the common market. To the maximum<br />

extent possible, creators and provi<strong>de</strong>rs of copyright goods and services should be able<br />

be able to treat the Community as a single internal market. This requires the elimination of<br />

obstacles and legal differences that substantially disrupt the functioning of the market…’ 11 .<br />

Perhaps the first step towards the creation of an EU copyright co<strong>de</strong> 12 came with the<br />

passing of the Information Society Directive in 2001 (hereby the InfoSoc Directive) 13 . The<br />

InfoSoc Directive implements the international Tra<strong>de</strong> Re<strong>la</strong>ted Aspects of Intellectual Property<br />

Rights Agreement (hereby the TRIPS agreement) which ente<strong>red</strong> into force in January<br />

1995, as well as the World Intellectual Property Organisation Copyright Treaty (WCT) and<br />

World Intellectual Property Organisation Performance and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)<br />

which were both ratified in 1996. According to one author, the TRIPS agreement represents<br />

‘the first comprehensive intellectual property agreement ever executed by most of the world’s trading<br />

nations which establishes minimum standards of protection (and enforcement) for practically<br />

all categories of IP rights...the adopted standards mirror those in force in the industrialised<br />

countries...’ 14 . The key <strong>de</strong>velopments brought about by the InfoSoc Directive re<strong>la</strong>te to the exploitation<br />

of rights on the Internet. During the mid-1990s, some businesses and legis<strong>la</strong>tures<br />

saw the potential commercial interests that the Internet could foster, as well as potential<br />

for the creation of new types of commercial service. So too did they recognise that the <strong>la</strong>w<br />

should be adapted in or<strong>de</strong>r to meet the challenges of this new environment. Therefore, the<br />

intention of the InfoSoc Directive, as stated in the preamble, was to ensure that barriers to<br />

cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r internet tra<strong>de</strong> would be avoi<strong>de</strong>d. While the Directive implements the TRIPS<br />

10 Commission of the European Communities’Green Paper on Copyright and the Challenge of Technology<br />

– Copyright Issues Requiring Immediate Action’ COM/88/172 of 7th June 1998<br />

11 Ibid, at s.1.3.2.<br />

12 Tritton, G.(2008) ‘Intellectual Property Law in Europe’, 3rd Ed, Sweet and Maxwell, at p.531.<br />

13 Directive 2001/29/EC on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and re<strong>la</strong>ted rights in the<br />

information society [2001] OJ L167/10.<br />

14 Moncayo von Hase, A.’The Application and Interpretation of the Agreement on Tra<strong>de</strong>-Re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights’, to be found in Correa, C.M. & Yusuf, A.A. (eds) (1998)<br />

‘Intellectual Property and International Tra<strong>de</strong>: The TRIPS Agreement’, Kluwer Law International at p.83.


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

141<br />

agreement’s requirements for the protection of Technical Protection Measures (or, ensuring<br />

non-circumvention of Digital Rights Management technologies) in or<strong>de</strong>r to ensure the protection<br />

of a right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs copyright, nowhere in the Directive is crime mentioned as being a<br />

justification for legis<strong>la</strong>tion, nor as a threat to intellectual property protection.<br />

In 2004, the Community passed Directive 2004/48/EC, otherwise known as the Enforcement<br />

Directive 15 , in or<strong>de</strong>r to harmonise measures, procedures and remedies appropriate<br />

to, and relevant to, proceedings re<strong>la</strong>ting to intellectual property infringement. In doing<br />

so, it stated that ‘at the international level...the Community...is bound by the TRIPS agreement...(which)<br />

contains in particu<strong>la</strong>r provisions on the means of enforcing intellectual property<br />

rights, which are common standards applicable at international level...’ 16 . While primarily basing<br />

the need for enforcement mechanisms on the requirement to implement the enforcement<br />

provisions of the TRIPS agreement, the Enforcement Directive is the first piece of<br />

European copyright legis<strong>la</strong>tion that specifically makes reference to crime; in the preamble at<br />

<strong>para</strong>graph 9, it is stated that ‘infringements of intellectual property rights appear to be increasingly<br />

linked to organised crime’, although the preamble p<strong>red</strong>ominantly focuses on the harmonisation<br />

of civil enforcement measures within the remit of Community competence, and<br />

Article 3(c) states that the Directive will not affect national criminal legis<strong>la</strong>tion in respect of<br />

infringement.Although in a 2003 Press Release concerning the Directive, it was stated that<br />

‘the Proposed Directive would not introduce tougher sanctions against individuals...(but applies<br />

only) to infringements carried out for commercial purposes’ 17 , the Directive itself in setting out<br />

the possibility of damages being awar<strong>de</strong>d to right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs at Article 13, does not appear to<br />

distinguish between ‘distinguish between <strong>la</strong>rge-scale commercial infringement and counterfeiting<br />

enterprises from unintentional, non-commercial infringement of individuals’ 18 . While this<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tion did not per se introduce criminal sanctions for copyright infringement online, it<br />

did nevertheless appear to represent a change in the perception of copyright infringement at<br />

the level of the Commission. Yet how did this change of perception <strong>de</strong>velop?<br />

2. piraTes on The digiTal seas: - CriminalisaTion enforCemenT<br />

meChanisms<br />

It is safe to say that <strong>de</strong>spite strong and effective implementation of copyright <strong>la</strong>w at a<br />

multi<strong>la</strong>teral level, piracy is still very much perceived as being an issue by certain right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and European institutions. According to the International Fe<strong>de</strong>ration for the Phonographic<br />

Industry (IFPI, an international lobbying organisation for the recording industry, simi<strong>la</strong>r to<br />

15 Directive 2004/48 on the enforcement of intellectual property rights [2004] OJ L195/16.<br />

16 Enforcement Directive, Recitals 4-5.<br />

17 Europa Press Release, ‘Proposed Directive on enforcement of intellectual property rights – frequently<br />

asked questions’, MEMO/03/20 (30/01/2003).<br />

18 Kierkegaard, S.(2005) ‘Taking a sledge-hammer to crack the nut: - The EU Enforcement Directive’,<br />

Computer Law and Security Report 21(5) 488 at p.491.


142 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the Recording Industry Association of America), ‘over 95% of music downloads are illegal and<br />

unpaid for’ 19 . With the implementation of substantive provisions apparently completed with<br />

the InfoSoc and Enforcement Directives, the Council and Commission are now focusing<br />

on improving the enforcement of these <strong>la</strong>ws to combat what it sees as a growing epi<strong>de</strong>mic of<br />

piracy.This article seeks to exp<strong>la</strong>in the how and why questions; how is copyright policy being<br />

shaped at the European (and in<strong>de</strong>ed, national and international) level, and why lobbyists<br />

and policy-makers are pursuing a certain course of action. In or<strong>de</strong>r to address these issues,<br />

this section will look at two issues: - what lobbying bodies such as IFPI are saying, and how<br />

this influences the legis<strong>la</strong>tive response.<br />

2.1. from prose to policy: - how lobbyist rhetoric appears to shape copyright <strong>la</strong>w and<br />

policy, or, ‘piracy is killing music’<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to address the rhetoric of the music industry with regard to copyright, it is<br />

first necessary to refer to the first section of this article, and the traditionally stated aim of<br />

copyright <strong>la</strong>w. After all, the legal protection granted to creative works through copyright<br />

was inten<strong>de</strong>d to correct a market failure and ensure that creative artists continued to create<br />

–in other words, provi<strong>de</strong> an incentive for the continuing cultural production consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as<br />

beneficial to society. Nevertheless, there are certain f<strong>la</strong>ws in this argument, particu<strong>la</strong>rly as<br />

lobbying groups representing artists and record <strong>la</strong>bels portray it. In<strong>de</strong>ed, it does not appear<br />

to be the individual artists who <strong>la</strong>rgely benefit from increases in copyright protection, but<br />

the record <strong>la</strong>bels (although these issues are outsi<strong>de</strong> of the remit of this paper).<br />

It would appear, upon consultation with press releases and other documents from lobbyist<br />

and industry pressure groups that author incentivisation arguments are being reinforced<br />

with, and in some instances rep<strong>la</strong>ced by, a rhetoric based in crime and security rather<br />

than being purely about artist incentivisation and discussion of civil liability for infringement.<br />

Excerpts from reports by music industry representative groups appear to <strong>de</strong>monstrate<br />

the <strong>de</strong>velopment of a crime and security-based discourse, intimating harm to both the State<br />

and consumers as well as to individual artists. In one of the first IFPI Piracy Reports from<br />

2000, it is stated that ‘evi<strong>de</strong>nce of the link between music piracy and organised crime became<br />

apparent in the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s as the CD format offe<strong>red</strong> crime syndicates a simple, cheap and highly<br />

lucrative entry into a mass-scale illegal tra<strong>de</strong>’ 20 . There are significant problems with the methodology<br />

linking music piracy to organised crime more generally, but this falls outsi<strong>de</strong> of the<br />

remit of this paper, which focuses specifically on Internet-re<strong>la</strong>ted copyright issues21 . The re-<br />

19 IFPI (16/01/09) ‘IFPI publishes digital music report 2009’, accessible at http://www.ifpi.org/content/<br />

section_resources/dmr2009.html (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

20 IFPI, (2000) ‘Music Piracy Report 2000’, at p.3.<br />

21 For more information on this, however, please see Farrand, B. & Carrapico, H.’Copyright <strong>la</strong>w as a<br />

matter of (inter)national security? – The attempt to securitise commercial infringement and its spill-over<br />

onto individual liability’ (to be published in 2011).


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

port mentioned that Internet piracy spread ‘dramatically’ 22during the year, but ma<strong>de</strong> no links<br />

to crime, organised or otherwise. Interestingly, the report focused mainly on the risk posed<br />

to the industry through CD writers and the CD-R. Simi<strong>la</strong>r views are held in the 2001 report,<br />

although it <strong>de</strong>dicates a page to Internet-based piracy, stating that ‘Internet piracy...severely<br />

hin<strong>de</strong>rs the <strong>de</strong>velopment of legitimate online services’ 23 , but no link is ma<strong>de</strong> between Internet<br />

piracy and crime. This trend continues throughout the 200224 and 2003 reports, although<br />

most interestingly, the 2003 report states in a footnote that it does not cover ‘cover private<br />

copying by consumers or the distribution of unauthorised files on the Internet’ 25 .<br />

A change is palpable when consi<strong>de</strong>ring the report from 2004, where it is stated that<br />

the ‘illegal music tra<strong>de</strong> is benefitting international organised crime’ 26 . Although it does not talk<br />

about Internet piracy specifically in this instance, it can be perceived as the beginning of<br />

a ‘damnation by association’ process in the consi<strong>de</strong>ration of Internet piracy issues. A report<br />

released by IFPI in the same year, which also provi<strong>de</strong>s tenuous links between music piracy<br />

and terrorist organisations, states that ‘a series of raids was conducted in the UK, resulting in<br />

the arrest of nine individuals for organising the distribution of massive quantities of illegal material<br />

(music, films, software and paedophilia) on the Internet’ 27 . The report goes on to state that<br />

‘the most extreme form of organised crime affecting society today is that of terrorism...evi<strong>de</strong>nce and<br />

intelligence is avai<strong>la</strong>ble to prove that these groups are involved in the fabrication, distribution<br />

and sale of counterfeit music... 28 ’Here, we see a linking of something which up until this point<br />

was generally consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as being an issue of civil infringement being linked to much more<br />

serious criminal offences. This linking is important, as will be <strong>de</strong>monstrated when consi<strong>de</strong>ring<br />

the legis<strong>la</strong>tive response.<br />

As some authors note, it is at this point when advertisements begin to be run by movie<br />

and record <strong>la</strong>bels and associated organisations, such as the infamous campaign in the<br />

UK, known as ‘FACT’. FACT, or the Fe<strong>de</strong>ration Against Copyright Theft, ran a campaign<br />

in which an almost caricature-esque ‘evil’ bran<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>stroys collections of CDs and DVDs,<br />

while a voiceover states that ‘piracy funds organised crime, and will <strong>de</strong>stroy our music and<br />

publishing industries...piracy funds terrorism, and will jeopardise our safety, and your future<br />

enjoyment’ 29 . Another well known campaign states ‘you wouldn’t steal a car, you wouldn’t steal<br />

a handbag, you wouldn’t steal a television, you wouldn’t steal a movie. Downloading pirated<br />

143<br />

22 IFPI, supra 72.<br />

23 IFPI, (2001) ‘Music Piracy Report 2001’, at p.8.<br />

24 See, for example IFPI, (2002) ‘Music Piracy Report 2002’, at p.10.<br />

25 IFPI, (2003) ‘Music Piracy Report 2003’, at p.3.<br />

26 IFPI, (2004) ‘Music Piracy Report 2004’, at p.2.<br />

27 IFPI, (2005) ‘Music Piracy: - Serious, Violent and Organised Crime’ at p.6.<br />

28 Ibid at p.3.<br />

29 An example of this advertisement can be found on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/<br />

watch?v=BLBY4qzUMNw (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).


144 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

material is stealing. Stealing is against the <strong>la</strong>w’ 30 .Here, it is possible to <strong>de</strong>monstrate the way<br />

in which individual acts of civil infringement are linked to more serious criminal acts. In<br />

doing so, industry representatives seek to ‘equate file-sharing with commercial piracy and<br />

counterfeiting’ 31 , creating a link between conduct online and serious issues such as organised<br />

crime and terrorism.As one aca<strong>de</strong>mic notes,<br />

‘while the entertainment industry has long engaged in a battle against ‘piracy’, this type of<br />

piracy is different: - rather than using the term to refer to <strong>la</strong>rge-scale commercial infringement<br />

operations...it is used in the digital copyright <strong>de</strong>bate to <strong>de</strong>scribe individual copying,<br />

private conduct that is not for profit...such shifting of the rhetoric toward hyperbole serves<br />

to obscure the differences between organised criminal activity on a massive scale and private<br />

offences’ 32 .<br />

The author goes on to exp<strong>la</strong>in that in this way, entertainment companies ‘suggest connections<br />

between criminals of much more dangerous crimes and participation on peer-to-peer<br />

file-sharing networks’ 33 . However, as Dr Matthew David states, the attempts to link piracy<br />

with terrorism and other serious crimes ‘involves numerous <strong>de</strong>ceptive c<strong>la</strong>ims and associations’ 34 ;<br />

when pressed by the United States House Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Courts,<br />

the Internet and Intellectual Property to give evi<strong>de</strong>nce linking Internet based piracy with<br />

organised crime or terrorism, John Malcom of the Department of Justice ‘sought to equate<br />

file-sharing networks with organised crime on the basis that they were international networks<br />

and they were enabling illegal activity’ 35 . However, it must be stated that in general, peer-topeer<br />

file sharing does not involve the exchange of money, which one would expect of an<br />

international organised crime network. When consi<strong>de</strong>ring the EU <strong>de</strong>finition of organised<br />

crime, it also appears that in and of itself, acts of piracy by individuals on the Internet cannot<br />

be found to constitute an organised crime network, even when using peer-to-peer software.<br />

According to the Framework Decision on organised crime, an organised crime network is:<br />

‘ a structu<strong>red</strong> association, established over a period of time, of more than two persons acting<br />

in concert with a view to committing offences which are punishable by <strong>de</strong>privation of liberty<br />

or a <strong>de</strong>tention or<strong>de</strong>r of a maximum of at least four years or a more serious penalty, to obtain,<br />

directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit’ 36 .<br />

30 This advertisement can be found on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmZm8vNHBSU<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

31 David, M. (2010) ‘Peer to Peer and the Music Industry: - The Criminalisation of Sharing’, Sage at p.98.<br />

32 Reyman, J. (2010) ‘The Rhetoric of Intellectual Property: - Copyright Law and the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion of Digital<br />

Culture’, Routledge pp.61-62.<br />

33 Ibid at p.69.<br />

34 David, M. supra 31 at p.97.<br />

35 Ibid at p.99.<br />

36 Council Framework Decision 2008/841/JHA of 24 October 2008 on the fight against organised<br />

crime, OJ L 300 (11/11/2008) pp.42-45 at Article 1.


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

145<br />

While it may be argued that benefit is bestowed upon downloa<strong>de</strong>rs, even if not in the<br />

form of direct financial gain, it is difficult to <strong>de</strong>termine how they could constitute members<br />

of an organised crime network insofar as the associations are not structu<strong>red</strong>, nor established<br />

over a period of time. Furthermore, and most importantly, individual acts of infringement<br />

are not a criminal offence un<strong>de</strong>r existing EU legis<strong>la</strong>tion, and <strong>de</strong>finitely not punishable by<br />

at least four years imprisonment. However, by phrasing Internet piracy in such terms, it is<br />

possible that industry representatives and policy makers may be able to change perceptions<br />

of the risks posed by Internet piracy. In the next sub-section of this article, the link between<br />

industry rhetoric and policy-making will be <strong>de</strong>monstrated.<br />

2.2. The legis<strong>la</strong>tive response, or, how discourse shapes policy<br />

One of the first instances in which copyright is refer<strong>red</strong> to as being more than an<br />

issue of pure market integration occur<strong>red</strong> in a 1998 Green Paper, in which it was stated<br />

that: -<br />

‘Counterfeiting and piracy likewise have damaging effects...in addition to the harm it does<br />

to the economy, the phenomenon is a veritable danger to society as a whole, inasmuch as it<br />

may affect public health (counterfeiting of medicinal products, adulterated alcoholic beverages)<br />

and safety (counterfeiting of toys or of car or aircraft components)’ 37 .<br />

While this issue does not <strong>de</strong>al with Internet-re<strong>la</strong>ted infringement specifically, it does<br />

suggest that the Commission consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> the issue of infringement more generally to be a<br />

serious issue. However, it does so by means of ‘damnation by association’ –linking counterfeiting,<br />

the creation of products inten<strong>de</strong>d to mislead the purchaser into consi<strong>de</strong>ring them<br />

genuine, to (in this instance) copied CDs. In doing so, the Commission creates a mental<br />

link between the two issues, <strong>de</strong>spite the risks associated with each being significantly different;<br />

whereas counterfeit aircraft components or fake medications may well pose serious<br />

threats to public health and safety, it is difficult to argue that a copied CD poses significant<br />

threats to public health38 . However, rather than consi<strong>de</strong>ring the issues in terms of individual<br />

acts of infringement, the Green Paper appears to consi<strong>de</strong>r the problem insofar as it re<strong>la</strong>tes to<br />

commercial-scale infringements. A Follow-Up to the Green Paper makes the link to Internet-re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

infringement explicit; while reiterating that counterfeiting and piracy are serious<br />

issues, and stating that action must be taken, for the first time the Commission appears to<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>r the issue of piracy not only as serious in itself, but serious in its association to other<br />

activities. The Commission stated that ‘apart from the economic and social consequences, the<br />

37 Commission of the European Communities, ‘Green Paper on Combating Counterfeiting and Piracy in<br />

the Single Market’, (15/10/1998) COM(98)569 final at p.11.<br />

38 This is an interesting issue in itself, but a<strong>la</strong>s outsi<strong>de</strong> of the remit of this paper, and so I will not go<br />

into much more <strong>de</strong>tail. However, I have consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> the issue in much more <strong>de</strong>pth with a colleague,<br />

in Farrand, B. & Carrapico, H. cited at FN.21.


146 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

phenomenon appears to be increasingly linked to organised crime and is <strong>de</strong>veloping in new ways<br />

with the Internet’ 39 .<br />

With regard to the 2004 Enforcement Directive, mentioned in section 1, part of<br />

the impetus for strong enforcement mechanisms for intellectual property more generally,<br />

and copyright specifically, was ma<strong>de</strong> explicit in the preceding Commission Proposal 40 . It<br />

was <strong>de</strong>termined that stronger harmonised procedures were necessary not only to ensure<br />

the good functioning of the single market, but also as ‘this phenomenon (of piracy) appears<br />

to be increasingly linked to organised crime’ 41 , a statement repeated in the preamble of<br />

the Enforcement Directive. Furthermore, the Proposal argued, the ‘increasing use of the<br />

Internet enables pirated products to be distributed instantly around the globe’ 42 . In a section<br />

of the Proposal entitled ‘Ensuring the Maintenance of Public Or<strong>de</strong>r’, the Commission<br />

appears to be moving towards the consi<strong>de</strong>ration of piracy not only being a matter for the<br />

internal market, but also a matter of security: - ‘in the context of the Internet, the rapidity<br />

of illegal operations and the difficulty of tracking the operations further <strong>red</strong>uce the risks for the<br />

criminal....piracy (and counterfeiting) thus appears to be a factor in promoting crime, including<br />

terrorism’ 43 . Yet how did the Commission <strong>de</strong>termine that this is the case? According<br />

to the Proposal, this information came from consultation with ‘interested parties’, which<br />

exposed the ‘links between counterfeiting and piracy and organised crime’ 44 . These interested<br />

parties, according to a press release from 1999 inclu<strong>de</strong>d ‘tra<strong>de</strong> associations, intellectual<br />

property right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs, companies, <strong>la</strong>wyers, aca<strong>de</strong>mics, national administrations...(and) other<br />

EU institutions’ 45 . However, there is no mention of any civil society or consumer rights<br />

groups being represented, and unfortunately, it does not appear possible to find a list of<br />

the participants on the Europa website. Therefore, we must conclu<strong>de</strong>, that ‘as ever, the<br />

threatening statistics emanated from tra<strong>de</strong> groups and lobbyists’ 46 . There is some suspicion<br />

as to the validity and verifiability of these links as posited by the industry lobbyists; this<br />

39 Commission of the European Communities’Communication from the Commission to the Council,<br />

the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee Follow-up to the Green Paper on combating<br />

counterfeiting and piracy in the single market’ (30/11/2000) COM(2000) 789 final at <strong>para</strong>graph<br />

1 of the introduction.<br />

40 Commission of the European Communities’Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament<br />

and of the Council on measures and procedures to ensure the enforcement of intellectual property rights’<br />

(30/01/2003) COM(2003) 46 final.<br />

41 Ibid at p.3.<br />

42 Ibid.<br />

43 Ibid at p.12.<br />

44 Ibid.<br />

45 Single Market News, ‘Counterfeiting and Piracy: - Munich hearing endorses need for EU action’, DG Internal<br />

Market, (July 1999), accessible at http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/smn/smn17/s17mn37.<br />

htm (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

46 Tapper, C. ‘Criminality and Copyright’, to be found in Vaver, D. & Bently, L. (eds) ‘Intellectual Property<br />

in the New Millennium: - Essays in Honour of William R. Cornish’ (2004) Cambridge at p.276


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

147<br />

article however seeks to <strong>de</strong>monstrate how policy is influenced, rather than looking at the<br />

economic evi<strong>de</strong>nce itself 47 . Therefore, although press releases from IFPI only begin to<br />

speak of the links between organised crime and copyright infringement in 2004, it appears<br />

that lobbyists have influenced policy in this manner much earlier. However, linking<br />

the issue of Internet specifically to organised crime and terrorism appears to occur for the<br />

first time in a Commission release in this document.<br />

Rather than culminating with the passing of the 2004 Directive, rhetoric based strongly<br />

in the need to increase enforcement mechanisms to combat a real and present security<br />

threat appears to have continued unabated in the Commission. Although argued as disproportionate<br />

on its own merits, the Directive had nevertheless shied away from criminal liability<br />

for infringement as a general principle. However, in July 2005, a Commission statement<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ring the need for the imposition of criminal sanctions by means of a Directive stated<br />

that: -<br />

‘counterfeiting and piracy...are a constantly growing phenomenon which nowadays has<br />

an international dimension...(and) they are a serious threat to national economies and<br />

governments(emphasis of the author)...increasing use of the Internet enables pirated products<br />

to be distributed instantly around the globe. Lastly, this phenomenon appears to be<br />

increasingly linked to organised crime’ 48 .<br />

Again, we can see here that the Commission is linking the issue of digital infringement<br />

by individuals being linked to the spectres of counterfeiting and mass-scale commercial<br />

piracy, with no distinction being ma<strong>de</strong> between the seriousness of the offences. As such, the<br />

Commission makes it clear in a subsequent document that ‘a Directive which could ensure<br />

that all intentional infringements of an intellectual property right on a commercial scale, and<br />

attempting, aiding or abetting and inciting such infringements are treated as criminal offences’ 49 is<br />

necessary in or<strong>de</strong>r to protect right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs. The Council agreed with the Commission, stating<br />

in 2006 that ‘the protection of intellectual property rights is of the utmost importance’ 50 . Interestingly,<br />

and once again showing the changing rhetoric and focus of intellectual property<br />

rights protection, the Council met to discuss the need for such sanctions un<strong>de</strong>r the Justice<br />

and Home Affairs pil<strong>la</strong>r, not the Community pil<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

47 Although see, for example, Professor James Boyle’s commentary at Boyle, J. ‘Fantasy and Reality<br />

in Intellectual Property’, (01/12/2010) accessible at James Boyle’s personal website at http://www.<br />

thepublicdomain.org/2010/12/01/fantasy-reality-in-intellectual-property-policy/ (<strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

48<br />

27/04/2011), where it is stated that often ‘there is no methodology, there is no study…and <strong>de</strong>spite their<br />

baselessness…these statistics continue to be referenced by various industry and government sources as evi<strong>de</strong>nce<br />

of the significance of the counterfeiting and piracy problem’.<br />

European Commission, Previous initial legis<strong>la</strong>tive document COM/2005/0276 (12/07/2005).<br />

49 Commission Impact Assessment Document annexed to the procedure SEC/2005/0848 (12/07/2005).<br />

50 Criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights, Council Activities<br />

COD/2005/0127 (05/10/2006).


148 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Legis<strong>la</strong>tive efforts began with the publishing of a proposal for a Directive on Criminal<br />

Measures 51 , which aimed to harmonise the enforcement of criminal sanctions against copyright<br />

infringers involved in counterfeit and piracy. The Council sought to justify this on the<br />

grounds that ‘the TRIPS agreement <strong>la</strong>ys down minimum provisions on means of enforcing tra<strong>de</strong>re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

intellectual property rights...these inclu<strong>de</strong> the implementation of criminal procedures and<br />

criminal penalties, but there are still major disparities in the legal situation in the Community<br />

which do not allow the hol<strong>de</strong>rs of intellectual property rights to benefit from an equivalent level of<br />

protection throughout the Community’ 52 . The draft accepted in April 2007 caused a great <strong>de</strong>al of<br />

concern to not only consumer advice groups, but also to national governments. The Article<br />

of TRIPS refer<strong>red</strong> to by the Council is Article 61, which dictates that Member States should<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> for criminal procedures and penalties in cases of wilful tra<strong>de</strong>mark counterfeiting or<br />

copyright piracy on a commercial scale. The Proposal, on the other hand, stated at Article 3<br />

that ‘all intentional infringements of an intellectual property right on a commercial scale’ should be<br />

punishable by criminal sanctions. Furthermore, Articles 4 and 5 seek to harmonise the nature<br />

and extent of penalties, such as a maximum of four years imprisonment for the most serious<br />

offences. This posed one particu<strong>la</strong>r problem – the Community did not at that time have the<br />

competence to harmonise matters of criminal <strong>la</strong>w in the Member States. This ren<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> the<br />

scope of the Proposal far greater than that of the TRIPS agreement, and outsi<strong>de</strong> the remit of<br />

the Community’s powers. However, due to the protests from some national governments that<br />

the proposed Directive went beyond the competences of the Community, the Directive was<br />

put on in<strong>de</strong>finite hiatus. The discourse, on the other hand, was not.<br />

In a statement at a conference on counterfeiting and piracy in Brussels in 2008, (then)<br />

Commissioner McCreevy stated that ‘I would like to begin by <strong>de</strong>aling with piracy. I have<br />

always had a problem with this term – it is too soft for what it <strong>de</strong>fines...but as all of you here<br />

today know, there is nothing romantic about the theft of material illegally downloa<strong>de</strong>d from the<br />

internet’ 53 . In this statement, it is <strong>de</strong>monstrated that the Commissioner for the Internal Market<br />

does not refer to copyright infringement as a civil ‘wrong’ with civil sanctions, but specifically<br />

as theft, using strong discourse to <strong>de</strong>nounce ‘thieves’ – a concept incorporated from<br />

criminal <strong>la</strong>w. In 2010, the Commission ma<strong>de</strong> it clear that they consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> infringement a<br />

criminal issue rather than a civil one; in a policy-initiating document inten<strong>de</strong>d to revive the<br />

Directive on Criminal Enforcement, it was stressed that: -<br />

‘ Counterfeiting and piracy appears to be increasingly linked to organised crime raising security<br />

and safety concerns and is also proven to be spreading over the Internet...the Commis-<br />

51 Amen<strong>de</strong>d Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and Council on Criminal Measures<br />

Aimed at Ensuring the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights, COM/2006/0168 final COD<br />

2005/0127.<br />

52 Ibid, ‘Justification for the proposal’.<br />

53 Commissioner McCreevy (13/05/2008), speaking at the Conference on Counterfeiting and Piracy,<br />

Brussels, 13th May 2008, SPEECH/08/237 accessible at http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.<br />

do?reference=SPEECH/08/237&format=HTML&aged=0&<strong>la</strong>nguage=EN&guiLanguage=en (<strong>la</strong>st<br />

accessed 04/04/2011).


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

149<br />

sion is currently analysing to what extent protection of intellectual property rights through<br />

criminal <strong>la</strong>w via a harmonized directive on criminal measures is necessary to supplement<br />

the enforcement of intellectual property rights through civil <strong>la</strong>w...’ 54<br />

It would therefore seem apparent that the Commission at least has adopted the securityre<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

rhetoric used by industry representatives, which helps to exp<strong>la</strong>in the current attempts<br />

to revitalise attempts to pass a Directive imposing criminal sanctions for infringement of<br />

intellectual property rights. It is equally apparent from the documents that the Commission<br />

does not appear to distinguish between counterfeiting, commercial scale physical piracy, and<br />

individual acts of infringement by Internet users, linking these issues together thematically<br />

by references to organised crime. In doing so, it would appear that the Commission is fully<br />

intent on reviving the ‘IPRED2’ Directive on criminal sanctions for intellectual property<br />

rights infringement, making the argument forcefully on the basis of a security threat, rather<br />

than on the basis of market harmonisation. Given the possibility of approximating criminal<br />

sanctions granted un<strong>de</strong>r Article 83 TFEU and the col<strong>la</strong>pse of the pil<strong>la</strong>r structure of the<br />

EU, it may also be the case that such a change is now well within the competences of the<br />

European Union.<br />

2.3. The cross-pollination of actors<br />

It is possible to consi<strong>de</strong>r that these beliefs arise not just because of lobbying on the<br />

behalf of creative industries, and the ‘evi<strong>de</strong>nce’ they provi<strong>de</strong> to European policy-makers<br />

(this evi<strong>de</strong>nce shall be given further consi<strong>de</strong>ration in the next chapter). In<strong>de</strong>ed, perhaps<br />

one potential reason for the significant weight of creative industries on policy direction in<br />

copyright <strong>la</strong>w can also be attributed to the ‘cross-pollination’ that occurs between the two<br />

groups of actors. One noteworthy example has occur<strong>red</strong> as recently as March 2011, when<br />

Maria Martin-Prat was appointed to the European Commission. Ms. Martin-Prat, prior to<br />

the appointment, was Deputy General Counsel, Director of Legal Policy and Regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

Affairs at IFPI 55 . According to Swedish MEP for the Pirate Party Christian Engström, Ms.<br />

Martin-Prat was appointed as Head of Unit for copyright and enforcement issues, and ‘will<br />

be coordinating the revision of the 2004/48/EG directive, otherwise known as the enforcement directive<br />

IPRED’ 56 . This could be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as an example of corporate regu<strong>la</strong>tory capture – a<br />

high-ranking industry lobbyist in a position focusing on strengthening right-hol<strong>de</strong>r protections<br />

appointed to a position where she is highly influential in dictating copyright enforce-<br />

54 Commission Staff Working Document, ‘Analysis of the application of Directive 2004/48/EC of the<br />

European Parliament and the Council of 29 April 2004 on the enforcement of intellectual property rights<br />

in the Member States’ SEC(2010) 1589 final (22/12/2010) at p.25.<br />

55 IFPI Press Release (27/05/2004),’IFPI Director of Licensing and Litigation appointed’ IFPI accessible<br />

at http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/20040527c.html (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011)<br />

56 Engström, C.(30/03/2011) ‘IFPI lobbyist new head of ACTA and IPRED at the EU Commission’<br />

WordPress Blog, accessible at http://christianengstrom.wordpress.com/2011/03/30/ifpi-lobbyistnew-head-of-acta-and-ip<strong>red</strong>-at-the-eu-commission/<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed (27/04/2011).


150 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

ment policy and the drafting of a highly controversial Directive which may impose criminal<br />

sanctions for infringement. As Christian Engström states, it appears that ‘big business lobby<br />

organizations are calling most of the shots at the Commission...I guess the only real news is that<br />

they don’t even bother to try to hi<strong>de</strong> it any more’ 57 . Of particu<strong>la</strong>r concern to Engström and other<br />

MEPs, Maria Martin-Prat has been known previously for a significantly restrictive view of<br />

copyright, and has previously argued that ‘private copying had no reason to exist and should be<br />

limited further than it is. She c<strong>la</strong>imed that it was incompatible with the three-step test’ 58 . This<br />

perception, it is difficult to argue that any reform of the Enforcement Directive or new<br />

Directive will legitimately protect the interests of consumers, but may be p<strong>red</strong>icted to be<br />

even more restrictive than the already criticised system. It must be stated that this does not<br />

appear to be a special nor iso<strong>la</strong>ted inci<strong>de</strong>nt; recently, there have been two equally significant<br />

examples of this cross-pollination in the US. In one example, a former RIAA lobbyist was<br />

appointed as a US District Circuit judge, and less than ten days <strong>la</strong>ter <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d a significant<br />

copyright case in favour of the right-hol<strong>de</strong>r 59 . In this case, Judge Beryl Howell <strong>de</strong>termined<br />

that right-hol<strong>de</strong>rs, rather than bringing individual actions against individual infringers, were<br />

permitted to bring mass-action <strong>la</strong>w suits against groups of infringers (and thereby lower<br />

their costs), <strong>de</strong>spite several other <strong>de</strong>cisions in other courts stating that such actions were not<br />

permissible 60 . While her <strong>de</strong>cision may have been impartial, the fact that prior to her position<br />

as a judge in this type of case the judge was a lobbyist registe<strong>red</strong> as working on ‘legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

concerning copyright <strong>la</strong>ws as applied to digital music’ 61 , this impartiality can nevertheless be<br />

questioned, and may help to suggest why copyright <strong>la</strong>w tends towards a particu<strong>la</strong>r direction.<br />

Simi<strong>la</strong>r questions may be raised regarding the appointment of ex-Senator Chris Dodd as<br />

head of the MPAA, months after stating that he would not un<strong>de</strong>r any circumstance take<br />

a lobbying position once leaving the Senate 62 . Mr Dodd stated in his new position that he<br />

would lobby extensively for further extensions to copyright and restrictions of user rights,<br />

stating that: -<br />

57 Ibid.<br />

58 Love, J.(30/03/2011) ‘Maria Martin-Prat reported to rep<strong>la</strong>ce Tilman Lue<strong>de</strong>r as head of unit for copyright<br />

at European Commission’, Knowledge Economy International accessible at http://keionline.org/<br />

no<strong>de</strong>/1105 (<strong>la</strong>st accessed (27/04/2011).<br />

59 News (28/03/2011), ‘BitTorrent Case Judge Is a Former RIAA Lobbyist and Pirate Chaser’, TorrentFreak<br />

accessible at http://torrentfreak.com/bittorrent-case-judge-is-a-former-riaa-lobbyist-and-pirate-chaser-110328/<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

60 An<strong>de</strong>rson, N.(28/03/2011) ‘RIAA lobbyist becomes fe<strong>de</strong>ral judge, rules on file-sharing cases’, Ars Technica,<br />

accessible at http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/03/riaa-lobbyist-becomes-fe<strong>de</strong>raljudge-rules-on-file-sharing-cases.ars<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

61 Ibid.<br />

62 Masnick, M. (22/02/2011) ‘Chris Dodd Breaking Promise Not To Become A Lobbyist Just Weeks After<br />

Leaving Senate; Joining MPAA As Top Lobbyist’, TechDirt accessible at http://www.techdirt.com/<br />

articles/20110221/14490613193/chris-dodd-breaking-promise-not-to-become-lobbyist-just-weeksafter-leaving-senate-joining-mpaa-as-top-lobbyist.shtml<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

151<br />

‘You know if you walk down main street people would arrest you if you walk into a retail<br />

store and stole items...it’s called looting in some cases. That’s exactly what is happening with intellectual<br />

property. It’s being looted and that needs to stop’ 63 .<br />

I refer to this process as ‘cross-pollination’ as i<strong>de</strong>as are taken from ‘p<strong>la</strong>nt’ to ‘p<strong>la</strong>nt’, or<br />

in this instance, from institution to institution, rather than being a one-way process. Lobbyists<br />

may take their preconceptions or policy objectives from their position as lobbyists,<br />

and convert this objective to legal policy upon becoming part of a <strong>la</strong>w-making institution.<br />

Furthermore, a policy-maker moving to a lobbying position may then use the knowledge<br />

and contacts gained in that institution and use it in their lobbying activities, combining<br />

knowledge of the political system with industry rhetoric. It is for reasons such as these that<br />

Directives such as those proposed for criminal sanctions for copyright infringement may<br />

well be passed; the apparent recycling of ‘arguments and proposals directly fed by the entertainment<br />

industry’ 64 , and the power and influence of lobbyists both within and without the system<br />

may help to exp<strong>la</strong>in how we reach a situation where ‘this legis<strong>la</strong>tion has provi<strong>de</strong>d for the<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>rn electronic publishing and entertainment industries a level of protection thought excessive<br />

for publishers of printed books nearly three centuries ago’ 65 .<br />

3. ConClusions and final remarks<br />

It appears to be the case from the analysis of legis<strong>la</strong>tive trends in this area that the EU<br />

is moving towards the consi<strong>de</strong>ration of IP infringement generally and digital copyright specifically<br />

as being issues of criminality. Lobbyist rhetoric may also help to exp<strong>la</strong>in the shift to<br />

a discourse based in security. The linking of copyright infringement to much more serious<br />

offences, ranging from child pornography offences to organised crime and terrorism seek to<br />

increase the perception of copyright infringement as a serious issue in its own right, through<br />

a form of guilt, or damnation, by association. This discourse appears to be accepted at the<br />

policy-maker level in a <strong>de</strong>monstrable way, with policy documents often repeating c<strong>la</strong>ims<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> by industry lobbyists verbatim, and an increasing level of security discourse being<br />

used in the push for criminal sanctions for infringement. It is further argued that crosspollination<br />

between lobbyist organisations and legal institutions such as the Commission<br />

help in the <strong>de</strong>velopment and acceptance of such i<strong>de</strong>as at the European level, and help to<br />

further shape policy.<br />

63 Block, A.B. (01/03/2011) ‘Official: - Chris Dodd to lead MPAA’, The Hollywood Reporter accessible<br />

at http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/official-chris-dodd-lead-mpaa-162817 (<strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

27/04/2011).<br />

64 Zimmermann, J. & Aigrain, P.(05/04/2011) ‘European Copyright Law: - Collusion for the Control of<br />

the Net’, La Quadrature Du Net accessible at http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net/en/european-copyright<strong>la</strong>w-collusion-for-the-control-of-the-net<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

65 Tapper, C. supra 46 at p.276.


152 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Furthermore, it may well be the case that such discourse also has an impact on the<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment of national and international <strong>la</strong>ws in this field, such as the HADOPI legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

in France, and the Anti-Counterfeiting Tra<strong>de</strong> Agreement (ACTA) being negotiated<br />

internationally. It is worth noting that ACTA, which bears some simi<strong>la</strong>rities to the<br />

Criminal Enforcement Directive Proposal and also inclu<strong>de</strong>s elements of the ‘graduated response’<br />

of HADOPI (a policy of potential disconnection for repeated infringements) was<br />

negotiated secretly, and most known information about the agreement came from leaks.<br />

This was confirmed when another activist organisation, Knowledge Ecology International<br />

(KEI), attempted to ensure the disclosure of the agreement through a Freedom of Information<br />

Act request, and was subsequently refused. According to the letter received by<br />

KEI, documents re<strong>la</strong>ting to the agreement were ‘being withheld in full pursuant to 5 U.S.C.<br />

s.522(b)(1), which pertains to information that is properly c<strong>la</strong>ssified in the interest of national<br />

security...’66. Simi<strong>la</strong>rly a leaked document from the Presi<strong>de</strong>ncy of the EU revealed that<br />

the EU ACTA negotiator was pushing for new criminal sanctions in the negotiations –<br />

indicating that the securitisation drive was not solely a US feature of the negotiations, but<br />

sha<strong>red</strong> by the EU institutions 67 . This process of criminalisation of copyright infringement<br />

could have potentially negative effects on Internet users. Conduct increasingly viewed as<br />

commonp<strong>la</strong>ce may be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as criminal, with significant repercussions, both penal<br />

and <strong>de</strong>prival; the possibility of imprisonment, and the possibility of a loss of Internet<br />

connection.<br />

4. BiBliography<br />

primary sources: legis<strong>la</strong>tive acts (chronologically)<br />

Agreement on Tra<strong>de</strong>-Re<strong>la</strong>ted Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 1995.<br />

WIPO Copyright Treaty, adopted in Geneva on December 20, 1996.<br />

WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, adopted in Geneva on December 20, 1996.<br />

Directive 2001/29/EC on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

rights in the information society [2001] OJ L167/10.<br />

Directive 2004/48 on the enforcement of intellectual property rights [2004] OJ L195/16.<br />

Council Framework Decision 2008/841/JHA of 24 October 2008 on the fight against organised<br />

crime, OJ L 300 (11/11/2008).<br />

66 Letter from the Executive Office of the Presi<strong>de</strong>nt, Office of the United States Tra<strong>de</strong> Representative,<br />

March 10 2009 at p2. accessible at http://www.keinonline.org/misc-docs/3/ustr_foia_<strong>de</strong>nial.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st<br />

accessed 04/08/2010).<br />

67 News (24/06/2010),’Leaks: - EU pushes for criminalising non-commercial usages in ACTA’ La Quadrature<br />

Du Net, accessible at http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net/en/leak-eu-pushes-for-criminalizing-noncommercial-usages-in-acta<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

primary sources: pre-legis<strong>la</strong>tive documents, working papers etc. (chronologically)<br />

153<br />

Commission of the European Communities’Green Paper on Copyright and the Challenge<br />

of Technology – Copyright Issues Requiring Immediate Action’ COM/88/172 of 7 th June<br />

1998.<br />

Commission of the European Communities, ‘Green Paper on Combating Counterfeiting<br />

and Piracy in the Single Market’, (15/10/1998) COM(98)569 final.<br />

Commission of the European Communities’Communication from the Commission to the<br />

Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee Follow-up to<br />

the Green Paper on combating counterfeiting and piracy in the single market’ (30/11/2000)<br />

COM(2000) 789 final.<br />

Commission of the European Communities’Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament<br />

and of the Council on measures and procedures to ensure the enforcement of intellectual<br />

property rights’ (30/01/2003) COM(2003) 46 final.<br />

European Commission, Previous initial legis<strong>la</strong>tive document COM/2005/0276 (12/07/2005).<br />

Commission Impact Assessment Document annexed to the procedure SEC/2005/0848<br />

(12/07/2005).<br />

Criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights, Council<br />

Activities COD/2005/0127 (05/10/2006).<br />

Commission Staff Working Document, ‘Analysis of the application of Directive 2004/48/<br />

EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 29 April 2004 on the enforcement of<br />

intellectual property rights in the Member States’ SEC(2010) 1589 final (22/12/2010).<br />

primary sources: Case-<strong>la</strong>w (Chronologically)<br />

A&M Records, Inc (and others) v Napster, Inc, 239 F.3d 1004 (9 th Cir. 2001).<br />

primary sources: press releases and advertising (Chronologically)<br />

Single Market News (July 1999), ‘Counterfeiting and Piracy: - Munich hearing endorses<br />

need for EU action’, DG Internal Market, accessible at http://ec.europa.eu/internal_<br />

market/smn/smn17/s17mn37.htm (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Press Release,(20/07/2001) ‘Global Napster usage plummets but new file-sharing alternatives<br />

gaining ground, reports Jupiter Media Matrix’, ComScore, accessible at http://www.<br />

comscore.com/press/release.asp?id=249 (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Europa Press Release, ‘Proposed Directive on enforcement of intellectual property rights – frequently<br />

asked questions’, MEMO/03/20 (30/01/2003).<br />

IFPI, (2000) ‘Music Piracy Report 2000’.<br />

IFPI, (2001) ‘Music Piracy Report 2001’.<br />

IFPI, (2002) ‘Music Piracy Report 2002’.<br />

IFPI, (2003) ‘Music Piracy Report 2003’.


154 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

IFPI, (2004) ‘Music Piracy Report 2004’.<br />

IFPI Press Release (27/05/2004),’IFPI Director of Licensing and Litigation appointed’ IFPI<br />

accessible at http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/20040527c.html (<strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

27/04/2011).<br />

IFPI, (2005) ‘Music Piracy: - Serious, Violent and Organised Crime’.<br />

Commissioner McCreevy (13/05/2008), speaking at the Conference on Counterfeiting<br />

and Piracy, Brussels, 13 th May 2008 SPEECH/08/237 accessible at http://europa.eu/<br />

rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/08/237&format=HTML&aged=0<br />

&<strong>la</strong>nguage=EN&guiLanguage=en (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 04/04/2011).<br />

IFPI (16/01/09) ‘IFPI publishes digital music report 2009’, accessible at http://www.ifpi.org/<br />

content/section_resources/dmr2009.html (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Letter from the Executive Office of the Presi<strong>de</strong>nt, Office of the United States Tra<strong>de</strong> Representative,<br />

March 10 2009 at p2. accessible at http://www.keinonline.org/misc-docs/3/<br />

ustr_foia_<strong>de</strong>nial.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 04/08/2010).<br />

secondary sources: Books (alphabetically by author)<br />

Bentley, L. and Sherman. B.(2004) ‘Intellectual Property Law’, 6 th Ed, Oxford University<br />

Press.<br />

David, M. (2010) ‘Peer to Peer and the Music Industry: - The Criminalisation of Sharing’, Sage.<br />

Gillespie, T.(2007) ‘Wi<strong>red</strong> Shut: - Copyright and the shape of digital culture’, MIT Press.<br />

Lucchi, N. (2006) ‘Digital Media & Intellectual Property’, Springer.<br />

Moncayo von Hase, A.’The Application and Interpretation of the Agreement on Tra<strong>de</strong>-<br />

Re<strong>la</strong>ted Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights’, to be found in Correa, C.M. & Yusuf,<br />

A.A. (eds) (1998) ‘Intellectual Property and International Tra<strong>de</strong>: The TRIPS Agreement’,<br />

Kluwer Law International.<br />

Reyman, J. (2010) ‘The Rhetoric of Intellectual Property: - Copyright Law and the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

of Digital Culture’, Routledge.<br />

Tapper, C. ‘Criminality and Copyright’, to be found in Vaver, D. & Bently, L. (eds) ‘Intellectual<br />

Property in the New Millennium: - Essays in Honour of William R. Cornish’ (2004)<br />

Cambridge.<br />

Tritton, G.(2008) ‘Intellectual Property Law in Europe’, 3 rd Ed, Sweet and Maxwell.<br />

secondary sources: articles (alphabetically by author)<br />

An<strong>de</strong>rson, N.(28/03/2011) ‘RIAA lobbyist becomes fe<strong>de</strong>ral judge, rules on file-sharing cases’,<br />

Ars Technica, accessible at http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/03/riaa-lobbyist-becomes-fe<strong>de</strong>ral-judge-rules-on-file-sharing-cases.ars<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Block, A.B. (01/03/2011) ‘Official: - Chris Dodd to lead MPAA’, The Hollywood Reporter<br />

accessible at http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/official-chris-dodd-leadmpaa-162817<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).


‘Piracy. It’s a crime.’ - The criminalisation process of digital copyright infringement<br />

155<br />

Boyle, J. ‘Fantasy and Reality in Intellectual Property’, (01/12/2010) accessible at James<br />

Boyle’s personal website at http://www.thepublicdomain.org/2010/12/01/fantasy-reality-in-intellectual-property-policy/<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Engström, C. (30/03/2011) ‘IFPI lobbyist new head of ACTA and IPRED at the EU<br />

Commission’ WordPress Blog, accessible at http://christianengstrom.wordpress.<br />

com/2011/03/30/ifpi-lobbyist-new-head-of-acta-and-ip<strong>red</strong>-at-the-eu-commission/<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed (27/04/2011).<br />

Farrand, B. & Carrapico, H.’Copyright <strong>la</strong>w as a matter of (inter)national security? –<br />

The attempt to securitise commercial infringement and its spill-over onto individual<br />

liability’(to be published in 2011).<br />

Kierkegaard, S.(2005) ‘Taking a sledge-hammer to crack the nut: - The EU Enforcement<br />

Directive’, Computer Law and Security Report 21(5) 488.<br />

Love, J.(30/03/2011) ‘Maria Martin-Prat reported to rep<strong>la</strong>ce Tilman Lue<strong>de</strong>r as head of unit<br />

for copyright at European Commission’, Knowledge Economy International accessible at<br />

http://keionline.org/no<strong>de</strong>/1105 (<strong>la</strong>st accessed (27/04/2011).<br />

Masnick, M. (22/02/2011) ‘Chris Dodd Breaking Promise Not To Become A Lobbyist Just<br />

Weeks After Leaving Senate; Joining MPAA As Top Lobbyist’, TechDirt accessible at http://<br />

www.techdirt.com/articles/20110221/14490613193/chris-dodd-breaking-promisenot-to-become-lobbyist-just-weeks-after-leaving-senate-joining-mpaa-as-top-lobbyist.<br />

shtml (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Net News, (15/10/2000) ‘No Killing the Napster Hydra’, The Observer, accessible at http://<br />

www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2000/oct/15/business.theobserver (<strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

27/04/2011).<br />

News (24/06/2010),’Leaks: - EU pushes for criminalising non-commercial usages in ACTA’ La<br />

Quadrature Du Net, accessible at http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net/en/leak-eu-pushes-forcriminalizing-non-commercial-usages-in-acta<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

News (28/03/2011), ‘BitTorrent Case Judge Is a Former RIAA Lobbyist and Pirate Chaser’,<br />

TorrentFreak accessible at http://torrentfreak.com/bittorrent-case-judge-is-a-formerriaa-lobbyist-and-pirate-chaser-110328/<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Samuelson, P. (1990) ‘Digital Media and the Changing Face of Intellectual Property<br />

Law’[1990] 16 Rutgers Computer & Tech LJ 323.<br />

Topham, G. (27/07/2000) ‘Napster’, The Guardian, accessible at http://www.guardian.<br />

co.uk/world/2000/jul/27/qanda.cybercinema (<strong>la</strong>st accessed 27/04/2011).<br />

Zimmermann, J. & Aigrain, P.(05/04/2011) ‘European Copyright Law: - Collusion for<br />

the Control of the Net’, La Quadrature Du Net accessible at http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.<br />

net/en/european-copyright-<strong>la</strong>w-collusion-for-the-control-of-the-net (<strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

27/04/2011).


COPyrIgHt At A POlICy CrOss-rOADs<br />

– ONlINe eNfOrCemeNt, tHe teleCOms PACkAge<br />

AND tHe DIgItAl eCONOmy ACt<br />

Dr. Monica Horten<br />

Author of the book The Copyright Enforcement Enigma - Internet Politics and the “Telecoms Package<br />

AbstrAct: The EU Telecoms Package and the matter of copyright created a puzzle for policy studies.<br />

The matter arose in the context of peer-to-peer file-sharing and copyright enforcement, and a small<br />

number of amendments that were apparently about copyright which were inserted into the EU telecoms<br />

framework. The policy problem concerns both telecoms and copyright scho<strong>la</strong>rs, and the un<strong>de</strong>rlying<br />

question to be posed is exactly why and in what ways could telecoms <strong>la</strong>w be targetted for<br />

copyright?<br />

This paper is written in two parts. The first part addresses the policy rationale behind copyright enforcement<br />

on broadband networks, and it exp<strong>la</strong>ins why the Telecoms Package was in fact, the appropriate<br />

policy instrument. The paper draws on a cross-disciplinary policy study conducted un<strong>de</strong>r the<br />

auspices of the author’s doctoral research, which analysed over 200 EU documentary sources.<br />

The aim of the amendments to the Telecoms Package was to provi<strong>de</strong> at EU level the necessary elements<br />

which would enable Member States to move forward with national copyright enforcement<br />

measures for the Internet.<br />

The second part of the paper attempts to <strong>de</strong>-construct one of the policies now being put in p<strong>la</strong>ce to<br />

enforce copyright against peer-to-peer file-sharing, namely the UK’s Digital Economy Act 2010. Using<br />

insights from the EU Telecoms Package, it discusses the structure inherent in the UK’s Digital<br />

Economy Act 2010, and the policy logic embed<strong>de</strong>d in it. This account will be brought right up to date<br />

by examining the arguments presented in the context of the Judicial Review of the Digital Economy<br />

Act in March 2011, where it can be seen how the rationale uncove<strong>red</strong> in the Telecoms Package analysis<br />

is reinforced.<br />

Keywords: telecoms Package; copyright enforcement; Digital Economy Act; copyright; internet;<br />

judicial review.<br />

The issue of peer-to-peer file-sharing and the distribution of creative works online presents<br />

a new policy dilemna. From the perspective of the industries who own the copyright<br />

to those works, there is a problem of enforcement of that right. From the perspective of the<br />

industries who own distribution networks, there is an established principle that they do not<br />

interfere with their customers’ communications. And a third perspective, that of citizens,<br />

presents another set of rights, including that of freedom of expression and due process,<br />

which must be guaranteed un<strong>de</strong>r European <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

The solution to the problem should enable a ba<strong>la</strong>nce to be found between these three<br />

conflicting sets of interests. However, the solutions being proposed focus on the enforcement<br />

of copyright, and leave the ba<strong>la</strong>nce of other interests somewhat hanging. For example,<br />

8


158 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the so-called ‘graduated response’, where broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs will be asked to take certain<br />

actions such as the transmission of warning notices on behalf of rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs 1 , and the<br />

imposition of civil and criminal sanctions –such as suspension or termination of (cutting<br />

off) Internet access– without a court or<strong>de</strong>r.<br />

Such measures risk altering the liabilities of the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs, which will have<br />

spill-overs into other aspects of telecommunications policy. The potential incursions into<br />

fundamental rights complicate the matter further, especially since communications networks<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rpin one of the most precious of those fundamental rights, the right to freedom<br />

of expression 2 .<br />

Thus, whilst the problem re<strong>la</strong>tes to copyright policy, solutions such as graduated response<br />

impact seriously on telecoms policy. The cross-roads between the two policies of<br />

copyright and telecoms is a hitherto unexplo<strong>red</strong> issue and imposes new complexities for<br />

policy studies, as the technicalities of both areas of policy become intertwined.<br />

The first part of this paper draws on the travaux of the EU Telecoms Package to gain<br />

insights into this policy cross-roads and exposes three possibilities for amending telecoms<br />

<strong>la</strong>w to support copyright enforcement. The second part of the paper uses these insights to<br />

examine the UK’s Digital Economy Act 2010. This legis<strong>la</strong>tion sets out new measures <strong>de</strong>signed<br />

to support graduated response measures for copyright enforcement, and yet amends<br />

national telecommunications <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

1. tHe telecoms Package<br />

The EU Telecoms Package 3 was a review of European telecommunications framework<br />

<strong>la</strong>w which passed through the legis<strong>la</strong>ture in 2007-2009. It comprised the Framework, Access<br />

and Authorisation directives, the Universal Services and Users’ Rights Directive and the<br />

E-Privacy directive. The framework encompassed policy regarding the nature of the services<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>d, the commercial and societal obligations of communications service provi<strong>de</strong>rs, as<br />

well as the re<strong>la</strong>tionships between the provi<strong>de</strong>rs and their subscribers. The ‘users’ rights in this<br />

context re<strong>la</strong>te, not to fundamental rights, but to contractual rights between the subscribers<br />

and the provi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

The review became controversial for the attempted insertion of amendments in the<br />

European Parliament to support copyright enforcement measures, specifically graduated<br />

response. Copyright policy was of course, outsi<strong>de</strong> the scope of all of the directives un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

1 ‘Rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs’ refers to those organisations in the creative industries which either own copyright or<br />

represent copyright owners.<br />

2 See the <strong>de</strong>cision of the French Constitutional Council of 10 June 2009 (Conseil Constitutionel, 2009)<br />

3 Framework, Access and Authorisation directives - 2009/140/EC; Universal Services and Users’ Rights,<br />

and E-Privacy Directives - 2009/136/EC;


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 159<br />

review. 4 However, the attempted amendments were cleverly written and attempted to work<br />

around that legal restriction. The amendments did not specify any direct policy for copyright,<br />

rather they called for actions on the part of the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs which would<br />

have the effect of supporting <strong>de</strong>si<strong>red</strong> policies for copyright. In some cases, they did not even<br />

contain the word ‘copyright’ but their aim was clear when the justifications were examined.<br />

Moreover, links can be established between the amendments and the wi<strong>de</strong>r policy agenda, in<br />

which the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs objectives are <strong>la</strong>id out. The amendments were not all carried into<br />

<strong>la</strong>w, some were rejected and others were themselves amen<strong>de</strong>d and ma<strong>de</strong> optional, however,<br />

an examination of the travaux and the policy agenda reveals how they could have fitted<br />

within the telecoms framework, and suggests further insights into how telecoms <strong>la</strong>w may be<br />

used to support copyright policies in respect of the Internet in the Member States.<br />

The amendments in question addressed three factors of telecoms policy. Firstly, they<br />

sought to establish a general obligation on the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to take action for enforcement<br />

of copyright. Secondly, they <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d a contractual obligation to be imposed by<br />

the provi<strong>de</strong>rs on their Internet subscribers. And thirdly, they sought access to personal data<br />

of Internet subscribers.<br />

1.1. a general obligation on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

The objective of a general obligation on the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to take action for the<br />

enforcement of copyright, was to create a provision which would be legally bind them to<br />

do so. It does not in itself imply any specific measures, but it is a necessary pre-requisite for<br />

implementing online copyright enforcement measures. Its effect would be to create a new<br />

kind of liability for telecoms provi<strong>de</strong>rs in respect of the content carried on their networks,<br />

where the liability is not a direct responsibility for the content, but an indirect –or secondary–<br />

liability to punish or prevent alleged infringements.<br />

From the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs’ perspective, an obligation of this kind would enable them to<br />

ask broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to take actions with the force of the <strong>la</strong>w behind them. Having the<br />

obligation at a European level, would have given them the legal authority to put pressure on<br />

Member States, who would have been bound to implement the obligation in domestic <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

of course, from the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs’ perspective, it had other legal implications, not<br />

least of which was how it might encroach on their mere conduit5 status.<br />

In the Telecoms Package, two different attempts were ma<strong>de</strong> to create such an obligation.<br />

The first attempt was the insertion into the Authorisation directive of a condition<br />

which would have mandated broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to enforce copyright. It did so by asking<br />

them to comply with national measures implementing the copyright directive and the IP<br />

4 It was explicitly exclu<strong>de</strong>d un<strong>de</strong>r the 2002 Framework directive Article 2 2002/21/EC , Recital 5.<br />

5 Ecommerce directive 2000/31/EC Article 12.


160 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Enforcement directive 6 . This was the provision in Annex 1 of the directive, inserting a Point<br />

19 7 which stated.<br />

“Compliance with national measures implementing Directive 2001/29/EC of the<br />

Parliament and the Council, and Directive 2004/48/EC of the Parliament and the<br />

Council”.<br />

The directives referenced are the 2001 Copyright directive, and the 2004 Intellectual<br />

Property Rights enforcement directive. The list of conditions in the Annex effectively<br />

equates to licence conditions – whilst provi<strong>de</strong>rs do not have to individually apply for licences,<br />

they do have to comply with the terms set out in the Authorisation directive as part<br />

of their entitlement to offer communications services in an EU Member State 8 . The intention<br />

of the amendment was to create a general obligation on the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs, to<br />

the extent that they could forfeit their right to tra<strong>de</strong> if they failed to enforce copyright. It<br />

is notable that the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs gave the provision their whole-hearted support, and they<br />

reinforced the objective of the provision to “facilitate the distribution of copyright protected<br />

content online” 9 in or<strong>de</strong>r to “establish a link between the legis<strong>la</strong>tion in the telecoms sector and<br />

respect for intellectual property’ 10 :<br />

“…it fully recognises that apart from their role as operators of telecoms infrastructure,<br />

the network operators are implicated in the means of distribution and access to content,<br />

among which is content protected by droit d’auteur’ 11<br />

This amendment was rejected by the European Parliament, and the rejection led to a<br />

second attempt to create a general obligation on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs. This was an amendment<br />

tabled in the European Parliament and aimed at “co-operation” between those provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and the copyright hol<strong>de</strong>rs12 :<br />

‘ensuring that un<strong>de</strong>rtakings providing electronic communications services and networks<br />

cooperate with the sectors concerned with the protection and promotion of<br />

<strong>la</strong>wful content on electronic communications networks’.<br />

6 Directive 2001/29/EC and 2004/48/EC<br />

7 European Commission (2007a) - Proposal for a directive CoM (2007) 697 Final, Authorisation directive,<br />

Annex 1, Point 19.<br />

8 Administrative Court, (2011b.) Judgement regarding the Judicial Review of the Digital Economy Act.<br />

See Point 172.<br />

9 Eurocinema (2008a)<br />

10 Eurocinema (2008b )<br />

11 Eurocinema (2008a ). Trans<strong>la</strong>ted by the author from the original French: “ reconnaît pleinement qu’en<br />

<strong>de</strong>hors du rôle déterminant <strong>de</strong>s opérateurs <strong>de</strong> télécoms dans le secteur <strong>de</strong>s infrastructures, ces <strong>de</strong>rniers sont<br />

impliqués dans les moyens <strong>de</strong> distribution et d’accès aux contenus et, parmi ceux-ci, aux contenus légalement<br />

protégés par le droit d’auteur.”<br />

12 See Trautmann (2008) Amendment 308


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 161<br />

This ‘co-operation’ amendment was targeted at the Framework directive 13 in a section<br />

concerning the duties of regu<strong>la</strong>tors. The intention was to anchor co-operation between<br />

rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs and broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs, in the Telecoms Framework. The amendment as<br />

originally tabled, would have given the regu<strong>la</strong>tor a duty to ensure that the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

would work with rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs for the enforcement of copyright. The rationale was<br />

that if an obligation could not be p<strong>la</strong>ced directly as a term for the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r to<br />

conduct business, then it should be a regu<strong>la</strong>tory duty to impose such an obligation onto the<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r on the basis that it is only with such ‘co-operation that procedures which enforce<br />

copyright can be established: 14<br />

“It p<strong>la</strong>ces on electronic communications services… an obligation to co-operate with<br />

intellectual property rights hol<strong>de</strong>rs (authors, producers, performers) to work out common<br />

ways and means of protecting and promoting copyrighted works. Enforcement of<br />

this obligation is entrusted to the national regu<strong>la</strong>tory authority…” 15<br />

Interestingly, the co-operation amendment was positioned among the duties of regu<strong>la</strong>tors<br />

to protect citizens, and it is notable that from the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs’ perspective, copyright<br />

is a fundamental right16 and its protection is a public policy objective.<br />

In fact, the co-operation amendment as originally tabled to the Framework directive17 ,<br />

was rejected by the European Parliament. What happened was that it was moved out of the<br />

Framework directive and into another directive, the Universal Services and Users Rights<br />

Directive, 18 and positioned within an Article that concerned dialogue with citizens and other<br />

interested groups. The new amendment read:<br />

“national regu<strong>la</strong>tory authorities ...shall...promote cooperation between un<strong>de</strong>rtakings<br />

providing electronic communications networks and/or services and the sectors interested<br />

in the protection and promotion of <strong>la</strong>wful content’ 19<br />

Although it contained simi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong>nguage, the re-positioning arguably could weaken it to<br />

be nothing more than ‘talking’ and lowers the obligation on regu<strong>la</strong>tors or provi<strong>de</strong>rs to take<br />

13 Directive 2002/21/EC Article 8.4 which sets out the duties of regu<strong>la</strong>tors to protect the interests of European<br />

citizens.<br />

14 Eurocinema (2008b) Trans<strong>la</strong>ted by the author from the original French : Ce n’est que dans <strong>la</strong> mesure où<br />

créateurs et producteurs <strong>de</strong> contenus d’une part et prestataires d’accès et <strong>de</strong> distribution <strong>de</strong> contenus d’autre part<br />

coopéreront pleinement que <strong>de</strong>s modalités respectueuses du droit d’auteur pourront être établies et que <strong>de</strong>s offres<br />

légales <strong>de</strong> contenus pourront se développer. Pour qu’elle soit pleinement effective, cette coopération doit s’inscrire<br />

dans le cadre <strong>de</strong>s tâches légales <strong>de</strong>s autorités nationales <strong>de</strong> régu<strong>la</strong>tion, telles que visées à l’article 8 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> directive<br />

cadre.<br />

15 Trautmann (2008) Amendment 308, Justification .<br />

16 European Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 17.2 where Article 17 is the right to property.<br />

17 Ibid 9 Amendment 308 to the Trautmann report of July 2008, (Trautmann, 2008)<br />

18 2002/22/EC .<br />

19 The provision as carried is Article 33.3 of Directive 2009/136/EC


162 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

any action 20 . It was also slightly re-drafted in the final version, so that it optional – Member<br />

States and regu<strong>la</strong>tors do not have to implement it. on the other hand, it leaves the<br />

door open for those which do wish to proceed with online copyright enforcement measures.<br />

From a policy perspective, it illustrates an attempt to work around the exclusion of copyright<br />

from the scope of the directive, by giving the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs a general instruction to<br />

‘co-operate’ with another industry, without specifying what that co-operation should be.<br />

However, the interpretation is open to legal test.<br />

1.2. a contractual obligation on internet subscribers<br />

The second policy factor revealed by a study of the Telecoms Package travaux is a contractual<br />

obligation on broadband subscribers to respect copyright. Specifically, the contract<br />

should state that the provi<strong>de</strong>r will take any action requi<strong>red</strong> if the subscriber is <strong>de</strong>emed to<br />

have infringed copyright, and specify what that action is. Examples of such actions could be<br />

suspension of the access for a period of time, or termination of the contract, or slowing the<br />

speed of the connection. 21 The contract should also inclu<strong>de</strong> the grounds for <strong>de</strong>termining<br />

whether the action applied. Traditionally, this would mean receipt of a court or<strong>de</strong>r. Un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

some other new system, it could mean that the provi<strong>de</strong>r was advised in some other way, such<br />

as via a notice from a rights-hol<strong>de</strong>r, or was legally entitled to take such <strong>de</strong>cisions itself. The<br />

insertion of such a provision would ensure that there could be a legal basis for cutting off<br />

subscribers who infringed copyright. In other words, the subscriber’s contract could become<br />

the mechanism for broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to cut off access. Had it been inserted in the Telecoms<br />

Package, it would have had the effect of harmonising the contractual requirement in<br />

all 27 EU Member States.<br />

What happened was that the Telecoms Package arrived in the European Parliament,<br />

incorporating the following provision:<br />

“Member States shall ensure that where contracts are conclu<strong>de</strong>d between subscribers<br />

and un<strong>de</strong>rtakings providing communications services…, subscribers are informed in<br />

advance of the conclusion of the contract and regu<strong>la</strong>rly thereafter of their obligations<br />

to respect copyright and re<strong>la</strong>ted rights… this inclu<strong>de</strong>s the obligation to inform subscribers<br />

of the most common acts of infringement and their legal consequences”. 22<br />

This provision was rejected by the European Parliament, on the grounds that the liability<br />

implied for broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs was out of scope of the directive23 . However, a<br />

compromise was formu<strong>la</strong>ted which satisfied the political <strong>de</strong>mands of factions within the Par-<br />

20 This was the position taken by the rapporteur, and the interpretation given here follows discussions with<br />

the author in March 2011.<br />

21 Digital Economy Act 2010, Article 9.3 a-d.<br />

22 CoM(2007) 698 final , European Commission, 2007b, Universal Services Directive, Article 20.6<br />

23 See for example, <strong>de</strong>letion amendments: 164 and 165, in the Rapporteur’s amendments of 15 May 2008.<br />

(Harbour 2008)


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 163<br />

liament which wanted to see the introduction of online copyright enforcement measures at<br />

a European level, and the factions which were keen to protect the liability of the broadband<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs. The compromise was drafted across two linked provisions, Article 20 (Contracts)<br />

and Article 21 (Transparency).<br />

“Article 20. The contract shall specify […] any conditions limiting access to and or use<br />

of services and applications. […] Member States may also require that the contract<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong> any information which may be provi<strong>de</strong>d by the relevant public authorities […]<br />

refer<strong>red</strong> to in Article 21.4(a).”<br />

“Article 21.4(a) the most common uses of electronic communications services to engage<br />

in un<strong>la</strong>wful activities, particu<strong>la</strong>rly where it may prejudice the rights and freedoms<br />

of others, including infringements of copyright and re<strong>la</strong>ted rights and their legal consequences.”<br />

The compromise can be read two ways, and once again, its interpretation may be subject<br />

to legal test in the courts at some point. It can be read as imposing a very simi<strong>la</strong>r requirement<br />

to the <strong>de</strong>leted Article 20.624 , except that, in its final form, it is optional and therefore<br />

it is up to the Member States individually to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> whether to implement it. The alternative<br />

reading, and that inten<strong>de</strong>d by the rapporteur25 , is that it only requires the broadband<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r to transmit messages of a general nature which must be sent to all subscribers, and<br />

which will be drafted by the national regu<strong>la</strong>tor. Un<strong>de</strong>r this alternative interpretation, it may<br />

not be used to support the sending of warning notices to individual subscribers.<br />

Either way, the message for policy studies remains that a key mechanism for Internet<br />

copyright enforcement measures will be the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r’s contract, where subscribers<br />

can be cut off or their connection restricted un<strong>de</strong>r the terms of the contract, without the<br />

involvement of a court, and that such a mechanism can imply a new form of liability for<br />

broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

1.3. access to subscribers’ data<br />

The third factor of online copyright enforcement policies revealed by the Telecoms<br />

Package travaux was a requirement for access to Internet subscribers’ personal data. In a<br />

nutshell, if online copyright enforcement policy requires sanctions to be applied against<br />

individual Internet subscribers, it follows that there would be a need to know the i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />

of those subscribers.<br />

From a public policy perspective, in the EU, access to subscriber i<strong>de</strong>ntifying data<br />

would create problems. The political issue was that the European privacy <strong>la</strong>w, notably the<br />

24 Eurocinema, 2008 : La commission du marché intérieur et <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protection <strong>de</strong>s consommateurs a adopté ces<br />

dispositions en les modifiant quelque peu mais en conservant <strong>la</strong> cohérence d’ensemble. Nous soutenons donc les<br />

dispositions introduites par les compromis 2 et 3 visant les articles 20 et 21 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> directive service universel<br />

25 Author’s discussions with the rapporteur in March 2011.


164 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

E-privacy directive 26 working together with the Data Protection directive 27 , preclu<strong>de</strong>d the<br />

broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs giving out personal information, and arguably did not permit them to<br />

retain traffic data for any purpose connected with copyright. Article 15.1 of the E-privacy<br />

directive <strong>de</strong>tails certain purposes for which data can be retained, and provi<strong>de</strong>s a hook into<br />

the Data Retention directive, which provi<strong>de</strong>s for retention only for serious crime and national<br />

security. It does not list copyright as one of the purposes. Moreover, Article 5 of the<br />

E-privacy directive establishes the confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of traffic data 28 . For this reason, there was<br />

a <strong>de</strong>mand to change the <strong>la</strong>w, but there was also a huge resistance. Privacy <strong>la</strong>w is a strong<br />

principle un<strong>de</strong>r European <strong>la</strong>w, and policy-makers are inclined, if anything, to strengthen it,<br />

making data more difficult to access, rather than weaken it.<br />

Whether or not broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs should hand over subscriber data was put to the<br />

test in the European Court of Justice, in the case of Promusicae v Telefonica. It was filed<br />

in 2006 by the collecting society Productores <strong>de</strong> Musica <strong>de</strong> Espana (Promusicae) against<br />

the Spanish network provi<strong>de</strong>r, Telefonica. on 29 January 2008, the ECJ ruled that EU <strong>la</strong>w<br />

would not forbid the Spanish court from asking Telefonica to hand over the data, backing<br />

up the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs argument, but also that there was nothing in EU <strong>la</strong>w which obligated<br />

the national court to force broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to disclose the data. Effectively, the ECJ left<br />

the matter to the Member States 29 , asking them to establish a fair ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the right<br />

to privacy on the one hand, and the right to intellectual property and a fair remedy, on the<br />

other.<br />

Hence, two amendments were tabled to the Telecoms Package, seeking to address the<br />

accessibility of data for copyright purposes. one was a recital - for guidance only - which reiterated<br />

the Promusicae judgement, and arguably, given the equivocal nature of that judgement,<br />

could be used to support a case for either rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs or broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs 30 . The<br />

second privacy amendment addressed Article 15.1 of the E-privacy directive and sought to<br />

give rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs access to retained communications data, by including the words ‘ and the<br />

protection of the rights and freedoms of others’ to a list of purposes for which communications<br />

traffic data may be retained 31 . The intention of the amendment was ‘to increase legal certainty<br />

in the context of the recent ECJ judgment (C-275/06)’ 32 and this was requi<strong>red</strong> “with a view to<br />

safeguarding the rights and freedoms of others and thus ensuring enhanced protection for intellectual<br />

property rights in connection with electronic communication networks.” 33 It was rejected<br />

26 Directive 2002/58/EC<br />

27 Directive 95/46/EC<br />

28 EDPS, 2008, p4, point 15.<br />

29 For further discussion of the Promusicae case see Cou<strong>de</strong>rt and Werkers, 2008; and Peguera, 2009,<br />

pp493-494.<br />

30 Harbour 2008b, Amendment 35; Promusicae amendment .<br />

31 Harbour 2008a, Amendment 291 by Jacques Toubon<br />

32 Harbour 2008a, Justification to Amendment 291<br />

33 See Alvaro (2008) Amendment 81 tabled by Patrick Gaubert, and its justification.


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 165<br />

by the European Parliament, giving a clear message that such a change was not acceptable<br />

at European level 34 .<br />

There was also an attempt to extend the ability to process traffic data for security purposes.<br />

This attempt took the form of an amendment to Article 6 of the E-privacy directive 35<br />

which governs the processing of traffic data. It was re<strong>la</strong>ted to a different policy agenda which<br />

did not concern copyright, however, its effect could have benefited those who wanted to see<br />

online copyright enforcement measures, in that it would potentially have ma<strong>de</strong> avai<strong>la</strong>ble a<br />

<strong>la</strong>rger pool of traffic data to mine for copyright enforcement purposes 36 . The amendment<br />

was rejected by the Council of Ministers, following pressure from the German government 37 .<br />

1.4. linking to the policy agenda<br />

These amendments remain something of a puzzle until we put them together with the<br />

wi<strong>de</strong>r policy agenda. They were a puzzle because they were not part of the Telecoms policy<br />

agenda, and had not been discussed in the consultations which prece<strong>de</strong>d the drafting of the<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tion. Specifically, the Commission’s Impact Assessment makes no mention whatsoever<br />

of copyright 38 .<br />

To state the obvious, the policy agenda for online enforcement of copyright falls un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

the remit of the units in the European Commission which have responsibility for copyright<br />

39 . Copyright does not fall un<strong>de</strong>r the remit of those responsible for telecoms. Therefore,<br />

if we want to un<strong>de</strong>rstand this agenda, examining the policy documents, consultations, hearings<br />

and statements for telecoms may not be so helpful. Instead we have to examine those<br />

which were generated through the copyright policy processes.<br />

In this regard, we turn to the European Commission’s Consultation for Creative Content<br />

online, which inclu<strong>de</strong>d a <strong>de</strong>tailed discussion of online copyright enforcement measures.<br />

The consultation questions cove<strong>red</strong> three aspects – co-operation between rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs and<br />

34 The French Creation and Internet <strong>la</strong>w establishing a graduated response system does alter privacy <strong>la</strong>w<br />

to this effect. Note Article 14, which modifies the Co<strong>de</strong> of Posts and Telecommunications. (Legifrance,<br />

2009).<br />

35 Directive 2002/58/EC Article 6. The Amendment 181, which incorporated the text: traffic data may<br />

be processed for the legitimate interest of the data controller for the purpose of implementing technical<br />

measures to ensure the network and information security. See European Parliament, 2008, Amendment<br />

181.<br />

36 Thanks to Professor Lilian Edwards for helping me analyse this.<br />

37 The German citizens’ advocacy group AK Vorrat led the campaign against the Amendment to Article 6.<br />

See AK Vorrat 2009.<br />

38 European Commission Impact Assessment 13 November 2007, SEC(2007) 1472 (European Commission,<br />

2007c )<br />

39 DG Internal Market, Directorate D, Knowledge-based Economy. At the time of the Telecoms Package,<br />

copyright was being addressed by DG Information Society, Audio-visual and Media Directorate. Telecoms<br />

was, and still is, addressed by DG Information Society, Telecoms Unit B1.


166 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs; the French ‘Mission olivennes’ proposals for graduated response 40 ;<br />

and content filtering 41 . The responses from the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs reveal the factors <strong>de</strong>scribed<br />

above in the context of the Telecoms Package as well as the rationale behind them. Firstly,the<br />

Creative Content online responses show how the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d a general obligation<br />

on the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to enforce copyright, which was sometimes expressed using<br />

the word ‘co-operation’ – and hence the word ‘co-operation’ in this context has arguably<br />

acqui<strong>red</strong> a loa<strong>de</strong>d meaning. Secondly, the responses illustrate the measures <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d by<br />

rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs, known as graduated response, which entailed a system of warnings being<br />

transmitted to Internet users via the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs, and if those notices were not<br />

hee<strong>de</strong>d, then the system would inclu<strong>de</strong> sanctions that could be applied. The sanction which<br />

was being <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d was that subscribers’ Internet access would be cut off, and the rightshol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

wanted the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to do it un<strong>de</strong>r the terms of their contract:<br />

“one of the most effective steps an ISP could take is to warn infringing subscribers and<br />

thereafter to suspend and, eventually, terminate services to subscribers who are repeatedly<br />

abusing the service to infringe copyright..”. 42<br />

Thirdly, the Creative Content online responses highlight how privacy <strong>la</strong>w was an obstacle<br />

to achieving the graduated response system which the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs wanted.<br />

overall, the responses indicated that the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs were targetting the Telecoms<br />

Package review for legal changes. The Motion Picture Association (MPA), which represents<br />

the Hollywood film studios 43 , said that the Telecoms Package was an opportunity to ‘set<br />

the ground-rules’ for stakehol<strong>de</strong>r co-operation 44 and signal the will at European level to fight<br />

piracy on the Internet. Moreover, the ‘need for a level p<strong>la</strong>ying field thus clearly justifies EUintervention<br />

in this matter.’ 45<br />

The French collecting society, the SACD 46 , lobbied for “an obligation for the electronic<br />

communication networks and services to cooperate with copyright hol<strong>de</strong>rs… for the protection<br />

and promotion of <strong>la</strong>wful content” … to be inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the Framework directive. The SACD<br />

and Eurocinema additionally argued for an amendment to alter the E-privacy directive, and<br />

enable rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs to get access to retained communications traffic data. They argued that<br />

it would ‘<strong>red</strong>ress the ba<strong>la</strong>nce’ between the right to privacy and copyright 47 .<br />

40 As outlined in the report Mission olivennes (2007)<br />

41 European Commission, Information Society and Media directorate (2008 ), p 11.<br />

42 IFPI, 2008, p11.<br />

43 Paramount Pictures Corporation; Sony Pictures Entertainment; Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation;<br />

Universal City Studios; Walt Disney Studios; Warner Bros. Entertainment.<br />

44 MPA (2008) p 9.<br />

45 IFPI, 2008, p11<br />

46 Lobbying letter addressed to MEPs. See SACD 2008.<br />

47 Eurocinema (2008a)


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 167<br />

The need for subscriber i<strong>de</strong>ntity data concerned the need to know which users had<br />

been allocated IP addresses collected by surveil<strong>la</strong>nce of users on peer-to-peer file-sharing<br />

networks. The subscriber contact <strong>de</strong>tails would enable litigation, or some other sanction,<br />

such as asking the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r to cut off the user’s access.<br />

The un<strong>de</strong>rlying intention of the graduated response measures was to avoid the court<br />

process. The measures would enable sanctions to be applied against Internet subscribers<br />

without a court or<strong>de</strong>r being obtained first. Such extra-judicial measures suggest a regime<br />

of private or<strong>de</strong>rings ‘where ISPs are or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to co-operate with rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs to monitor users’.<br />

48 The final draft of the Telecoms Package contains a measure which attempts to preclu<strong>de</strong><br />

Member States from implementing such regimes of private or<strong>de</strong>rings, by <strong>de</strong>scribing the<br />

court process and reminding governments that they are un<strong>de</strong>r an obligation to provi<strong>de</strong><br />

guarantees to individual citizens, in this case to Internet subscribers, un<strong>de</strong>r the EU legal<br />

framework of fundamental rights. This provision –Article 1.3a of the Framework directive 49 –<br />

inten<strong>de</strong>d to protect the right to due process. It did so within the limitations of European<br />

<strong>la</strong>w, where telecoms comes un<strong>de</strong>r the economic framework and hence telecoms <strong>la</strong>w may not<br />

address legal processes.<br />

2. tHe digital economy act<br />

In <strong>para</strong>llel with the Telecoms Package passing through the Brussels legis<strong>la</strong>ture, the<br />

British government began work on a policy which had the objective of enforcing copyright<br />

online. This became the Digital Economy Act 2010.<br />

The Act is complex in its structure and confusingly drafted. However, it is arguable<br />

that the factors i<strong>de</strong>ntified in the Telecoms Package are instructive for <strong>de</strong>veloping an un<strong>de</strong>rstanding<br />

of it. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, how it seeks to address the requirements of the policy agenda<br />

for copyright enforcement by applying a form of graduated response. It provi<strong>de</strong>s for an<br />

extra-judicial sanction which works around privacy <strong>la</strong>w by means of a series of ‘co-operation’<br />

obligations imposed on the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs combined with a new duty p<strong>la</strong>ced on the<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tor.<br />

2.1. a suite of obligations imposed on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs and the regu<strong>la</strong>tor<br />

The Digital Economy Act 2010, Sections 3-18, sets out new rules for <strong>de</strong>aling with<br />

copyright enforcement online. It amends the Communications Act 2003, and specifically, it<br />

amends that part of the Communications Act which <strong>de</strong>als with telecommunications regu<strong>la</strong>-<br />

48 Kaminski (2010) p37. Kaminsky introduces the notion of private or<strong>de</strong>rings in the context of graduated<br />

response and the ACTA ( Anti-counterfeiting Tra<strong>de</strong> Agreement). See also p7, p 21, p43. The notion of<br />

privately or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> graduated response is also discussed in Bridy (2010).<br />

49 The Framework directive as amen<strong>de</strong>d by Directive 2009/140/EC


168 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tion. It is slotted in to Article 124, which addresses premium rate services 50 . The Act does<br />

not in this instance, amend copyright <strong>la</strong>w. Strangely, it does not even <strong>de</strong>fine what a copyright<br />

infringement is 51 .<br />

What it does do, is <strong>de</strong>fine a series of processes for enforcing copyright in the specific<br />

context of infringement of copyright which may take p<strong>la</strong>ce using the Internet or an electronic<br />

communications service. It is based on the presumption that the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

must be obligated to take certain actions on behalf of rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs 52 who are given the<br />

entitlement to specify without going to court, that an infringement has taken p<strong>la</strong>ce.<br />

Drawing on our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs agenda from the Telecoms Package,<br />

it can be seen how the Digital Economy Act is <strong>de</strong>signed to function by imposing not<br />

one, but a suite of three, core obligations onto the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs. They are the Obligation<br />

to notify subscribers of copyright infringement reports; the Obligation to provi<strong>de</strong> copyright<br />

infringement lists to copyright owners; and the Obligation to Limit Internet Access 53 .<br />

The first two obligations mandate the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r to implement the system of<br />

warning notices, and to maintain a list of subscribers to whom they are asked to send repeat<br />

notices The third obligation <strong>de</strong>mands that the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs apply an extra-judicial<br />

sanction against their own subscribers 54 .<br />

The Act then mandates two different courses of action. The first course of action obliges<br />

the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to supply the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs with lists of the subscribers who have<br />

received repeat notices (these are refer<strong>red</strong> to as ‘repeat infringers’ lists). The rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

are then permitted to apply for a court or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain the personal data of the subscribers.<br />

In the UK, this is known as a Norwich Pharmacal or<strong>de</strong>r 55 , which enables information to<br />

be obtained from intermediaries who have p<strong>la</strong>yed no role in the offence but who may hold<br />

information re<strong>la</strong>ted to the offence. Having obtained the personal data, the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs are<br />

free to litigate against those subscribers.<br />

The second course of action, which will only be implemented as a minimum one<br />

year after the initial measures have commenced, entails the Obligation to Limit Internet<br />

50 It is not clear why the drafters chose to use this particu<strong>la</strong>r Article which does not seem to be entirely<br />

appropriate.<br />

51 The Digital Economy Act <strong>de</strong>fines an ‘apparent infringement’ in Article 16 which sets out <strong>de</strong>finitions, but<br />

does not <strong>de</strong>fine infringement.<br />

52 The Digital Economy Act uses the term ‘copyright owners’.<br />

53 Digital Economy Act 2010 2010 Article 3 and Article 4, inserting new sections 124A and 124B into the<br />

Communications Act 2003, and Article 10, inserting a new Article 124H.<br />

54 Note that these obligations were relied on by BT and TalkTalk in their challenge to the Act. The judgement<br />

(Administrative Court, 2011) does not disagree that such obligations are p<strong>la</strong>ced on broadband<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs, but relies instead on ‘legal effect’ – whether or not they are <strong>de</strong>emed to be in force at the time<br />

of the court challenge.<br />

55 Administrative Court 2011, Point 238 (Judgement in the matter of the Judicial Review of the Digital<br />

Economy Act)


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 169<br />

Access. This obligation mandates the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r to implement a sanction directly<br />

against their subscribers, without a court or<strong>de</strong>r. The sanction is <strong>de</strong>fined as a ‘technical<br />

measure’, which, as specified by the Act, will ‘limit the speed of the connection, prevent a subscriber<br />

from using the service to access particu<strong>la</strong>r material, or suspend the service. In practice,<br />

technical measures mean the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r may be asked to suspend Internet access<br />

altogether, the slow the speed of the connection, or to filter the Internet service against<br />

criteria which may be the type protocol or the type of content permitted 56 . Suspension<br />

of the service is what is commonly known as ‘cutting off’, since it means the subscriber<br />

would not be able to gain access to the Internet through their connection for a specified<br />

period of time 57 .<br />

Sanctions based on technical measures would be applied to those subscribers which are<br />

on the ‘repeat infringers list’, using criteria yet to be <strong>de</strong>termined, but which are likely to be<br />

<strong>de</strong>termined by the number of repeat notices which have been sent. It is likely that the sanction<br />

will beapplied after the third warning notice has been sent58 If all three of these obligations<br />

on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs are taken together, they equate to an obligation to impose a<br />

graduated response scheme of warnings, followed by a sanction.<br />

The Digital Economy Act additionally gives the regu<strong>la</strong>tor, ofcom, a number of duties<br />

to oversee and enforce compliance by the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs with these obligations. Notably,<br />

the Act carries the threat of a fine of up to £250,000 which may be imposed by ofcom<br />

on any broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r who fails to comply. 59<br />

2.2. implied contractual changes<br />

Interestingly, the Digital Economy Act does not mandate any changes to the broadband<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r contract 60 , but it does imply such changes:<br />

“The regime created by the DEA fundamentally alters the nature of the legal<br />

and contractual re<strong>la</strong>tionships which currently exist in re<strong>la</strong>tion to internet service<br />

provision”. 61<br />

56 Digital Economy Act 2010, Article 9 and Article 10, inserting new sections 124H and 124I into the<br />

Communications Act 2003.<br />

57 In Britain, the term ‘suspension’ served to cause confusion as to the true purpose of ‘technical measures’.<br />

The word suspension is also used in the French <strong>la</strong>w , referring directly to the measure for cutting off<br />

Internet access, and there is no confusion as to what it means. See Legifrance, 2009b, Article 7.<br />

58 ofcom, 2010, p 26, point 6.4<br />

59 Digital Economy Act 2010, Article 14, inserting new sections 124L into the Communications Act 2003.<br />

The fine does also apply to non-compliant rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

60 By comparison, the French <strong>la</strong>w implementing graduated response does specify a change to the contract.<br />

See Creation and Internet <strong>la</strong>w of 13 June 2009 (Legifrance 2009) Article 331-35.<br />

61 BT 2010 p 10


170 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

In particu<strong>la</strong>r, where it obligates the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to apply sanctions, and does<br />

not work through the courts 62 , it has to operate using the subscriber contract. There is an<br />

implied change to the contract, that it should inclu<strong>de</strong> a term concerning possible legal<br />

consequences of any alleged infringement. In fact, the <strong>la</strong>rge broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs do already<br />

have a term in their contract which enables them to cut off subscribers who infringe copyright,<br />

as has been noted by the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs:<br />

“…both BT and TalkTalk expressly provi<strong>de</strong> in their terms and conditions that the<br />

internet connection must not be used for un<strong>la</strong>wful means. In particu<strong>la</strong>r they draw<br />

attention to the possibility of P2P file sharing involving copyright infringement, and<br />

they add: if we find out you’re doing this, we’ll cut off your connection…” 63<br />

But, un<strong>de</strong>r the <strong>la</strong>w as it previously stood, this would only be activated following a court<br />

ruling:<br />

“TalkTalk will not consent to any disclosure or<strong>de</strong>r and we will require that it is <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d<br />

upon by a judge based on its merits” 64<br />

The rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs were entitled to obtain such a ruling, using a Norwich Pharmacal<br />

or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain the private data 65 . The Obligations to Limit Internet Access, if implemented,<br />

will create a new legal process which omits the role of the court in applying<br />

sanctions.<br />

2.3. subscriber data<br />

The Telecoms Package has informed us how privacy <strong>la</strong>w was, from the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

perspective, an obstacle to online copyright enforcement measures, and how they tried, and<br />

failed, to get European <strong>la</strong>w changed to help them get access to traffic data.<br />

The Digital Economy Act has attempted to set up a process which works around the<br />

most obvious privacy issues. By mandating the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to manage all communications<br />

with their subscribers regarding alleged breaches of copyright, it obviates the<br />

need for personal data to be passed to third parties; and the Initial obligations mandate a<br />

court or<strong>de</strong>r before that data is transfer<strong>red</strong>. The second phase, introducing technical measures,<br />

obligates the broadband provi<strong>de</strong>r to apply the sanction, again obviating the need to transfer<br />

data to a third party.<br />

62 Administrative Court 2011, Point 228 exp<strong>la</strong>ins this where ‘the current arrangements” is a reference to<br />

the court process and a fair trial.<br />

63 This quote is taken from the court transcript, Case No: Co/7354/2010, the Queen (on the Application<br />

of) British Telecommunications Plc and Talktalk Telecom Group Plc and the Secretary of State for Business,<br />

Innovation and skills,. The speaker is the Counsel ( barrister) for the rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs who intervened<br />

in the case, Pushpin<strong>de</strong>r Saini.<br />

64 TalkTalk 2009, p 7<br />

65 Copyright Designs and Patents Act, S. 97a


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 171<br />

However, privacy remains an issue and formed a core element of the legal challenge by the<br />

two <strong>la</strong>rgest provi<strong>de</strong>rs, BT and TalkTalk 66 . They argued that the processing of traffic data requi<strong>red</strong><br />

un<strong>de</strong>r the DE Act would infringe the E-privacy directive 67 , in particu<strong>la</strong>r that it called for processing<br />

of the data “beyond mere retention and disclosure” 68 . In this context, they cited ensuring<br />

that they are able to routinely and accurately match IP addresses to subscriber <strong>de</strong>tails across entire<br />

customer databases; sending notices to their subscribers, compiling and retaining the database of<br />

notices for an unspecified period, and disclosing data to rights-hol<strong>de</strong>rs on request.<br />

The government relied on the Promusicae judgement (see above) - as its legal basis for<br />

asking provi<strong>de</strong>rs to release personal data. BT and TalkTalk respon<strong>de</strong>d that Promusicae only<br />

applied in the context of civil judicial proceedings and as the DE Act did not incorporate<br />

any judicial proceedings, it did not provi<strong>de</strong> any mandate for the government to rely on. 69<br />

They also argued that the Digital Economy Act would need to provi<strong>de</strong> an express authorisation<br />

for rights-owners to have access to the data, which it does not do 70 . Furthermore, they<br />

highlighted that the Promusicae judgement recognised that any obligation to disclose confi<strong>de</strong>ntial<br />

data had to respect the rights to privacy and protection of personal data un<strong>de</strong>r the<br />

European Convention of Human rights, Article 7 and 8.<br />

Furthermore, at least one of the technical measures proposed would entail filtering of<br />

subscriber communications and such filtering is likely to breach Article 5 of the E- privacy<br />

directive <strong>la</strong>w as well as the mere conduit provision in the E-commerce directive 71 .<br />

2.4. due process<br />

The inclusion in the Telecoms Package of a provision reminding national governments<br />

of their duty to guarantee the right to due process , had the immediate effect of forcing the<br />

British government to make a change to the Digital Economy Act 72 . The first draft of the<br />

Bill did not inclu<strong>de</strong> any means for subscribers to <strong>de</strong>fend themselves or be heard. The government<br />

had ma<strong>de</strong> no secret of the fact that the Act was inten<strong>de</strong>d to bypass the courts. For<br />

example, this was Lord Young of Norwood Green, who was then government spokesman in<br />

the House of Lords, in January 2010:<br />

“on the surface, requiring a court to make the <strong>de</strong>cision whether or not to apply technical<br />

measures may seem a reasonable safeguard for consumer interests; certainly we have a duty<br />

66 Case No: Co/7354/2010, the Queen (on the Application of) British Telecommunications Plc and<br />

Talktalk Telecom Group Plc and the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and skills. See Adminsitrative<br />

Court 2010.<br />

67 Adminsitrative court, p53, point 169 and 170<br />

68 Adminsitrative court, p55=56, point 179<br />

69 Adminsitrative court, 2010, p54, point 172, 173, 174, 175.<br />

70 Administrative Court, 2010, point 177<br />

71 Directive 2000/31/EC, Article 12.<br />

72 Author’s conversations with administrative staff in Brussels and London.


172 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

to ensure that the position of the ordinary subscriber is properly protected. However, in<br />

practice, we believe that this would be slow, cumbersome and expensive, causing unacceptable<br />

<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>y when speed is nee<strong>de</strong>d, and probably causing additional stress to subscribers-after<br />

all, a court ruling is no small thing. It would also risk putting a bur<strong>de</strong>n on the courts.” 73<br />

The Telecoms Package forced something of a re-think and the British government’s<br />

response was to <strong>de</strong>sign an appeals process. This process did not provi<strong>de</strong> for an oral hearing<br />

(ofcom, 2010, p29, (7.8) but it did provi<strong>de</strong> for an in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt body, which was se<strong>para</strong>te<br />

from ofcom, to <strong>de</strong>termine subscriber appeals 74 against <strong>de</strong>cisions re<strong>la</strong>ted to the repeat infringers<br />

list (un<strong>de</strong>r the Initial obligations Co<strong>de</strong>) and the initial appeals against technical<br />

measures. Subscribers unhappy with an appeal <strong>de</strong>cision about technical measures could<br />

take it further to a First Tier Tribunal. The Act stated that technical measures may not be<br />

actioned until the full appeals process has been exhausted. 75 The grounds for appeal, as established<br />

by ofcom inclu<strong>de</strong> challenges to the evi<strong>de</strong>nce concerning the alleged infringement,<br />

and also that the alleged infringement was carried out by someone else, even though the<br />

subscriber had taken reasonable steps to prevent other people using the connection 76 . The<br />

<strong>la</strong>tter raises the dilemna of presumption of guilt, since the onus is p<strong>la</strong>ced on the subscriber<br />

to prove their innocence, rather than on the c<strong>la</strong>imant to prove guilt:<br />

“to be found guilty of copyright infringement requires proof that the subscriber themselves<br />

infringed copyright whereas to appeal successfully requires the subscriber to<br />

<strong>de</strong>monstrate that they did not infringe copyright themselves and also that they protected<br />

the connection” . 77<br />

It remains however, that this appeals process is of course, not a judicial process, and<br />

that no judicial process forms part of the measures envisaged un<strong>de</strong>r either the Initial obligations<br />

co<strong>de</strong> or the co<strong>de</strong> to Limit Internet Access which rely on the subscriber contract 78 . This<br />

would appear to be contrary to the spirit, if not the letter, of what the European Parliament<br />

inten<strong>de</strong>d with its amendment to the Telecoms Framework in Article 1.3a 79 .<br />

3. conclusions<br />

This paper has discussed some ways in which measures for enforcement of copyright<br />

online may be applied by amending telecoms legis<strong>la</strong>tion. The critical factors have been i<strong>de</strong>n-<br />

73 House of Lords Mansard, 26 Jan 2010, Column 1335, Lord Young of Norwood Green who was at the<br />

time the government spokesman on the Digital Economy Act in the House of Lords.<br />

74 Digital Economy Act 2010 Article 13. 2 b, c and d<br />

75 Digital Economy Act 2010, Article 13.10 and 13.11<br />

76 ofcom 2010, pp28-29.<br />

77 TalkTalk 2010, p14 ; See also BT, 2010, p24.<br />

78 Administrative court, (2010) p 54 (173)<br />

79 Directive 2009/140/EC Article 1.3a


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 173<br />

tified by studying the travaux of the EU Telecoms Package: a general obligation on broadband<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs, an obligation in subscriber contracts, and a weakening of privacy <strong>la</strong>w. The<br />

wi<strong>de</strong>r European policy agenda informs us of the kind of policies which such legal changes<br />

could be inten<strong>de</strong>d to support, in particu<strong>la</strong>r, graduated response. The Digital Economy Act<br />

illustrates how such an amendment of telecoms <strong>la</strong>w by an EU Member State may be formu<strong>la</strong>ted,<br />

with a series of obligations on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs, an implied contractual change for<br />

subscribers and a questionable work-around of privacy <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

Both cases suggest that amending telecoms <strong>la</strong>w in this way is problematic. The imposition<br />

of such obligations on broadband provi<strong>de</strong>rs to impose punishments for infringement<br />

not only creates a new form of liability on the provi<strong>de</strong>rs, but also reflect a shift in copyright<br />

enforcement from civil and criminal co<strong>de</strong>s onto contract <strong>la</strong>w. Furthermore, such shifts imply<br />

incursions on the right to privacy, as well as the right to due process. These are issues<br />

which policy-makers will have to wrestle with as they attempt to find the appropriate ba<strong>la</strong>nce<br />

for copyright online.<br />

4. bibliograPHy<br />

Administrative Court (2010), Case number: Co 7354/2010, STATEMENT oF FACTS<br />

AND GRoUNDS [The Queen, on the Application of 1/ British Telecommunications<br />

PLC 2/ TalkTalk Group Telecom PLC (c<strong>la</strong>imants) and The Secretary of State for Business,<br />

Innovation and Skills (Defendants)].<br />

Administrative Court (2011), Case number: Co 7354/2010, APPRoVED JUDGE-<br />

MENT The Queen, on the Application of 1/ British Telecommunications PLC 2/<br />

TalkTalk Group Telecom PLC (c<strong>la</strong>imants) and The Secretary of State for Business, Innovation<br />

and Skills (Defendants)].<br />

AK Vorrat (2009), Press release: , EU proposal puts confi<strong>de</strong>ntial communications data<br />

at risk (28 Jan 2009); Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.<strong>de</strong>/content/<br />

view/295/79/<br />

Alvaro, Alexan<strong>de</strong>r PE405.782v02-00, Amendments 29-93 Draft opinion on the proposal<br />

for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive<br />

2002/22/EC , Directive 2002/58/EC and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004.<br />

Bridy, Annemarie (2010) ACTA and the specter of graduated response , PIJIP Research Paper<br />

Series, American University Washington College of Law Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=research<br />

BT , (2010) online Infringement of Copyright and the Digital Economy Act 2010 Draft<br />

Initial obligations Co<strong>de</strong> ofcom Consultation document response from BT 30 July<br />

2010.<br />

Conseil Constitutionel (2009a) Decision n° 2009-580 DC - 10 Juin 2009, Loi favorisant<br />

<strong>la</strong> diffusion et <strong>la</strong> protection <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> création sur internet.


174 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, Fanny and Werkers, Evi (2008) In the aftermath of the Promusicae case: how<br />

to strike the ba<strong>la</strong>nce? In International Journal of Law and Information Technology, 25<br />

october 2008, doi:10.1093/ijlit/ean015 , Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://ijlit.oxfordjournals.org/<br />

cgi/content/abstract/ean015v1<br />

EDPS (European Data Protection Supervisor ) (2008) EDPS comments on selected<br />

issues that arise from the IMCo report on the review of directive 2002/22/EC (Universal<br />

Service0 and Directive 2002/58/EC (ePrivacy) 1 September 2008.<br />

Eurocinema (2008a) , Révision du Paquet télécoms, 30 Avril 2008 http://www.eurocinema.<br />

eu/docs/Telecoms_Position_EURoCINEMA_FR_avril08.pdf<br />

Eurocinema (2008b) Lettre_<strong>de</strong>pute_juillet08_final, Bruxelles, le 30 Juillet 2008., http://<br />

www.eurocinema.eu/docs/Lettre_<strong>de</strong>pute_juillet08_final.pdf<br />

European Commission, (2007a), CoM(2007) 697 final, Proposal for a Directive of The<br />

European Parliament And of The Council amending Directives 2002/21/EC on a<br />

common regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework for electronic communications networks and services,<br />

2002/19/EC on access to, and interconnection of, electronic communications networks<br />

and services, and 2002/20/EC on the authorisation of electronic communications<br />

networks and services) 13 November 2007.<br />

European Commission (2007b), CoM(2007) 698 final Proposal for a Directive of The<br />

European Parliament And of The Council amending Directive 2002/22/EC on universal<br />

service and users’ rights re<strong>la</strong>ting to electronic communications networks, Directive<br />

2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of<br />

privacy in the electronic communications sector and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004<br />

on consumer protection cooperation 13 November 2007.<br />

European Commission (2007c), SEC(2007) 1472, Commission Staff Working Document,<br />

Impact Assessment 13 November 2007.<br />

European Commission, Information Society and Media Directorate (2008 ) , CoM<br />

(2007) 836 FINAL , Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,<br />

the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee<br />

of the Regions on Creative Content online in the Single Market 3 January 2008.<br />

European Parliament (2008), P6_TA(2008)0452), Texts Adopted By Parliament Wednesday,<br />

24 September 2008 - Brussels Provisional edition Electronic communications networks<br />

and services, protection of privacy and consumer protection 24 September 2008.<br />

Harbour, Malcolm (2008a), PE406.037v01-00, Amendments 61 - 292 Draft Report<br />

Malcolm Harbour on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of<br />

the Council amending Directive 2002/22/EC on universal service and users’ rights re<strong>la</strong>ting<br />

to electronic communications networks, Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the<br />

processing of person al data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications<br />

sector and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004 on consumer protection cooperation<br />

15 May 2008.<br />

Harbour, Malcolm ( 2008b) PE404.659v02-00, Report on the proposal for a directive<br />

of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2002/22/EC on


Copyright at a policy cross-roads – online enforcement, the telecoms package and the digital economy act 175<br />

universal service and users’ rights re<strong>la</strong>ting to electronic communications networks, Directive<br />

2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of<br />

privacy in the electronic communications sector and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004<br />

on consumer protection cooperation 18 July 2008.<br />

IFPI (2008 ) Creative Content online IFPI response to the Commission Consultation 29<br />

February 2008.<br />

Kaminsky, Margot (2011), 1 January 2011 , An Overview and the Evolution of the Anti-<br />

Counterfeiting Tra<strong>de</strong> Agreement (ACTA), PIJIP Research Paper Series, American University<br />

Washington College of Law Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.<br />

edu/research/17/<br />

Legifrance (2009a) Loi n° 2009-669 du 12 juin 2009 favorisant <strong>la</strong> diffusion et <strong>la</strong> protection<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> création sur internet 13 June 2009.<br />

Legifrance (2009b) , NoR: JUSX0913484L , Loi n° 2009-1311 du 28 octobre 2009 re<strong>la</strong>tive<br />

à <strong>la</strong> protection pénale <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propriété littéraire et artistique sur internet 28 october<br />

2009.<br />

Mission olivennes (2007) Le <strong>de</strong>veloppement et <strong>la</strong> protection <strong>de</strong>s oeuvres culturelles sur les<br />

nouveaux reseaux. Rapport au ministre <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> culture et <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> communication 23 November<br />

2007.<br />

MPA (2008 ) Public Consultation on Creative Content online in the Single Market – Submission<br />

of the “Motion Picture Association” (MPA) in response to the Questionnaire<br />

of the European Commission regarding Policy/Regu<strong>la</strong>tory issues<br />

ofcom, (2010) online Infringement of Copyright and the Digital Economy Act 2010<br />

Draft Initial obligations Co<strong>de</strong>.<br />

Peguera, Miquel (2009) The DMCA Safe Harbors and their European Counterparts: A<br />

Com<strong>para</strong>tive Analysis of Some Common Problems , In The Columbia Journal of Law<br />

and the Arts, Vol 32, No4, Summer 2009.<br />

SACD (2008) Examen <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> revision du Paquet telecom par le Parlement Europeen , March<br />

2008 Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net/files/notesacd-paquet-telecom.doc<br />

TalkTalk (2010) ofcom Consultation online Infringement of Copyright and the Digital<br />

Economy Act 2010 Draft Initial obligations Co<strong>de</strong> TalkTalk Group response July 2010.<br />

TalkTalk (2009) BIS Consultation Legis<strong>la</strong>tion to address illicit peer-to-peer file-sharing<br />

TalkTalk Group response September 2009.<br />

Trautmann, Catherine (2008) PE407.630v01-00, Amendments 203-317 (30.05.08) 30<br />

May 2008, 30 May 2008.


“NeUtrAlIty” test ON weB 2.0 PlAtfOrm fOr Its<br />

INtermeDIAry lIABIlIty IN CHINA AND IN eUrOPe<br />

Qian Tao 1<br />

Sant’Anna School of Advanced Studies of Pisa (Italian: Scuo<strong>la</strong> Superiore di Studi<br />

Universitari e di Perfezionamento Sant’Anna)<br />

AbstrAct: In this user-led content generation, there are more and more national and international<br />

cases regarding the liability of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform for infringing content generated by users. From the<br />

existing rules and cases in Europe and China, we can see that it’s generally recognised that web 2.0<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform is a kind of intermediary, neither a publisher like newspaper nor a broadcaster like TV in<br />

the traditional sense. This affords web publishing a form of immunity from liability for user generated<br />

content or a kind of special treatment, but most importantly, this “safe harbor” requires the p<strong>la</strong>tform<br />

in question to be neutral without involvement with third-party content. The Chinese approach to the<br />

“neutrality” test is not the same with the European one, which may result in different court <strong>de</strong>cisions<br />

for simi<strong>la</strong>r cases. I will introduce the legal status of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform in each legal framework along<br />

with case <strong>de</strong>cisions, and then I will conduct a com<strong>para</strong>tive study on existing cases from which we can<br />

see how courts ma<strong>de</strong> the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l analysis and financial benefit analysis of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform<br />

when <strong>de</strong>ciding its liability for user generated content. These two factors, which have a great influence<br />

on <strong>de</strong>ciding if the neutral status is disqualified, have been repeatedly examined by both Chinese and<br />

European courts.<br />

Keywords: web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform, user-generated content, neutrality, operating mo<strong>de</strong>l, financial<br />

benefit. 1*<br />

1. introduction<br />

In the web 2.0 era, a staggering amount of information is transmitted on internet<br />

intermediary p<strong>la</strong>tforms each minute. Some of these files may contain un<strong>la</strong>wful or questionable<br />

content, such as <strong>de</strong>famatory texts, cyber stalking, cyber harassment, cyber ostracism,<br />

impersonation, <strong>de</strong>nigration, and content vio<strong>la</strong>ting others’ copyright or right to privacy,<br />

name, image etc. There is no doubt that those who have created or generated the materials<br />

should bear direct liability. Nevertheless, many scho<strong>la</strong>rs have embarked on a <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

concerning the indirect liability of internet intermediaries. When <strong>de</strong>ciding whether an<br />

internet intermediary shall be liable for user-generated content, the first step is to examine<br />

if the p<strong>la</strong>tform is neutral during its operation and in the re<strong>la</strong>tionship with users. The question<br />

is which role the internet intermediary actually p<strong>la</strong>ys: infringer, filter, editor, publisher,<br />

broadcaster, gigantic copying machine, reactive policeman or proactive gatekeeper?<br />

1 The author wishes to thank Stephen Edwards for <strong>la</strong>nguage revision.<br />

9


178 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

The European Directive refers these web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms as hosting service provi<strong>de</strong>rs and<br />

gives them safe harbor protection, while the Chinese Tort Liability Law also provi<strong>de</strong>s safe<br />

harbor for internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs in addition to the notice-and-take-down procedure.<br />

Both request the provi<strong>de</strong>rs to be of neutrality if they hope to benefit from an exemption<br />

from liability. Net neutrality is the principle that data packets on the Internet should<br />

be moved impartially, without regard to content, <strong>de</strong>stination or source. Net neutrality<br />

is sometimes refer<strong>red</strong> to as the “First Amendment of the Internet” 2 . In this paper, after<br />

introducing each legal framework, I will exp<strong>la</strong>in by case studies how the courts give the<br />

“neutrality” test and how the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l analysis and financial benefit analysis were<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> in China and in European countries. For the European cases, I will focus on mainly<br />

French and Spanish cases in the following part.<br />

2. legal status of web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tforms<br />

2.1. legal framework<br />

The Chinese Tort Liability Law, which came into force on 1 July 2010, contains an<br />

article especially for infringements on the internet. It adopts a general <strong>de</strong>finition “internet<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>r” without making further c<strong>la</strong>ssification or se<strong>para</strong>te liability rules. It leaves<br />

judges to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> the neutral status of each service provi<strong>de</strong>r in each individual case. In the<br />

case that an internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r p<strong>la</strong>ys a role as publisher or broadcaster, the first <strong>para</strong>graph<br />

of article 36 shall be applied and direct liability shall be imposed, otherwise, joint<br />

liability provi<strong>de</strong>d by the <strong>la</strong>st two <strong>para</strong>graphs would be imposed on the basis of the fault and<br />

damage being confirmed.<br />

“An internet user or an internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r who infringes upon the civil right or interest<br />

of another person on the internet shall bear liability. When an internet user conducts un<strong>la</strong>wful<br />

acts by using the internet service, the victim has the right to notify the internet service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r to take necessary measures such as taking down the content in dispute, blocking access<br />

to the content, disconnecting the link to the content and the like. The provi<strong>de</strong>r shall bear<br />

joint liability with the internet user within the scope of further loss due to the failure of taking<br />

necessary measures expeditiously upon receiving the notification of c<strong>la</strong>imed infringement.<br />

The internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r shall bear joint liability with the internet user if it knows that<br />

the internet user is conducting illegal activity by using its internet service and it doesn’t take<br />

any necessary measures.”<br />

In addition, in the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion for the Protection of Information Network Dissemination<br />

Rights (2006) issued by the State Council, which is an administrative regu<strong>la</strong>tion especially<br />

for copyright protection in the information society, there are se<strong>para</strong>te provisions for<br />

internet access service, internet reference service, online storage, caching etc. When a web<br />

2 This <strong>de</strong>finition was ma<strong>de</strong> by TechTarget Company. See http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/<strong>de</strong>finition/Net-neutrality,<br />

<strong>la</strong>st accessed on 20 May 2011.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

179<br />

2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform c<strong>la</strong>ims safe harbor protection, it has to pass the “neutrality” test that the service<br />

it provi<strong>de</strong>s to the recipient of the service is information storage space, moreover, it has not<br />

alte<strong>red</strong> the content provi<strong>de</strong>d by the recipient of the service nor has it obtained a financial<br />

benefit directly attributable to the content.<br />

Unlike Chinese Tort Liability Law, the E-Commerce Directive 3 is especially for information<br />

society services, the <strong>de</strong>finition of which covers any service normally provi<strong>de</strong>d for<br />

remuneration, at a distance, by means of electronic equipment for the processing (including<br />

digital compression) and storage of data, and at the individual request of a recipient of<br />

a service. The E-Commerce Directive also c<strong>la</strong>ssifies internet information service as mere<br />

conduit, caching and hosting, and <strong>de</strong>fines them explicitly. Article 14 is for hosting service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r which can benefit from the liability exemption when it can meet three cumu<strong>la</strong>tive<br />

conditions: (1) absence of actual or constructive knowledge; (2) prompt reaction to take<br />

down the illicit content upon such knowledge; and (3) absence of control or authority over<br />

the recipient or user of the service.<br />

Web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform is consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to be a kind of “host”. However, there is still legal<br />

uncertainty. The main argument is about the qualification as “host”. It is unclear un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

which conditions a web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform qualifies as a hosting service in the sense of<br />

article14 of the Directive 4 . The E-Commerce Directive <strong>de</strong>fines the hosting services as<br />

that “consist of the storage of information provi<strong>de</strong>d by a recipient of the service”. Some<br />

member countries have also ma<strong>de</strong> their own <strong>de</strong>finitions of “hosting”. For instance, article<br />

6-1 of the French Law for Confi<strong>de</strong>nce in the Digital Economy 5 <strong>de</strong>fines an internet<br />

host as an entity that ensures, even free of charge, storage of signals, written data, images,<br />

sounds or messages of any nature, provi<strong>de</strong>d by recipients of these services so that it may<br />

be ma<strong>de</strong> avai<strong>la</strong>ble to the general public online by communication services. According to<br />

the recital 42 of the Directive, these services shall be “of a mere technical, automatic and<br />

passive nature, which implies that the information society service provi<strong>de</strong>r has neither<br />

knowledge of nor control over the information which is transmitted or sto<strong>red</strong>”. Therefore,<br />

the more a web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform is involved with the content that it hosts, the less likely<br />

it is to qualify as a host.<br />

We can see that un<strong>de</strong>r the Chinese administrative regu<strong>la</strong>tion, the main point for the<br />

status of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform is its “information storage space”, while, un<strong>de</strong>r the European<br />

directive, the main point is “the storage of information provi<strong>de</strong>d by users”. So the two legis<strong>la</strong>tive<br />

approaches are in essence the same.<br />

3 Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain<br />

legal aspects of information society services, in particu<strong>la</strong>r electronic commerce, in the Internal<br />

Market.<br />

4 IDATE,TNo and IViR, User-Created-Content: Supporting a Participative Information Society, final<br />

report, SMART 2007/2008, at 229.<br />

5 Loi n°2004-575 du 21 juin 2004 pour <strong>la</strong> confiance dans l’économie numérique.


180 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

2.2. case <strong>de</strong>cisions<br />

In Europe, court <strong>de</strong>cisions of Member States vary from each other in <strong>de</strong>termining the<br />

turning point at which these p<strong>la</strong>tforms are no longer mere hosts, but “publishers” in the sense<br />

of national media <strong>la</strong>ws (with the consequence that they can be fully liable for the content<br />

posted by third parties) 6 . In Italy, there are many arguments on whether web 2.0 sites qualify<br />

as “hosts” and therefore enjoy exemption from liability. French courts have also repeatedly<br />

discussed how to <strong>de</strong>fine the boundary between hosting service provi<strong>de</strong>rs and publishers with<br />

respect to vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing websites and social networking sites. In Spain, the Supreme Court<br />

clearly admits that the owner of a web forum must be <strong>de</strong>emed to be hosting the comments<br />

sent by users. Arguably, the same should apply to comments sent to blogs and to other web<br />

2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms 7 .<br />

From existing cases in China, we can see that blog service provi<strong>de</strong>rs were consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to<br />

be information storage service provi<strong>de</strong>rs 8 , auction sites were consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as online tra<strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>tforms<br />

as well as information storage provi<strong>de</strong>rs 9 . Those sites are consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as intermediaries,<br />

thus they enjoy the safe harbor protection. As for social networking sites, there is no case<br />

re<strong>la</strong>ted till now. Vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing sites were mainly involved in copyright infringement cases<br />

and court <strong>de</strong>cisions were not consistent from case to case, from court to court. In general,<br />

courts applied the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion for the Protection of Information Network Dissemination<br />

Rights, but there were many factors that could lead to controversial concerns as I will discuss<br />

in the following part.<br />

A great number of cases are about un<strong>la</strong>wful content on internet forums. As internet<br />

forums un<strong>de</strong>rwent rapid growth and increasing popu<strong>la</strong>rity in the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s in China, legal<br />

problems have been on the rise concurrently. Judges were confused over how to <strong>de</strong>fine the<br />

role that those forum operators p<strong>la</strong>yed. In 2002, the first case <strong>de</strong>cision on intermediary liability<br />

of an online forum came out. In the case –De Ying& Gao Yuan v. “sinoi.com” 10 , the<br />

court said that the operator of an online forum was not only a service provi<strong>de</strong>r, but also the<br />

manager of the system, therefore it was held liable for its fault in the process of management.<br />

6 IDATE,TNo and IViR, User-Created-Content: Supporting a Participative Information Society, final<br />

report, SMART 2007/2008, at 221.<br />

7 Miquel Peguera, Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>rs’ Liability in Spain– Recent Case Law and Future Perspectives,<br />

Journal of Intellectual Property, Information Technology and Electronic Commerce<br />

Law,Volume 1, Issue 3, December 2010, at 159.<br />

8 See Guangdong Mengtong Culture Development Ltd v. “baidu.com”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing<br />

(2007) HMCZ-17776; Lv Zhi Xing Institute & Mr.Han v. “sina.com”, online at http://www.<br />

china<strong>la</strong>wedu.com/new/, <strong>la</strong>st accessed 19 April 2011.<br />

9 Jinfeng Publishing House v. “taobao.com”, Higher People’s Court of Zhejiang, (2006) ZMSZZ-125;<br />

Digital Heritage Publishing Ltd v. “eachnet.com”, Higher People’s Court of Shanghai, (2008)<br />

LGMS(Z)Z-113.<br />

10 De Ying& Gao Yuan v. “sinoi.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing,(2002) HMCZ-742.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

181<br />

Accordingly, in the case –Haida Ltd v. “sina.com” 11 , Duan Shuhang & “xici.net” 12 , Wang<br />

Yongjian v. “shangdu.com” 13 , the courts also confirmed that the provi<strong>de</strong>rs of discussion forums<br />

shall manage and check their websites, supervise and manage the information. It seems<br />

that online forums were also consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as a kind of manager in addition to storage service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs, nevertheless, they were not seen as “authors” of the illicit information; therefore,<br />

it should bear vicarious liability. However, there is no consensus about to what extent the<br />

duty of care shall be borne by this “manager”.<br />

3. oPerating mo<strong>de</strong>l analysis<br />

For most web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms, the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l is to encourage users to upload and<br />

share content on their sites. Most provi<strong>de</strong> to users search tool and subscription function on<br />

their sites. Vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing sites also reformat the audio-visual files uploa<strong>de</strong>d by internet users<br />

to comply with the site’s compression format, and some sites also c<strong>la</strong>ssify vi<strong>de</strong>o into pre<strong>de</strong>fined<br />

types and further supply “<strong>la</strong>test vi<strong>de</strong>os” “featu<strong>red</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>os” and “trending vi<strong>de</strong>os” on the<br />

homepage. The sites can also record the viewing history of each registe<strong>red</strong> user and suggest<br />

“recommen<strong>de</strong>d vi<strong>de</strong>os”. They try to provi<strong>de</strong> a well-<strong>de</strong>signed structure that is as close as possible<br />

to the mental mo<strong>de</strong>l of the users in or<strong>de</strong>r to assure that users will be satisfied. Some<br />

judges addressed that the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l of user-based website was <strong>de</strong>signed as more than<br />

just storing information technically, and the architecture for users to fill in content might be<br />

an indicator of direct involvement.<br />

3.1. european approach –taking french and spanish cases as example<br />

In France, in the case –Jean Yves Lafesse v. “myspace.com” 14 , which was quite famous<br />

in 2007, the court of first instance ruled that MySpace was liable for vi<strong>de</strong>os hosted on its<br />

server, more importantly, the court stated that it was unquestionable that MySpace had the<br />

technical function as a hosting service provi<strong>de</strong>r, but its service was not limited in this technical<br />

function. In fact, it allowed users to upload content through a specific frame structure,<br />

and every time the vi<strong>de</strong>o was viewed, it disp<strong>la</strong>yed an advertisement from which it clearly<br />

<strong>de</strong>rived profits. Thus it was an editor and should bear responsibility. However, when the case<br />

was brought to the court of appeal, it was dismissed due to a procedural reason. Following<br />

11 Haida Ltd v. “sina.com”,Nanshan People’s Court,Guangdong, (2005) SNFMYCZ-1526. The Shenzhen<br />

intermediate people’s court upheld the <strong>de</strong>cision of court of first instance.<br />

12 Duan Shuhang & “xici.net”,Intermediate People’s Court of Nanyang, Henan, (2007) NMYZZ-193.<br />

13 Wang Yongjian v. “shangdu.com”,Intermediate People’s Court of Zhengzhou, Henan, (2009)<br />

ZMYZZ-296.<br />

14 Jean Yves L. dit Lafesse c. Myspace, Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris ordonnance <strong>de</strong> référé 22<br />

juin 2007.


182 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

this case, more than thirty other simi<strong>la</strong>r cases occur<strong>red</strong> against web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms including<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing service, blog, social news website, Wikipedia, chat forum and auction site 15 .<br />

one of the most important cases concerning vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing sites is the case–- Zadig<br />

Productions v Google Inc 16 .The copyrighter c<strong>la</strong>imed the <strong>de</strong>fendant, when providing Google<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o service, was an audio-visual content provi<strong>de</strong>r, but the <strong>de</strong>fendant argued that it was the<br />

subscribers that <strong>de</strong>termined the tags, <strong>de</strong>scription and other information and then allowed<br />

Google to in<strong>de</strong>x those vi<strong>de</strong>os, and it was also the subscribers that selected the category for<br />

those vi<strong>de</strong>os and <strong>de</strong>fined the criteria for dissemination(public or private) when uploading<br />

each file. The court finally held that whereas the <strong>de</strong>fendant offe<strong>red</strong> users the architecture and<br />

technical means for content c<strong>la</strong>ssification, they were necessary for their accessibility to the<br />

public. It was established that the content in dispute was provi<strong>de</strong>d by internet users so the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform couldn’t be seen as publisher.<br />

on 17 February 2011, the Court of Cassation issued the first <strong>de</strong>cision that has settled<br />

the <strong>de</strong>bate regarding host-editor for vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing p<strong>la</strong>tform in France. The Court confirmed<br />

in the case –Nord-ouest Production, C. Carion & UGC Images v Dailymotion 17 that the<br />

operations carried out by the vi<strong>de</strong>o sharing site, such as re-encoding vi<strong>de</strong>o streams in or<strong>de</strong>r<br />

to make them compatible with the viewing interface and reformatting them in or<strong>de</strong>r to<br />

make optimal use of the server’s storage capacity, were technical operations that formed part<br />

of the role of a host and in no way enabled the host to select the content that was published<br />

online 18 . Furthermore, the disp<strong>la</strong>y frame and tools for c<strong>la</strong>ssifying content as a part of a host’s<br />

function were justified by the need to rationalize the service and to facilitate user’s access.<br />

So that is to say, these technical operations don’t mean any particu<strong>la</strong>r involvement of the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform with the content to be uploa<strong>de</strong>d. Simi<strong>la</strong>r opinions of lower courts can be found in<br />

the Lafesse v. Dailymotion case 19 and Lafesse v Google case 20 .<br />

Simi<strong>la</strong>rly, the Spanish court also stated in the case –Gestevision Telecinco SA v You-<br />

Tube LLC 21 that selecting featu<strong>red</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>os as “suggestions” disp<strong>la</strong>ying on the homepage of<br />

15 Examples of French cases re<strong>la</strong>ted are Les Arnaques.com c. Editions Régionales <strong>de</strong> France (Cour d’appel<br />

<strong>de</strong> Versailles, 12 décembre 2007) and eBay Europe c. SARL DWC (Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris, 9<br />

Novembre 2007).<br />

16 SARL Zadig Production, Jean-Robert V. et Mathieu V. c. Sté Google Inc. et AFA,Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong><br />

instance <strong>de</strong> Paris, 3ème chambre, 2ème section Jugement du 19 octobre 2007<br />

17 Société Nord-ouest & société UGC Image c. Dailymotion, Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation (1re chambre civile),17<br />

février 2011.<br />

18 See Amélie Blocman, France:Liability of Vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing P<strong>la</strong>tforms - First Judgement of Court of Cassation,<br />

IRIS 2011-3:1/18.<br />

19 Jean-Yves Lambert dit Lafesse et c. Dailymotion, Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris, 3ème chambre,<br />

1re section, 15 avril 2008.<br />

20 Jean-Yves Lambert dit Lafesse et c.Google,Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris, 3ème chambre, 3ème<br />

section, 24 juin 2009.<br />

21 Gestevision Telecinco SA c. YouTube LLC ,Juzgado <strong>de</strong> lo Mercantil no. 7 <strong>de</strong> Madrid, Sentencia<br />

289/2010 <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> septiembre.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

the site didn’t amount to an editorial function, as it was done automatically when certain<br />

objective pre-<strong>de</strong>fined criteria were met, for instance, in the case that the vi<strong>de</strong>o enjoyed great<br />

popu<strong>la</strong>rity amid all web users. So this function didn’t contradict the intermediary nature<br />

of a host, nor was requiring a license from users incompatible with carrying out a merely<br />

intermediary service. In contrast, in an Italian case also concerning Google’s vi<strong>de</strong>o service,<br />

the court of first instance held that Google’s activity did not fall into the category of mere<br />

hosting but rather consisted in providing the content uploa<strong>de</strong>d by the users. According to<br />

the judge, Google was a content provi<strong>de</strong>r rather than a mere host-service provi<strong>de</strong>r22 . Now<br />

the case is on appeal.<br />

A blog service provi<strong>de</strong>r was also seen as a host rather than a publisher in a <strong>de</strong>cision of<br />

tra<strong>de</strong>mark case, issued by the Court of Appeal of Paris in 200723 . The court held the fact that<br />

it provi<strong>de</strong>d to bloggers the function to make posts on the p<strong>la</strong>tform and the system to protect<br />

from spam comments didn’t <strong>de</strong>monstrate its capacity as publisher of the postings in dispute.<br />

There is also a case re<strong>la</strong>ted to the famous French user-driven social news website “Fuzz”.<br />

The site offe<strong>red</strong> users an opportunity to share the links of online news. Users could entitle<br />

the information contained in the news and also choose a category for the news such as<br />

“economy”, “medium”, “sport” or “people” etc. In the case–“Fuzz.fr” v. olivier Martinez, the<br />

court of first instance found that the site was to be regar<strong>de</strong>d as a publisher of online communication<br />

services within the meaning of the <strong>la</strong>w, as Fuzz.fr ma<strong>de</strong> an editorial <strong>de</strong>cision by: (i)<br />

p<strong>la</strong>cing links on its website to “celebrites-stars.blogspot.com”, which contained gossip about<br />

Martinez; and (ii) arranging the various information sections of its website and posting a<br />

title referring to Martinez’s private life, thus <strong>de</strong>termining “the organization and presentation<br />

of the site” 24 . However, the Paris Court of Appeal25 turned down this <strong>de</strong>cision and held that<br />

what the p<strong>la</strong>tform did was merely to structure and to c<strong>la</strong>ssify the user-generated information,<br />

in or<strong>de</strong>r to facilitate the use of its service. This didn’t imply a status as publisher. Since the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform was neither the author of the content nor the one that <strong>de</strong>termined the content, it<br />

was a hosting service provi<strong>de</strong>r. The Court of Cassation26 confirmed the <strong>de</strong>cision of the court<br />

of appeal on 17 February 2011.<br />

183<br />

22 Giovanni Sartor, Mario Vio<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Azevedo Cunha, The Italian Google-Case: Privacy, Freedom of<br />

Speech and Responsibility of Provi<strong>de</strong>rs for User-Generated Contents, 18 Int’l J.L. & Info.Tech.356<br />

(2010).<br />

23 Google Inc. et Google France c. Benetton Group et Bencom, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris, 14ème chambre<br />

Section A, 12 décembre 2007.<br />

24 Bradley L Joslove, Vanessa De Spiegeleer-Delort, Web 2.0: Aggregator Website Held Liable as Publisher,<br />

http://www.international<strong>la</strong>woffice.com/Newsletters/Detail.aspx?g=4b014ec1-b334-4204-<br />

9fbd-00e05bf6db95&<strong>red</strong>ir=1#1,Accessed on 14 May 2011.<br />

25 “Fuzz.fr” c. olivier Martinez,Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris 14ème chambre, section B Arrêt du 21 novembre<br />

2008.<br />

26 “Fuzz.fr” v. olivier Martinez, Arrêt n° 164 du 17 février 2011 (09-13.202) ,Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation ,Première<br />

chambre civile.


184 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

3.2. chinese approach<br />

In China, case <strong>de</strong>cisions are not consistent regarding this question. Most cases re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

are copyright suits. According to the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion for the Protection of Information Network<br />

Dissemination Rights, as one requirement of liability exemption, the p<strong>la</strong>tform needs to<br />

prove that it hasn’t changed the content generated by its user. The problem is how to judge<br />

if user-generated content has been changed or not. Case <strong>de</strong>cisions focus on the following<br />

features: the site’s logo disp<strong>la</strong>ying on the vi<strong>de</strong>o, advertisement ad<strong>de</strong>d to the vi<strong>de</strong>o, and the<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o category and recommendations.<br />

As for the first feature, in the case – Shuren Tech.Ltd v. “Youku.com” 27 , the court<br />

noticed that after clicking the vi<strong>de</strong>o file, there was a short break when the logo “Youku”<br />

disp<strong>la</strong>yed before the vi<strong>de</strong>o, moreover, the logo “Youku” was ad<strong>de</strong>d on the upper left of the<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>o when the vi<strong>de</strong>o was p<strong>la</strong>ying. Based on this fact, the court held the website changed<br />

the file as it was apparent the logo was not ad<strong>de</strong>d by users; instead, it was ad<strong>de</strong>d by the site<br />

or ad<strong>de</strong>d automatically by pre-set software. Simi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>cisions can be also found in the case<br />

Joy Film Ltd v. “6.cn” 28 and Cheer<strong>la</strong>nd Entertainment organization v. “6.cn” 29 . on contrast,<br />

in the Ciwen Production Ltd v. “56.com” 30 , the court held that the sign “56.com”, which<br />

appea<strong>red</strong> when the vi<strong>de</strong>o was loading before p<strong>la</strong>ying, didn’t mean the website changed the<br />

content uploa<strong>de</strong>d by user.<br />

As for the second feature, in the case – Wangshang Culture Ltd v. “pomoho.com” 31 ,<br />

the court first confirmed that what the p<strong>la</strong>tform supplied was information storage space.<br />

However, the court noticed that an advertisement disp<strong>la</strong>yed on the bottom when the vi<strong>de</strong>o<br />

was p<strong>la</strong>ying. Even though the ad was preset into the vi<strong>de</strong>o-p<strong>la</strong>yer of the site, it <strong>de</strong>monstrated<br />

that the site had alte<strong>red</strong> the file uploa<strong>de</strong>d by internet users.<br />

As for the category and recommendations, one <strong>de</strong>cision stated the logo and the category<br />

was not the effect which could be brought simply by user’s uploading activity. 32 However,<br />

in another simi<strong>la</strong>r case–Longle Culture Ltd v. “m149.com” 33 , the court asserted that<br />

selecting recommen<strong>de</strong>d music and making categories didn’t changed the nature of the site<br />

as storage service provi<strong>de</strong>r. The site didn’t change actually the content. What it did is to<br />

facilitate user access to it and manage the storage location of user-generated content. In<br />

addition, some courts examined how the “recommen<strong>de</strong>d content” came out. In some cases<br />

27 Shuren Tech.Ltd v “Youku.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) HMCZ-9200.<br />

28 Joy Film Ltd v. “6.cn”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) HMCZ-22186.<br />

29 Cheer<strong>la</strong>nd Entertainment organization v. “6.cn”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) HMCZ-<br />

20961.<br />

30 Ciwen Film&TV Production Ltd v. “56.com”,The Second Intermediary Court of Beijing, (2009)<br />

EZMZZ-9.<br />

31 Wangshang Culture Ltd v. “pomoho.com”,Xicheng People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) XMCZ-6348.<br />

32 “Ku6.com” v. voole tech.ltd, the first Intermediary People’s Court of Beijing, (2010) YZMZZ-3517<br />

33 Longle Culture Ltd v. “m149.com”,Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing, (2006) CMCZ-24729.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

185<br />

the recommen<strong>de</strong>d results are generated by system automatically on the basis of the viewing<br />

history of a specific registe<strong>red</strong> user, but in other cases, those recommendations were selected<br />

by human intervention of the site, and this fact might change the neutral status of the site.<br />

For instance, in the case– Fang Siyu v. “IT168.com” 34 , the <strong>de</strong>fendant was a popu<strong>la</strong>r site for<br />

information about IT products and re<strong>la</strong>ted software. When a user clicked the “download”<br />

button of the ebooks which were posted online by other users, there were “recommen<strong>de</strong>d<br />

posts ”,“hottest posts”, “<strong>la</strong>test phone-vi<strong>de</strong>os/mp3s/images for downloading ” disp<strong>la</strong>ying on<br />

the following page. The court stated that it meant the site edited and ad<strong>de</strong>d those links above<br />

when users conducted downloading activity, and it also meant the site had actual control<br />

of the information on its site and was involved in editing and organizing the information.<br />

Therefore, the site was not merely storage service provi<strong>de</strong>r, but only content service provi<strong>de</strong>r.<br />

In addition, in some case <strong>de</strong>cisions, the operating mo<strong>de</strong> may not indicate the usergenerated<br />

content has been alte<strong>red</strong>, but it may indicate the site had knowledge of the infringing<br />

content.<br />

In the case –Leshi Tech Ltd v. “56.com” 35 , the court found that when searching the<br />

name of the television series on the homepage of the site by its search function, the first<br />

search result was entitled as the name of the film including information about actors and<br />

version of the film. After clicking the search result, each episo<strong>de</strong> was listed on the page, and<br />

<strong>de</strong>tailed information was showed, such as who created the file and how many times the episo<strong>de</strong><br />

was p<strong>la</strong>yed, and those episo<strong>de</strong>s were not uploa<strong>de</strong>d by the same person. The fact brought<br />

the court to induce that the p<strong>la</strong>tform had reorganized the files. Even though that fact didn’t<br />

change the status of the p<strong>la</strong>tform as a storage service provi<strong>de</strong>r, it caused the court to assert<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>tform had knowledge of those illicit files. As for discussion forums, courts also took<br />

into account the actual involvement of the site. Some websites were operated in the name<br />

of forums, but in fact they were content provi<strong>de</strong>rs, because when the user uploa<strong>de</strong>d his file,<br />

the content couldn’t appear on the site simultaneously. The editor of the site checked the<br />

content and had the power to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> if it could be posted on the site 36 . So the site has actual<br />

control on the user-generated content and p<strong>la</strong>ys a role as editor instead of mere storage<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>r in these cases.<br />

4. financial benefit analysis<br />

Almost all web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms get advertisement profits. The question is whether this<br />

commercial exploitation might point to the fact that the web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform is <strong>de</strong>signed at<br />

34 Fang Siyu v. “IT168.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007) HMCZ-15350.<br />

35 Leshi Tech Ltd v “56.com” ,Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing, (2010) CMCZ-17360.<br />

36 See Mu Bifang v. “chinaqikan.com”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2005) HMCZ-8071; Fang<br />

Siyu v. “yao<strong>la</strong>n.com”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007) HMCZ-18718.


186 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

more than just storing information technically. Neither the E-Commerce Directive nor the<br />

Chinese Tort Liability Law mentions this issue clearly.<br />

4.1. european approach<br />

In France, The remuneration is not relevant to the qualification of hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r,<br />

however, some French Courts used the criterion of commercial benefit to make a distinction<br />

between hosting provi<strong>de</strong>rs and editors and apply either the limited responsibility of a<br />

hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r based on the Law on Confi<strong>de</strong>nce in the Digital Economy or the full civil<br />

liability of an editor based on the Civil Co<strong>de</strong>. other courts argued this position didn’t comply<br />

with the text of the <strong>la</strong>w and the commercial advantage that a service provi<strong>de</strong>r extracted<br />

from its services didn’t permit to qualify the provi<strong>de</strong>r into an editor.<br />

The first case concerning this issue is the case –Tiscali Media v. Dargaud Lombard and<br />

Lucky Comics 37 . But this case originated before the E-Commerce Directive was transposed<br />

into French <strong>la</strong>w in 2004, thus the court applied the Freedom of Communication Act 1986 38<br />

and held the services provi<strong>de</strong>d by Tiscali Media went beyond the mere technical storage<br />

functions since it offe<strong>red</strong> internet users the possibility of creating their own websites by<br />

using its site at “www.chez.tiscali.fr” and offe<strong>red</strong> to advertisers the possibility to disp<strong>la</strong>y, directly<br />

on these pages, paid advertising space. However, as the <strong>de</strong>cision was not based on the<br />

E-Commerce Directive, the hosting <strong>de</strong>fense could not apply.<br />

In the case Jean-Yves Lafesse v. Dailymotion, publishers were <strong>de</strong>fined as “the person<br />

who <strong>de</strong>termines what content should be ma<strong>de</strong> publicly avai<strong>la</strong>ble on the p<strong>la</strong>tform”. The<br />

court opined that advertisement didn’t characterize the p<strong>la</strong>tform as content editor since the<br />

<strong>la</strong>w didn’t prohibit a host to take advantage of its site by selling advertising space. Simi<strong>la</strong>r<br />

opinions can be also found in the cases – F<strong>la</strong>ch Film and Editions Montparnasse v. Google 39 ,<br />

omar Sy and F<strong>red</strong> Testot v. Dailymotion 40 , Google Inc. v. Bac Films, The Factory and Canal<br />

Plus 41 . The opinion was finally confirmed in the judgment of the Court of Cassation in the<br />

case Nord-ouest Production, C. Carion & UGC Images v. Dailymotion on 17 February<br />

2011. The Court of Cassation asserted that the operation of the site by selling of advertising<br />

37 Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation (1re ch. Civ.), 14 janvier 2010, Telecom Italia (ex Tiscali Media) c. Stés Dargaud<br />

Lombard et Lucky Comics<br />

38 Article 43-8: Physicals or legal persons that provi<strong>de</strong>, free of charge or on fee paying basis, direct and<br />

permanent storage for distribution to the public of signals, documents, pictures, sounds or messages<br />

of any kind accessible through said services shall be criminally or legally liable on account of the<br />

content of said services only: if, after a judicial authority has refer<strong>red</strong> the matter to them, they have<br />

not acted promptly to prevent access to said content.<br />

39 Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (pôle 5, chambre 2), 9 avril 2010, F<strong>la</strong>ch Film et Editions Montparnasse c.<br />

Google France , Google Inc<br />

40 Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (pôle 5, chambre 1), 14 avril 2010, omar Sy et F<strong>red</strong> Testot c. Dailymotion<br />

41 Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (pôle 5, chambre 2), 14 janvier 2011 , Google Inc. c. Bac Films, The factory et<br />

Canal Plus


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

187<br />

space did not induce a capacity to act on the uploa<strong>de</strong>d content. The service of the host was<br />

free and it is necessarily financed by advertising revenue, furthermore, there was no prohibition<br />

on commercial exploitation of a hosting service through advertising un<strong>de</strong>r any <strong>la</strong>w 42 .<br />

In the Spanish case –Gestevision Telecinco SA v. YouTube LLC, the court <strong>de</strong>cision recognized<br />

that the fact that YouTube exploited its site for profit didn’t mean its service was not<br />

of an intermediary nature, and the court further opined that one aim of the E-Commerce<br />

Directive was to encourage the <strong>de</strong>velopment of commercial activities on the internet, and<br />

therefore it would be <strong>para</strong>doxical if an internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r couldn’t be exempted from<br />

liability just because it charged for its activities. However, as part of the Sustainable Economy<br />

Bill, the “Ley Sin<strong>de</strong>” Act which was rejected by Congress 21 December 2010 tried to<br />

set up a procedure that the administrative body may or<strong>de</strong>r an information society service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r who acts with direct or indirect lucrative intent to remove the infringing material.<br />

The “indirect” lucrative intent seems to inclu<strong>de</strong> the situations such as a hosting service provi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

seeking economic profit through advertising p<strong>la</strong>ced on the site 43 .<br />

At the European level, in the Google v. Louis Vuitton case 44 , the European Court of<br />

Justice (ECJ) confirmed the holding status of the Adword service of the search engine, and<br />

stated that “it must be pointed out that the mere facts that referencing service is subject to<br />

payment, that Google sets the payment terms or that it provi<strong>de</strong>s general information to its<br />

clients cannot have the effect of <strong>de</strong>priving Google of the exemptions from liability provi<strong>de</strong>d<br />

for in E-Commerce Directive”. Even though search engine is not a kind of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform,<br />

it is of intermediary nature because the Adwords are created by users. The case can be seen<br />

as ECJ’s attitu<strong>de</strong> towards financial benefits gained by internet intermediaries. That is to say,<br />

exploiting its site for gain is not a sign that the hosts are not of a neutral nature.<br />

4.2. chinese approach<br />

In China, though the Chinese Tort Liability Law doesn’t mention the financial benefit<br />

issue, the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion for the Protection of Information Network Dissemination Rights adopted<br />

a simi<strong>la</strong>r approach to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of the US, but<br />

it is only in terms of copyright infringement. one requirement for liability exemption is that<br />

42 Before the final <strong>de</strong>cision of the Court of Cassation, the regional court in Paris held Dailymotion was<br />

a hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r, but still liable for copyright infringement, as their business mo<strong>de</strong>l was based on<br />

recipients uploading copyrighted works. The Paris court of appeal overturned the <strong>de</strong>cision on its liability.<br />

43 Miquel Peguera,the Spanish Bill against online copyright infringement. What is it all about? See<br />

http://ispliability.wordpress.com/2011/01/15/ley_sin<strong>de</strong>/, <strong>la</strong>st accessed on 20 May,2011.<br />

44 Google France SARL, Google Inc. v. Louis Vuitton Malletier SA (C-236/08). Simi<strong>la</strong>r cases: Google<br />

France SARL v. Viaticum SA, Luteciel SARL (C-237/08). Google France SARL v. CNRRH<br />

SARL,Pierre-Alexis Thonet, Bruno Raboin, Tiger SARL(C-238/08). Die BergSpechte outdoor Reisen<br />

und Alpinschule Edi Koblmüller GmbH v. Günter Guni and trekking.at Reisen GmbH (C-<br />

278/08). Eis.<strong>de</strong> GmbH v. BBY Vertreibsgesellschaft GmbH (C-19/09). Portakabin Ltd v. Primakabin<br />

BV (C-558/08).


188 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r has not obtained a financial benefit directly attributable to the<br />

infringing materials. Differing from the DMCA, the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion doesn’t consi<strong>de</strong>r whether<br />

the service provi<strong>de</strong>r has the right and ability to control the infringing conduct. This is because<br />

in the context of the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion the term “internet storage service provi<strong>de</strong>r” inclu<strong>de</strong>s<br />

only those who provi<strong>de</strong> online storage space so it <strong>de</strong>finitely has the ability to control the<br />

information on its system –excluding those who provi<strong>de</strong> server space for a user’s web site.<br />

It is worth noting that the commercial exploitation here is limited to be “direct”, which<br />

means the internet service provi<strong>de</strong>r charges a fee for the service or content on its system. In<br />

the case–Ciwen Production Ltd v. “56.com”, the court held that the vi<strong>de</strong>o clip was free for<br />

internet users to watch, there was no proof that the website got profit from the vi<strong>de</strong>o directly<br />

though there was an advertisement on the right si<strong>de</strong> of web page besi<strong>de</strong> the vi<strong>de</strong>o. Simi<strong>la</strong>r<br />

opinion can be found in the case Longle Culture Ltd v. “m149.com”, Fudan Kaiyuan Culture<br />

Infomation Ltd v. “ku6.com” 45 .<br />

In addition, in some cases, courts notice that the infringing materials strengthen the<br />

attractiveness of the site and the profits are connected with the customers attracted by the<br />

users’ infringing activity, in other word, the worse the infringing activities are, the more<br />

online customers there are, and the higher the business value of the p<strong>la</strong>tform is. Un<strong>de</strong>r this<br />

circumstance, the profits are consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as profits obtained directly from the infringement.<br />

For instance, in the case –Guangdianweiye Culture Institute v. “ku6.com” 46 , the site gave<br />

monetary award to those users whose files had attracted the greatest viewership, the court<br />

stated that the operation of “ku6.com” was not merely to encourage original works and to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> a p<strong>la</strong>tform for podcast fans, in fact, it ma<strong>de</strong> advantage of the vi<strong>de</strong>os uploa<strong>de</strong>d by users,<br />

including films, TV series, original works etc, to enrich its online content, attract more<br />

users’ focus, increase its page view, and further attract more adverting customers and thereby<br />

obtain profits. Therefore, the <strong>de</strong>fendant ma<strong>de</strong> unauthorized use of other’s intellectual property<br />

and should be liable for the damages of right’s hol<strong>de</strong>r.<br />

In another case –Fang Siyu v. “bbs.baizhan.com.cn” 47 , some users ma<strong>de</strong> posts on the<br />

<strong>de</strong>fendant’s discussion forum to sell portable electronic <strong>de</strong>vices which could be used to read<br />

e-books, and someone else posted several e-books including the c<strong>la</strong>imant’s book free for<br />

downloading. The <strong>de</strong>fendant c<strong>la</strong>imed that it was a storage service provi<strong>de</strong>r therefore it qualified<br />

for the safe harbor. But the judge conten<strong>de</strong>d that the free e-books for downloading were<br />

to attract <strong>de</strong>vice users’ attention and further promote the sales of the <strong>de</strong>vice. The number<br />

of e-books on the site could affect the number of potential advertising customers. Thus, the<br />

45 Fudan Kaiyuan Culture Infomation Ltd v. “ku6.com”,Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing, (2011)<br />

CMCZ-36328.<br />

46 Guangdianweiye Film&TV Culture Institute v. “ku6.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008)<br />

HMCZ-14025.<br />

47 Fang Siyu v. “bbs.baizhan.com.cn”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007)HMCZ-4555, the first<br />

intermediary court of Beijing upheld the <strong>de</strong>cision. See also Siyu v. “it168.com”.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

forum, as a p<strong>la</strong>tform for e-rea<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>vice sales, was held to have obtained profit from the<br />

dissemination of e-books.<br />

5. conclusion<br />

189<br />

With the advance of information technology, the neutrality of web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform is<br />

becoming increasingly doubtful since some are no longer editorially neutral about content.<br />

They are much more active and involved with content originating from third parties. In addition,<br />

some websites operate and merge both content service and technical service, so that<br />

it is difficult to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> on the legal status in cases of infringement.<br />

Some European scho<strong>la</strong>rs have already concerned themselves with the problem of applying<br />

the holding <strong>de</strong>fense to web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms 48 . A recent report from French senators<br />

proposes to <strong>de</strong>velop the E-Commerce Directive to introduce, besi<strong>de</strong>s the existing categories<br />

of hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r and publisher, a new category of online service provi<strong>de</strong>r––“service<br />

publisher” (“éditeur <strong>de</strong> services” in French), which is characterized by drawing economic<br />

advantages from the direct consultation of hosted content, and require “service publishers”<br />

a duty of supervising its hosted content 49 . This specific liability regime would be stricter<br />

than the one applicable to hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r un<strong>de</strong>r article 14 of E-Commerce Directive and<br />

article 6 of the French Law on Confi<strong>de</strong>nce in the Digital Economy, while on the other hand,<br />

softer than the one applicable to a publisher who has full control over the content it posted<br />

and is therefore subject to full civil liability. The senators stated that “the context and reality<br />

have changed since the adoption of the e-commerce Directive. Unlike those popu<strong>la</strong>r hosting<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs that only sto<strong>red</strong> content and performed technical functions in early 2000s, web<br />

2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tforms don’t merely conduct technical activities and they p<strong>la</strong>y a more active role than<br />

true hosting provi<strong>de</strong>rs”.<br />

In China, there is no that kind of host-publisher category problem. Even though it is<br />

criticized by many scho<strong>la</strong>rs, but in some sense, just because of this legal uncertainty, courts<br />

are more flexible on a case-by-case basis. Consi<strong>de</strong>ring that the variety of websites is always<br />

48 Such as the Rapport– Commission Spécialisée sur les Prestataires <strong>de</strong> l’internet, Commission présidée<br />

par Pierre SIRINELLI. Vice-prési<strong>de</strong>ntes: Josée-Anne Bénazéraf, et Joëlle Farchy, Rapporteur :<br />

Alban <strong>de</strong> Nervaux, see http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/e-commerce/docs/expert/20080915_report_fr.pdf,<br />

<strong>la</strong>st accessed on May 6, 2011; Rapport d’Information ,Déposé en application <strong>de</strong> l’article<br />

86, alinéa 8, du Règlement Par <strong>la</strong> Commission <strong>de</strong>s Affaires Économiques, <strong>de</strong> L’Environnement et du<br />

Territoire sur <strong>la</strong> mise en application <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> loi n° 2004-575 du 21 juin 2004 pour <strong>la</strong> confiance dans<br />

l’économie numérique, et présenté par M. Jean Dionis du Séjour et Mme Corinne Erhel,Députés.<br />

See http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/pdf/rap-info/i0627.pdf, <strong>la</strong>st accessed on 6 May 2011.<br />

49 Rapport d’Iiformation Fait au nom <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> commission <strong>de</strong>s lois constitutionnelles, <strong>de</strong> légis<strong>la</strong>tion, du<br />

suffrage universel, du Règlement et d’administration générale (1) par le groupe <strong>de</strong> travail sur l’évaluation<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> loi n° 2007-1544 du 29 octobre 2007 <strong>de</strong> lute contre <strong>la</strong> contrefaçon (2) Par MM. Laurent<br />

Bétielle et Richard Yung, at 42-48, see http://www.senat.fr/rap/r10-296/r10-2961.pdf, <strong>la</strong>st accessed<br />

on 6 May 2011.


190 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

expanding in scope, it is impossible to categorize and list all kinds exhaustively. This flexibility<br />

seems to properly meet the diversity and the unp<strong>red</strong>ictable <strong>de</strong>velopment of internet<br />

information services. We can’t count on legis<strong>la</strong>tion to <strong>de</strong>fine the exact meaning of “neutrality”;<br />

instead, this c<strong>la</strong>rification can be and should be achieved over time, converging as information<br />

technology continuously advances and more case <strong>de</strong>cisions are <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

By studying the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l analysis and financial benefit analysis in China and<br />

in Europe, especially in France, we can see that Chinese courts gave a higher protection<br />

on copyrighters than European courts in general. But the existing rules in China are only<br />

for copyright infringement. In terms of other cases, such as tra<strong>de</strong>mark, privacy, <strong>de</strong>famation,<br />

impersonation etc, there is no gui<strong>de</strong>line to answer whether the operating mo<strong>de</strong>l and<br />

remuneration of a web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform could have influence on its neutral status or could<br />

imply that it had knowledge of the illegal activity or information, and further lead to its liability<br />

for user-generated content. As a national substantive <strong>la</strong>w, the Chinese Tort Liability<br />

Law should supply more specific and a<strong>de</strong>quate rules on this issue, otherwise, case <strong>de</strong>cisions<br />

might colli<strong>de</strong> with each other. Meanwhile, via case studies, I’ve also found case <strong>de</strong>cisions in<br />

European countries <strong>de</strong>monstrated different un<strong>de</strong>rstandings and opinions when performing<br />

the “Neutrality” test on web 2.0 p<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability. Further harmonization<br />

is still nee<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

6. bibliograPHy<br />

IDATE, TNo and IViR, User-Created-Content: Supporting a Participative Information<br />

Society, final report, SMART 2007/2008.<br />

Sartor, G., Vio<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Azevedo Cunha, M., The Italian Google-Case: Privacy, Freedom of<br />

Speech and Responsibility of Provi<strong>de</strong>rs for User-Generated Contents, 18 Int’l J.L. &<br />

Info.Tech.356 (2010).<br />

Joslove, B. L., De Spiegeleer-Delort, V., Web 2.0: Aggregator Website Held Liable<br />

as publisher, see http://www.international<strong>la</strong>woffice.com/Newsletters/Detail.<br />

aspx?g=4b014ec1-b334-4204-9fbd-00e05bf6db95&<strong>red</strong>ir=1#1. Last accessed on 20<br />

May 2011.<br />

Blocman, A., France:Liability of Vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing P<strong>la</strong>tforms - First Judgement of Court of<br />

Cassation, IRIS 2011-3:1/18.<br />

Peguera, M., Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>rs’ Liability in Spain– Recent Case Law and Future<br />

Perspectives, Journal of Intellectual Property, Information Technology and Electronic<br />

Commerce Law,Volume 1, Issue 3, December 2010.<br />

Rapport: Commission Spécialisée sur les Prestataires <strong>de</strong> l’internet. Rapporteur: Alban <strong>de</strong> Nervaux.<br />

See http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/e-commerce/docs/expert/20080915_<br />

report_fr.pdf, <strong>la</strong>st accessed on 6 May 2011.<br />

Rapport d’Information ,Déposé en application <strong>de</strong> l’article 86, alinéa 8, du Règlement sur<br />

<strong>la</strong> mise en application <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> loi n° 2004-575 du 21 juin 2004 pour <strong>la</strong> confiance dans


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

191<br />

l’économie numérique. See http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/pdf/rap-info/i0627.<br />

pdf, <strong>la</strong>st accessed on 6 May 2011.<br />

Rapport d’Iiformation Fait au nom <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> commission <strong>de</strong>s lois constitutionnelles, <strong>de</strong> légis<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

du suffrage universel, du Règlement et d’administration générale. See http://www.<br />

senat.fr/rap/r10-296/r10-2961.pdf, <strong>la</strong>st accessed on 6 May 2011.<br />

Qian Wang and Linghong Wang (2008), Study on Indirect Infringement of Intellectual<br />

Property Rights, Renming University Press, Beijing.<br />

Warner, R., Dinwoodie, G., Krent, H. and Stewart, M. (2007), E-Commerce, the Internet<br />

and the Law, Cases and Materials, Thomson West.<br />

Participative Web and User-created Content Web 2.0, Wikis And Social Networking, Paris,<br />

oECD, 2007.<br />

van Eijk, N., about Network Neutrality 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0, Computers & Law Magazine,<br />

2011-6.<br />

Thomas, H., The European liability and responsibility of provi<strong>de</strong>rs of online-p<strong>la</strong>tforms such<br />

as “Second Life”, 2009(1) Journal of Information, Law & Technology.<br />

Murray, A. (2010), Information Technology Law: the Law and Society, oxford University<br />

Press.<br />

chinese cases<br />

Fudan Kaiyuan Culture Infomation Ltd v. “ku6.com”, Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing,<br />

(2011) CMCZ-36328.<br />

Guangdianweiye Film&TV Culture Institute v. “ku6.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing,<br />

(2008) HMCZ-14025.<br />

Fang Siyu v. “bbs.baizhan.com.cn”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007)HMCZ-4555.<br />

Fang Siyu v. “IT168.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007) HMCZ-15350.<br />

Leshi Tech Ltd v “56.com” ,Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing, (2010) CMCZ-17360.<br />

Mu Bifang v. “chinaqikan.com”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2005) HMCZ-8071.<br />

Fang Siyu v. “yao<strong>la</strong>n.com”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2007) HMCZ-18718.<br />

Joy Film Ltd v. “6.cn”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) HMCZ-22186.<br />

“Ku6.com” v. voole tech.ltd, the first Intermediary People’s Court of Beijing, (2010) YZ-<br />

MZZ-3517.<br />

Shuren Tech.Ltd v “Youku.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) HMCZ-9200.<br />

Wangshang Culture Ltd v. “pomoho.com”,Xicheng People’s Court, Beijing, (2008) XMCZ-<br />

6348.<br />

Cheer<strong>la</strong>nd Entertainment organization v. “6.cn”, Haidian People’s Court, Beijing, (2008)<br />

HMCZ-20961.<br />

Ciwen Film&TV Production Ltd v. “56.com”, the Second Intermediary Court of Beijing,<br />

(2009)EZMZZ-9.


192 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Longle Culture Ltd v. “m149.com”, Chaoyang People’s Court, Beijing, (2006) CMCZ-<br />

24729.<br />

Guangdong Mengtong Culture Development Ltd v. “baidu.com”, Haidian People’s Court,<br />

Beijing (2007) HMCZ-17776.<br />

Lv Zhi Xing Institute & Han v. “sina.com”, see http://www.china<strong>la</strong>wedu.com/new/, <strong>la</strong>st<br />

accessed 19.04.2011.<br />

Jinfeng Publishing House v, “taobao.com”, Higher People’s Court of Zhejiang, (2006)<br />

ZMSZZ-125.<br />

Digital Heritage Publishing Ltd v. “eachnet.com”, Higher People’s Court of Shanghai,<br />

(2008) LGMS(Z)Z-113.<br />

De Ying& Gao Yuan v. “sinoi.com”,Haidian People’s Court, Beijing,(2002) HMCZ-742.<br />

Haida Ltd v. “sina.com”,Nanshan People’s Court, Guangdong, (2005) SNFMYCZ-1526.<br />

Duan Shuhang & “xici.net”, Nanyang Intermediate People’s Court, Henan, (2007)<br />

NMYZZ-193.<br />

Wang Yongjian v. “shangdu.com”, Intermediate People’s Court of Zhengzhou, Henan,<br />

(2009) ZMYZZ-296.<br />

european cases<br />

Google France SARL, Google Inc. v Louis Vuitton Malletier SA (C-236/08).<br />

Google France SARL v Viaticum SA, Luteciel SARL (C-237/08).<br />

Google France SARL v CNRRH SARL,Pierre-Alexis Thonet, Bruno Raboin, Tiger<br />

SARL(C-238/08).<br />

Die BergSpechte outdoor Reisen und Alpinschule Edi Koblmüller GmbH v. Günter Guni<br />

and trekking.at Reisen GmbH (C-278/08).<br />

Eis.<strong>de</strong> GmbH v. BBY Vertreibsgesellschaft GmbH (C-19/09).<br />

Portakabin Ltd v. Primakabin BV (C-558/08).<br />

F<strong>la</strong>ch Film et Editions Montparnasse c. Google France , Google Inc, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris<br />

(pôle 5, chambre 2), 9 avril 2010.<br />

omar Sy et F<strong>red</strong> Testot c. Dailymotion, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (pôle 5, chambre 1), 14 avril<br />

2010.<br />

Google Inc. c. Bac Films, The factory et Canal Plus, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (pôle 5, chambre<br />

2), 14 janvier 2011.<br />

Nord-ouest Production, C. Carion & UGC Images c. Dailymotion, Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation (1re<br />

chambre civile), 17 février 2011.<br />

Telecom Italia (ex Tiscali Media) c. Stés Dargaud Lombard et Lucky Comics, Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation<br />

(1re ch. Civ.), 14 janvier 2010.<br />

Google Inc. et Google France c. Benetton Group et Bencom, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris(14ème<br />

chambre Section A) , 12 décembre 2007.


“Neutrality” test on web 2.0 P<strong>la</strong>tform for its intermediary liability in China and in europe<br />

193<br />

“Fuzz.fr” c. olivier Martinez, Arrêt n° 164 du 17 février 2011 (09-13.202) ,Cour <strong>de</strong> cassation,<br />

Première chambre civile.<br />

“Fuzz.fr” c. olivier Martinez, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris (14ème chambre, section B) Arrêt du 21<br />

novembre 2008.<br />

Jean-Yves Lambert dit Lafesse c. Dailymotion, Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris (3ème<br />

chambre, 1 ème section), 15 avril 2008.<br />

Jean Yves L. dit Lafesse c. Myspace, Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris ordonnance <strong>de</strong><br />

référé 22 juin 2007.<br />

Jean Yves L. dit Lafesse c. Google, Tribunal <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris (3ème chambre,<br />

3ème section) Jugement du 24 juin 2009.<br />

SARL Zadig Production, Jean-Robert V. et Mathieu V. c/ Sté Google Inc. et AFA, Tribunal<br />

<strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong> instance <strong>de</strong> Paris (3ème chambre, 2ème section) Jugement du 19 octobre<br />

2007.<br />

Les Arnaques.com c. Editions Régionales <strong>de</strong> France, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Versailles, 12 décembre<br />

2007.<br />

eBay Europe v SARL DWC, Cour d’appel <strong>de</strong> Paris, 9 Novembre 2007.<br />

Gestevision Telecinco SA v YouTube LLC ,Juzgado <strong>de</strong> lo Mercantil no. 7 <strong>de</strong> Madrid, Sentencia<br />

289/2010 <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> septiembre.


10<br />

INtermeDIArIes IN tHe eye Of tHe COPyrIgHt stOrm:<br />

A COmPArAtIVe ANAlysIs Of tHe tHree strIke<br />

APPrOACH wItHIN tHe eUrOPeAN UNION<br />

Evi Werkers<br />

Doctoral Stu<strong>de</strong>nt Interdisciplinary Centre for Law and ICT – K.U.Leuven<br />

AbstrAct: The rapid <strong>de</strong>velopment of the digital information society has shaken the creative content<br />

sector to its very foundations and has upset the ba<strong>la</strong>nce between right hol<strong>de</strong>rs, intermediaries and<br />

users. on the one hand, there is more creative content avai<strong>la</strong>ble, creators can produce and distribute<br />

their works to a wi<strong>de</strong>r public at a low cost, in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ntly of physical constraints and across bor<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

on the other hand, right hol<strong>de</strong>rs have lost the power to control the (re)distribution of their creations<br />

and, <strong>de</strong>spite the stimu<strong>la</strong>tion of technological protection measures, continue to face a swelling problem<br />

of digital counterfeiting, piracy and dropping sale numbers. To resolve the issue of illegal sharing of<br />

copyright protected content certain Member States increasingly seek refuge to col<strong>la</strong>boration with<br />

internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs, sometimes resulting in close surveil<strong>la</strong>nce of users’ digital sharing behaviour<br />

and limitations on access to the internet. Due to these <strong>de</strong>velopments the once established “neutral”<br />

role of internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs and the e-commerce regime exempting them of liability is put un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rable pressure. Furthermore, the regu<strong>la</strong>tory instruments for the protection of copyright and<br />

creativity no longer seem capable of guaranteeing righthol<strong>de</strong>rs a fair return on their creative investments<br />

while ensuring the public’s access to information and respect for privacy. In this paper an interdisciplinary<br />

com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis will be ma<strong>de</strong> and closer look will be taken into the recent <strong>de</strong>bates<br />

that took p<strong>la</strong>ce in Belgium and the United Kingdom since the adoption of the (French) three strikes<br />

approach. The different speed by which these countries seek solutions to restore the ba<strong>la</strong>nce and the<br />

eagerly awaited interpretations by the European Court of Justice in the SABAM/Scarlet case and the<br />

High Court’s judicial review will be critically analysed to shed a light on the future of the three strikes<br />

approach.<br />

Keywords: intermediaries, copyright, liability, filtering, three strikes.<br />

1. coPyrigHt infringement Vs. coPyrigHt enforcement, 1-1<br />

1.1. The long-running failure of enforcing copyright regu<strong>la</strong>tion online<br />

Why is a normally <strong>la</strong>w-abiding citizen enticed to entirely ignore the <strong>la</strong>ws of copyright<br />

without any sense of remorse or guilt? Despite the awareness campaigns and educational<br />

programs, millions of users continue to make copyright infringements in various shapes.<br />

It seems that whatever action the creative industry is un<strong>de</strong>rtaking, pirates won’t halt their<br />

activities 1 and consumers won’t stop making use of their illegal services. The most promi-<br />

1 Bridy, A. (2009) “Why pirates (still) won’t behave: regu<strong>la</strong>ting peer-to-peer in the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> after Napster”.<br />

Rutgers Law Journal. Vol. 40, N° 3, 566.


196 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

nent problem of all is the wi<strong>de</strong>spread success of illegal file sharing via peer-to-peer software,<br />

which righthol<strong>de</strong>rs at one time believed to be just a temporary nuisance. But the problem<br />

persisted, expan<strong>de</strong>d even to other channels (newsgroups, social networks) and became one<br />

of the most symbolic battles of righthol<strong>de</strong>rs in the 21 st Century.<br />

The difficulties with the moral disengagement 2 towards copyright and the subsequent<br />

tensions between creators and consumers have accumu<strong>la</strong>ted since the adoption of the Information<br />

Society Directive and the Enforcement Directive (hereafter refer<strong>red</strong> to as Copyright<br />

Directives). Hol<strong>de</strong>rs of intellectual property rights successfully plea<strong>de</strong>d for more regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

restrictions / prohibitions and an expansion of copyright protection. As a consequence, there<br />

has been an expansion of exploitation rights (reproduction, communication of works to<br />

the public and distribution) and legal protection of technological protection measures, providing<br />

them the legal grounds to maintain control over the distribution of their works in the<br />

online environment. The Information Society Directive installed a two-tie<strong>red</strong> approach with<br />

regard to free usage of works for purposes of the public interest, also vis-à-vis unauthorised<br />

copies for private purposes 3 . The Enforcement Directive requi<strong>red</strong> all Member States to apply<br />

effective, dissuasive, proportionate, fair and equitable measures, procedures and remedies<br />

against those engaged in counterfeiting and piracy and created a level p<strong>la</strong>ying field for right<br />

hol<strong>de</strong>rs in the EU. As a consequence, all Member States have a simi<strong>la</strong>r set of measures, procedures<br />

and remedies avai<strong>la</strong>ble for right hol<strong>de</strong>rs to <strong>de</strong>fend their intellectual property rights<br />

when they are infringed 4 . Today however, the legal tools at the disposal of right hol<strong>de</strong>rs seem<br />

insufficient. Illegal downloading continues at a robust rate and is even spreading its wings<br />

from music and audiovisual files to textbook swapping 5 . The failure of technological protection<br />

measures, the marginal effect of expensive legal suits against peer-to-peer software<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopers and against Internet users eagerly downloading files and <strong>la</strong>st but not least, the<br />

difficult enforcement of copyright across bor<strong>de</strong>rs have prompted righthol<strong>de</strong>rs to seek other<br />

solutions. The solution was found in the shape of “intermediaries”.<br />

Already in the pre-Internet era, right hol<strong>de</strong>rs had successfully p<strong>red</strong>icated on intermediary<br />

liability for certain gatekeepers who provi<strong>de</strong>d the means to reproduce copyright protected<br />

works on a <strong>la</strong>rge scale. Today however, the situation is significantly different since<br />

these new intermediaries are legally obliged to act entirely passive-neutral and have been<br />

2 Peukert, A. (2010) “Why do good people disregard copyright on the internet?”. In C. Geiger (ed.),<br />

Criminal enforcement: a blessing or a curse of intellectual property?. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing<br />

(forthcoming), pp. 15-16.<br />

3 Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the<br />

harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and re<strong>la</strong>ted rights in the information society (hereafter<br />

refer<strong>red</strong> to as Information Society Directive), Official Journal C 167, 22.06.2001, 10<br />

4 Directive 2004/48 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the enforcement<br />

of intellectual property rights (hereafter refer<strong>red</strong> to as the Enforcement Directive), Official<br />

Journal L 157, 30.04.2004, 45.<br />

5 R. Stross. (2008). “First it was song downloads. Now it’s organic chemistry”, New York Times, July<br />

27.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 197<br />

granted a special regime that un<strong>de</strong>r certain conditions exempts them from liability for thirdparty<br />

copyright infringement. only when ma<strong>de</strong> aware of the existence of allegedly copyright<br />

infringing content, they have to act promptly and remove the content expeditiously or at<br />

least make it inaccessible. Despite this legal protection regime, the entertainment industry<br />

has been lobbying quite actively and has targeted both access and hosting provi<strong>de</strong>rs to assist<br />

them in their quest against digital pirates by sending out warning letters, by sharing personal<br />

data and i<strong>de</strong>ntifying customers, by installing filter tools or <strong>la</strong>st but not least, by monitoring<br />

their network as a whole (infra).<br />

The current approach to enforce copyright in its digital context has created a disrupted<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tion between right hol<strong>de</strong>rs and consumers. Intermediaries providing users access to the<br />

Internet to freely communicate and Internet services (especially those based upon user-generated<br />

or created content) are in the midst of the firework between these parties. Righthol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

c<strong>la</strong>im that these intermediaries can no longer stand asi<strong>de</strong> in their battle against pirates and<br />

should operate with them more actively and preferably in a proactive manner, whereas civil<br />

liberty groups and consumers advocates stress their role as guardians of the right to privacy,<br />

secrecy of communications, freedom of expression and right to information of their customers.<br />

In what follows we will exp<strong>la</strong>in the roots of the problem, illustrated by some <strong>la</strong>ndmark<br />

cases ruled by the European Court for Justice (hereafter refer<strong>red</strong> to as ECJ).<br />

1.2. The changing role of intermediaries in the creative content online environment<br />

1.2.1. The safe harbour provisions<br />

originally the European legis<strong>la</strong>ture ma<strong>de</strong> a lot of efforts to restrain intermediaries from<br />

choosing party and ma<strong>de</strong> sure they would take up a merely neutral-passive role. This is<br />

clearly reflected by the special exemption regime installed by the E-Commerce Directive<br />

that was adopted in 2000 as a response to the disparities that existed amongst Member<br />

States concerning the liability of service provi<strong>de</strong>rs acting as intermediaries which prevented<br />

the smooth functioning of the Internal Market, but also to ensure the freedom of communication<br />

and expression via the open network the Internet provi<strong>de</strong>s 6 . It follows from recital 42<br />

of the E-Commerce Directive that the exemptions from liability established in that directive<br />

cover only cases in which the activity of the information society service provi<strong>de</strong>r is of a mere<br />

technical, automatic and passive nature, which implies that that service provi<strong>de</strong>r ‘has neither<br />

knowledge of nor control over the information which is transmitted or sto<strong>red</strong>’.<br />

The horizontal regime which was adopted, also known as the “safe harbour” provisions,<br />

sets the minimum conditions un<strong>de</strong>r which intermediary provi<strong>de</strong>rs are exonerated from liability<br />

for the activities of “mere conduit” (transitory Internet communications), “caching”<br />

6 Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal<br />

aspects of information society services, in particu<strong>la</strong>r electronic commerce, in the Internal Market<br />

(‘Directive on electronic commerce’), Official Journal C 178, 17.07.2000,1 (hereafter refer<strong>red</strong> to as<br />

E-Commerce Directive).


198 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

(temporary caches) and “hosting” (storage of third party content). By facilitating fast and<br />

efficient transmission of content and remaining passive, intermediaries are in a state of immunity<br />

from liability, including copyright liability. Theoretically Member States could take<br />

it one step further and set less stringent conditions of exoneration as long as they regu<strong>la</strong>te<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>rs established on their territory in accordance with the country of origin<br />

principle 7 .<br />

The E-Commerce Directive prescribes that a service provi<strong>de</strong>r acting as “mere conduit”<br />

is not liable for the information transmitted on condition that the provi<strong>de</strong>r does not initiate<br />

the transmission, select the receiver nor select or modify the information contained<br />

in the transmission8 . A “hosting” provi<strong>de</strong>r on the other hand is exonerated from liability<br />

for the information sto<strong>red</strong> at the request of a recipient of the service, on the condition<br />

that he has no knowledge of the un<strong>la</strong>wful activity and does not control the activity of the<br />

recipient. However, upon obtaining such knowledge or awareness the provi<strong>de</strong>r should<br />

act and expeditiously remove or disable access to the information. In other words, they<br />

are not supposed to un<strong>de</strong>rtake any action whatsoever, only to react ex post to notices of<br />

infringement of copyright9 .<br />

Article 15 of the E-Commerce Directive complements these exoneration regimes by<br />

<strong>de</strong>termining that Member States cannot impose a general obligation to monitor ISPs or<br />

seek for facts or circumstances indicating illegal activity. The rationale of this provision was<br />

not just for mere practical reasons (ISPs cannot possibly monitor all the content passing on<br />

their network) but also, and mainly, out of concern for the freedom of free communication<br />

and expression on the Internet. After all, if ISPs were obliged to monitor the content passing<br />

through or sto<strong>red</strong> on their networks and services, or to seek for facts or circumstances<br />

indicating illegal activity, this would cause a serious chilling effect on Internet communications.<br />

It is thus exactly to avoid such censorship that the European legis<strong>la</strong>tor <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to free<br />

ISPs from the great pressure of having to monitor, not even in or<strong>de</strong>r to enforce copyright<br />

protection.<br />

Nevertheless this immunity is far from absolute. The E-Commerce Directive does allow<br />

Member States to establish a) obligations for information society service provi<strong>de</strong>rs to<br />

promptly inform the competent public authorities of alleged illegal activities un<strong>de</strong>rtaken or<br />

information provi<strong>de</strong>d by recipients of their service; b) obligations to communicate to the<br />

competent authorities, at their request, information enabling the i<strong>de</strong>ntification of recipients<br />

of their service with whom they have storage agreements. Furthermore, the E-Commerce<br />

Directive stipu<strong>la</strong>tes that exoneration for the activities enumerated above will not affect the<br />

7 Stal<strong>la</strong>-Bourdillon, S. (2011). “Uniformity v. Diversity of Internet Intermediaries’ liability regime:<br />

where does the ECJ stand?” Journal of International Commercial Law and Technology. Vol. 6, Issue 1,<br />

59.<br />

8 Art. 13 E-Commerce Directive.<br />

9 Art. 14 E-Commerce Directive.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 199<br />

possibility for a court or administrative authority, in accordance with Member States ’ legal<br />

systems, to require the service provi<strong>de</strong>r to terminate or prevent an infringement 10 .<br />

1.2.2. A complex set of services: challenging interpretations<br />

Today the terminology of the Directive appears to be quite difficult to apply to the<br />

complex set of services that is provi<strong>de</strong>d by intermediary provi<strong>de</strong>rs. There are two particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

cases we would like to highlight which <strong>de</strong>monstrate that even the highest European<br />

Court is challenged to evaluate the provisions of the E-Commerce Directive and to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong><br />

upon its field of application. The first case was brought against Google in the context of its<br />

referencing service Adwords. The Court <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that Internet referencing services can also<br />

fall un<strong>de</strong>r the “hosting” activity (an information society service consisting in the storage<br />

of information supplied by the advertiser) un<strong>de</strong>r the condition that the service provi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

has not p<strong>la</strong>yed an active role and <strong>la</strong>cked knowledge or control of the data which it sto<strong>red</strong> 11 .<br />

The fact that the reference service was subject to payment or the concordance between the<br />

keyword selected and the search term was, according to the ECJ, not sufficient of itself to<br />

justify the view that Google had knowledge of, or control over, the data ente<strong>red</strong> into its<br />

system by advertisers and sto<strong>red</strong> in memory on its server. By contrast, “the role p<strong>la</strong>yed by<br />

Google in the drafting of the commercial message which accompanies the advertising link or<br />

in the establishment or selection of keywords“ was consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> relevant. Still, the ECJ found<br />

that the national courts were best p<strong>la</strong>ced to assess whether the role fulfilled by Google<br />

correspon<strong>de</strong>d with the conditions of “neutrality” set out by the ECJ or not. The reluctance<br />

by the ECJ to answer this question by itself is surprising but can be exp<strong>la</strong>ined by the fact<br />

that national judges can adapt more easily to the complexity of the environment in which<br />

these intermediary provi<strong>de</strong>rs operate 12 .<br />

In the second ECJ case of L’ oréal vs. Ebay, with regard to the liability of an operator<br />

of an electronic market p<strong>la</strong>ce, Advocate-General Jääskinen carefully nuanced the former<br />

interpretation. L’ oréal accused auction site Ebay of buying search engine keywords and to<br />

direct users to its website on which counterfeited products were frequently offe<strong>red</strong> by users,<br />

<strong>de</strong>spite Ebay’s efforts to remove these offers. The Advocate-General first stated that the E-<br />

Commerce Directive has a broad scope of application and that its liability regime should<br />

not necessarily be interpreted narrowly. Jääskinen then <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d a clear distinction had to<br />

be ma<strong>de</strong> between the storage-based activities falling un<strong>de</strong>r the scope of the E-Commerce<br />

Directive and other activities of Ebay which are cove<strong>red</strong> by liability un<strong>de</strong>r national <strong>la</strong>w. Ebay<br />

had, according to the findings before the national court, not been neutral because it had<br />

instructed its clients in the drafting of the advertisements and monito<strong>red</strong> the contents of the<br />

listings. According to Jääskinen however the neutrality condition (in the sense that its con-<br />

10 Article 12.3., article 13.2 article 14.3 and article 15.2 E-Commerce Directive.<br />

11 ECJ Joined cases C-236/08, C-237/08, C-238/08, recitals 110, 114-121.<br />

12 Stal<strong>la</strong>-Bourdillon, S., “Uniformity v. Diversity of Internet Intermediaries’ liability regime: where<br />

does the ECJ stand?” Journal of International Commercial Law and Technology. Vol. 6, Issue 1, 59.


200 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

duct is merely technical, automatic and passive, pointing to a <strong>la</strong>ck of knowledge or control<br />

of the data which it stores) <strong>de</strong>rived from recital 42 of the E-Commerce Directive does not<br />

refer to the hosting activity. The Advocate –General stated that he would find it surreal that<br />

“if eBay intervenes and gui<strong>de</strong>s the contents of listings in its system with various technical means,<br />

it would by that fact be <strong>de</strong>prived of the protection of Article 14 regarding storage of information<br />

uploa<strong>de</strong>d by the users” 13 .<br />

These two <strong>la</strong>ndmark cases – and many other cases on national level which we unfortunately<br />

cannot e<strong>la</strong>borate upon in this paper as it would go beyond the scope 14 – <strong>de</strong>monstrate<br />

that the ECJ is willing to give a broad interpretation to the provisions of the hosting activity<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r the E-Commerce Directive. Despite the ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to interpret the liability regime of<br />

the E-Commerce Directive in the light of the <strong>la</strong>test technologies and extending its scope to<br />

newly <strong>de</strong>veloped services, a trend towards greater liability of these intermediaries can also<br />

be observed.<br />

1.2.3. Should intermediaries lift their anchor and set sail to less safe waters?<br />

The E-Commerce Directive has failed in its attempt to provi<strong>de</strong> a successful conflict<br />

methodology, in particu<strong>la</strong>r in re<strong>la</strong>tion to the protection of European creative content online.<br />

Its <strong>la</strong>borious application in the context of the new emerging (hosting) service(s) provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and the strained re<strong>la</strong>tionship with the European Copyright Directives were at the dawn<br />

of the new regu<strong>la</strong>tory initiatives that emerged over the past years throughout Europe. The<br />

cause of this tension can partly be found in the relevant Directives themselves. on the one<br />

hand art. 8.3. of the Information Society Directive, art. 9.1. § 1 a) and art. 11 of the Enforcement<br />

Directive provi<strong>de</strong> the possibility for righthol<strong>de</strong>rs to bring an injunction against<br />

intermediaries whose services are used by third parties to terminate an infringement of intellectual<br />

property rights. on the other hand, the Copyright Directive and the Enforcement<br />

Directive stipu<strong>la</strong>te that they do not harm the exoneration provisions of the E-Commerce<br />

Directive 15 . In a couple of recent cases the ECJ highlighted the (strained) re<strong>la</strong>tionship that<br />

exists between the E-Commerce Directive, the Copyright Directives and fundamental rights<br />

of Internet users, in particu<strong>la</strong>r the freedom of communication and the right to privacy.<br />

on 29 January 2008, the ECJ ren<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> a judgement in the case of the Spanish right<br />

hol<strong>de</strong>r group Promusicae against the ISP Telefónica in which the copyright society wanted to<br />

oblige the <strong>la</strong>tter to disclose i<strong>de</strong>ntity data on peer-to-peer users of Kazaa in a civil procedure.<br />

It was the first ruling by the ECJ in which it <strong>de</strong>alt with the tension between the enforcement<br />

of intellectual property rights and data protection. The ECJ <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that it cannot be<br />

13 opinion Advocate-General Jääkinen, C-324/09, 9 December 2010 recitals 130-146.<br />

14 For an overview of French and Belgian case <strong>la</strong>w with regard to hosting user-generated content, see for<br />

example: Werkers, E. (2010). How the press <strong>de</strong>als with user-generated content: one the hazards of<br />

the job?” [Avai<strong>la</strong>ble in Dutch only: “De omgang van <strong>de</strong> pers met gebruikersinhou<strong>de</strong>n: <strong>de</strong> bluts met<br />

<strong>de</strong> buil?”]. Auteurs & Media. N° 1, pp. 7-21.<br />

15 Recital 16 Information Society Directive and recital 15 Enforcement Directive.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 201<br />

<strong>de</strong>rived from European legis<strong>la</strong>tion (the Copyright directives and E-Commerce Directive)<br />

that Member States are obliged to install a duty to provi<strong>de</strong> personal data in the context of<br />

a civil procedure to ensure the effective protection of copyright. However, the ECJ further<br />

<strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that Community <strong>la</strong>w does require that, when transposing those directives, Member<br />

States take care to rely on an interpretation of them which allows a fair ba<strong>la</strong>nce to be struck<br />

between the various fundamental rights protected by the Community legal or<strong>de</strong>r. When<br />

implementing the measures transposing the directives, the authorities and courts of the<br />

Member States must not only interpret their national <strong>la</strong>w in a manner consistent with those<br />

directives but also make sure that they do not rely on an interpretation of them which would<br />

be in conflict with fundamental rights (right to privacy and right to property) or with the<br />

other general principles of Community <strong>la</strong>w, such as the principle of proportionality. In sum,<br />

the ‘hot potato’ was passed on to the Member States 16 .<br />

In the case of L’oréal vs. Ebay, the Advocate-General also consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> whether a hosting<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r can be requi<strong>red</strong> to prevent future infringements. He <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that “actual knowledge”<br />

refers only to past and/or present but not to the future. Hence, in the case of an alleged<br />

tra<strong>de</strong> mark infringement on an electronic marketp<strong>la</strong>ce, the object of knowledge must be a<br />

conclu<strong>de</strong>d or ongoing activity or an existing fact or circumstance. Secondly the requirement<br />

of actual knowledge seems to exclu<strong>de</strong> construed knowledge. It is not enough that the service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>r ought to have known or has good reasons to suspect illegal activity. Consequently,<br />

actual knowledge means knowledge of past or present information, activity or facts that the<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>r has on the basis of an external notification or its own voluntary research.<br />

According to the Advocate-General, exemption from liability however does not apply in<br />

cases where the electronic marketp<strong>la</strong>ce operator has been notified of infringing use of a<br />

tra<strong>de</strong> mark, and the same user continues or repeats the same infringement. An injunction<br />

against an intermediary to prevent any further infringements of a tra<strong>de</strong> mark would be<br />

disproportionate, but the prevention of the continuation of a specific act of infringement or<br />

the prevention of repetition of the same or a simi<strong>la</strong>r infringement in the future, is not. What<br />

is crucial, of course, is that the intermediary can know with certainty what is requi<strong>red</strong> from<br />

him, and that the injunction does not impose impossible, disproportionate or illegal duties<br />

like a general obligation of monitoring. An appropriate limit for the scope of injunctions in<br />

the opinion of the Advocate-General may be that of a double requirement of i<strong>de</strong>ntity, meaning<br />

that the infringing third party should be the same and that the tra<strong>de</strong> mark infringed<br />

should be the same in the cases concerned 17 .<br />

Even more interesting is the recent Conclusion by Advocate-General Cruz Vil<strong>la</strong>lón in<br />

the Belgian case of Scarlet v. Sabam, refer<strong>red</strong> to the ECJ by the Belgian Court of Appeal for<br />

a preliminary ruling. The antece<strong>de</strong>nts of the case can be summarised as follows. According to<br />

16 C-275/06, Telefónica vs. Promusicae, 29 January 2008, recital 71 ; For a profound analysis see<br />

Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, F. and Werkers, E. (2010). “In The Aftermath of the Promusicae Case: How to Strike<br />

the Ba<strong>la</strong>nce?” International Journal of Law and Information Technology. Vol. 18, pp. 50-71.<br />

17 opinion Advocate-General Jääkinen, C-324/09, 9 December 2010, recitals 154-182.


202 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the Belgian collecting society Société Belge <strong>de</strong>s auteurs, compositeurs et éditeurs (SABAM)<br />

the access provi<strong>de</strong>r Scarlet was in the best position to filter and block illegal sharing via peerto-peer<br />

software of copyright protected files belonging to their repertoire. As a consequence<br />

SABAM applied for interim relief against the ISP on the basis of Article 87 of the Belgian<br />

Copyright Act to block and filter the un<strong>la</strong>wful peer-to-peer communications. The Presi<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

of the Court of First Instance of Brussels had conclu<strong>de</strong>d that given the evi<strong>de</strong>nced infringements<br />

and even though the ISP itself could not be held liable, the c<strong>la</strong>im of Sabam was legitimate<br />

and (following the advice of the appointed legal expert) the filtering system Audible<br />

Magic had to be installed by the ISP. Scarlet was given a period of six months to abi<strong>de</strong> by the<br />

ruling and to install the Audible Magic technology un<strong>de</strong>r constraint of a penalty payment of<br />

€ 2,500 per day, but appealed. Before ren<strong>de</strong>ring its judgement, the Court of Appeal of Brussels<br />

sought a preliminary ruling by the Court of Justice 18 . The prejudicial question raised by<br />

the Belgian judge goes as follows: “Do Directives 2001/29 and 2004/48, in conjunction with<br />

Directives 95/46, 2000/31 and 2002/58, construed in particu<strong>la</strong>r in the light of Articles 8 and 10<br />

of the European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, permit<br />

Member States to authorise a national court, before which substantive proceedings have been<br />

brought and on the basis merely of a statutory provision stating that: ‘They [the national courts]<br />

may also issue an injunction against intermediaries whose services are used by a third party to infringe<br />

a copyright or re<strong>la</strong>ted right’, to or<strong>de</strong>r an Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r (ISP) to introduce, for all<br />

its customers, in abstracto and as a preventive measure, exclusively at the cost of that ISP and for an<br />

unlimited period, a system for filtering all electronic communications, both incoming and outgoing,<br />

passing via its services, in particu<strong>la</strong>r those involving the use of peer-to-peer software, in or<strong>de</strong>r<br />

to i<strong>de</strong>ntify on its network the sharing of electronic files containing a musical, cinematographic or<br />

audio-visual work in respect of which the applicant c<strong>la</strong>ims to hold rights, and subsequently to block<br />

the transfer of such files, either at the point at which they are requested or at which they are sent?<br />

As Advocate-General Cruz Vil<strong>la</strong>lón remarks in its opinion, the ECJ is implicitly requested to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> its ruling on the viability of certain technological measures used in the fight against<br />

online piracy, though its <strong>de</strong>pendability is in constant technological evolution. First of all<br />

the Advocate-General is of the opinion that neither the concrete impact on the exchange of<br />

data nor the costs of maintenance can be <strong>de</strong>termined a priori. After an extensive assessment<br />

of the measure requested for by SABAM, the Advocate-General conclu<strong>de</strong>s that the filtering<br />

and blocking measures are undoubtedly general in every sense: ratione materiae (all electronic<br />

communications), ratione personae (all clients of ISPs) but also in terms of space and time.<br />

Though Cruz Vil<strong>la</strong>lón agrees with the European Commission that the measures fail to meet<br />

the conditions of proportionality, he proposes the ECJ to <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re the measure incompatible<br />

with EU <strong>la</strong>w for not having met the legality test, set out as one of the core conditions to restrict<br />

fundamental rights of privacy, secrecy of communications, freedom of expression and<br />

right to information. The European Court For Human Rights ruled on several occasions that<br />

18 Pres. Court of First Instance Brussels, 29 June 2007. Coppens, F. (2008). « Filtrage peer-to-peer: possibilités<br />

techniques et obstacles juridiques » Revue du Droit <strong>de</strong>s Technologies <strong>de</strong> l’Information. Vol 30,<br />

pp. 94-103.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 203<br />

the <strong>la</strong>w should be sufficiently clear, accessible and foreseeable. Cruz Vil<strong>la</strong>lón <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that it<br />

was impossible for Scarlet to foresee that article 87 of the Belgian Copyright Act could act as<br />

a legal ground for the ruling and filtering/blocking measures imposed by the Belgian Court<br />

of First Instance. Since there was no national provision providing a sufficiently clear and<br />

foreseeable legal ground, the second part of the question did not have to be answe<strong>red</strong>. Cruz<br />

Vil<strong>la</strong>lón does not forbear to mention that the requested systems of filtering and blocking are<br />

not imposed by EU <strong>la</strong>w, but ends by saying that without this legal basis no interpretation can<br />

be given as regards article 15 of the E-Commerce Directive 19 .<br />

2. Pouring oil on troubled waters… or adding fuel to tHe<br />

fire?<br />

As pointed out in the previous sections, the difficult re<strong>la</strong>tionship between the E-Commerce<br />

and Copyright Directives has emerged several legis<strong>la</strong>tive measures within Member<br />

States to establish a more close col<strong>la</strong>boration between ISPs and right hol<strong>de</strong>rs. The entertainment<br />

industry, legis<strong>la</strong>tors and policy makers are pressuring intermediaries to pick up a more<br />

active role and police their networks e.g. by filtering content or by handing over personal<br />

data information i<strong>de</strong>ntifying Internet users infringing content. This has led to several legal<br />

initiatives across Europe but also on a global scale 20 . The adoption of the French <strong>la</strong>w was<br />

followed with Argus’ eyes across the European Union and provoked simi<strong>la</strong>r legis<strong>la</strong>tive initiatives<br />

in some of its neighbouring countries: the United Kingdom and Belgium.<br />

2.1. The french (un)graduated response and its british lookalike<br />

Following an agreement amongst online intermediaries and representatives of the entertainment<br />

industry, the olivennes Commission was established to draft a regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework<br />

for the <strong>de</strong>velopment and protection of creative works and cultural programmes<br />

on new networks. The p<strong>la</strong>n was to set up an administrative authority <strong>de</strong>aling with online<br />

infringements by requiring intermediaries to first notify their customers of allegations of<br />

copyright infringements. In case of recidivism, sanctions were to be imposed appropriate<br />

to the customer’s alleged behaviour, amongst which the suspension of Internet connection<br />

for up to one year or even the termination of subscriptions which would also be put on a<br />

b<strong>la</strong>ck list. In exchange for the monitoring and cooperation by intermediaries, right hol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

19 Conclusion Advocate-General Cruz Vil<strong>la</strong>lón, Case C-70/10, Scarlet v. SABAM, 14 April 2011 ;<br />

Blog Post by Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, F. “Advocate-General of the European Court of Justice issues opinion on<br />

filtering and blocking of electronic communications”, http://www.timelex.eu/nl/blog/p/<strong>de</strong>tail/advocate-general-of-the-european-court-of-justice-issues-opinion-on-filtering-and-blocking-of-electronic-communications<br />

[Last accessed: 05/05/2011].<br />

20 For an extensive analysis see De Beer, J. and Clemmer, C.D. (2009) “Global trends in online copyright<br />

enforcement: a non-neutral role for network intermediaries?” Jurimetrics. Vol. 49, N° 4, pp.<br />

375-409.


204 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

promised to <strong>red</strong>uce the release p<strong>la</strong>ns for films and to facilitate interoperability. The resulting<br />

Hadopi Bill was received with a lot of criticism by civil society and even ma<strong>de</strong> it to the<br />

European Parliament which counte<strong>red</strong> the French p<strong>la</strong>ns by voting against such disproportionate<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ns 21 . In the end, the European Parliament proposed an “Internet freedom provision”<br />

in the <strong>de</strong>bate concerning the reform of the Telecom Package 22 . Today, article 1(3)a of the<br />

(amen<strong>de</strong>d) Framework Directive 23 provi<strong>de</strong>s end-users with procedural guarantees to protect<br />

their access to, or use of, services and applications through electronic communications networks,<br />

especially the Internet, against restrictive measures adopted by national authorities,<br />

e.g. cutting-off access.<br />

Despite its many opponents, the French legis<strong>la</strong>tor procee<strong>de</strong>d stubbornly with its<br />

election promise and in 2009 the Hadopi Law was adopted. The Law was revised twice<br />

soon after its adoption though 24 . Firstly because the restriction of a fundamental right<br />

such as right to communication was trusted in the hands of an administrative authority<br />

instead of the in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt judiciary, <strong>de</strong>nying citizens due process of <strong>la</strong>w. Secondly because<br />

users who did not knowingly infringe copyright but failed to secure their Internet<br />

connections, would be punished severely unless they could prove the contrary (thus<br />

reversing the bur<strong>de</strong>n of proof and vio<strong>la</strong>ting the presumption of innocence). This was a<br />

thorn in the eye of the French Constitutional Court 25 . Strangely enough the following<br />

modifications of the Hadopi Law had the perverse effect that both authors and users<br />

are in an even worse situation than before. The sanctions have aggravated and authors<br />

are left in the cold to c<strong>la</strong>im damages via civil court since the penal procedure was given<br />

prece<strong>de</strong>nce. Paradoxically, no procedure has been started yet since the adoption of the<br />

Hadopi Law 26 .<br />

21 The Resolution on Cultural Industries in Europe called for the avoidance of adopting measures that<br />

conflict with civil liberties and human rights and with the principles of proportionality, effectiveness<br />

and dissuasiveness such as cutting off internet access: European Parliament Resolution on cultural<br />

industries in Europe, 10 April 2008.<br />

22 The European Parliament’s proposal, ma<strong>de</strong> in the first reading of the Commission Proposal for a<br />

Better Regu<strong>la</strong>tion Directive was known as “Amendment 138”. See Commission Press Release, Commission<br />

Position on Amendment 138 adopted by the European Parliament in plenary vote on 24<br />

September, MEMo/08/681 (November 7, 2008).<br />

23 Directive 2002/21 of 7 March 2002 on a common regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework for electronic communications<br />

networks and services (“Framework Directive”), Official Journal L 108, 24 April 2002,33 as<br />

amen<strong>de</strong>d in 2009 by the Better Regu<strong>la</strong>tion Directive.<br />

24 Law N* 2009-669 of 12 June 2009 on the promotion of the distribution and protection of creations<br />

via internet. Official State Gazette. 13 June 2009 ; Law N* 2009-1311 of 28 october 2009 regarding<br />

the penal protection of literary and artistic works via internet. Official State Gazette. 20 october 2009.<br />

25 Decision N° 2009-580 Constitutional Court France, 10 June 2009.<br />

26 Benabou, V.L. (2010). “La riposte graduée contre <strong>la</strong> contrefaçon <strong>de</strong> masse: <strong>de</strong> l’alibi pédagogique à<br />

<strong>la</strong> tentation sécuritaire”. Auteurs & Media. N° 5-6, pp. 438-449.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 205<br />

Following the Gowers Review Report 27 which recommen<strong>de</strong>d that intermediaries<br />

should do more to facilitate enforcement of copyrights online, the United Kingdom adopted<br />

the Digital Economy Act in 2010. The Act imposes on ISPs the obligation of notifying<br />

offen<strong>de</strong>rs of reported infringement and providing infringement lists to copyright owners.<br />

Furthermore, it installs technical measures against repeat infringers with a graduate approach<br />

simi<strong>la</strong>r to the French Hadopi Law: a) limitation of speed or other capacity, b) prevention<br />

to use a service, c) suspension of a service or d) other limitation of the service and <strong>la</strong>st but<br />

not least e) limitation of Internet access. The Act also foresees the possibility of injunctions<br />

preventing access to locations on the Internet which the Court is satisfied has been, or is<br />

likely to be used, for or in connection with an activity that infringes copyright 28 .<br />

2.2. The curious case of belgium<br />

The Belgian judgement by the First Court of Instance in the case of collecting society<br />

SABAM against ISP Scarlet (exp<strong>la</strong>ined above), was soon criticised by scho<strong>la</strong>rs pointing out<br />

the dangers of installing such general measure, without limit in time, without a limited scope<br />

in personae/materiae and on the level of carriers (access provi<strong>de</strong>rs) 29 . It is against this background<br />

that several legis<strong>la</strong>tive proposals were drafted in Belgium as well. The first proposal<br />

was initiated in the circle of the Liberal Party by senator Monfils in 2010 and resubmitted<br />

by Miller in 2011. The Proposal suggests an approach based upon five pil<strong>la</strong>rs amongst which<br />

the blocking of hacker websites by ISPs (pil<strong>la</strong>r 1), the encouragement of legal online offers<br />

(pil<strong>la</strong>r 2) and the implementation of a graduated response (pil<strong>la</strong>r 5). The Belgian version of<br />

the graduated response would be: 1) a warning 2) in case of recidivism within six months<br />

a fine 3) judicial <strong>de</strong>cision leading to a fine and limited access to online communication<br />

service and 4) in case of recidivism a doubled fine and suspension of Internet access 30 . The<br />

Green Party on the other hand suggests the introduction of a b<strong>la</strong>nket license which would<br />

be negotiated between collecting societies and ISPs. The fair remuneration that would be<br />

<strong>la</strong>id down would not be ad<strong>de</strong>d to the subscription invoice. Instead an upper limit would be<br />

set with a different remuneration based upon the download capacity. The Belgian Institute<br />

for Postal Services and Telecommunications would be charged with mapping the amount<br />

of downloa<strong>de</strong>d files and to make reports on a yearly basis 31 . Surprisingly, during <strong>de</strong>bates in<br />

27 http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/other/0118404830/0118404830.asp, 103. Recently<br />

a draft co<strong>de</strong> of obligations was drafted which is now open for public consultation: http://<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs.ofcom.org.uk/consultations/copyright-infringement [Last accessed: 15/05/2011].<br />

28 http://www.legis<strong>la</strong>tion.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/24/contents [Last accessed: 15/05/2011].<br />

29 De Beer J. and Clemmer, C.D. (2009). “Global trends in online copyright enforcement: a nonneutral<br />

role for network intermediaries?” Jurimetrics. Vol. 49, N° 4, pp. 401-402.<br />

30 Law Proposal for a better protection of cultural creation on the internet, 4-1748/1, 21 April 2010,<br />

5-741, 28 January 2011.<br />

31 Law Proposal to adjust copyright collection to the technological <strong>de</strong>velopments while protecting the<br />

privacy of internet users, 4-1686/1, 2 March 2010.


206 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the Senate Commission for Finances and Economic Affairs, Miller <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to abandon his<br />

own proposal almost entirely since there was clearly no public support for a Belgian graduate<br />

response. Instead, he suggested a system simi<strong>la</strong>r to the proposal of the Green Party obliging<br />

ISPs to negotiate a remuneration with collecting societies on an individual basis 32 .<br />

2.3. some <strong>de</strong>velopments on eu level<br />

Un<strong>de</strong>r the auspices of the European Commission, righthol<strong>de</strong>rs and Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms<br />

recently agreed on a non-binding Memorandum of Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding on the 4 th of<br />

May 2011, aiming at boosting col<strong>la</strong>boration in the fight against counterfeited products<br />

sold online (including online piracy and unauthorised sharing of copyright protected<br />

works) to realise a safer online trading environment for righthol<strong>de</strong>rs, Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms<br />

and consumers 33 . The Memorandum contains some good elements such as the commitment<br />

to clearly communicate, publish and enforce an IPR policy and the prevention<br />

of re-registration of permanently suspen<strong>de</strong>d sellers. It further specifies what both righthol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms can expect in the event of notice and take down procedures,<br />

namely on the one hand notification in a responsible and accurate way in good faith and<br />

on the other hand, efficient and comprehensive actions without undue <strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>y. The co<strong>de</strong><br />

of conduct stipu<strong>la</strong>tes that it does not create (pre-) contractual obligations, liability rights,<br />

waiver of rights or legal obligations. Remarkably however, the Memorandum does prescribe<br />

that Internet P<strong>la</strong>tforms signing this text commit to un<strong>de</strong>rtake pro-active and preventive<br />

measures to stop counterfeit goods being offe<strong>red</strong> through their services. It seems<br />

that most of the measures set out in the Memorandum are still based upon information<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>d by the right owners which according to the Memorandum do not have implications<br />

in terms of actual notice or knowledge. Even more problematic is <strong>para</strong>graph 27<br />

which stipu<strong>la</strong>tes that Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms should commit to take appropriate, commercially<br />

reasonable and technically feasible measures at their discretion, taking into consi<strong>de</strong>ration<br />

their business mo<strong>de</strong>ls, to i<strong>de</strong>ntify and/or prevent proactively the sale of counterfeit goods<br />

and to prevent such goods being offe<strong>red</strong> through their services. It is clear that stimu<strong>la</strong>ting<br />

col<strong>la</strong>boration between right hol<strong>de</strong>rs and Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms is the way forward. But noble<br />

as the Memorandum might be, to install “proactive” expectations as mentioned in § 27<br />

of the Memorandum might be a dangerous prece<strong>de</strong>nce since the co<strong>de</strong> of conduct cannot<br />

lift the effects of the conditional liability regime which prescribes that being preventative<br />

and proactive also implies legal liability. This way, Internet p<strong>la</strong>tforms might well end up<br />

taking into account this ethical obligation and losing their legal exemption. Finally, the<br />

agreement also increases and formalises the sharing of information on Internet users for<br />

32 Deckmyn, D. “Internet provi<strong>de</strong>rs should pay for illegal downloads” [avai<strong>la</strong>ble in Dutch only, “Internet<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs moeten betalen voor illegal downloa<strong>de</strong>n”]. De Standaard. 17 May 2011.<br />

33 For an analysis and hyperlink to the Memorandum consult http://www.media<strong>la</strong>ws.eu/cooperationin-the-field-of-ipr-enforcement-memorandum-of-un<strong>de</strong>rstanding-on-the-sale-of-counterfeit-goodsover-the-internet/[Last<br />

accessed: 28/06/2011].


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 207<br />

possible legal action requested by right hol<strong>de</strong>rs, provi<strong>de</strong>d that this is permitted by applicable<br />

data protection <strong>la</strong>ws, which seems to echo the three strikes approach.<br />

3. tHe best is yet to come…<br />

The fast evolving architecture of the Internet calls into question the functioning of<br />

copyright, its application and management but most of all, its enforcement. Because of the<br />

ubiquitous and <strong>de</strong>centralised nature of online piracy, easy solutions are difficult to find. This<br />

paper tried to illustrate that the special liability regime of access and hosting provi<strong>de</strong>rs is<br />

challenged by the pressure that is exerted upon intermediaries to col<strong>la</strong>borate in the fight of<br />

righthol<strong>de</strong>rs against digital piracy. The trend towards an active-preventative approach in different<br />

European countries conflicts with the neutral role formerly attributed to these intermediaries<br />

and especially with the regime established since the adoption of the E-Commerce<br />

Directive. How should Member States <strong>de</strong>al with the different interests at stake? Though the<br />

ECJ lifted a corner of the veil in the cases we discussed, it is quite clear that to find the right<br />

ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the two is left in the hands of the Member States who respon<strong>de</strong>d differently<br />

but generally tend to involve technical intermediaries more actively and to push their<br />

absolutely passive-neutral status asi<strong>de</strong>.<br />

As a consequence, the role of ISPs seems to be moving from the provi<strong>de</strong>r of an end-toend<br />

network towards a more traditional communication intermediary such as a broadcaster 34 .<br />

As owners of the network, provi<strong>de</strong>rs of access or storage space where content of all kinds can<br />

be up- and downloa<strong>de</strong>d, ISPs have an enormous power of control. But turning ISPs into assistants<br />

of right hol<strong>de</strong>rs in their battle for the protection and enforcement of copyrights against<br />

piracy on the Internet will have a baleful influence on the freedom of communication and the<br />

right to privacy of their clients, giving way to massive monitoring of electronic communications<br />

for the sake of private interests. Interferences should be <strong>la</strong>id down in clear foreseeable<br />

legal provisions, carefully motivated, proportional and be accompanied by a<strong>de</strong>quate safeguards.<br />

Any sort of control which would lead to monitoring of all communications and analyzing their<br />

content should be avoi<strong>de</strong>d 35 .<br />

To date none of the legis<strong>la</strong>tive provisions which were <strong>de</strong>veloped appear to have been able to<br />

achieve an appropriate and proportionate ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the fundamental interests at stake and<br />

the neutral role attributed for that reason to intermediaries online. It also became clear that regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

by mere technology, such as filtering blocking tools, <strong>de</strong>ep packet inspections 36 , without<br />

34 Dutton, W.H. (2010) “Aiming at copyright infringers and hitting the digital economy”, 4.<br />

Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1778422 [Last accessed:<br />

15/05/2011].<br />

35 Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, F. and Werkers, E. (2010). “In The Aftermath of the Promusicae Case: How to Strike the<br />

Ba<strong>la</strong>nce?” International Journal of Law and Information Technology. Vol. 18, 71.<br />

36 Daly, Y. (2010). « The legality of <strong>de</strong>ep packet inspection ». Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/<br />

sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1628024 [Last accessed: 15/05/2011].


208 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

recourse to a legal regime will not solve the problem of piracy. First because its effectiveness is still<br />

quite disputed and second, because no proportionate technological solution has been <strong>de</strong>veloped<br />

that could successfully filter and block illegal communications consisting of copyright infringements<br />

whilst safeguarding the fundamental rights of users and the limited exemption regime<br />

attached to technical intermediaries. It is very likely that in the long run, these initiatives will not<br />

achieve their inten<strong>de</strong>d objective but will have uninten<strong>de</strong>d negative consequences for the vitality,<br />

open character of the Internet and for the digital economy as a whole 37 .<br />

In addition, illegal file sharers have always managed to stay one step ahead and continue<br />

to do so. Due to the increasing monitoring, users have migrated from open peer-topeer<br />

networks to closed networks (also refer<strong>red</strong> to as friend-to-friend networks) or darknets,<br />

over which the flow of traffic is often encrypted and thus not even susceptible to <strong>de</strong>ep packet<br />

investigation 38 . The effective solution for copyright enforcement online lies not (only) in<br />

awareness campaigns and enforcement measures but in addressing the un<strong>de</strong>rlying causes of<br />

non-compliance and consumer’s discontent. The growing success of legal offers against fair<br />

prices point out that the consumer is willing to pay for clean services provi<strong>de</strong>d that their<br />

digital acquisition does not block their legal uses e.g. the right to make a private copy on<br />

whichever carrier without limits in time, space or number of copies.<br />

Intervention by public authorities, the guardians of fundamental rights, remains crucial<br />

for any mechanism that is trying to implement a ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the different interests<br />

at stake. Public policy should keep a close eye on this and keep in mind that there also is<br />

another danger lurking behind the corner. Though ISPs and righthol<strong>de</strong>rs have very different<br />

concerns, they both share the i<strong>de</strong>a of a better traffic management and traffic shaping which<br />

in turn poses serious risks for network neutrality. In other words, the <strong>de</strong>bate concerning the<br />

conditions of immunity from copyright liability for intermediaries has some serious implications<br />

for the <strong>para</strong>llel communications and media policy <strong>de</strong>bate which also involves problems<br />

like child abuse online, hate speech, etc 39 .<br />

4. bibliograPHy<br />

Benabou, V.L. (2010). “La riposte graduée contre <strong>la</strong> contrefaçon <strong>de</strong> masse: <strong>de</strong> l’alibi pédagogique<br />

à <strong>la</strong> tentation sécuritaire”. Auteurs & Media. N° 5-6, pp. 438-449.<br />

Bridy, A. (2009). “Why pirates (still) won’t behave: regu<strong>la</strong>ting peer-to-peer in the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong><br />

after Napster”, Rutgers Law Journal. Vol. 40, N° 3, pp. 565-611.<br />

37 Dutton, W.H. (2010) “Aiming at copyright infringers and hitting the digital economy”, 3-5. Retrieved<br />

from<br />

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1778422 [Last accessed: 15/05/2011].<br />

38 Bridy, (2009). “Why pirates (still) won’t behave: regu<strong>la</strong>ting peer-to-peer in the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> after Napster”,<br />

Rutgers Law Journal. Vol. 40, N° 3, pp. 594-595.<br />

39 De Beer, J and Clemmer, C.D. (2009). “Global trends in online copyright enforcement: a nonneutral<br />

role for network intermediaries?” Jurimetrics. Vol. 49, N° 4, pp. 406-409.


Intermediaries in the eye of the copyright storm: A com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of the three strike approach… 209<br />

Coppens, F. (2008). « Filtrage peer-to-peer: possibilités techniques et obstacles juridiques »<br />

Revue du Droit <strong>de</strong>s Technologies <strong>de</strong> l’Information. Vol 30, 94-103.<br />

Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, F. (2011). “Advocate-General of the European Court of Justice issues opinion<br />

on filtering and blocking of electronic communications”, http://www.timelex.eu/nl/<br />

blog/p/<strong>de</strong>tail/advocate-general-of-the-european-court-of-justice-issues-opinion-onfiltering-and-blocking-of-electronic-communications<br />

[Last accessed: 05/05/2011]<br />

Cou<strong>de</strong>rt, F. and Werkers, E. (2010). “In The Aftermath of the Promusicae Case: How to<br />

Strike the Ba<strong>la</strong>nce?” International Journal of Law and Information Technology. Vol. 18,<br />

pp. 50-71.<br />

Daly, Y. (2010). « The legality of <strong>de</strong>ep packet inspection ». Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.<br />

com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1628024 [Last accessed: 15/05/2011], pp. 1-13.<br />

De Beer, J and Clemmer, C.D. (2009). “Global trends in online copyright enforcement: a<br />

non-neutral role for network intermediaries?” Jurimetrics. Vol. 49, N° 4, pp. 375-409.<br />

Peukert, A (2010). “Why do good people disregard copyright on the internet?”. In: C. Geiger<br />

(ed.), Criminal enforcement: a blessing or a curse of intellectual property? Cheltenham:<br />

Edward Elgar Publishing (forthcoming).<br />

Queck, R., De Streel, A., Hou, L., J. Jost and E. Kosta. (2010) “The EU regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

framework applicable to electronic communications”. In : Garzaniti L. & o’Regan,<br />

M., Telecommunications, Broadcasting and the Internet. EU Competition Law & Regu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

London: Thomson Sweet & Maxwell. pp. 3-262.<br />

Stal<strong>la</strong>-Bourdillon, S. (2011). “Uniformity v. Diversity of Internet Intermediaries’ liability<br />

regime: where does the ECJ stand?” Journal of International Commercial Law and<br />

Technology. Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp. 51-61.<br />

Stross, R.. (2008). “First it was song downloads. Now it’s organic chemistry”. New York<br />

Times, July 27, 2008.<br />

Werkers, E. (2010). How the press <strong>de</strong>als with user-generated content: one the hazards of<br />

the job?” [Avai<strong>la</strong>ble in Dutch only: “De omgang van <strong>de</strong> pers met gebruikersinhou<strong>de</strong>n:<br />

<strong>de</strong> bluts met <strong>de</strong> buil?”]. Auteurs & Media. N° 1, pp. 7-21.


COMUNICACIONES SOBRE DERECHOS FUNDAMENTALES,<br />

LIBERTADES Y RESPONSABILIDAD EN INTERNET


11<br />

ClOUD COmPUtINg: legAl IssUes IN<br />

CeNtrAlIzeD ArCHIteCtUres<br />

Primavera De Filippi<br />

Researcher at the CERSA/CNRS in Paris. Representative of Creative Commons France and the<br />

coordinator of the Public Domain working group of the Open Knowledge Foundation<br />

Smari McCarthy<br />

Research director at the International Mo<strong>de</strong>rn Media Institute (IMMI) and<br />

co-foun<strong>de</strong>r of the Ice<strong>la</strong>ndic Digital Freedoms Society<br />

AbstrAct: Cloud computing can be <strong>de</strong>fined as the provision of computing resources on-<strong>de</strong>mand<br />

over the Internet. Although this might bring a number of advantages to end-users in terms of accessibility<br />

and e<strong>la</strong>sticity of costs, problems arise concerning the collection of personal information in the<br />

Cloud and the legitimate exploitation thereof. To the extent most of the content and software application<br />

are only accessible online, users have no longer control over the manner in which they can access<br />

their data and the extent to which parties can exploit it.<br />

1. introduction<br />

The advent of “cloud computing” has created an imba<strong>la</strong>nce in authority structures that<br />

is very simi<strong>la</strong>r to the structural changes witnessed during the Industrial revolution. Just as<br />

the industrial revolution has progressively alienated workers from the means of production,<br />

today, most of the means of production (in terms of hardware, software, content or data) are<br />

concentrated within the hands of <strong>la</strong>rge Internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

Although the Internet constitutes a great opportunity for users to express themselves<br />

and to engage in col<strong>la</strong>borative production, many mo<strong>de</strong>rn web applications are <strong>de</strong>creasing<br />

the capacity (or willingness) of people to produce content by their own means. The problem<br />

has been exacerbated by the <strong>de</strong>ployment of Cloud Computing. Given that everything can<br />

be sto<strong>red</strong>, processed, or executed on any computer system regardless of its whereabouts,<br />

most of the means of production, as well as the output of production (user-generated content),<br />

are increasingly owned or at least controlled <strong>de</strong> facto by <strong>la</strong>rge companies.<br />

The trend is clear. Resources are moving away from end-users, towards centralized<br />

systems that possess huge processing power and storage capacities. Users’ <strong>de</strong>vices are <strong>de</strong>volving<br />

from personal computers to <strong>la</strong>ptops, smart phones or integrated <strong>de</strong>vices whose main<br />

function is to access particu<strong>la</strong>r sections of the Cloud through browsers or mostly dumb<br />

applications. While front-end processing is perhaps becoming slightly more common in the<br />

form of in-browser application, data storage is heavily biased towards centralized back-ends.<br />

The implications are numerous: users are giving away their <strong>la</strong>bor un<strong>de</strong>r an expectation<br />

of reciprocity; they are giving away their privacy for the sake of a more personalized service;


214 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

they are giving away their rights in the name of comfort and accessibility; but, most importantly,<br />

they are giving away their freedoms and very frequently they do not even realize it.<br />

The paper will analyze the impact of Cloud Computing on society. By analyzing the<br />

way the Internet has <strong>de</strong>veloped over time, it will draw attention to the fact that the Internet<br />

has been and is evolving in a way that might strongly impair the right to privacy of end-users<br />

and endanger the confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of information sto<strong>red</strong> into the Cloud.<br />

2. tHe emergence of cloud comPuting<br />

2.1. <strong>de</strong>finition of cloud computing<br />

Given its recent and very fast adoption in everyday <strong>la</strong>nguage, the actual <strong>de</strong>finition<br />

and scope of Cloud Computing are still un<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>bate. In part, this stems from the fact<br />

that Cloud Computing does not actually provi<strong>de</strong> much in terms of new technology, but<br />

rather an alteration of the use of ol<strong>de</strong>r technology to serve new types of business structures.<br />

For the purposes of this paper, we consi<strong>de</strong>r Cloud Computing to represent the sharing or<br />

storage by users of their infrastructure or content on remote servers which are accessible<br />

online. Although this can be achieved at many levels –i.e. at the level of the infrastructure<br />

(IaaS), p<strong>la</strong>tform (PaaS), or software (SaaS)– this paper is only inten<strong>de</strong>d to analyze the consequences<br />

of Cloud computing on the privacy of end-users. The focus will therefore be set<br />

on the concept of public Clouds, inten<strong>de</strong>d as a variety of applications that users can access<br />

and use through their browsers as if they were installed on their own computers or <strong>de</strong>vices1 .<br />

Although not all public clouds are browser-based, this focus does not come out of thin air, as<br />

the browser is increasingly used as a catch-all approach for user applications.<br />

Although this is generally seen as an advantage by end-users, in terms of flexibility of<br />

access and sca<strong>la</strong>bility of costs, these benefits necessarily come with a cost. In<strong>de</strong>ed, while the<br />

Internet might have been regar<strong>de</strong>d early in its existence as a possible implementation of a <strong>de</strong>centralized<br />

market economy2 , we are moving toward a thoroughly centralized market where<br />

1 Cloud Computing can be implemented at various levels of abstractions and <strong>de</strong>ployed either internally<br />

of externally. In the common sense of the term, Cloud Computing refers to the concept of a “public<br />

Cloud” as a service offe<strong>red</strong> by a third-party that dynamically provi<strong>de</strong>s a series of resources accessible<br />

on-<strong>de</strong>mand through the Internet, often via web applications. This can be contrasted to the concept of<br />

a “private Cloud” as a service for private networks allowing a company to host applications or virtual<br />

machines on its own premises.<br />

2 During its early phases, the Internet was often regar<strong>de</strong>d by many pioneers and visionaries as a potential<br />

implementation of a pure market economy characterized by free exchange of information, low<br />

transaction costs and very few barriers to entry. See, e.g. Eric Sch<strong>la</strong>chter (1994), Cyberspace, the Free<br />

Market and the Free Marketp<strong>la</strong>ce of I<strong>de</strong>as, in Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law<br />

Journal (Comm/Ent) [16<br />

Hastings Comm/Ent L.J. 87]; Yannis Bakos (1998), The emerging role of electronic marketp<strong>la</strong>ces on<br />

the Internet, in Communications of the ACM, Volume 41 Issue 8; James C. Bennet (2001), The End


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

215<br />

the power of the service provi<strong>de</strong>rs increases as the power of end-user terminals <strong>de</strong>creases.<br />

Since the heavy processing is performed in the Cloud and only the results are disp<strong>la</strong>yed to<br />

the users, neither high processing power, <strong>la</strong>rge amounts of RAM, nor even hard drives are<br />

nowadays requi<strong>red</strong> on the user-si<strong>de</strong> to perform most everyday operations. A smart phone<br />

connected to the Internet can be more powerful than an actual computer because it can<br />

borrow storage capacity and computational resources from the thousands of machines that<br />

constitute the Cloud; any complex processing is done remotely while the front end simply<br />

<strong>de</strong>als with presentation. The technical characteristics of the terminal are no longer relevant<br />

as (a) software is for the most part executed through online servers, and (b) data no longer<br />

resi<strong>de</strong>s on end-user <strong>de</strong>vices, but is instead sto<strong>red</strong> in the Cloud.<br />

This trend suggests that most of the computing activity that is today performed locally<br />

on end-user computers will eventually shift into the Cloud. Whether or not this is <strong>de</strong>sirable,<br />

from the perspective of end-users, <strong>de</strong>pends on the way the Cloud is implemented and on<br />

the policy of the Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r, in particu<strong>la</strong>r, in terms of privacy and data protection. The<br />

problem is, however, that policy is inherently malleable. In practice, there is not any privacy<br />

policy, uptime assurance or data protection mechanism that can eliminate the ad<strong>de</strong>d operational<br />

risk created by shifting to a third party infrastructure. At best, the risk can be minimized<br />

by not storing sensitive data and mitigated by not relying on one single cloud p<strong>la</strong>tform.<br />

2.2. The changing face of networked services<br />

on the early Internet, centralized services were uncommon. Service provi<strong>de</strong>rs were of<br />

small enough scale that utilizing the distributed nature of the network was a necessity. To<br />

wit, most early websites were <strong>de</strong>veloped to cater local communities, competing head to head<br />

with ol<strong>de</strong>r peer-to-peer (P2P) systems and protocols, such as e-mail and Usenet, and working<br />

from a very limited set of use-cases and metaphors. There was a strong initial momentum<br />

towards community-based websites and user-driven journalism, with lengthy articles<br />

and feedback. Before the advent of blogging p<strong>la</strong>tforms such as Wordpress.com, Livejournal.<br />

com or Blogger.com, it was not uncommon for small groups of people to set up a web server<br />

to host personal home pages, frequently running on custom ma<strong>de</strong> software managed by somebody<br />

in the group. Likewise, instant messaging and interactive discussions were generally<br />

done through direct communication between peers and on <strong>de</strong>centralized p<strong>la</strong>tforms, such<br />

as the Internet Re<strong>la</strong>y Chat (IRC), as opposed to the more centralized systems which have<br />

emerged today, such as ICQ, Microsoft Messenger or Skype.<br />

The case of social networks is particu<strong>la</strong>rly interesting given their manifest evolution<br />

from a local and community-centric to a global and extremely centralized architecture.<br />

Prior to the globalization of social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook, smaller<br />

scale social networking sites were common within local communities, such as hugi.is,<br />

an interest-based social network in Ice<strong>la</strong>nd, irc-galleria.net, a Finnish website providing<br />

of Capitalism and the Triumph of the Market Economy, in Network Commonwealth: The Future of<br />

Nations in the Internet Era.


216 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

social networking and photo gallery services to IRC users, and cu2.nl, a Dutch social<br />

network offering forums and photo galleries, amongst other things. Most early social networks<br />

did not manage pair-wise re<strong>la</strong>tionships between users. User re<strong>la</strong>tions were typically<br />

f<strong>la</strong>t and unrestricted, with all users of the system seeing each other profiles and general<br />

information. Initially introduced in such systems as MySpace, orkut and Bebo, pair-wise<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tionships have since then become part and parcel of any system intending to provi<strong>de</strong><br />

social networking, although symmetric re<strong>la</strong>tionships are not always necessarily the <strong>de</strong>si<strong>red</strong><br />

format. Twitter was the first major social network to <strong>de</strong>monstrate the value of asymmetric<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tions. Today, the majority of social networking websites provi<strong>de</strong> simi<strong>la</strong>r features<br />

and characteristics. All provi<strong>de</strong> public and private messaging systems, albeit with variable<br />

levels of service and emphasis3 . Some systems allow photographs or other media to be<br />

ad<strong>de</strong>d, such as Facebook and MySpace in particu<strong>la</strong>r, which allow photo albums, vi<strong>de</strong>os<br />

and other rich media.<br />

Accepting these variations on the theme and acknowledging the untold other differences,<br />

we will focus the remain<strong>de</strong>r of this study on two social networking sites; one local, the<br />

Ice<strong>la</strong>ndic site Hugi4 , and one global, the infamous Facebook.<br />

Technologically, Hugi is very simi<strong>la</strong>r to the early Facebook5 . Even today, apart from<br />

the improved friendship management, the technology behind Facebook is not far removed<br />

from that of Hugi. Facebook most certainly has a far more polished user interface and<br />

a much more weighted approach to features such as internal chat, external chat through<br />

XMPP, statuses and other aspects of messaging, but most features are primarily user experience<br />

tweaks which have come along over various iterations of the Facebook user interface6<br />

.<br />

Until 2003, a <strong>la</strong>rge portion of Ice<strong>la</strong>ndic people aged from 16 to 24 were actively<br />

contributing on Hugi. Today, however, most of the user-base has nowadays shifted to<br />

3 While they all provi<strong>de</strong> users with a way to communicate with each other, different p<strong>la</strong>tforms provi<strong>de</strong><br />

different means of communication. Some allow threa<strong>de</strong>d messaging while others only allow linear<br />

messaging. Some restrict the number of characters allowed in messages, for example 140 on Twitter,<br />

450 in Facebook public status updates and 10000 in okCupid private messages, while others do not<br />

impose any such practical restrictions.<br />

4 Hugi was originally operated by Sí minn, the former state telecoms company which was privatized in<br />

2005 with the sale of 98.8% of its shares to Skipti. It is now operated by Skjá mið<strong>la</strong>r ehf. For more<br />

information, see www.hugi.is<br />

5 Developed in the PHP programming <strong>la</strong>nguage with MySQL as a database, and not providing much<br />

in the way of Web 2.0-style services beyond the level of user interaction presumed in such a setting;<br />

there is no post-loading processing which accesses server data, as through AJAX or other asynchronous<br />

HTTP requests.<br />

6 It can be expected that if Hugi had not been “neglected” simi<strong>la</strong>r updates would have followed there,<br />

although perhaps not with as great rapidity. In conversation with Hugis webmaster, in May 2011, it<br />

was said that, although Hugi had seen better times, a <strong>la</strong>rge cause of its <strong>de</strong>cline was the neglect of the<br />

site’s original owner.


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

Facebook. As of 2011, it is estimated that over 65% of people in Ice<strong>la</strong>nd have accounts<br />

on Facebook 7 .<br />

217<br />

While there are certainly many elements of user interface which influence people<br />

towards using Facebook, as the various interface changes to Facebook have shown, it is hard<br />

to believe that the trigger is merely a technical one. Rather, we c<strong>la</strong>im that the key factor for<br />

the shift from Hugi to Facebook was essentially due to the more integrated and international<br />

nature of the <strong>la</strong>tter, as opposed to the local character of the former.<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to back up this c<strong>la</strong>im, an online questionnaire was sent to some former users<br />

of Hugi and current users of Facebook. The results reveal that the scope of the service (i.e.<br />

its extension in the Internet <strong>la</strong>ndscape) weights very strongly in the mind of end-users. Despite<br />

a general inclination towards the private management of personal data, all users have<br />

<strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong><strong>red</strong> to value the size of the community and the worldwi<strong>de</strong> scope of the p<strong>la</strong>tform above<br />

other factors8 .<br />

As a result of their difference in scope, the two services are not even consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to serve<br />

the same function by many users9 . Hugi is little more than a communal sounding board<br />

which maintains a local culture fitted to meet the needs of its original operator, Síminn, a<br />

telecommunications company. Facebook, on the other hand, is both an agora and a marketp<strong>la</strong>ce.<br />

Like Hugi, it is controlled by a single company, but, unlike Hugi, it has reached global<br />

significance. As a commercial start-up, the goal of its operator is to increase the number of<br />

users on the network, as well as their <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncy upon it, so as to lock a maximum number<br />

of users into the system10 .<br />

7 As of 2011, Ice<strong>la</strong>nd ranks first in terms Facebook penetration, with over 65.76% of the popu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

on Facebook or 203 140 in total. For more updated statistics, see http://www.socialbakers.com/<br />

facebook-statistics/ice<strong>la</strong>nd<br />

8 In a small and informal questionnaire (n=30) amongst former users of Hugi, when asked whether,<br />

all other things being equal, they would prefer a service such as Facebook, but with their personal<br />

data hosted within Ice<strong>la</strong>nd, exactly half said they would; when asked if they would prefer a service<br />

where their data was hosted on their own private computer, 64% said they would. Younger people, in<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r, seem less concerned with sovereignty over their own data, while ol<strong>de</strong>r users appear more<br />

concerned about the locality of their data. Yet, all of those questioned said that the size and international<br />

aspect of Facebook matte<strong>red</strong> either much or very much.<br />

9 In the same questionnaire amongst former users of Hugi who also use Facebook, 82.15% c<strong>la</strong>imed<br />

that Facebook and Hugi serve different roles, with the rest c<strong>la</strong>iming that they only partially serve the<br />

same role.<br />

10 As for 2011, Facebook is valued at roughly 80 billion dol<strong>la</strong>rs (according to a recent private-market<br />

transaction on SharePost, an online marketp<strong>la</strong>ce for private investments) and has over 500 million<br />

users; meaning that each user’s contribution, if we ignore the network effect, is about $160. of course,<br />

given the nature of network effects, the most recent user ad<strong>de</strong>d is always the most valuable. With 7%<br />

of humanity registe<strong>red</strong> on the world’s <strong>la</strong>rgest social network, the only way for Facebook to increase<br />

sharehol<strong>de</strong>r value is to aggressively reach out to an ever-growing group of users, while minimizing the<br />

risk that current users leave.


218 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Network effects are such that the more users are on a p<strong>la</strong>tform, the more valuable the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform is to each user. In spite of their significance in the context of social networks, network<br />

effects are not, as such, a sufficient justification for there to be only one centralized social networking<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tform 11 . The network is fully capable of allowing for <strong>de</strong>centralized systems, as various<br />

peer-to-peer protocols have <strong>de</strong>monstrated 12 . It is possible to <strong>de</strong>vise a peer-to-peer infrastructure<br />

based on an open protocol, which would allow users to keep control over their own data, and,<br />

theoretically, even to use the social network locally on their computer, without the need for any<br />

Internet connection. This is, for instance, the ultimate goal of Diaspora, a distributed and opensource<br />

social network that purports to enable users to control their respective no<strong>de</strong>s in the network<br />

13 . The problem is that social networking p<strong>la</strong>tforms were primarily <strong>de</strong>veloped by companies<br />

with vested interests in holding as much mind-share as possible. Thus far, with the exception of<br />

Diaspora, no peer-to-peer system has emerged to compete with such centralized systems.<br />

Although the analysis has focused exclusively on social networks, the intention was to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> an example to illustrate a general trend: the increasing concentration of the market<br />

and the consequent concentration of power in the hands of a few enterprises. We believe the<br />

conclusions of this analysis to apply, by and <strong>la</strong>rge, to the majority of applications provi<strong>de</strong>d<br />

by <strong>la</strong>rge centralized companies over the Internet.<br />

Because of their dominant position, <strong>la</strong>rge service provi<strong>de</strong>rs can exert a <strong>de</strong>gree of subjugation<br />

never conceived of by smaller and more local services, and a <strong>de</strong>gree of control that would be impossible<br />

in a peer-to-peer network. This creates a series of legal issues in terms of control, privacy,<br />

and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of information that will be specifically addressed in the following sections.<br />

3. legal issues of cloud comPuting<br />

It takes only very basic examples to show the danger of over-centralization in the sphere<br />

of the Internet. In addition to the most common examples, such as Google and Facebook, the-<br />

11 Natural monopolies are justified by <strong>la</strong>rge economies of scale: a producer’s cost curves <strong>de</strong>crease when<br />

the scale of production increases. Network effects <strong>de</strong>scribe the increase in value of a good or service<br />

<strong>de</strong>rived from the standardization of that good or service. While natural monopolies often comes<br />

together with network effects, like in the case of the telephone network, network effects do not necessarily<br />

lead to natural monopolies, like in the case of the Internet network.<br />

12 Decentralized protocols are ubiquitous on the Internet. Giving an exhaustive list would be unpractical, but<br />

common examples inclu<strong>de</strong> the Domain Naming System protocol (DNS), the SMTP protocol for e-mails,<br />

Bittorrent and Gnutel<strong>la</strong> for file-sharing, Skype (which uses centralized coordination servers but attempts<br />

to make calls directly between peers), and, finally, FreeNET, i2p and ToR for anonymous navigation.<br />

13 Diaspora is currently using a client-server mo<strong>de</strong>l, although it aims to eventually have fe<strong>de</strong>ration<br />

support, which is a form of <strong>de</strong>volved P2P (currently used by Jabber/XMPP and IRC, amongst others).<br />

Fe<strong>de</strong>ration means that, although the distinction between clients and servers remains, there are<br />

multiple servers that act as peers amongst themselves. The objective of Diaspora is to allow every user<br />

to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> whether to participate to the fe<strong>de</strong>ration as a server, or whether to act as a mere client. For<br />

more <strong>de</strong>tails, see https://joindiaspora.com/


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

219<br />

re are a very <strong>la</strong>rge number of actors whose operations are crucial in the everyday life of many<br />

Internet users. While the level of <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncy increases, the effects of not having control over<br />

the infrastructure become more apparent, although some of the implications might become<br />

very subtle. As user no longer control nor un<strong>de</strong>rstand their infrastructure, they are increasingly<br />

controlled by those who do know how to control the infrastructure –and by those who own it.<br />

3.1. centralized control<br />

Today, no matter how much one tries to keep it secret, there exist many mechanisms or<br />

<strong>de</strong>vices that collect personal data and communicate it to third parties without the consent of<br />

the data subject 14 . Most often, however, it is actually the user who willingly communicates<br />

information to a variety of interested parties. on the Internet, this is done on a daily basis<br />

through blogs, forums, newsgroups, mailing lists, search engines, etc.<br />

While this is not a concern in itself, a series of problems might eventually arise if all<br />

that data were to be gathe<strong>red</strong> together into one <strong>la</strong>rge database. If one single entity were to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong>rge variety of services and the data collected through all of these services were<br />

to be processed into an integrated framework of analysis, that entity would fundamentally<br />

be able to know much more about its user-base than what has been voluntarily disclosed by<br />

each individual user.<br />

Technically, this is already a possibility, and, as a matter of fact, this is already part of reality.<br />

Let’s take a look at Google. With a mission to “organize the world‘s information and make<br />

it universally accessible and useful”, Google offers a <strong>la</strong>rge variety of services, mostly for free<br />

for the end user, whose ultimate purpose is not only that of presenting information in a more<br />

organized way, but also that of gathering as much information as possible. Services such as Google<br />

Mail, Google Documents, Google Calendar, Google Maps, Google News, Google Rea<strong>de</strong>r,<br />

orkut, Youtube, Picasa –and many more– are all inten<strong>de</strong>d to collect information about the<br />

users of that service. Even a service apparently as harmless as the Google search engine is in<br />

fact able to collect very important pieces of information. A cookie (whose expiration date is<br />

irrelevant for any practical matter) is sto<strong>red</strong> into every computer so that it can be i<strong>de</strong>ntified<br />

at every subsequent connection 15 . Although it allows Google to collect all sort of information<br />

14 Spyware programs (which are a form of malware) are malicious software that collects personal data<br />

about users without their consent. As users perform tasks such as browsing the Internet, spyware programs<br />

collect information about users and their behavior. Although commonly acknowledged in the<br />

digital world, simi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>vices are commonly <strong>de</strong>ployed in the physical world, in the form of eavesdropping,<br />

interception of written communications, vi<strong>de</strong>o surveil<strong>la</strong>nce through CCTV, and, most recently,<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntification via biometric data and geo-localization by means of GPS tracking and networking<br />

technologies. For a more <strong>de</strong>tailed overview of the mechanisms and the consequences of pervasive<br />

surveil<strong>la</strong>nce in mo<strong>de</strong>rn societies, see, e.g. David Murakami Wood (2008), Towards Spatial Protocol:<br />

The Topologies of the Persavise Surveil<strong>la</strong>nce Society, in Alessandro AUrigi and Fiorel<strong>la</strong> De Cindio<br />

(Eds), Augmented Urban Spaces: Articu<strong>la</strong>ting the Physical and Electronic City; Ashgate Publishing.<br />

15 Every time a user connects to Google’s search engine, a cookie is sto<strong>red</strong> on the user’s <strong>de</strong>vice, with an<br />

expiration date of two years. The expiration date is pushed ahead of two years whenever that cookie is


220 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

about users, this cookie is presented as a valuable service to the users who would otherwise<br />

be unable to enjoy the benefits of personalized search results and customized advertisements.<br />

Since most of these services are either avai<strong>la</strong>ble online or automatically synchronized<br />

whenever a user connects to the Internet, Google can keep track of every user activity performed<br />

on its system. This data can be very valuable for the purposes of mass profiling (i.e.<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the preferences of the user-base as reflected by the behavior of each individual<br />

user) and user profiling (i.e. un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the preferences of each individual user through<br />

the analysis of its specific interests, activities, and social surroundings) 16 .<br />

Google, however, is ultimately not interested in monitoring the activities of its users,<br />

nor in gathering information about the socio-<strong>de</strong>mographics of its user-base, but rather in<br />

the maximization of profits. Profiling is necessary for Google to know what users want, so<br />

as to eventually offer them the most personalized results and the best kind of advertisements.<br />

The greater the user-base, the most accurate the profiling can be, and the higher the profits<br />

that can be extracted from a system of customized advertisement <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt upon the interests<br />

of each individual user. In this case, the fact that the end-users do not pay for the service<br />

means that they themselves are the product being sold, or rather, statistics about them are.<br />

Various companies have built successful business mo<strong>de</strong>ls around the realization that,<br />

instead of getting money in exchange of a service, it is often more valuable to provi<strong>de</strong> services<br />

for free in or<strong>de</strong>r attract a maximum number of users. By accepting the terms of services,<br />

users agree to share most of their data and information with Google, regardless of the privacy<br />

or the confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality thereof 17 . Hence, although the majority of Google’s services are offe<strong>red</strong><br />

accessed by any of Google’s sites and it is <strong>de</strong>tected that the cookie is about to expire. By virtue of this<br />

cookie, Google is able to store an almost permanent and unique ID on every user’s <strong>de</strong>vice, as Google<br />

will either keep the same unique ID in the cookie, or at least be able to associate the old ID with<br />

any new ID that is issued. Although Google c<strong>la</strong>ims that the purpose of the cookie is to remember<br />

user preferences, the cookie is also be used for the purposes of profiling. See http://www.google.com/<br />

privacy/privacy-policy.html - “When you visit Google, we send one or more cookies to your computer<br />

or other <strong>de</strong>vice. We use cookies to improve the quality of our service, including for storing user<br />

preferences, improving search results and ad selection, and tracking user trends, such as how people<br />

search. Google also uses cookies in its advertising services to help advertisers and publishers serve and<br />

manage ads across the web and on Google services.”<br />

16 Mass profiling is more concerned with the general trends and navigation patterns of the user-base<br />

than with the actual preferences and activities of each individual user. User profiling focuses instead<br />

on the personal and distinctive characteristics of users and is therefore more likely to infringe upon<br />

their right to privacy. For an overview of the various techniques used for the profiling of users in a<br />

Cloud environment, see, e.g. olfa Nasraoui and Carlos Rojas (2003), From Static to Dynamic Web<br />

Usage Mining: Towards Sca<strong>la</strong>ble Profiling and Personalization with Evolutionary Computation, in<br />

Workshop on Information Technology, Rabat, Marocco, and, in particu<strong>la</strong>r, Gang Ren; Tune, E.;<br />

Moseley, T.; Yixin Shi; Rus, S.; Hundt, R. (2010), Google-Wi<strong>de</strong> Profiling: A Continuous Profiling<br />

Infrastructure for Data Centers, in Micro, IEEE, volume 30, issue 4.<br />

17 Google privacy policy states that Google may collect all kind of personal information provi<strong>de</strong>d by users<br />

themselves, log in information gathe<strong>red</strong> whenever users access one of the various Google’s services, user<br />

communications, information gathe<strong>red</strong> by cookies sto<strong>red</strong> in users’ <strong>de</strong>vices or collected by third party


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

221<br />

for free, users pay –willingly or not– with their own data, which is only <strong>la</strong>ter turned into<br />

profit by Google AdSense or other forms of advertisement.<br />

In this context, the scope of the Cloud is extremely important. By offering such a wi<strong>de</strong><br />

variety of services, Google is able to obtain different pieces of information which pertain to<br />

different fields of en<strong>de</strong>avor. When users search for something on the web, Google can learn<br />

about their interests; when users read their emails on Gmail, Google can learn more about<br />

their personal or professional life; when users check out a location on Google Maps, Google<br />

can learn where each user has been or wants to go. The greater the scope of the Cloud, the<br />

greater is the amount of data that can be gathe<strong>red</strong> together and the more valuable is the<br />

information that can be obtained with the processing and corre<strong>la</strong>tion of such data 18 .<br />

While this is likely to help Google increase its profit, the collection and processing of user<br />

data into a common integrated framework can also benefit the users when it comes to increasing<br />

the quality of the service. Many users are therefore not merely agreeing, but even eager to share<br />

their personal data and information with Google in or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain a more customized and integrated<br />

service. Google Calendar is more valuable because it can be integrated with Gmail for<br />

e-mail remin<strong>de</strong>rs and notifications and with orkut for discovering new events and remembering<br />

the birthdays of some friends. As the value of a service increases not only with the number of<br />

users connected to that service but also with its <strong>de</strong>gree of integration with other services, the wi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

is the portfolio of services offe<strong>red</strong> by Google, the most users will be attracted to these services.<br />

The problem arises when the information given to se<strong>para</strong>te (and apparently in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt)<br />

services is actually aggregated together by one single entity (either because it is the<br />

common provi<strong>de</strong>r of said services, or because it has acqui<strong>red</strong> the data from third parties).<br />

Even though the information had been voluntarily provi<strong>de</strong>d by users, aggregated data might<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> further information about users, which they did not necessarily want to disclose.<br />

3.2. Privacy & confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality<br />

There is an inherent security risk in the use of the Internet to transfer sensible information<br />

and personal data. As a general rule, information wants to be sha<strong>red</strong>, as most of the<br />

value that can be extracted from it emerges from the usage and communication thereof.<br />

However, whenever it is published on the Internet, the privacy and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of information<br />

is necessarily put at risk 19 .<br />

applications, and location data in the case of location-enabled services such as Google Maps or Latitu<strong>de</strong>.<br />

For more <strong>de</strong>tails on Google privacy policy, see http://www.google.com/privacy/privacy-policy.html<br />

18 Google’s privacy policy clearly states that Google will be pooling all the information they collect from<br />

all of their services. Google reserves the right to “combine the information you submit un<strong>de</strong>r your<br />

account with information from other Google services or third parties in or<strong>de</strong>r to provi<strong>de</strong> you with<br />

a better experience and to improve the quality of our services.” See http://www.google.com/privacy/<br />

privacy-policy.html<br />

19 The advent of Internet and digital technologies introduced a series of concerns that might significantly<br />

affect users’ willingness to communicate personal data and confi<strong>de</strong>ntial information over the


222 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

These risks have been consi<strong>de</strong>rably increased with the <strong>de</strong>ployment of Cloud Computing,<br />

which requires more careful attention to be given to its actual or potential consequences<br />

on the privacy of personal information and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of business or governmental<br />

information. What kind of information can be sha<strong>red</strong> into the Cloud? Can anything be kept<br />

private in the Cloud?<br />

Individuals are generally free to share information in the Cloud, even though they are<br />

often not fully aware of the terms of services set out by the Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs and of the consequences<br />

of storing information in the Cloud 20 .<br />

In the case of an institution, privacy <strong>la</strong>ws may sometimes prohibit or limit the disclosure<br />

of personal information to third parties. The possibility for a business or corporation<br />

to share information in the Cloud is subject to a series of standards established by different<br />

bodies of <strong>la</strong>w, whereas government agencies are restricted by internal rules and public regu<strong>la</strong>tions<br />

on data protection. For instance, in the USA, the Health Insurance Portability and<br />

Accountability Act (HIPAA) establishes a series of rules regu<strong>la</strong>ting the use and disclosure<br />

of i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable health information, which can only be transfer<strong>red</strong> to a service provi<strong>de</strong>r that<br />

promises to comply with the same set of standards (often incompatible with the terms of<br />

services established by a cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r). Simi<strong>la</strong>rly, the Violence Against Women Act preclu<strong>de</strong>s<br />

domestic violence service provi<strong>de</strong>rs from disclosing information without the consent<br />

of the data subject, unless compelled by statute or a court (Public Law 109-162 as amen<strong>de</strong>d<br />

by Public Law 109-271); tax pre<strong>para</strong>tion <strong>la</strong>ws provi<strong>de</strong> statutory and regu<strong>la</strong>tory protection<br />

that limits the disclosure of tax return information without the taxpayer’s consent (Internal<br />

Revenue Service rules - 26 U.S.C. § 6713 and § 7216; 26 C.F.R. §301.7216); whereas the<br />

disclosure of personal information concerning the financial situation of a consumers by a<br />

financial institution is preclu<strong>de</strong>d un<strong>de</strong>r the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (15 U.S.C. § 6802);<br />

and the disclosure of vi<strong>de</strong>o rental and cable television subscribed records is protected un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

the Vi<strong>de</strong>o Privacy Protection Act (18 U.S.C. § 2710) and the Cable Communications Policy<br />

Act (47 U.S.C. § 551).<br />

Despite the fact that the <strong>la</strong>w may restrict the ability of these institutions to rely upon<br />

the services of a Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r by introducing a series of procedural and/or substantive<br />

Internet. Given that there can be no perfectly secure mechanism to transfer information, publishing<br />

information on the web necessarily involves the risk of data loss or spill over. See e.g. Bob B<strong>la</strong>kley,<br />

Ellen McDermott, Dan Geer (2001), Information security is information risk management, in Proceedings<br />

of the 2001 workshop on New security <strong>para</strong>digms, New York; and Eric C. Turner; Subhasish<br />

Dasgupta (2003), Privacy on the Web: an Examination of User Concerns, Technology, and Implications<br />

for Business organizations and Individuals, in Information Systems Management, Volume 20,<br />

Issue 1.<br />

20 While many users do not even bother to familiarise themselves with the terms of services of the cloud<br />

computing p<strong>la</strong>tform they wish to use, doing so is often not an easy un<strong>de</strong>rtaking even for those who<br />

try to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the consequences of entering into such agreement. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, it is fairly common<br />

that the provi<strong>de</strong>r reserves the right to vary the terms and conditions on which the service is provi<strong>de</strong>d<br />

without notifying the users. For more <strong>de</strong>tails, see Dan Svantesson, Roger C<strong>la</strong>rk (2010), Privacy and<br />

consumer risks in cloud computing, in Computer Law & Security Review, 26 (4), 391-397.


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

223<br />

barriers, many corporate and governmental institutions (and in particu<strong>la</strong>r municipal governments)<br />

do store their data remotely on databases and file systems operated by a third party<br />

by contract. The problem is that information sto<strong>red</strong> in the infrastructure of a third party<br />

may have weaker protection than information that remains in possession of users.<br />

The chances for inadvertent exposure increase substantially with every new intermediary<br />

and with every new <strong>la</strong>yer of abstraction. While securing the infrastructure is obviously<br />

very important, it is not sufficient if the interface or application running on that infrastructure<br />

has not been properly secu<strong>red</strong> as well. Although users need a way to log into the system<br />

in or<strong>de</strong>r to transfer data from or into the Cloud, this could constitute a significant security<br />

risk unless proper access control and secure transfer protocols have been adopted. Likewise,<br />

even though users are ma<strong>de</strong> to access the services by password, unless there is filesystem level<br />

encryption of the data with a key held only by the user –which is impractical in most cases–<br />

the operator of the service or anybody else who gains physical access to the servers can peer<br />

into the sto<strong>red</strong> data. In more extreme cases, attacks on the hardware can be used to extract<br />

information that is resi<strong>de</strong>nt in runtime memory 21 .<br />

In most cases, security issues are due to <strong>la</strong>ck of or poor application of cryptography and<br />

a general <strong>la</strong>ck of tradition for security. Various campaigns have tried to remedy this, such as<br />

the Tactical Technology Collective’s oNo Robot campaign, Survival in the Digital Age 22 ,<br />

and the Electronic Frontier Foundation’s HTTPS-everywhere campaign 23 .<br />

Yet, regardless of the <strong>de</strong>gree of protection promised by the cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r, the security<br />

and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of information is ultimately <strong>de</strong>termined by the weakest link in the chain.<br />

Insofar as data is transfer<strong>red</strong> through several intermediaries, only one of them needs to be<br />

vio<strong>la</strong>ted for any malicious user to obtain the relevant information.<br />

In addition, the <strong>la</strong>ws of certain countries oblige cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs to communicate to the<br />

authorities any information that constitutes evi<strong>de</strong>nce of criminal activities. This means that<br />

government agencies can, un<strong>de</strong>r certain circumstances, require the disclosure of personal or<br />

confi<strong>de</strong>ntial information. This information can be more easily obtained from a third party<br />

21 An interesting example is the Cold boot attack, allowing anyone with physical access to a computer<br />

to retrieve encryption keys from the operating system after restarting the machine. The attack relies<br />

on the “data remanence” of DRAM and SRAM memory in or<strong>de</strong>r to retrieve memory contents that<br />

remain readable for a short period after power has been removed. For more information, see J.Alex<br />

Hal<strong>de</strong>rman, Seth D. Schoen, Nadia Heninger, William C<strong>la</strong>rkson, William Paul, Joseph A. Ca<strong>la</strong>ndrino,<br />

Ariel J. Feldman, Jacob Appelbaum, Edward W. Felten (2008): Lest we remember: Cold Boot<br />

Attacks on Encryption Keys, in Proceedings 2008 USENIX Security Symposium.<br />

22 The Tactical Technology Collective and oNo Robot produced a series of animated films to raise<br />

awareness about the digital traces users leave behind. Its main aim is to engage people in better un<strong>de</strong>rstanding<br />

the information and communications technologies they are using, so that they can <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong><br />

when and if they want to take risks. For more <strong>de</strong>tails, see www.onorobot.org<br />

23 HTTPS Everywhere is a Firefox extension produced as a col<strong>la</strong>boration between The Tor Project and<br />

the Electronic Frontier Foundation. It encrypts communications with a number of major websites<br />

using Transport Layer Security. For more <strong>de</strong>tails, see http://www.eff.org/https-everywhere


224 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

than from the original owner, who, in the absence of proper notice, does not have the opportunity<br />

to object. For instance, in the USA, although the Electronic Communications Privacy<br />

Act (ECPA) provi<strong>de</strong>s a series of protections against the access by governmental agencies to<br />

personal information held by third parties (18 U.S.C. § 2510-2522 and § 2701-2712), these<br />

protections have been subsequently weakened by the USA PATRIoT Act, which entitles<br />

the FBI to compel, following a court or<strong>de</strong>r, the disclosure by Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs of any record<br />

sto<strong>red</strong> on their servers (50 U.S.C. § 1862).<br />

Finally, the international character of the Cloud adds an additional <strong>la</strong>yer of complexity.<br />

Information sto<strong>red</strong> in the Cloud can be subject to a variety of different <strong>la</strong>ws according to the<br />

location where it is being sto<strong>red</strong> or transmitted. A Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r might avail itself of the<br />

services of other Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs located in different jurisdictions, or, if the Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

has data centers in multiple countries, it can transfer data between centers <strong>de</strong>pending on<br />

economic factors such as the price of electricity. This means that a file being served from<br />

Luxembourg one moment could be served from the Philippines the next. The difficulty for<br />

the user to know with certainty which <strong>la</strong>w applies to the information sto<strong>red</strong> into the Cloud<br />

raises a number of data protection questions.<br />

According to the European Union’s Data Protection Directive, national data protection<br />

<strong>la</strong>ws apply to all information located in the territory of a Member State, regardless of its origin<br />

or <strong>de</strong>stination 24 . However, it is often difficult to <strong>de</strong>termine in advance and with certainty<br />

the actual location of information sto<strong>red</strong> in the Cloud. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, a crucial problem that<br />

emerges from the international character of the Cloud is the question of forum-shopping.<br />

Unless it has been contractually preclu<strong>de</strong>d to do so, a Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r can theoretically move<br />

information from one jurisdiction to another in or<strong>de</strong>r to benefit from the most favorable<br />

<strong>la</strong>ws. This can be used as a means for any service provi<strong>de</strong>r that does not want to respect<br />

domestic regu<strong>la</strong>tions on data protection. In or<strong>de</strong>r to overcome this problem, the European<br />

Union introduced the rule that data cannot be transfer<strong>red</strong> to countries outsi<strong>de</strong> the EU which<br />

do not provi<strong>de</strong> an “a<strong>de</strong>quate level of protection” 25 . This is likely to <strong>red</strong>uce the possibilities for<br />

24 Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 october 1995 on the<br />

protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of<br />

such data, Article 4 (National <strong>la</strong>w applicable) specifically states that each Member State shall apply<br />

the national provisions it adopts pursuant to this Directive to the processing of personal data where:<br />

(a) the processing is carried out in the context of the activities of an establishment of the controller<br />

on the territory of the Member State;; (b) the controller is not established on the Member State’s<br />

territory, but in a p<strong>la</strong>ce where its national <strong>la</strong>w applies by virtue of international public <strong>la</strong>w; (c) the<br />

controller is not established on Community territory and, for purposes of processing personal data<br />

makes use of equipment, automated or otherwise, situated on the territory of the said Member State,<br />

unless such equipment is used only for purposes of transit through the territory of the Community.<br />

25 Ibid, Article 25 introduces the principles that Member States shall provi<strong>de</strong> that the transfer to a<br />

third country of personal data which are un<strong>de</strong>rgoing processing or are inten<strong>de</strong>d for processing after<br />

transfer may take p<strong>la</strong>ce only if, without prejudice to compliance with the national provisions adopted<br />

pursuant to the other provisions of this Directive, the third country in question ensures an a<strong>de</strong>quate<br />

level of protection; where the a<strong>de</strong>quacy of the level of protection affor<strong>de</strong>d by a third country shall


Cloud Computing: legal Issues in Centralized Architectures<br />

225<br />

Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs to outsource their services in the EU, because, even if data is merely being<br />

processed in a Member State, it might be difficult to export it after it has ente<strong>red</strong> the EU.<br />

As Cloud Computing is being adopted by an increasingly <strong>la</strong>rger number of businesses and<br />

individuals, the un<strong>de</strong>rlying technology and infrastructure is continuously evolving, but the <strong>la</strong>w<br />

does not seem to follow the pace. Given that commercial Cloud provi<strong>de</strong>rs are more interested<br />

in making profits than in protecting the interests of their user-base, users should be wary of their<br />

privacy online and of the confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of their data sto<strong>red</strong> in the Cloud. Given the <strong>de</strong>gree of legal<br />

uncertainty that is emerging in the sky, there is a real need for the <strong>la</strong>w to be reformed in or<strong>de</strong>r<br />

to better accommodate current and future users concerns in terms of data security and privacy.<br />

4. conclusion<br />

There are many consequences to the <strong>de</strong>ployment of cloud computing: some inten<strong>de</strong>d,<br />

others unintentional; some good, and others bad. Many are already noticeable and measurable,<br />

while others can only be foreseen by analyzing the trends that have been set.<br />

There is a trend fueled by the shift of control from end-users towards increasingly centralized<br />

services provi<strong>de</strong>rs. As many such services, and in particu<strong>la</strong>r social networks, carry heavy<br />

privacy and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality bur<strong>de</strong>ns, the threats to the privacy of end-users increases. Service<br />

Level Agreements and privacy policies are useless in the face of events which are irrevocable,<br />

such as the exposure of private data. Users of Sony’s P<strong>la</strong>yStation network know all too well<br />

that this danger is not a hypothetical 26 . Smaller networks catering to more local communities<br />

distribute the risk and limit the scope of potential damage, but at a steep utility tra<strong>de</strong>off.<br />

The advantages offe<strong>red</strong> by cloud computing are clear: infrastructure provi<strong>de</strong>rs can benefit<br />

from strong economies of scale, whereas Internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs can benefit from<br />

enhanced flexibility and sca<strong>la</strong>bility of costs. From the perspective of end-users, the main advantages<br />

are the possibility to access data from anywhere and at any time –regardless of the<br />

<strong>de</strong>vice they are connected from– and the ability of avail themselves of the computing power<br />

and storage capacity of the cloud. Further, it allows for outsourcing the obligation of maintaining<br />

complicated infrastructure and having to maintain up-to-date technical knowledge,<br />

while externalizing the cost of purchasing and running the infrastructure.<br />

be assessed in the light of all the circumstances surrounding a data transfer operation or set of data<br />

transfer operations; particu<strong>la</strong>r consi<strong>de</strong>ration shall be given to the nature of the data, the purpose and<br />

duration of the proposed processing operation or operations, the country of origin and country of<br />

final <strong>de</strong>stination, the rules of <strong>la</strong>w, both general and sectoral, in force in the third country in question<br />

and the professional rules and security measures which are complied with in that country.<br />

26 In April 2011, Sony suffe<strong>red</strong> a breach in the P<strong>la</strong>ystation online vi<strong>de</strong>o game network. As one of<br />

the <strong>la</strong>rgest Internet security break-ins, this breach led to the theft of personal data, such as names,<br />

addresses, birth dates, passwords and possibly c<strong>red</strong>it card numbers belonging to 77 million user accounts.<br />

This requi<strong>red</strong> Sony to shut down the network, and although Sony given notice of the breach<br />

to its customers, no information has been provi<strong>de</strong>d as to how the data might have been compromised.


226 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

This does not, however, come without costs. Exporting data to the cloud means that<br />

users can no longer exercise any kind of control over the use and the exploitation of data.<br />

Data sto<strong>red</strong> in various data centers can be processed without the knowledge of users, to be<br />

further <strong>red</strong>istributed to third parties without their consent. If everything has been sto<strong>red</strong> in<br />

the cloud, the cloud provi<strong>de</strong>r can ultimately <strong>de</strong>termine everything that users can or cannot<br />

do. As most Internet users are no longer in charge of their own data and are no longer capable<br />

of managing their own infrastructures of production, storage, and distribution, the<br />

control is in the hand of few corporate entrepreneurs.<br />

Just as, after the industrial revolution, governments have been urged to exercise their<br />

authority for the creation of <strong>la</strong>bour and consumer protection <strong>la</strong>ws, today, during the digital<br />

revolution, governmental intervention has become necessary in or<strong>de</strong>r to promote civil<br />

liberties and to protect fundamental rights on the Internet, at least with regard to those<br />

risks which cannot be properly addressed through the adoption of clearer policies by cloud<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs and better practices by users.


12<br />

DereCHO Al HONOr Vs DereCHO A lA lIBertAD<br />

De exPresIóN eN lA reD<br />

Patricia Escribano Tortajada<br />

Doctora en Derecho. Profesora <strong>de</strong> Derecho Civil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

AbstrAct: En <strong>la</strong> actualidad Internet y <strong>la</strong>s Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>la</strong> Comunicación han<br />

provocado una revolución positiva en nuestra vida cotidiana. Pero a su vez han incrementado el riesgo<br />

<strong>de</strong> vulnerar <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad <strong>de</strong> forma reiterada y constante como consecuencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> imposibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r toda <strong>la</strong> información que discurre en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. El objeto <strong>de</strong> este trabajo en concreto<br />

es analizar el conflicto existente entre el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad y <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

fundamental constitucionalizado en el art. 18 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución Españo<strong>la</strong> y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

recogida en el art. 20 <strong>de</strong>l mismo texto en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> Internet. En primer lugar <strong>de</strong>finiremos estos dos<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>para</strong> conocer exactamente cuál es el alcance <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> problemática actual y porqué colisionan<br />

con tanta frecuencia. Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, se analizará cuál ha sido el impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en re<strong>la</strong>ción con<br />

estos <strong>de</strong>rechos y pondremos <strong>de</strong> relieve cuáles son los problemas esenciales que en <strong>la</strong> actualidad afectan<br />

a los mismos: en especial el anonimato y el alcance <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s expresiones vertidas en<br />

Internet. A continuación, nos centraremos en un tema esencial en nuestros días, que es el <strong>de</strong> los insultos<br />

proferidos en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y realizaremos un análisis jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> algunas sentencias representativas<br />

sobre cómo nuestros tribunales p<strong>la</strong>ntean el conflicto honor-libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en Internet.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: honor, insultos, libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, Internet, análisis jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial.<br />

1. los concePtos <strong>de</strong> Honor y libertad <strong>de</strong> exPresión<br />

1.1. el honor como <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental y <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al honor es un <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> difícil conceptualización sobre el que <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

(tanto civil como constitucional) se tiene que pronunciar constantemente, <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

perfi<strong>la</strong>r así su concepto, características y contenido <strong>de</strong>bido a que nos encontramos ante un<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> contornos difusos. Si buscamos en alguna norma <strong>de</strong> nuestro or<strong>de</strong>namiento Jurídico<br />

no hal<strong>la</strong>remos una <strong>de</strong>finición exacta sobre qué hemos <strong>de</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>r por <strong>de</strong>recho al honor.<br />

La dificultad <strong>de</strong> establecer una <strong>de</strong>finición radica en pa<strong>la</strong>bras <strong>de</strong> o’Cal<strong>la</strong>ghan 1 en que<br />

nos encontramos ante un concepto prejurídico. Seña<strong>la</strong> a<strong>de</strong>más que ha sido <strong>la</strong> doctrina <strong>la</strong> que<br />

ha tenido que ir configurando el concepto, mientras que <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia iba resolviendo<br />

los casos conc<strong>retos</strong> “a falta <strong>de</strong> una completa previsión legal, que tampoco es aconsejable,<br />

1 o’CALLAGHAN MUñoZ, X. (1991). Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y sus límites: honor, intimidad e imagen.<br />

Madrid: EDERSA, p. 38 citando a BAJo FERNÁNDEZ. En el mismo sentido se pronuncia HERRE-<br />

Ro-TEJEDoR, F.(1994). Honor, Intimidad y Propia Imagen. 2ª ed. Madrid: Colex, pp. 75-76.


228 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

pues esta materia es <strong>de</strong>masiado contingente y fluctuante y no interesa que <strong>la</strong> realidad tenga<br />

que adaptarse a una <strong>de</strong>tal<strong>la</strong>da ley, sino que ésta y su interpretación vayan adaptándose a <strong>la</strong><br />

realidad social” 2 . Tanto <strong>la</strong> doctrina como <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia han recalcado que estamos ante<br />

un concepto jurídico in<strong>de</strong>terminado (STC <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2000 y <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2001) 3 .<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al honor se reconoce expresamente en el art. 18.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución Españo<strong>la</strong><br />

(en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte CE) en los siguientes términos: 1. Se garantiza el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, a <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen. El apartado cuarto seña<strong>la</strong> que: 4. La Ley<br />

limitará el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informática <strong>para</strong> garantizar el honor y <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar <strong>de</strong><br />

los ciudadanos y el pleno ejercicio <strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>rechos. Este precepto fue <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do por <strong>la</strong> famosa<br />

Ley orgánica 1/1982, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo, <strong>de</strong> Protección Civil <strong>de</strong>l Derecho al Honor, a <strong>la</strong> Intimidad<br />

Personal y Familiar y a <strong>la</strong> Propia Imagen (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte Ley 1/1982) 4 . El <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

honor, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> ser un <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental por estar reconocido expresamente en <strong>la</strong> CE,<br />

es también un <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad 5 .<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> doctrina y <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia ha entendido que este <strong>de</strong>recho posee una<br />

doble perspectiva o faceta: una interna, que <strong>la</strong> conformaría <strong>la</strong> estimación que tiene uno <strong>de</strong><br />

sí mismo, y <strong>la</strong> externa, que es <strong>la</strong> estimación que nos tienen los <strong>de</strong>más 6 . Hemos <strong>de</strong> tener<br />

presente que en el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor existe o confluye un componente subjetivo <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

psicológico importante, que se manifiesta en esa perspectiva interna. Con esto queremos<br />

<strong>de</strong>cir que una <strong>de</strong>terminada expresión o conducta pue<strong>de</strong> ser hiriente u ofensiva <strong>para</strong> una<br />

persona pero no serlo <strong>para</strong> otra. Como ha manifestado el Tribunal Supremo (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte TS)<br />

en el FJ 3º <strong>de</strong> su sentencia <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2000 7 : “–el concepto <strong>de</strong>l honor , proce<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> dogmática y partiendo <strong>de</strong>l texto legal (art 7.7 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley Orgánica 1/1982, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo texto<br />

formalmente cambiado hoy, no en el tiempo <strong>de</strong> los hechos <strong>de</strong> autos) <strong>de</strong>riva <strong>de</strong>l propio concepto <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> dignidad <strong>de</strong>l ser humano: es <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal reflejada en <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>más y<br />

en el sentimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia persona ; cuyo concepto compren<strong>de</strong> un aspecto interno, subjetivo o<br />

dimensión individual, por uno mismo, y un aspecto externo, objetivo o dimensión y valoración<br />

2 o’ CALLAGHAN MUñoZ; X, Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, op.cit. pp. 41-42.<br />

3 RTC 2000\112 y RTC 2001\49. Así lo seña<strong>la</strong> también PARDo FALCÓN, J. (2009), “Los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen”. En: CASAS BAAMoNDE, M.E.,<br />

RoDRÍGUEZ-PIñERo Y BRAVo-FERRER, M.(dir.). PÉREZ MANZANo, M., BoRRAJo<br />

INIESTA, I. (coord.). Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Constitución Españo<strong>la</strong> XXX aniversario. Madrid: Wolters<br />

Kluwer, p. 416.<br />

4 BoE núm. 115 <strong>de</strong> 14 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 1982.<br />

5 Esto implica como ponen <strong>de</strong> manifiesto DÍEZ PICAZo, L./ GULLÓN BALLESTERoS, A. (2005).<br />

Sistema <strong>de</strong> Derecho Civil, vol.I. 3ª ed. Madrid: Tecnos, p. 329 que “los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad<br />

se consi<strong>de</strong>ran tradicionalmente innatos, esenciales a <strong>la</strong> persona, instransmisibles, irrenunciables e<br />

imprescriptibles”.<br />

6 BUSToS PUECHE, J.E. (2008). Manual sobre bienes y <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad. 2ª ed. Madrid:<br />

Manuales Jurídicos Dykinson, p. 120.<br />

7 RJ 2000\1243.


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

229<br />

social, por los <strong>de</strong>más;– siendo tan re<strong>la</strong>tivo el concepto <strong>de</strong>l honor, <strong>de</strong>be compaginarse <strong>la</strong> inevitable<br />

subjetivación con <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias objetivas, al objeto <strong>de</strong> evitar que una exagerada sensibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> una persona transforme en su interés conceptos jurídicos como el honor (…). La calificación<br />

<strong>de</strong> ser atentatorio al honor una <strong>de</strong>terminada noticia o expresión, <strong>de</strong>be hacerse en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el<br />

contexto y <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias <strong>de</strong> cada caso. Po<strong>de</strong>mos citar también <strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 16 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong><br />

2008 8 que aña<strong>de</strong> en su FJ 2º que: El honor, consiste en <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal reflejada en <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>más y en el sentimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia persona, concepto que aparece <strong>de</strong>sdob<strong>la</strong>do,<br />

por tanto, en un aspecto trascen<strong>de</strong>nte, que se resume en <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración externa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona,<br />

esto es, en su dimensión social, y en un aspecto inmanente, subjetivo e individual, que es <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

que <strong>de</strong> sí tiene uno mismo. Constituye un concepto jurídico normativo cuya precisión<br />

<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas, valores e i<strong>de</strong>as sociales vigentes en cada momento; re<strong>la</strong>tividad conceptual<br />

que, sin embargo, no ha impedido <strong>de</strong>finir su contenido constitucional abstracto, afirmando que el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho am<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> buena reputación <strong>de</strong> una persona, protegiéndo<strong>la</strong> frente a expresiones o mensajes<br />

que lo hagan <strong>de</strong>smerecer <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración ajena al ir en su <strong>de</strong>scrédito o menosprecio, o que<br />

sean tenidas en el concepto público como afrentosas” 9 .<br />

La doctrina y <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia han seña<strong>la</strong>do que “el <strong>de</strong>nominador común <strong>de</strong> todos<br />

los ataques o intromisiones ilegítimas en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> este <strong>de</strong>recho es el<br />

<strong>de</strong>smerecimiento en <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración ajena como consecuencia <strong>de</strong> expresiones proferidas<br />

en <strong>de</strong>scrédito o menosprecio <strong>de</strong> alguien o que fueren tenidas en el concepto público por<br />

afrentosas” 10 . La intromisión ilegítima que vamos a analizar en este trabajo es <strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>tiva al art.<br />

7.7 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 1/1982, es <strong>de</strong>cir, “La imputación <strong>de</strong> hechos o <strong>la</strong> manifestación <strong>de</strong> juicios <strong>de</strong> valor<br />

a través <strong>de</strong> acciones o expresiones que <strong>de</strong> cualquier modo lesionen <strong>la</strong> dignidad <strong>de</strong> otra persona,<br />

menoscabando su fama o atentando contra su propia estimación”.<br />

1.2. <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión como límite al <strong>de</strong>recho al honor<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al honor no es un <strong>de</strong>recho absoluto que prima por encima <strong>de</strong> cualquier otro<br />

cuando existe un conflicto <strong>de</strong> intereses. El honor frecuentemente colisionará en <strong>la</strong> práctica<br />

con <strong>otros</strong> como <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y <strong>de</strong> información. La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión es un<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho fundamental consagrado en el art. 20.1 a) CE y que se reconoce en diversos tratados<br />

internacionales. La CE manifiesta que 1. Se reconocen y protegen los <strong>de</strong>rechos: A expresar y<br />

8 RJ 2008\7127.<br />

9 En términos simi<strong>la</strong>res se pronuncia <strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 1987 (RJ 1987\1716) en su FJ 7º: este<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho fundamental se encuentra integrado por dos aspectos o actitu<strong>de</strong>s íntimamente conexionadas: el <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> inmanencia o mismidad, representada por <strong>la</strong> estimación que cada persona hace <strong>de</strong> sí misma; y el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia o exterioridad, integrado por el reconocimiento que los <strong>de</strong>más hacen <strong>de</strong> nuestra dignidad. Por<br />

ello, el ataque y en su caso lesión al honor se <strong>de</strong>senvuelven tanto en el marco interno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia intimidad<br />

e incluso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> familia, como en el externo <strong>de</strong>l ambiente social y por en<strong>de</strong> profesional.<br />

10 VERA SANToS, J.M. (2005). “Derechos Fundamentales, Internet y Nuevas Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información<br />

y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación”. En: GARCÍA MEXÍA, P (dir.). Principios <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> Internet. 2ª<br />

ed. Valencia: Tirant lo B<strong>la</strong>nch, pp.193-194, citando <strong>la</strong> STC 223/1992 (FJ 3º).


230 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

difundir libremente los pensamientos, i<strong>de</strong>as y opiniones mediante <strong>la</strong> pa<strong>la</strong>bra, el escrito o cualquier<br />

otro medio <strong>de</strong> reproducción. El apartado segundo matiza que: El ejercicio <strong>de</strong> estos <strong>de</strong>rechos no<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> restringirse mediante ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> censura previa. Por su parte el apartado cuarto<br />

dispone que: Estas liberta<strong>de</strong>s tienen su límite en el respeto a los <strong>de</strong>rechos reconocidos en este Título,<br />

en los preceptos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Leyes que lo <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>n y, especialmente, en el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, a <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad, a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> juventud y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infancia.<br />

La Dec<strong>la</strong>ración Universal <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos <strong>de</strong> 1948 en su art. 19 reconoce <strong>la</strong> libertad<br />

<strong>de</strong> expresión en los siguientes términos: Todo individuo tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> opinión<br />

y <strong>de</strong> expresión; este <strong>de</strong>recho incluye el <strong>de</strong> no ser molestado a causa <strong>de</strong> sus opiniones, el <strong>de</strong> investigar y<br />

recibir informaciones y opiniones, y el <strong>de</strong> difundir<strong>la</strong>s, sin limitación <strong>de</strong> fronteras, por cualquier medio<br />

<strong>de</strong> expresión. El Pacto Internacional <strong>de</strong> Derechos Civiles y Políticos <strong>de</strong> 1966 consagra este <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

en el art. 19: 1. Nadie podrá ser molestado a causa <strong>de</strong> sus opiniones.2. Toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión; este <strong>de</strong>recho compren<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> buscar, recibir y difundir informaciones<br />

e i<strong>de</strong>as <strong>de</strong> toda índole, sin consi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> fronteras, ya sea oralmente, por escrito o en forma impresa<br />

o artística, o por cualquier otro procedimiento <strong>de</strong> su elección. 3. El ejercicio <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho previsto en el<br />

párrafo 2 <strong>de</strong> este artículo entraña <strong>de</strong>beres y responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s especiales. Por consiguiente, pue<strong>de</strong> estar<br />

sujeto a ciertas restricciones, que <strong>de</strong>berán, sin embargo, estar expresamente fijadas por <strong>la</strong> ley y ser necesarias<br />

<strong>para</strong>: a) Asegurar el respeto a los <strong>de</strong>rechos o a <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>más; b) La protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

seguridad nacional, el or<strong>de</strong>n público o <strong>la</strong> salud o <strong>la</strong> moral públicas 11 .<br />

La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión es básica en una sociedad <strong>de</strong>mocrática como <strong>la</strong> nuestra. Tal y<br />

como seña<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 1994 12 “se configura en<br />

principio como un <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía, aun cuando con ta<strong>la</strong>nte instrumental<br />

<strong>de</strong> una función que garantiza <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> opinión pública también libre, indispensable <strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> efectiva consecución <strong>de</strong>l pluralismo político como valor esencial <strong>de</strong>l sistema <strong>de</strong>mocrático” (FJ2º).<br />

No obstante, <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión tampoco es un principio absoluto como seña<strong>la</strong> el “Libro<br />

Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los menores y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> dignidad humana en los servicios audiovisuales<br />

y <strong>de</strong> información” en los siguientes términos: “La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión pue<strong>de</strong> estar restringida<br />

por el Estado, pero estas restricciones son objeto <strong>de</strong> un límite muy concreto: <strong>para</strong> que una medida<br />

restrictiva sea consi<strong>de</strong>rada necesaria en una sociedad <strong>de</strong>mocrática, es necesario que responda a una<br />

necesidad social imperiosa y que sea eficaz sin ser <strong>de</strong>sproporcionada en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong>s limitaciones que<br />

imponga. Esta apreciación exige <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> una prueba <strong>de</strong> proporcionalidad” 13 .<br />

Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión no pue<strong>de</strong> restringirse arbitrariamente, es necesaria <strong>la</strong><br />

existencia <strong>de</strong> unas causas justificadas y que realmente impliquen <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> su limita-<br />

11 Existen <strong>otros</strong> textos internacionales que consagran <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión como: el art. 11 <strong>de</strong>l Convenio<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong><br />

Europa <strong>de</strong> 1950.<br />

12 RTC 1994\170.<br />

13 Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los menores y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> dignidad humana en los servicios audiovisuales y <strong>de</strong><br />

información [CoM(96) 483 final, p. 14.<br />

En: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CoM:1996:0483:FIN:ES:PDF. [Fecha<br />

<strong>de</strong> consulta: 2 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011.]


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

231<br />

ción. Como ha manifestado algún autor 14 , si se restringe <strong>la</strong> circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

po<strong>de</strong>mos estar creando potenciales amenazas a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, por este motivo <strong>la</strong>s<br />

leyes sobre difamación y privacidad están limitadas.<br />

Pero, ¿en qué consiste <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión? Como ha seña<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong> doctrina, <strong>la</strong> libertad<br />

<strong>de</strong> expresión tiene como objeto “<strong>la</strong>s apreciaciones, creencias y/o juicios <strong>de</strong> valor subjetivos<br />

y personales que no sean formalmente injuriosos e innecesarios <strong>para</strong> el mensaje que<br />

se <strong>de</strong>see transmitir” 15 . Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s opiniones o manifestaciones que realicemos siempre y<br />

cuando no se sobrepasen los límites marcados por <strong>la</strong> ley (insultos, vejaciones, incitación al<br />

racismo, a <strong>la</strong> violencia, etc.). El conflicto surgirá cuando nos encontremos ante opiniones o<br />

comentarios que estén colindando con esa frontera que nos marca <strong>la</strong> ley. Habrá casos muy<br />

c<strong>la</strong>ros, pero habrá <strong>otros</strong> en los que tendremos nuestras dudas sobre si ha <strong>de</strong> primar el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al honor o <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. Aquí es don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong>bor <strong>de</strong> los tribunales es fundamental,<br />

en estos conflictos se <strong>de</strong>berá valorar cuál <strong>de</strong> los dos tendrá una mayor fuerza, no obstante, ya<br />

a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>ntamos que <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia tiene c<strong>la</strong>ro que mientras no sean expresiones injuriosas<br />

o no necesarias no se pue<strong>de</strong> limitar <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión por muy molestas o críticas que<br />

sean <strong>la</strong>s opiniones vertidas 16 . Para <strong>de</strong>cidir sobre el conflicto <strong>de</strong> estos dos <strong>de</strong>rechos Vil<strong>la</strong>ver<strong>de</strong><br />

Menén<strong>de</strong>z 17 expone que el Tribunal Constitucional ha establecido como una especie <strong>de</strong><br />

“vara <strong>de</strong> medir”, en un extremo sitúa <strong>la</strong> mentira y los insultos y en otro <strong>la</strong>s noticias veraces<br />

<strong>de</strong>mocráticamente relevantes. De este modo manifiesta que cuanto más nos acerquemos al<br />

insulto, menor o ninguna será <strong>la</strong> tute<strong>la</strong> constitucional.<br />

Si <strong>la</strong> pugna <strong>de</strong>l honor y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión ha provocado una consi<strong>de</strong>rable jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

sobre el tema hasta el momento, el impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en nuestra vida ha<br />

agravado estos conflictos.<br />

2. un nueVo marco Para el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> estos <strong>de</strong>recHos: el<br />

imPacto <strong>de</strong> internet<br />

Que Internet ha cambiado nuestra vida cotidiana <strong>de</strong> forma consi<strong>de</strong>rable es un hecho<br />

irrefutable. Hoy es una herramienta presente en nuestras activida<strong>de</strong>s diarias. Con él realizamos<br />

cualquier tipo <strong>de</strong> actividad: <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> comprar entradas <strong>para</strong> ir a espectáculos, hacer <strong>la</strong><br />

14 SoLoVE, D.J. (2007). The future of reputation: gossip, rumor and privacy on the Internet. New Haven<br />

and London: Yale University Press, p. 125.<br />

15 VILLAVERDE MENÉNDEZ, I. (2009). “La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión”. En: CASAS BAAMoNDE,<br />

M.E., RoDRÍGUEZ-PIñERo Y BRAVo-FERRER, M.(dir.). PÉREZ MANZANo, M., BoR-<br />

RAJo INIESTA, I. (coord). Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Constitución Españo<strong>la</strong> XXX aniversario. Madrid: Wolters<br />

Kluwer, p.477.<br />

16 En este sentido se pue<strong>de</strong> ver <strong>la</strong> STC <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2001 (RTC 2001\49) en concreto su FJ 5º<br />

o el FJ 8º <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 (AC<br />

2010\2349).<br />

17 VILLAVERDE MENÉNDEZ, I. (2009), La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, op.cit., p.478.


232 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

compra en nuestro supermercado, estudiar, trabajar, entretenernos, estar en contacto con<br />

nuestros amigos y familiares, realizar operaciones bancarias. Es una herramienta que nos<br />

facilita <strong>la</strong> vida enormemente y que posee un sinfín <strong>de</strong> posibilida<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

Sin embargo, el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> Internet en los últimos años no sólo ha propiciado <strong>la</strong><br />

aparición <strong>de</strong> nuevas funcionalida<strong>de</strong>s que nos permita llevar una vida más fácil, sino que se<br />

ha configurado a<strong>de</strong>más como un marco idóneo <strong>para</strong> que se produzcan potenciales ataques<br />

contra nuestros <strong>de</strong>rechos, sobre todo, frente a los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong>l honor, <strong>la</strong> propia imagen y <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad. No sólo <strong>la</strong>s expresiones o pa<strong>la</strong>bras implican vulneraciones al <strong>de</strong>recho al honor,<br />

también <strong>la</strong>s fotografías o ciertos ví<strong>de</strong>os pue<strong>de</strong>n lesionar este <strong>de</strong>recho. Ello no quiere <strong>de</strong>cir<br />

que dichos ataques que<strong>de</strong>n impunes, pero sí es cierto que es muy difícil contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> mayor<br />

parte <strong>de</strong> los contenidos presentes en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Sólo por poner un ejemplo que ilustre esta situación,<br />

en noviembre <strong>de</strong>l año 2010 Youtube subía 35 horas <strong>de</strong> ví<strong>de</strong>o por minuto a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 18 .<br />

Todos nos<strong>otros</strong> po<strong>de</strong>mos p<strong>la</strong>smar nuestros comentarios, opiniones, críticas etc. en <strong>la</strong><br />

infinidad <strong>de</strong> sitios web que hay en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Por ejemplo, po<strong>de</strong>mos crearnos un blog e ir diariamente<br />

actualizándolo con nuevas entradas y que sean comentadas por los receptores <strong>de</strong> dicha<br />

información, po<strong>de</strong>mos opinar sobre <strong>la</strong>s noticias que se publican en los distintos medios <strong>de</strong><br />

información digitales, comentar ví<strong>de</strong>os o imágenes, etc. Sin embargo, no todos los contenidos<br />

que circu<strong>la</strong>n en Internet pue<strong>de</strong>n ser a<strong>de</strong>cuados o lícitos. En <strong>de</strong>terminados casos <strong>la</strong>s<br />

expresiones vertidas en <strong>la</strong>s páginas web se focalizarán en insultos o críticas vejatorias frente<br />

a <strong>de</strong>terminadas personas, como más a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte veremos escondidas tras el anonimato <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

persona que ha formu<strong>la</strong>do dichas manifestaciones.<br />

La Unión Europea ha sido consciente <strong>de</strong> esta situación y así <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Comisión al Consejo, al Par<strong>la</strong>mento, al Comité Económico y al Comité <strong>de</strong> Regiones sobre<br />

“Contenidos ilícitos y nocivos en Internet” trató y puso <strong>de</strong> manifiesto <strong>la</strong> problemática existente<br />

con estos 19 . Esta Comunicación pretendía <strong>de</strong>finir los contenidos que se podían presentar<br />

en Internet; analizar el contexto técnico don<strong>de</strong> se manifestaban y proponer medidas <strong>de</strong><br />

actuación frente <strong>la</strong> presencia <strong>de</strong> los mismos 20 .<br />

Esta Comunicación diferencia dos tipos <strong>de</strong> contenidos:<br />

a) Contenidos ilícitos: son aquellos que contravienen <strong>la</strong>s normas, lo que implica que se<br />

les consi<strong>de</strong>re como ilegales o ilícitos. La Comunicación menciona, entre <strong>otros</strong>, los que<br />

vulneran los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona como su reputación o su intimidad; o <strong>la</strong> propiedad<br />

intelectual. Por tanto, el tema objeto <strong>de</strong> este análisis, es <strong>de</strong>cir <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al honor en Internet entraría <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> esta categoría.<br />

18 http://youtube-global.blogspot.com/2010/11/great-scott-over-35-hours-of-vi<strong>de</strong>o.html [Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 3 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

19 Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Consejo, al Par<strong>la</strong>mento, al Comité Económico y al Comité <strong>de</strong><br />

Regiones sobre “Contenidos ilícitos y nocivos en Internet” <strong>de</strong> 16.10. 1996 CoM (96) 487 final.<br />

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CoM:1996:0487:FIN:ES:PDF. [Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 3 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

20 Comunicación…, op.cit. p.7.


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

233<br />

b) Contenidos nocivos: son aquellos que como dice <strong>la</strong> Comunicación constituyen una<br />

ofensa <strong>para</strong> los valores o sentimientos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, y que <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s diferencias<br />

culturales 21 .<br />

Al tema <strong>de</strong> los contenidos ilícitos y nocivos hemos <strong>de</strong> añadir el anonimato <strong>de</strong> los usuarios<br />

presentes en Internet. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, muchas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s opiniones o manifestaciones lesivas vertidas<br />

en <strong>de</strong>terminadas páginas web se realizarán con nombres falsos, pseudónimos o nicks.<br />

Pero <strong>para</strong> agravar aún más el problema y dificultar <strong>la</strong> posible localización <strong>de</strong> vio<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al honor hemos <strong>de</strong> tener en cuenta los diversos grados <strong>de</strong> publicidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> en<br />

re<strong>la</strong>ción con los contenidos. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, existen <strong>de</strong>terminadas páginas web que son públicas<br />

<strong>para</strong> cualquiera que acceda a <strong>la</strong> misma, y que por tanto, sin ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> registro pue<strong>de</strong><br />

expresar libremente sus opiniones. Pero por otro, existen páginas que requieren <strong>de</strong>l registro<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, es <strong>de</strong>cir, que otorgue sus datos <strong>para</strong> por ejemplo, po<strong>de</strong>r expresar sus opiniones<br />

o i<strong>de</strong>as en <strong>de</strong>terminados foros. No nos hemos <strong>de</strong> olvidar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, como Facebook<br />

o Tuenti que requieren también <strong>de</strong>l registro <strong>de</strong>l usuario, si bien es cierto que en algunas<br />

<strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s se pue<strong>de</strong> restringir a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>la</strong> información a <strong>de</strong>terminados usuarios.<br />

Todos estos elementos, es <strong>de</strong>cir, el volumen <strong>de</strong>l contenido <strong>de</strong> información, el anonimato<br />

y <strong>la</strong> publicidad más o menos restringida <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s opiniones y comentarios implica que<br />

van a existir muchas personas que están siendo insultadas impunemente en Internet sin que<br />

tengan conocimiento <strong>de</strong> ello.<br />

3. <strong>la</strong>s lesiones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recHo al Honor en internet:<br />

el caso concreto <strong>de</strong> los insultos<br />

3.1. cuestiones generales<br />

El Derecho nos otorga <strong>la</strong> potestad <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r opinar públicamente sobre <strong>de</strong>terminadas<br />

cuestiones: criticar a un partido político concreto, <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>r a nuestro equipo <strong>de</strong> fútbol,<br />

opinar sobre <strong>la</strong> actuación correcta o incorrecta <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminado personaje público (como un<br />

periodista, un juez, un profesor, etc). Internet es un instrumento idóneo y sencillo <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

p<strong>la</strong>smar estas opiniones, po<strong>de</strong>r compartir<strong>la</strong>s y dialogar con otras personas. Este aspecto<br />

es esencial, es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s características <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> hacen que el número <strong>de</strong> potenciales receptores<br />

<strong>de</strong> dicha información, expresión, opinión, etc., sea mucho mayor que en los medios <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicación tradicionales (prensa escrita, teléfono, etc.).<br />

¿La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión implica que po<strong>de</strong>mos manifestar todas nuestras opiniones<br />

sin ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> traba o cortapisa? La respuesta es negativa, <strong>la</strong> misma posee también<br />

unos límites como reiterativamente ha seña<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia tanto civil como constitucional.<br />

Por ejemplo, <strong>la</strong> ya citada STC <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 1994 manifiesta al respecto que:<br />

existe un límite insalvable impunemente. No cabe duda <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> emisión <strong>de</strong> ape<strong>la</strong>tivos formalmente<br />

injuriosos en cualquier contexto, innecesarios <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong>bor informativa o <strong>de</strong> formación<br />

21 Comunicación…, op.cit. p.11.


234 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión que se realice supone un daño injustificado a <strong>la</strong> dignidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas o al<br />

prestigio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s instituciones, teniendo en cuenta que <strong>la</strong> Constitución no reconoce un pretendido<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al insulto, que sería por lo <strong>de</strong>más incompatible con <strong>la</strong> dignidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona que<br />

se proc<strong>la</strong>ma en el art. 10.1 <strong>de</strong>l Texto Fundamental” (FJ4º). Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> STC <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong><br />

noviembre <strong>de</strong> 200522 expone que: En efecto, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> STC 104/1986, <strong>de</strong> 17 <strong>de</strong> julio ( RTC<br />

1986, 104) , hemos establecido que, si bien «el <strong>de</strong>recho a expresar libremente opiniones, i<strong>de</strong>as<br />

y pensamientos [art. 20.1 a) CE] dispone <strong>de</strong> un campo <strong>de</strong> acción que viene sólo <strong>de</strong>limitado<br />

por <strong>la</strong> ausencia <strong>de</strong> expresiones indudablemente injuriosas sin re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s i<strong>de</strong>as u opiniones<br />

que se expongan y que resulten innecesarias <strong>para</strong> su exposición (…) no es menos cierto que<br />

también hemos mantenido inequívocamente que <strong>la</strong> Constitución no reconoce en modo alguno<br />

(ni en ese ni en ningún otro precepto) un pretendido <strong>de</strong>recho al insulto. La Constitución no<br />

veda, en cualesquiera circunstancias, el uso <strong>de</strong> expresiones hirientes, molestas o <strong>de</strong>sabridas, pero<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección constitucional que otorga el art. 20.1 a) CE están excluidas <strong>la</strong>s expresiones<br />

absolutamente vejatorias; es <strong>de</strong>cir, aquel<strong>la</strong>s que, dadas <strong>la</strong>s concretas circunstancias <strong>de</strong>l caso, y<br />

al margen <strong>de</strong> su veracidad o inveracidad, sean ofensivas u oprobiosas y resulten impertinentes<br />

<strong>para</strong> expresar <strong>la</strong>s opiniones o informaciones <strong>de</strong> que se trate (FJ5º).<br />

Como seña<strong>la</strong> Bustos Pueche “el honor se perturba o lesiona mediante <strong>la</strong> formu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> juicios <strong>de</strong> valor: juicios <strong>de</strong>scalificadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, que <strong>la</strong> mancil<strong>la</strong>n o menosprecian” 23 .<br />

La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión hemos dicho que no am<strong>para</strong> el insulto o los comentarios <strong>de</strong>spectivos<br />

y vejatorios, sin embargo, es muy sencillo encontrar todo tipo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>scalificativos y expresiones<br />

insultantes contra personas, ya sean físicas o jurídicas, muchas <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s am<strong>para</strong>das en<br />

el anonimato por ejemplo en foros, o en los comentarios que pue<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>jar los usuarios en<br />

los diversos medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación digitales como hemos dicho anteriormente.<br />

Una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cosas que más l<strong>la</strong>ma <strong>la</strong> atención es que se han creado páginas web expresamente<br />

<strong>para</strong> recoger o potenciar el uso <strong>de</strong> insultos, expresiones malsonantes, injuriosas e<br />

hirientes, frente a <strong>de</strong>terminadas personas incluso frente a <strong>de</strong>terminados colectivos24 . Exis-<br />

22 RTC 2005\278. En sentido simi<strong>la</strong>r se pronuncia <strong>la</strong> STC <strong>de</strong> 28 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2005 (RTC 2005\39).<br />

Hay que <strong>de</strong>cir que <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión como ha reconocido <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia no am<strong>para</strong> tampoco<br />

los comentarios xenófobos, racistas, etc., que inciten a <strong>la</strong> violencia o simi<strong>la</strong>res. Entre otras véase <strong>la</strong><br />

STC <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2007 (RTC 2007\235).<br />

23 BUESToS PUECHE. J.E., Manual…, op.cit., p. 123.<br />

24 http://mijefeesuncabron.com/mensajes. Según recogió Europa Prees en el siguiente en<strong>la</strong>ce: http://<br />

www.europapress.es/portaltic/internet/noticia-abouteveryone-permite-insulto-internet-traves-facebook-20110324111102.html,<br />

existen otras páginas web como “AboutEveryone” que permite el<br />

insulto por <strong>de</strong>cirlo <strong>de</strong> algún modo gratuito am<strong>para</strong>do en el anonimato. Por otro <strong>la</strong>do resulta l<strong>la</strong>mativa<br />

por ejemplo <strong>la</strong> noticia publicada en http://www.elmundotoday.com/2011/04/el-arbitro-munizfernan<strong>de</strong>z-recibe-su-insulto-900000/.<br />

En este supuesto nos encontramos con un conocido árbitro <strong>de</strong><br />

Primera División que introduce sus datos en una aplicación <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>da por una marca <strong>de</strong> cervezas<br />

<strong>para</strong> conocer cuántos insultos ha recibido durante su carrera <strong>de</strong>portiva. Pues bien los resultados son<br />

sorpren<strong>de</strong>ntes, él mismo observó que <strong>la</strong> aplicación recogía 900.000 insultos. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 5 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

235<br />

ten a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong>terminados sujetos l<strong>la</strong>mados “Trolls” 25 que <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el anonimato se <strong>de</strong>dican <strong>de</strong><br />

forma c<strong>la</strong>ra a fomentar este tipo <strong>de</strong> conductas en <strong>de</strong>terminados canales como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser<br />

foros. El problema esencial es que si esos comentarios no son eliminados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s páginas web<br />

don<strong>de</strong> se alojan pue<strong>de</strong>n permanecer el suficiente tiempo <strong>para</strong> herir <strong>la</strong> dignidad y el honor<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona.<br />

Ya habíamos apuntado anteriormente que muchos <strong>de</strong> los comentarios ofensivos que se<br />

vierten en Internet se manifiestan a través <strong>de</strong>l anonimato, y esto implica una consecuencia<br />

jurídica inmediata ya que como bien ha seña<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia y <strong>la</strong> doctrina los comentarios<br />

no anónimos son los que se am<strong>para</strong>n en <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. Si no hay autor no<br />

hay libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión 26 .<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do hemos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cir que <strong>para</strong> que exista un atentado contra el honor <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> persona es necesaria <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> divulgación 27 . Como seña<strong>la</strong> o’Cal<strong>la</strong>ghan <strong>para</strong><br />

que exista protección <strong>de</strong>l Derecho es necesario que el ataque se divulgue en <strong>la</strong> sociedad,<br />

consistiendo <strong>la</strong> divulgación en el conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l ataque al honor, por terceras personas.<br />

“Pue<strong>de</strong> ser mayor o menor, siempre que se dé el conocimiento por terceros, en número más<br />

o menos numeroso”, y siendo indistinto el medio por el que se realice 28 . Ello implica que<br />

los insultos proferidos en un ámbito privado (por ejemplo en una conversación telefónica)<br />

no tendrán amparo ante tribunales, sin embargo, si los mismos se manifiestan en un<br />

foro o en un blog <strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>la</strong> situación cambia consi<strong>de</strong>rablemente 29 . Recor<strong>de</strong>mos que<br />

Internet tiene un amplio número <strong>de</strong> potenciales receptores <strong>de</strong> los contenidos, a diferencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> lo que pue<strong>de</strong> ocurrir por ejemplo en <strong>la</strong> prensa escrita, don<strong>de</strong> el número <strong>de</strong> lectores es<br />

más restringido.<br />

25 http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_%28Internet%29. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]. Nuestros<br />

tribunales ya han empezado a conocer casos sobre ataques <strong>de</strong> este tipo, como por ejemplo <strong>la</strong><br />

sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Barcelona <strong>de</strong> 29 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 (AC 2011\141).<br />

26 VILLAVERDE MENÉNDEZ, I. La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, op.cit., p.483.Véase también el auto <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Tribunal Constitucional <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2002 (RTC 2002\56).<br />

27 o’CALLAGHAN MUñoZ, X. Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, op.cit., p. 47. manifiesta que: como se exige<br />

el elemento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> divulgación, no es pensable <strong>la</strong> protección jurídica <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, por un ataque al<br />

mismo en su único aspecto individual. Sin embargo, el ataque al honor en su aspecto externo, lleva consigo<br />

necesariamente el <strong>de</strong> su aspecto interno o individual.<br />

28 o’CALLAGHAN MUñoZ, X. Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, op.cit., p. 49.<br />

29 Por lo que respecta a los ámbitos en los que se pue<strong>de</strong>n proferir los comentarios que pue<strong>de</strong>n afectar al<br />

honor y colisionar con <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, hemos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cir existen dos tipos distintos <strong>de</strong> medios<br />

tradicionales que poseen un régimen jurídico diferente. Así, FERNÁNDEZ ESTEBAN nos explica<br />

que por un <strong>la</strong>do, nos entramos los medios privados o <strong>de</strong> comunicación bidireccional-interpersonal<br />

como el teléfono o el correo, etc y los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong> masas, es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong> prensa escrita<br />

y <strong>la</strong> radiodifusión. Así como en los primeros <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión no está restringida, no ocurre<br />

lo mismo en los segundos, don<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>be existir cierto control y ciertas responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s sobre los<br />

contenidos. FERNÁNDEZ ESTEBAN, M.L. (1999). “La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en<br />

Internet en Estados Unidos y <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”, Revista <strong>de</strong> Estudios Políticos (Nueva Época). Nº. 103,<br />

enero-marzo, 1999, p. 151.


236 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Por último <strong>de</strong>cir, por lo que respecta a este punto que muchas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s páginas web, sobre<br />

todo <strong>de</strong> medios periodísticos tienen una tolerancia restrictiva hacia los comentarios insultantes<br />

o <strong>de</strong>spectivos. Por ejemplo, el periódico “Público” en <strong>la</strong>s normas sobre los comentarios<br />

que pue<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>jar los usuarios en los foros seña<strong>la</strong>:<br />

“No se aceptan los comentarios con contenidos, en<strong>la</strong>ces o nombres <strong>de</strong> usuarios que se consi<strong>de</strong>ren<br />

insultantes, difamatorios o contrarios a <strong>la</strong>s leyes españo<strong>la</strong>s.<br />

No se aceptan los comentarios que contengan apología <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> violencia, o que<br />

apoyen vio<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos humanos.<br />

No se admiten comentarios <strong>de</strong> contenido racista, sexista, homófobo o discriminatorio por<br />

razón <strong>de</strong> nacionalidad, sexo, religión, edad o cualquier tipo <strong>de</strong> discapacidad.<br />

No ser admitirán los ataques ni insultos a los <strong>otros</strong> participantes en el sistema <strong>de</strong> comentarios” 30 .<br />

3.2. análisis jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> los insultos en internet y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

Para recapitu<strong>la</strong>r todo lo expuesto anteriormente po<strong>de</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>cir que existen casos muy<br />

c<strong>la</strong>ros en Internet (aunque no sólo en este medio) sobre comentarios vejatorios que atentan<br />

contra el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor <strong>de</strong> una persona, ya sea física o jurídica. Hemos <strong>de</strong> tener en cuenta<br />

que este medio comporta <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> un elevado número <strong>de</strong> potenciales receptores <strong>de</strong><br />

esta información, por tanto, el daño que se pue<strong>de</strong> provocar a <strong>la</strong>s personas es mucho mayor.<br />

Es <strong>de</strong>cir, que el grado <strong>de</strong> divulgación pue<strong>de</strong> ser muy amplio, aunque como hemos puesto <strong>de</strong><br />

manifiesto anteriormente <strong>la</strong>s características <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web don<strong>de</strong> se manifieste el comentario<br />

tiene una publicidad más o menos restringida.<br />

30 http://www.publico.es/estaticos/normascomentarios/. Se reserva a<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> retirar los<br />

comentarios que no sean a<strong>de</strong>cuados. Muchas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales o medios <strong>de</strong> este tipo indican en sus<br />

condiciones que no se hacen responsables <strong>de</strong> los comentarios vertidos en <strong>la</strong> misma, así por ejemplo<br />

lo manifiesta <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> social “Twitter” en el apartado <strong>de</strong> Contenido <strong>de</strong> los servicios en los siguientes<br />

términos: “La responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> todo contenido, pública o privadamente difundido, recae en el autor <strong>de</strong><br />

dicho contenido. Twitter no supervisa ni contro<strong>la</strong> el Contenido publicado vía dichos “Servicios” y no se hace<br />

responsable <strong>de</strong> dicho Contenido”. http://twitter.com/tos .Apunta a<strong>de</strong>más que “Nos reservamos el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

en todo momento (pero no tendremos una obligación) <strong>de</strong> borrar o negarnos a distribuir algún contenido en<br />

los servicios y <strong>de</strong> eliminar usuarios o rec<strong>la</strong>mar nombres <strong>de</strong> usuarios” y que no se hace responsable siempre<br />

que “en <strong>la</strong> medida máxima permitida por <strong>la</strong> ley aplicable” entre otras contenidos a los que se puedan<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rarse ofensivos o injuriosos. Hemos <strong>de</strong> añadir también que muchas páginas web son conscientes<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> problemática que p<strong>la</strong>ntea el anonimato en Internet, por eso, cuando un usuario quiere<br />

registrarse en un servicio <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r comentar por ejemplo noticias requiere que otorgue sus datos<br />

verda<strong>de</strong>ros. Es muy frecuente que en <strong>la</strong> actualidad cuando un usuario se registra reciba en su correo<br />

electrónico un link <strong>de</strong> activación <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r darse <strong>de</strong> alta y empezar a utilizar el servicio. Así en caso<br />

que se cometa un <strong>de</strong>lito o un ilícito civil será más fácil <strong>de</strong>tectar quién ha sido <strong>la</strong> persona que ha cometido<br />

el mismo. El Diario El País por ejemplo obliga a registrarse a sus usuarios con todos sus datos<br />

personales <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r comentar <strong>la</strong>s noticias y acce<strong>de</strong>r a los foros disponibles. Las condiciones legales<br />

van en <strong>la</strong> misma línea que los ejemplos citados anteriormente: http://www.elpais.com/avisolegal/.<br />

El Diario El Mundo también posee unas condiciones simi<strong>la</strong>res. http://www.elmundo.es/privacidad/<br />

avisolegal.html. [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 6 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

237<br />

Cada vez es más frecuente que nuestros tribunales se pronuncien sobre conflictos entre<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor y libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión (y también <strong>de</strong> información) en Internet, en concreto<br />

por comentarios vejatorios, insultantes y por <strong>la</strong> imputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>litos.<br />

Los tribunales han <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>slindar caso por caso cuando una expresión en este medio se am<strong>para</strong><br />

en <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y cuando <strong>la</strong> misma no pue<strong>de</strong> tener dicha cobertura. Para ello se<br />

utiliza <strong>la</strong> técnica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos 31 .<br />

Los tribunales, no obstante, realizan algunas matizaciones por lo que respecta al tema<br />

<strong>de</strong> los insultos. Así por ejemplo <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Guada<strong>la</strong>jara <strong>de</strong><br />

17 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2010 32 que conocía <strong>de</strong> unas expresiones realizadas por un usuario en un foro<br />

político seña<strong>la</strong> que: “si bien en supuestos <strong>de</strong> colisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, es preciso alejarse<br />

<strong>de</strong> una concepción abstracta <strong>de</strong>l lenguaje (estrictamente semántica o sintáctica) en beneficio <strong>de</strong><br />

una concepción pragmática, según <strong>la</strong> cual el lenguaje, como actividad humana <strong>de</strong> or<strong>de</strong>n práctico,<br />

<strong>de</strong>be consi<strong>de</strong>rarse en re<strong>la</strong>ción a su contexto, am<strong>para</strong>ndo en <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión aquel<strong>la</strong>s alegaciones,<br />

que ais<strong>la</strong>damente ofensivas al ser puestas en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> información que se preten<strong>de</strong><br />

comunicar o con <strong>la</strong> situación política o social en que tiene lugar <strong>la</strong> crítica, experimentan una<br />

disminución <strong>de</strong> su significación ofensiva - aunque pue<strong>de</strong>n no ser plenamente justificables ya que<br />

así lo impone el interés público implicado en cada situación <strong>de</strong>terminada, y también los usos<br />

sociales a los que se remite el artículo 2.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> citada Ley Orgánica <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 1982 ( RCL<br />

1982, 1197) (FJ Única)”.<br />

Sería interesante analizar algunos <strong>de</strong> los últimos casos sobre los que se han pronunciado<br />

nuestros tribunales <strong>para</strong> observar cómo se aplica dicha técnica, y cuál es <strong>la</strong> postura <strong>de</strong> los<br />

mismos sobre <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en Internet y el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor.<br />

Por ejemplo, el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> SGAE ha sido <strong>de</strong> los últimos supuestos más sonados, en el<br />

cual <strong>la</strong> vio<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor a esta institución ha sido muy c<strong>la</strong>ra 33 . Recor<strong>de</strong>mos<br />

que el caso que se enjuiciaba enfrentaba a <strong>la</strong> SGAE contra <strong>la</strong> Asociación <strong>de</strong> Internautas por<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rar que <strong>de</strong>terminadas páginas web habían vulnerado su honor. Entre los comentarios<br />

que se recogían en éstas, se incluía “banda <strong>de</strong>socupados”, “nuevos pícaros”, “son unos putos<br />

chorizos”, “matones a sueldo”, “panda <strong>de</strong> mafiosos” entre <strong>otros</strong>. En este caso en concreto no<br />

se <strong>de</strong>mandaba como autora <strong>de</strong> los comentarios a <strong>la</strong> citada Asociación, sino que <strong>la</strong> SGAE <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>mandó por prestar sus servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información a sus asociados por medio<br />

31 VILLAVERDE MENÉNDEZ, I. (2009). La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión…, p.476 “manifiesta que cuando se<br />

realice <strong>la</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos se han <strong>de</strong> tener en cuenta los siguientes criterios: “<strong>la</strong> condición<br />

y grado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s opiniones formal o materialmente injuriosas, <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión o <strong>la</strong> información<br />

controvertida en el contexto <strong>de</strong>l mensaje transmitido, y <strong>la</strong> relevancia pública <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información divulgada en función <strong>de</strong>l sujeto concernido (si es sujeto público, con notoriedad pública<br />

o un sujeto privado) o los hechos y circunstancias re<strong>la</strong>tadas. Por lo que respecta a <strong>la</strong> Jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

<strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 30 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 (RJ 2010\654) en su FJ octavo explica <strong>de</strong>tenidamente en qué<br />

consiste <strong>la</strong> técnica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>ración.<br />

32 AC 2010\443.<br />

33 Sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid <strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2006 (AC 2006\188) y STS <strong>de</strong> 9<br />

<strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 (RJ 2010\131).


238 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong> su dirección en <strong>la</strong> web, y que entre estos servicios se encontraba el <strong>de</strong> alojamiento <strong>de</strong> datos,<br />

conteniendo en <strong>la</strong> página correspondiente <strong>la</strong>s direcciones don<strong>de</strong> se recogían <strong>la</strong>s web don<strong>de</strong><br />

se alojaban los comentarios. En este caso en concreto <strong>la</strong> vulneración al honor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> citada<br />

entidad era c<strong>la</strong>ra, si bien es cierto que se alegaba <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión por <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandada,<br />

ya hemos visto como <strong>la</strong> misma no am<strong>para</strong> los insultos, por tanto se con<strong>de</strong>nó a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandada<br />

al pago <strong>de</strong> dieciocho mil euros 34 .<br />

otro <strong>de</strong> los casos que ha tenido más repercusión mediática ha sido <strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong><br />

febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011 35 por los comentarios alojados en un foro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web “A<strong>la</strong>sbarricadas.com”<br />

contra un personaje que anteriormente había estado íntimamente vincu<strong>la</strong>do a <strong>la</strong><br />

SGAE. En este caso <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor fue también manifiesta ya que en dicho<br />

foro se expresaron comentarios como: “pedante, creído, tocapelotas/ovarios, farandulero,<br />

feo pasado por los quirófanos, mal artista, mal politiquillo, mal presentador <strong>de</strong> programas<br />

<strong>de</strong> tv, chupacámaras, solo siento no haber estado en el último festival que estuvo pa <strong>de</strong>sca<strong>la</strong>brarle<br />

con un pedrolo <strong>de</strong>l vente” entre otras expresiones. Tanto los tribunales a quo como el<br />

Tribunal Supremo entien<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong> f<strong>la</strong>grante vulneración al <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, al consi<strong>de</strong>rar que<br />

<strong>la</strong>s expresiones vertidas exce<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> crítica y se consi<strong>de</strong>ran atentatorias y vejatorias hacia <strong>la</strong><br />

persona <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>mandante. Sin embargo, el eje principal <strong>de</strong>l asunto en el Tribunal Supremo<br />

versa como en el caso anterior sobre <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web don<strong>de</strong> estaban<br />

alojados dichos comentarios. El Tribunal Supremo rechaza el recurso <strong>de</strong> casación interpuesto<br />

por <strong>la</strong> página web y confirma <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial que le con<strong>de</strong>na a<br />

pagar al <strong>de</strong>mandante <strong>la</strong> cantidad <strong>de</strong> seis mil euros.<br />

Un ejemplo ilustrativo <strong>de</strong> cómo Internet se pue<strong>de</strong> utilizar con el fin <strong>de</strong> vulnerar el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al honor, es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Valencia <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> diciembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2005 36 . En este supuesto en concreto, una conocida clínica privada <strong>de</strong>dicada a <strong>la</strong><br />

cirugía estética <strong>de</strong>manda a un sujeto por enten<strong>de</strong>r que había vulnerado su <strong>de</strong>recho al honor.<br />

En el asunto que se p<strong>la</strong>ntea, el <strong>de</strong>mandado había confeccionado una página web <strong>para</strong> dar a<br />

conocer negligencias médicas entre el<strong>la</strong>s <strong>la</strong> que le había ocurrido a su hermana. No obstante,<br />

en <strong>la</strong> misma se recogían calificativos como “panda <strong>de</strong> cabrones, charcuteros, matasanos, etc”.<br />

Cuando el <strong>de</strong>mandado conoce que dichos contenidos pue<strong>de</strong>n suponer una vulneración <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al honor retira <strong>la</strong> página web. La Audiencia entien<strong>de</strong> que ha habido vulneración<br />

al igual que lo hace el tribunal a quo, al consi<strong>de</strong>rar que <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión no am<strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s expresiones injuriantes o difamantes, y que <strong>la</strong> información ha <strong>de</strong> ceñirse a información<br />

veraz. La Audiencia Provincial no obstante <strong>red</strong>uce <strong>la</strong> cuantía <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> in<strong>de</strong>mnización <strong>de</strong> doce<br />

mil euros a seis mil euros.<br />

34 La sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 trata también sobre<br />

un conflicto en honor y expresión re<strong>la</strong>cionada con <strong>la</strong> SGAE y los comentarios vertidos en un foro <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet <strong>de</strong> un periódico.<br />

35 RJ 2011\313.<br />

36 AC 2006\|297.


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

239<br />

La STS <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 37 también es un ejemplo c<strong>la</strong>rificador <strong>de</strong> cuándo<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión tiene amparo por parte <strong>de</strong> los tribunales. Este conflicto entre el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al honor y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión se centraba en los artículos recogidos en un<br />

diario <strong>de</strong>portivo online don<strong>de</strong> se vertían expresiones <strong>de</strong>spectivas hacía un miembro <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Sevil<strong>la</strong> Fútbol Club. Algunas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas eran: “don nadie, maleducado, <strong>de</strong>magogo,<br />

francotirador, mamporrero, <strong>de</strong>slenguado, fondo <strong>de</strong> vileza” entre otras. A<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>de</strong> pertenecer<br />

a dicho club <strong>de</strong> fútbol el <strong>de</strong>mandante a<strong>de</strong>más era abogado, por tanto se alegaba<br />

que ya no sólo se dañaba su imagen personal sino también su reputación profesional. El<br />

periódico <strong>de</strong>portivo por su parte alegaba que no se había interpretado correctamente el<br />

art. 20 a), y d) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución, “que <strong>la</strong> sentencia recurrida no es precisa en el análisis<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> expresiones empleadas (…), el contexto en que se pronuncian y su significado actual, así<br />

como que no utiliza criterios c<strong>la</strong>ros <strong>de</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>ración tales como <strong>la</strong> relevancia pública <strong>de</strong>l personaje…”<br />

(FJ 1º). El TS <strong>de</strong>sestima el recurso interpuesto por el periódico digital al enten<strong>de</strong>r<br />

que dichos comentarios “no tienen ninguna justificación en el contexto, porque no se da <strong>la</strong><br />

situación correspondiente, al <strong>de</strong>scalificar al actor <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> diversas perspectivas, tanto re<strong>la</strong>tivas a<br />

su capacidad, como a su conducta y persona (…) El ámbito <strong>de</strong>l periodismo <strong>de</strong>portivo don<strong>de</strong> se<br />

vierten, no permite <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>scalificación intolerable, ni pue<strong>de</strong> quejar justificada por <strong>la</strong> proyección<br />

pública <strong>de</strong>l personaje, que si bien por tal motivo, <strong>de</strong>be soportar ciertos niveles <strong>de</strong> crítica, <strong>de</strong>ntro<br />

<strong>de</strong> tal concepto no pue<strong>de</strong>n quedar incluidas expresiones objetivamente injuriosas” (FJ 3º). Por<br />

tanto, ratifica <strong>la</strong> con<strong>de</strong>na al pago <strong>de</strong> nueve mil euros.<br />

Nuestros tribunales se han tenido que pronunciar en reiteradas ocasiones ante supuestos<br />

<strong>de</strong> conflictos entre honor y expresión referentes a personajes políticos. Es el caso por<br />

ejemplo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> SAP <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Is<strong>la</strong>s Baleares <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2007 38 que trataba sobre <strong>la</strong> posible<br />

vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor <strong>de</strong>l alcal<strong>de</strong> y teniente alcal<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> un ayuntamiento balear<br />

por los comentarios existentes en un foro político. Los mismos consistían en expresiones<br />

como: “un incompetente con <strong>de</strong>lirios populistas que no sabe hacer <strong>la</strong> o con un canuto.<br />

Mirad su trayectoria profesional, profesional y política y veréis que el tío es gafe. Negado,<br />

incompetente, es tonto <strong>de</strong> baba, no tiene don<strong>de</strong> caerse muerto, cobra por cosas que no se<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cir aquí, etc.”. El Tribunal en el FJ 4º manifiesta que el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong><br />

expresión “encuentra límites, entre los que están los <strong>de</strong>rivados <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> respetar otro Derecho<br />

Fundamental, también conocido en el artículo 18 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución, cual es el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor,<br />

o sea, que no se pue<strong>de</strong>, a pretexto <strong>de</strong> ejercitar el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, atentar al patrimonio<br />

moral <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas que constituye uno <strong>de</strong> los sagrados <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad que<br />

siempre ha merecido protección civil y penal y que, como queda dicho, goza <strong>de</strong> reconocimiento<br />

constitucional…” Matiza a<strong>de</strong>más que “el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> una crítica racional, honesta y constructiva<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> acción pública no constituye en principio ilícito, pero cuando ello no es así, y el censurante,<br />

amparándose en el citado <strong>de</strong>recho que compren<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong> narración, <strong>de</strong> información o <strong>de</strong> crítica,<br />

traspasa los límites legalmente establecidos <strong>para</strong> menospreciar, <strong>de</strong>sac<strong>red</strong>itar o <strong>de</strong>sprestigiar…” En<br />

37 RJ 2009\5836.<br />

38 JUR 2007\238832.


240 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

este caso se constata <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor y se proce<strong>de</strong> a con<strong>de</strong>nar al mo<strong>de</strong>rador<br />

<strong>de</strong>l foro porque tenía constancia <strong>de</strong> los comentarios y no los eliminó cuando correspondía.<br />

La in<strong>de</strong>mnización que establece el juez es <strong>de</strong> seis mil euros.<br />

Las sentencias comentadas eran supuestos más o menos c<strong>la</strong>ros <strong>de</strong> lesión <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

honor. No obstante, existen <strong>otros</strong> en los que <strong>la</strong> línea es difusa. Por ejemplo, el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> STS<br />

<strong>de</strong> 28 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2008 39 conocía <strong>de</strong>l recurso interpuesto por una asociación <strong>de</strong> miembros<br />

<strong>de</strong> personas con una discapacidad concreta frente a una persona que había sido expulsada<br />

<strong>de</strong> dicha confe<strong>de</strong>ración. Dicha persona envía a través <strong>de</strong> correo electrónico el siguiente<br />

texto a varias fe<strong>de</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> personas con discapacidad: “Consejo <strong>de</strong>l Sordo Mu(n)do: Un<br />

Imanol se echa un Ernesto, tiene <strong>la</strong> requera muy so<strong>la</strong>, y comunicando con <strong>la</strong> mano, nunca<br />

dos veces siembra bo<strong>la</strong>... Hay allá un solitario Elisa, y otro campo <strong>de</strong> Trinidad; ya, rápido,<br />

pierdo el tino si no me acojo a los orales... Hay, también, una peregrina Rosada, que viene <strong>de</strong><br />

oriente; Silencio cómplice, tiene espina <strong>para</strong> expulsar al disi<strong>de</strong>nte. Sombra <strong>de</strong> Gabrie<strong>la</strong> tiene<br />

el soto, y también una mesa <strong>de</strong> granado; mira cómo manipu<strong>la</strong> el voto, que nos tratan como a<br />

ganado. Porque ésa es una ma<strong>la</strong> tierra, cerrada, ignorante y soberbia; don<strong>de</strong> si osan arar con<br />

Pedro Jesús... nos pi<strong>de</strong>n obligada Bernardo”. El Juzgado <strong>de</strong> Primera Instancia otorga <strong>la</strong> razón<br />

a <strong>la</strong> asociación <strong>de</strong>mandante al enten<strong>de</strong>r que existía intromisión ilegítima en el <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

honor, pero <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial revoca <strong>la</strong> misma por consi<strong>de</strong>rar que <strong>la</strong>s expresiones vertidas<br />

no constituyen dicha intromisión, sino que es una crítica satírica y burlesca. El Tribunal<br />

Supremo resuelve en <strong>la</strong> misma línea que <strong>la</strong> Audiencia, porque <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> analizar el conflicto<br />

que dio lugar a dichos versos entien<strong>de</strong> que “Estas imputaciones suponen una crítica molesta,<br />

<strong>de</strong>sabrida, inquietante, pero crítica al fin y al cabo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación llevada a cabo por <strong>la</strong> Junta<br />

Directiva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Confe<strong>de</strong>ración Nacional <strong>de</strong> Sordos <strong>de</strong> España, con respecto a una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fe<strong>de</strong>raciones<br />

que <strong>la</strong> integraba y que fue expulsada. Por tanto, <strong>la</strong>s expresiones utilizadas ni son innecesarias<br />

<strong>para</strong> realizar <strong>la</strong> crítica, ni son afrentosas, sino que encuadrándose <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l contexto <strong>de</strong> malestar<br />

por una expulsión <strong>de</strong> una fe<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> sordos y dirigidas a todas aquel<strong>la</strong>s fe<strong>de</strong>raciones con correo<br />

electrónico poniendo en conocimiento esta situación, <strong>de</strong> una manera ciertamente ingeniosa, no<br />

son más que una manifestación literaria <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

crítica que pue<strong>de</strong>n ejercitar personas que representan los intereses <strong>de</strong> otras y que han <strong>de</strong> soportar<br />

aquel<strong>la</strong>s personas con cargos <strong>de</strong> relevancia social”(FJ 2º) .<br />

El último <strong>de</strong> los casos que vamos a analizar y en el que se consi<strong>de</strong>ró que no hubo<br />

intromisión ilegítima en el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor fue <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2010<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> León 40 . En este supuesto en concreto un político <strong>de</strong>mandó al<br />

editor y director <strong>de</strong> una página web por <strong>la</strong>s expresiones contenidas en <strong>la</strong> misma, acusándole<br />

<strong>de</strong> enchufismo profiriendo comentarios como el “c<strong>la</strong>n <strong>de</strong>l enchufe”, <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> “varios<br />

casos <strong>de</strong> persecución y acoso que podrían suponer nuevos <strong>de</strong>litos <strong>de</strong> moobing”. En el foro <strong>de</strong><br />

dicha página web se comentaron dichas opiniones. Pues bien, el Tribunal como se ha a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>ntado<br />

anteriormente entien<strong>de</strong> que no hay intromisión ilegítima por los siguientes argumen-<br />

39 RJ 2008\6940.<br />

40 JUR 2010\374782.


Derecho al honor vs Derecho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

241<br />

tos: “Es indudable que <strong>la</strong> noticia referida a <strong>la</strong>s formas y procedimientos que permitieron a <strong>de</strong>terminadas<br />

personas, re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con vínculos familiares con cargos públicos <strong>de</strong>l Ayuntamiento <strong>de</strong><br />

León, en este caso Dª Valle , esposa <strong>de</strong>l actor D. Maximiliano , Concejal <strong>de</strong> Hacienda, acce<strong>de</strong>r<br />

a un puesto <strong>de</strong> trabajo en el Ayuntamiento, y condiciones sa<strong>la</strong>riales <strong>de</strong>l mismo, máxime cuando<br />

ello se produce en un momento <strong>de</strong> recorte <strong>de</strong> personal, con <strong>de</strong>spidos <strong>de</strong> empleados, <strong>para</strong> <strong>red</strong>ucir el<br />

gasto publico, tiene un indudable interés general <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunidad. Junto a ello es también <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>stacar <strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>tiva veracidad <strong>de</strong> lo informado” (FJ 2º) y que “Finalmente, y por lo que respecta a<br />

los comentarios proce<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> personas anónimas, recogidos en el fundamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho segundo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia recurrida, y en los <strong>de</strong>staca <strong>la</strong> pluralidad <strong>de</strong> opiniones, incluso, en algunos casos,<br />

critica con <strong>la</strong> propia información facilitada en <strong>la</strong> pagina, y que por ello <strong>de</strong>ben interpretadas no<br />

ais<strong>la</strong>damente consi<strong>de</strong>radas, sino formando parte integrante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información publicada, y dado<br />

que no resultan indudablemente injuriosas, no se consi<strong>de</strong>ran tampoco suficientes <strong>para</strong> fundamentar<br />

el concepto <strong>de</strong> intromisión al honor <strong>de</strong>l recurrente, pues resulta indudable que tales expresiones<br />

no cabe conce<strong>de</strong>r<strong>la</strong>s mayor alcance que el que caracteriza a una critica dirigida a persona pública<br />

en función <strong>de</strong>l cargo <strong>de</strong>sempeñado en <strong>la</strong> vida política”. Se consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

am<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> crítica aunque sea consi<strong>de</strong>rada como molesta 41 .<br />

4. conclusiones<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al honor y <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión son <strong>de</strong>rechos que han estado y seguirán<br />

continuamente en conflicto, <strong>de</strong>terminar a priori cuál es el <strong>de</strong>recho que ha <strong>de</strong> prevalecer es<br />

muy difícil, por tanto habrá que estar al caso en concreto. Internet ha agravado esta situación<br />

ya que <strong>la</strong> difusión que se realiza <strong>de</strong> sus contenidos es mucho mayor, <strong>de</strong> este modo los comentarios<br />

que atentan contra el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor tienen una repercusión mayor y el daño que<br />

se pue<strong>de</strong> provocar es consi<strong>de</strong>rable. A esto hemos <strong>de</strong> añadir que muchas <strong>de</strong> estas conductas<br />

se escon<strong>de</strong>n en el anonimato <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona que vulnera dichos <strong>de</strong>rechos. Si bien es cierto<br />

que en nuestro Estado se está avanzando mucho en intentar erradicar dichas conductas,<br />

persiguiendo no sólo a los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios si no también al usuario anónimo que<br />

profiere dichos insultos, existe una zona difusa don<strong>de</strong> han <strong>de</strong> ser los tribunales los que han<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar si lo que prima es el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor o <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión.<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, algunas re<strong>de</strong>s sociales y páginas web conscientes <strong>de</strong> esta situación exigen<br />

un registro previo <strong>de</strong>l usuario, el cual <strong>de</strong>berá otorgar sus datos personales <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r opinar<br />

en el foros, blogs o simi<strong>la</strong>res. A<strong>de</strong>más, en <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s se reservan <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong><br />

eliminar los comentarios ofensivos, aunque siempre matizando que no son responsables <strong>de</strong><br />

los contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s páginas en cuestión.<br />

Si bien es cierto, que es un paso más <strong>para</strong> evitar <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor<br />

en Internet, siguen existiendo muchas páginas don<strong>de</strong> los comentarios ofensivos no son eliminados.<br />

No se trata <strong>de</strong> limitar <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, pero <strong>de</strong>terminadas conductas no<br />

41 En el mismo sentido se pue<strong>de</strong> ver <strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010 (RJ 2010\8029).


242 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben quedar am<strong>para</strong>das bajo dicha libertad. A pesar <strong>de</strong> los logros realizados aún queda<br />

mucho camino por recorrer, y encontrar una solución satisfactoria a este conflicto no será<br />

una <strong>la</strong>bor fácil.<br />

5. bibliografÍa<br />

Bustos Pueche, J.E. (2008). Manual sobre bienes y <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad. 2ª ed. Madrid:<br />

Manuales Jurídicos Dykinson.<br />

Comisión Europea. (1996). Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los menores y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> dignidad<br />

humana en los servicios audiovisuales y <strong>de</strong> información. Bruse<strong>la</strong>s, 16.10.1996 CoM(96)<br />

483 final.<br />

Comisión Europea. (1996). Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Consejo, al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo,<br />

al Comité Económico y Social y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones sobre Contenidos ilícitos y nocivos<br />

en Internet. Bruse<strong>la</strong>s, 16.10.1996 CoM (96) 487 final.<br />

Diez Picazo, L., Gullón Ballesteros, A. (2005). Sistema <strong>de</strong> Derecho Civil, vol.I. 3ª ed.<br />

Madrid: Tecnos.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Esteban, M.L. (1999). “La regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión en Internet<br />

en Estados Unidos y <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”, Revista <strong>de</strong> Estudios Políticos (Nueva Época). Nº.<br />

103, enero-marzo, 1999, pp. 149-169.<br />

Herrero-Tejedor, F. (1994). Honor, Intimidad y Propia Imagen, 2ª ed. Madrid: Colex.<br />

o’cal<strong>la</strong>ghan Muñoz, X. (1991). Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión y sus límites: honor, intimidad e<br />

imagen, Madrid: EDERSA.<br />

Pardo Falcón, J. (2009). “Los <strong>de</strong>rechos al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong><br />

propia imagen”. En: Casas Baamon<strong>de</strong>, M.E., Rodríguez-Piñero y Bravo-Ferrer,<br />

M. (dir.). Pérez Manzano, M., Borrajo Iniesta, I. (coord). Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Constitución<br />

Españo<strong>la</strong> XXX Aniversario. Madrid: Wolters Kluwer, pp. 414-429.<br />

Solove, D.J. (2007). The future of reputation: gossip, rumor and privacy on the Internet. New<br />

Haven and London: Yale University Press.<br />

Vera Santos, J.M. (2005) “Derechos Fundamentales, Internet y Nuevas Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Información y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación”. En: García Mexía, P. (Dir.). Principios <strong>de</strong> Derecho<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet .2º ed. Valencia: Tirant lo B<strong>la</strong>nch, pp. 189-246.<br />

Vil<strong>la</strong>ver<strong>de</strong> Menén<strong>de</strong>z, I. (2009).“La libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión”. En: Casas Baamon<strong>de</strong>, M.E.,<br />

Rodríguez-Piñero Y Bravo-Ferrer, M.(Dir.) Pérez Manzano, M., Borrajo Iniesta,<br />

I. (coord.). Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Constitución Españo<strong>la</strong> XXX aniversario. Madrid: Wolters<br />

Kluwer, pp. 472-502.


13<br />

lA teNsIóN eNtre ImPUNIDAD eN lA reD y<br />

lImItACIóN De lA lIBertAD De exPresIóN<br />

Mª Dolores Pa<strong>la</strong>cios González<br />

Profesora Titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho Civil, Universidad <strong>de</strong> Oviedo<br />

resumen: La Ley 34/2002 exime <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad a los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información por los datos ajenos que transmitan, copien, almacenen o a<br />

los que remitan o en<strong>la</strong>cen, salvo que concurran <strong>de</strong>terminadas circunstancias. En caso <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

alojamiento o almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos o que faciliten en<strong>la</strong>ces a <strong>otros</strong> contenidos o incluyan en los<br />

suyos directorios o instrumentos <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, sí podrán respon<strong>de</strong>r, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> normativa aplicable<br />

en función <strong>de</strong>l bien jurídico lesionado, si se prueba el conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información o que, aún conociéndolo, no actuaron con diligencia <strong>para</strong> evitar su visibilidad. Aunque<br />

<strong>la</strong> Ley parece <strong>red</strong>ucir <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itar el conocimiento a que exista una resolución <strong>de</strong> un<br />

órgano competente y conocida por el prestador en que se <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re <strong>la</strong> ilicitud, el Tribunal Supremo<br />

mantiene que pue<strong>de</strong> probarse por cualquier medio. Como esta interpretación conlleva un riesgo <strong>para</strong><br />

el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> expresión y <strong>de</strong> información, los tribunales habrán <strong>de</strong> ser especialmente<br />

cautos tanto <strong>para</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>r probado el conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud, aún cuando pueda hacerse por<br />

medios indiciarios, como <strong>para</strong> apreciar <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> diligencia en retirar los datos o impedir el acceso a<br />

ellos. De otro <strong>la</strong>do, sobre todo si los <strong>de</strong>rechos vulnerados son <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, a <strong>la</strong> víctima no<br />

<strong>de</strong>be exigírsele otra actuación que <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> comunicar al prestador, con <strong>la</strong> mayor precisión posible pero<br />

por cualquier medio que, en su opinión, se ha producido <strong>la</strong> lesión.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: Internet, sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación,<br />

responsabilidad, honor, intimidad, <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> imagen, libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión, libertad <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

1. introducción<br />

El ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> expresión e información recogidas en el artículo 20 <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Constitución tiene un campo <strong>de</strong> actuación extraordinario en el entorno <strong>de</strong> Internet. De<br />

hecho, <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> constituye una herramienta a día <strong>de</strong> hoy imprescindible <strong>para</strong> el ejercicio <strong>de</strong><br />

unas liberta<strong>de</strong>s cuya trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia en or<strong>de</strong>n a <strong>la</strong> formación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión pública ha sido<br />

especialmente resaltada por el Tribunal Constitucional 1 . En <strong>la</strong> otra cara <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> moneda y<br />

como límite a <strong>la</strong>s mismas se encuentran los <strong>de</strong>rechos recogidos en el artículo 18: el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen.<br />

La armonización o coordinación <strong>de</strong> estos <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s que, como es bien sabido,<br />

ha dado lugar a una profusa jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia tanto <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo como <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Tribunal Constitucional, no p<strong>la</strong>ntea en Internet, en principio, problemas diferentes <strong>de</strong> los<br />

1 Vid. por todas, SSTC 42/1995 <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> febrero (FJ 1) y 176/1995 <strong>de</strong> 11 <strong>de</strong> diciembre (FJ 4).


244 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

que hay que afrontar cuando se utiliza cualquier otro medio <strong>de</strong> comunicación. Pero <strong>la</strong>s peculiarida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>la</strong>s variadas posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> operar que ofrece –crear y gestionar una<br />

página web, un blog o un foro, intervenir y realizar manifestaciones en los <strong>de</strong> otras personas,<br />

utilizar el chat, el messenger o el correo electrónico, “subir” información a p<strong>la</strong>taformas como<br />

“youtube”, integrarse en una <strong>red</strong> social, etc.– y el hecho <strong>de</strong> que sea siempre necesario utilizar<br />

los medios que proporciona un prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información, sí da lugar a cuestiones específicas <strong>de</strong> carácter jurídico, que son <strong>la</strong>s que aquí<br />

se abordan.<br />

En Internet muchas veces se actúa <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el anonimato. Así que, pese a <strong>la</strong> posibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> rastrear <strong>la</strong> dirección IP <strong>de</strong> un or<strong>de</strong>nador, <strong>de</strong> manera que es posible llegar a saber <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong><br />

don<strong>de</strong> se ha emitido una <strong>de</strong>terminada información, pue<strong>de</strong> resultar difícil establecer <strong>la</strong> autoría<br />

concreta <strong>de</strong> los contenidos incorporados. En caso <strong>de</strong> que vulneren <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> terceros<br />

podría incluso p<strong>la</strong>ntearse <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r o <strong>de</strong> quien, <strong>de</strong> hecho, ejerce dominio<br />

o control sobre el a<strong>para</strong>to <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el que se envía <strong>la</strong> información.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, aún cuando no haya duda <strong>de</strong>l autor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información también pue<strong>de</strong> resultar<br />

problemática <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>puración <strong>de</strong> otras eventuales responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> potencial<br />

ca<strong>de</strong>na <strong>de</strong> intervinientes. Pue<strong>de</strong>n intervenir: quien directamente realiza manifestaciones<br />

o “cuelga” <strong>la</strong>s imágenes –en página web propia o ajena, en un blog, en un foro, en una <strong>red</strong><br />

social, por medio <strong>de</strong>l correo electrónico, etc.–, quien gestiona, administra o mo<strong>de</strong>ra los<br />

contenidos permitiendo su acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y, con carácter más general, los prestadores <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación.<br />

2. Posibles resPonsables en caso <strong>de</strong> Vulneración <strong>de</strong>l Honor, <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad o <strong>la</strong> imagen<br />

En primer lugar y siempre que se cump<strong>la</strong>n todos los requisitos o circunstancias necesarios<br />

<strong>para</strong> ello, <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad podrá imputarse a quien directamente realice <strong>la</strong>s manifestaciones<br />

lesivas o sitúe en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>la</strong>s imágenes no autorizadas: los proveedores <strong>de</strong> contenidos.<br />

También podría respon<strong>de</strong>r, en su caso, como proveedor <strong>de</strong> contenidos, el intermediario que<br />

los gestione e introduzca en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> o controle su introducción, poniendo <strong>la</strong> información a<br />

disposición <strong>de</strong> los usuarios.<br />

Por otra parte nos encontramos con los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que, según el Anexo a <strong>la</strong> Ley 34/2002 <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y Comercio Electrónico (LSSICE) son quienes facilitan <strong>la</strong> prestación o<br />

utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información o el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información,<br />

y concretamente <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas o jurídicas que permiten o facilitan el acceso a Internet<br />

y <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos por re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones (como los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

y los proveedores <strong>de</strong> acceso), <strong>la</strong> realización <strong>de</strong> copia temporal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s páginas<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet solicitadas por los usuarios, el hosting o alojamiento en los propios servidores <strong>de</strong><br />

datos, aplicaciones o servicios suministrados por <strong>otros</strong> (titu<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taformas y <strong>de</strong> webs,<br />

blogs o foros que no editan ni contro<strong>la</strong>n los contenidos con anterioridad a su publicación) o


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

<strong>la</strong> provisión <strong>de</strong> instrumentos <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, acceso y recopi<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> datos o <strong>de</strong> en<strong>la</strong>ces a <strong>otros</strong><br />

sitios <strong>de</strong> Internet (sería el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s webs con hipervínculos o buscadores como Google o<br />

Yahoo).<br />

3. rÉgimen <strong>de</strong> resPonsabilidad ciVil Por intromisiones<br />

ilegÍtimas realizadas a traVÉs <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

245<br />

A los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios en Internet que no reúnan <strong>la</strong>s características necesarias<br />

<strong>para</strong> ser consi<strong>de</strong>rados prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información les<br />

será <strong>de</strong> aplicación el régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad que en su caso corresponda en función<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud cometida, pero no el previsto en <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información.<br />

En caso <strong>de</strong> prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que no realicen<br />

funciones <strong>de</strong> intermediación sino <strong>de</strong> provisión <strong>de</strong> contenidos, el artículo 13 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

LSSICE remite al régimen general <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad, civil, penal o administrativo que<br />

proceda. En el ámbito civil, en los supuestos <strong>de</strong> daño extracontractual hemos <strong>de</strong> acudir<br />

por tanto a <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción prevista en los artículos 1902 y siguientes <strong>de</strong>l Código civil y,<br />

<strong>para</strong> el supuesto específico <strong>de</strong> lesión en el honor, intimidad o imagen, a <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica<br />

1/1982 <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> enero y, en su caso, el artículo 65 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 14/1966, <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> marzo,<br />

<strong>de</strong> prensa e imprenta.<br />

Por lo que se refiere a los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2000/31/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, que <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

transpone, prevé, precisamente con <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong> potenciar <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información,<br />

que no se les pue<strong>de</strong> imponer una obligación general <strong>de</strong> supervisión <strong>de</strong> los datos que transmitan<br />

o almacenen, ni <strong>de</strong> realizar búsquedas activas <strong>de</strong> hechos o activida<strong>de</strong>s ilícitas 2 . No<br />

obstante, sí se les pue<strong>de</strong> exigir <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> diligencia que en el or<strong>de</strong>namiento<br />

jurídico español se concreta en los artículos 14 a 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE. Centrándonos en los prestadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> alojamiento o almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos y en quienes facilitan en<strong>la</strong>ces<br />

a <strong>otros</strong> contenidos o incluyen en los suyos directorios o instrumentos <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, podrán<br />

ser responsables por <strong>la</strong> información almacenada a petición <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>stinatario o a <strong>la</strong> que dirijan<br />

a los <strong>de</strong>stinatarios <strong>de</strong> sus servicios si tienen conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> actividad o <strong>la</strong><br />

información almacenada o a <strong>la</strong> que remiten o recomiendan es ilícita o <strong>de</strong> que lesiona bienes<br />

o <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> un tercero susceptibles <strong>de</strong> in<strong>de</strong>mnización salvo que actúen con diligencia <strong>para</strong><br />

retirar los datos o hacer imposible el acceso a ellos o, en su caso, suprimir o inutilizar el en<strong>la</strong>ce<br />

correspondiente (arts. 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE).<br />

Se trata, pues, <strong>de</strong> un régimen específico <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad por hecho ajeno o, mejor,<br />

<strong>de</strong> exención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma salvo que se <strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias que <strong>la</strong> Ley recoge, y que se fundamenta<br />

en el principio <strong>de</strong> neutralidad tecnológica y en <strong>la</strong> mencionada inexistencia <strong>de</strong> una<br />

2 Cfr. artículo 15 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva.


246 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

obligación general <strong>de</strong> supervisión <strong>de</strong> los contenidos por parte <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> intermediación 3 .<br />

No obstante lo anterior, hay que tener en cuenta que <strong>para</strong> que a estos servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación<br />

les sea <strong>de</strong> aplicación <strong>la</strong> LSSICE tiene que tratarse <strong>de</strong> prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y, por tanto, según el anexo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley, ha <strong>de</strong> tratarse <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios prestados normalmente a título oneroso, a distancia, por vía electrónica y a petición<br />

individual <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>stinatario, aunque el concepto <strong>de</strong> servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

compren<strong>de</strong> también los no remunerados por sus <strong>de</strong>stinatarios en <strong>la</strong> medida en que constituyan<br />

una actividad económica <strong>para</strong> el prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios. Si bien no existe discrepancia<br />

en consi<strong>de</strong>rar que los servicios constituyen una actividad económica <strong>para</strong> el titu<strong>la</strong>r tanto si<br />

éste recibe ingresos directamente como <strong>de</strong> forma indirecta –aquí entraría tanto el comercio<br />

electrónico como <strong>la</strong>s informaciones o comunicaciones comerciales y también <strong>la</strong> recepción<br />

<strong>de</strong> emolumentos por publicidad o patrocinio– se ha <strong>de</strong>fendido que no se podría hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong><br />

un servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en caso <strong>de</strong> que los beneficios que se obtienen<br />

mediante <strong>la</strong> publicidad alojada en el sitio web no sean relevantes 4 . En sentido contrario, <strong>la</strong><br />

sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Lugo <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2009 parece inclinarse por<br />

enten<strong>de</strong>r que si se recurre a banners publicitarios <strong>la</strong> actuación constituye en todo caso una<br />

actividad económica <strong>para</strong> el prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios 5 . La postura que se adopte tiene trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el momento en que el régimen jurídico es diferente en uno y otro caso. Por<br />

un <strong>la</strong>do, el prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información tiene unas obligaciones<br />

legales específicas establecidas en <strong>la</strong> LSSICE pero, por otro, el mismo texto legal configura<br />

un régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad también especial, menos gravoso que el general <strong>de</strong> manera<br />

que, como ha seña<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong> doctrina, si <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s exoneratorias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE previstas <strong>para</strong><br />

los prestadores profesionales no se aplican a los “aficionados” se estará configurando un régimen<br />

más benévolo <strong>para</strong> quienes realizan una actividad económica que <strong>para</strong> quienes no lo<br />

hacen, en abierta contradicción con los principios que inspiran nuestro <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> daños 6 .<br />

Por esta razón, teniendo en cuenta que <strong>la</strong> reg<strong>la</strong> básica <strong>de</strong> exención <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación no se fundamenta en el carácter económico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

actividad sino en su carácter meramente técnico o instrumental y en <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong> potenciar<br />

y facilitar los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, se <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación analógica<br />

<strong>de</strong> este régimen a todo prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación, con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> que<br />

<strong>la</strong> actividad realizada se pueda calificar o no como actividad económica 7 .<br />

3 Vid. consi<strong>de</strong>randos 42 y siguientes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2000/31 <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, cit<br />

4 Cfr. CAVANILLAS MÚJICA, S. (2007). “La responsabilidad civil en internet”. En : La responsabilidad<br />

civil y su problemática actual (coord. Juan Antonio Moreno Martínez). 1ª ed., Madrid: Dykinson,<br />

pág. 105.<br />

5 Las sentencias a que se remite esta comunicación pue<strong>de</strong>n consultarse en www.west<strong>la</strong>w.es.<br />

6 CAVANILLAS MÚJICA, S. (2007), “La responsabilidad ...”, cit., p.108.<br />

7 Cfr. PEGUERA PoCH, M. (2007). “Solo sé que no sé nada (efectivamente): <strong>la</strong> apreciación <strong>de</strong>l<br />

conocimiento efectivo y <strong>otros</strong> problemas en <strong>la</strong> aplicación judicial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSI”, IDP Revista d’Internet,<br />

Dret i Política núm. 5 (http: www.uoc.edu/idp/5/dt/esp/peguera.pdf). Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 19 <strong>de</strong> mayo


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

247<br />

Queda, por último, por <strong>de</strong>terminar cuál es <strong>la</strong> normativa aplicable en este mismo ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad civil <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios que antes <strong>de</strong><br />

hacer visible en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>la</strong> información suministrada por terceros filtran su contenido <strong>de</strong>cidiendo<br />

si se publica o no. Sería el caso, por ejemplo, <strong>de</strong> los foros o blogs mo<strong>de</strong>rados “a priori”<br />

o <strong>de</strong> los comentarios <strong>de</strong> noticias <strong>de</strong> muchos diarios digitales. La cuestión se p<strong>la</strong>ntea porque<br />

si, como hemos dicho, <strong>la</strong> exoneración <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad que prevén con carácter general los<br />

artículos 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE se fundamenta en <strong>la</strong> actividad meramente técnica <strong>de</strong>l prestador<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que no tiene conocimiento ni control <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información transmitida o almacenada, <strong>la</strong> consecuencia lógica ha <strong>de</strong> ser que <strong>la</strong> exoneración<br />

no operará cuando el prestador sí tenga ese conocimiento o control.<br />

Entiendo que con <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción legal no sólo no existe problema <strong>para</strong> mantener esta<br />

posición sino que pue<strong>de</strong> hacerse, y se ha hecho, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una triple fundamentación.<br />

Es <strong>de</strong>fendible que en estos casos entre en aplicación el apartado 2 <strong>de</strong> los artículos 16<br />

y 17, en el que se establece que <strong>la</strong> exención <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad prevista en el apartado 1 no<br />

proce<strong>de</strong> cuando el <strong>de</strong>stinatario <strong>de</strong>l servicio “actúe bajo <strong>la</strong> dirección, autoridad o control <strong>de</strong><br />

su prestador”. La interpretación <strong>de</strong> esta excepción a <strong>la</strong> exención requiere <strong>de</strong>terminar en qué<br />

casos ha <strong>de</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>rse que el usuario, cuando realiza <strong>la</strong> conducta ilícita, se encuentra en<br />

esa situación. La solución a que se llegue <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>rá <strong>de</strong> que se interprete que <strong>la</strong> dirección,<br />

autoridad o control que el prestador ejerza sobre el <strong>de</strong>stinatario se refiere bien a su actividad<br />

general o a una parce<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma, aunque no necesariamente sobre el hecho concreto<br />

<strong>de</strong> incorporar los datos a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> –dirección o control <strong>la</strong>boral, administrativo, contractual,<br />

familiar, como miembro <strong>de</strong> una asociación o fundación, etc.– o bien que incluya también <strong>la</strong><br />

actuación puntual <strong>de</strong> introducir en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> los contenidos ilícitos o dañosos <strong>para</strong> terceros, sin<br />

que en <strong>otros</strong> ámbitos exista ningún tipo <strong>de</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ción entre el prestador y el <strong>de</strong>stinatario. Si se<br />

acoge <strong>la</strong> interpretación amplia que permita incluir todos los supuestos, junto a situaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> dirección, autoridad o control <strong>la</strong>boral, administrativo, familiar o <strong>de</strong> otro or<strong>de</strong>n 8 , estarían<br />

también incluidos los casos en que el prestador no se limite a servir <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma al usuario<br />

sino que también supervisa los contenidos –o, cuanto menos, asume <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong><br />

hacerlo– antes <strong>de</strong> que resulten visibles en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. El <strong>de</strong>stinatario <strong>de</strong>l servicio que introduce<br />

<strong>la</strong> información actúa, pues, bajo el control <strong>de</strong> un prestador que, aunque no está obligado<br />

legalmente, ha <strong>de</strong>cidido libremente hacer suya <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> manera que<br />

si los contenidos son ilícitos o lesivos <strong>para</strong> terceras personas respon<strong>de</strong>rá junto con el autor<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2011. En el mismo sentido RoDRÍGUEZ DE LAS HERAS, T. (2011). “Intermediación en <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> y responsabilidad civil. Sobre <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s generales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad a <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> intermediación en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>”. En: I Congreso sobre <strong>la</strong>s Nuevas Tecnologías y sus repercusiones en<br />

el seguro: Internet, Biotecnología y Nanotecnología. Madrid: Fundación Mapfre, p.47.<br />

8 En estos casos se produce un supuesto <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad civil por hecho ajeno que cabría reconducir<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s generales <strong>de</strong>l artículo 1903 <strong>de</strong>l Código civil. En este sentido pue<strong>de</strong> verse GRIMALT<br />

SERVERA, P. (2011). “La responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información”. En: El Derecho a <strong>la</strong> imagen <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> todos los Puntos <strong>de</strong> Vista (coord.: Ve<strong>red</strong>a y Beamonte).<br />

Madrid: Thomson Reuters, p.184.


248 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

salvo que su conducta esté am<strong>para</strong>da por <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> doctrina <strong>de</strong>l reportaje neutral.<br />

En estos casos entiendo que resulta plenamente aplicable el artículo 65 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Prensa<br />

en tanto en cuanto el prestador no actúa como intermediario sino como editor 9 .<br />

Si no se comparte esta interpretación y se entien<strong>de</strong> que el apartado 2 <strong>de</strong> los artículos 16<br />

y 17 no está pensado <strong>para</strong> estos supuestos 10 , podrá llegarse al mismo resultado si se consi<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

que el hecho <strong>de</strong> supervisar previamente los contenidos y <strong>de</strong>cidir su visibilidad exce<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mera<br />

intermediación y hace equi<strong>para</strong>ble <strong>la</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong>l prestador a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>l proveedor <strong>de</strong> contenidos<br />

11 . Así, el régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad será también el general <strong>de</strong>l Código civil por hecho<br />

propio 12 y, en el ámbito concreto <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l honor, intimidad e imagen, el recogido<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 1/1982 <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo y, en su caso, el artículo 65 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Prensa.<br />

Una tercera posibilidad es que, aun cuando se consi<strong>de</strong>re plenamente aplicable el régimen<br />

previsto en los artículos 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley, el hecho <strong>de</strong> conocer previamente el contenido<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong>cidir su publicación pue<strong>de</strong> constituir prueba <strong>de</strong>l “conocimiento<br />

efectivo” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> diligencia <strong>de</strong>l prestador <strong>para</strong> evitar su difusión, lo que<br />

llevará a que pueda ser <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rado responsable.<br />

En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, lo que aquí se mantiene es que en el caso <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información incorporada<br />

a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> por un tercero haya sido previamente filtrada por el prestador, a este último<br />

no le será aplicable directamente <strong>la</strong> exención <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad prevista en el artículo 16<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley. En esta línea se sitúa <strong>la</strong> reciente sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid<br />

9 El Tribunal Constitucional ha justificado <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad solidaria <strong>de</strong>l medio y <strong>de</strong>l editor en <strong>la</strong> culpa<br />

propia precisamente por no ser ajenos al contenido <strong>de</strong> información y opinión que se emite (STC<br />

17 y 172/1990 <strong>de</strong> 12 <strong>de</strong> noviembre). La Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Lugo <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2009 excluye<br />

expresamente cualquier <strong>para</strong>lelismo entre <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong> los administradores <strong>de</strong> un foro y <strong>la</strong> ley <strong>de</strong><br />

prensa escrita, pero en el caso concreto que se examinaba el foro no estaba mo<strong>de</strong>rado y precisamente<br />

<strong>la</strong> exclusión se justifica en que “mientras que el editor –en <strong>la</strong> prensa escrita– en sí tiene una faculta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

inherentes <strong>de</strong> dirección y supervisión <strong>de</strong> los contenidos expuestos, en el caso <strong>de</strong>l foro no pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

<strong>de</strong>cidir lo que se publica o no”.<br />

10 En el caso resuelto en <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2010, en<br />

que son <strong>de</strong>mandados <strong>la</strong> empresa titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web y <strong>de</strong> su dominio y también al mo<strong>de</strong>rador <strong>de</strong>l<br />

concreto foro en el que se habían vertido <strong>la</strong>s opiniones discutidas, <strong>la</strong> Sa<strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ra que pese a que el<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>rador se reserva el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> eliminar los mensajes en los que se realicen ataques personales o<br />

se insulte a <strong>otros</strong> usuarios que participen en el foro o se introduzcan contenidos que no tengan re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

con temas financieros o económicos, los usuarios que remitieron los mensajes controvertidos no<br />

habían actuado bajo su dirección, autoridad o control.<br />

11 Entien<strong>de</strong> GRIMALT SERVERA, P.(2011), que si los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> alojamiento, almacenamiento,<br />

en<strong>la</strong>ce o búsqueda asumen algún tipo <strong>de</strong> control <strong>de</strong> los contenidos entonces no será<br />

proce<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s exoneraciones previstas en los artículos 16 y 17 LSSICE porque, <strong>de</strong><br />

alguna manera, dichos prestadores habrán asumido los contenidos <strong>de</strong> esos terceros al no limitarse a<br />

actuar pasiva y automáticamente. (“La responsabilidad ..., cit., p.181).<br />

12 GRIMALT SERVERA, P. (“La responsabilidad…”, cit., p. 184) y CAVANILLAS MÚJICA, S.<br />

(2007) (“La responsabilidad ...”, cit., pp. 35 a 39) parecen <strong>de</strong>cantarse, por el contrario, por consi<strong>de</strong>rar<br />

que en estos casos el precepto aplicable habría <strong>de</strong> ser el 1903 <strong>de</strong>l Código civil que regu<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad<br />

por hecho ajeno.


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

249<br />

<strong>de</strong> 31 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011 que, en el ámbito civil, con<strong>de</strong>nó al titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l blog y <strong>la</strong> página web<br />

don<strong>de</strong> se aloja, a quien califica como co<strong>la</strong>borador necesario, sobre <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>mandado<br />

reconoció <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r técnicamente los contenidos y que en algún caso<br />

había censurado una opinión vertida al no enten<strong>de</strong>r que se hal<strong>la</strong>ra <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> línea<br />

que inspira el blog.<br />

En todo caso <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong>l intermediario se generará igualmente, si se dan los<br />

presupuestos <strong>para</strong> ello, aun cuando en <strong>la</strong> web, blog o foro se indique que el editor no es autor<br />

<strong>de</strong> los comentarios publicados y que no respon<strong>de</strong> al tratarse <strong>de</strong> opiniones <strong>de</strong> los usuarios, y<br />

también aunque se haya avisado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> que el texto sea respetuoso o <strong>de</strong> que no<br />

se admitirán mensajes ofensivos o contrarios a <strong>la</strong>s leyes, e incluso aunque el usuario haya<br />

enviado un documento exonerando <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad al prestador, máxime si se trata <strong>de</strong> un<br />

documento <strong>de</strong> adhesión, como es práctica en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.<br />

4. criterios <strong>de</strong> imPutación <strong>de</strong> resPonsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

Prestadores <strong>de</strong> serVicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación consistentes<br />

en alojamiento o almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos o ProPorcionar<br />

en<strong>la</strong>ces o instrumentos <strong>de</strong> bÚsQueda<br />

4.1. el conocimiento efectivo<br />

Según los artículos 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE se enten<strong>de</strong>rá que el prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios<br />

tiene conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actividad o <strong>la</strong> información cuando un órgano<br />

competente haya <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rado <strong>la</strong> ilicitud <strong>de</strong> los datos, or<strong>de</strong>nado su retirada o que se imposibilite<br />

el acceso a los mismos, o se hubiera <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rado <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lesión, y el prestador<br />

conociera <strong>la</strong> correspondiente resolución, sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> los procedimientos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>tección y<br />

retirada <strong>de</strong> contenidos que los prestadores apliquen en virtud <strong>de</strong> acuerdos voluntarios y <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>otros</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo que pudieran establecerse.<br />

Esta <strong>red</strong>acción legal se presta a dos interpretaciones. Según <strong>la</strong> primera, acogida en diversas<br />

resoluciones judiciales 13 , so<strong>la</strong>mente podrá consi<strong>de</strong>rarse que existe conocimiento efectivo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud por parte <strong>de</strong>l intermediario y, por tanto, cabría responsabilidad, cuando hayan<br />

existido el procedimiento y <strong>la</strong> resolución, conocida por el prestador, a que se refiere <strong>la</strong> Ley 14 .<br />

Según otra posición, ava<strong>la</strong>da por una parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> doctrina 15 y por <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Tribunal Supremo, <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong>l “conocimiento efectivo” ha <strong>de</strong> interpretarse en sentido<br />

13 Cfr. sentencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid 20 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2005 y <strong>de</strong> 19 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2010 y sentencia <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong>l mismo año <strong>de</strong>l Juzgado <strong>de</strong> los Mercantil nº 7 <strong>de</strong> Madrid.<br />

14 Cfr. CABANILLAS MÚJICA, S. (2007). “La responsabilidad ...”, cit., pp. 113 y ss. y LÓPEZ DE LA<br />

PEñA SALDÍAS, J.F. (2010). “Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión e Internet. Responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los prestadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. El caso putasgae”, (west<strong>la</strong>w, BIB 2010, 593), pp. 5-6.<br />

15 PEGUERA PoCH, M. (2007), “Sólo sé que no se nada...”, cit.; GRIMALT SERVERA, P. (2011).<br />

“La responsabilidad ...”, cit., p.188.


250 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

amplio. La LSSICE recoge una presunción <strong>de</strong> no conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud que <strong>de</strong>be ser<br />

<strong>de</strong>struida mediante prueba en contrario, pero esta prueba no tiene necesariamente que limitarse<br />

al hecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> una resolución conocida por el prestador sino que <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

admitirse otras posibilida<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

En su sentencia <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 el Tribunal Supremo dice expresamente<br />

que “no es conforme a <strong>la</strong> Directiva –cuyo objetivo es, al respecto, armonizar los regímenes<br />

<strong>de</strong> exención <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios– una interpretación <strong>de</strong>l apartado<br />

1 <strong>de</strong>l artículo 16 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 34/2002 como <strong>la</strong> propuesta por <strong>la</strong> recurrente, ya que <strong>red</strong>uce<br />

injustificadamente <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong>l “conocimiento efectivo” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud<br />

<strong>de</strong> los contenidos almacenados y amplía corre<strong>la</strong>tivamente el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> exención, en re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

con los términos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> norma armonizadora, que exige un efectivo conocimiento, pero<br />

sin restringir los instrumentos aptos <strong>para</strong> alcanzarlo. A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> que el propio artículo 16<br />

permite esa interpretación favorable a <strong>la</strong> Directiva –al <strong>de</strong>jar a salvo <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> “<strong>otros</strong><br />

medios <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo que pudieran establecerse”–, no cabe prescindir <strong>de</strong> que<br />

<strong>la</strong> misma atribuye igual valor que “al conocimiento efectivo” “a aquel que se obtiene por<br />

el prestador <strong>de</strong>l servicio a partir <strong>de</strong> hechos o circunstancias aptos <strong>para</strong> posibilitar, aunque<br />

mediatamente o por inferencias lógicas al alcance <strong>de</strong> cualquiera, una efectiva aprehensión <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> realidad <strong>de</strong> que se trate” 16 .<br />

Posteriormente, <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2010, sin perjuicio<br />

<strong>de</strong> no con<strong>de</strong>nar al titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página web <strong>de</strong>mandado <strong>de</strong>bido a cómo se habían<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do los acontecimientos en el caso concreto, aduce que “en <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong><br />

diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 nos pronunciamos sobre <strong>la</strong> interpretación <strong>de</strong> ese artículo 16 conforme a<br />

<strong>la</strong> Directiva 2000/31(CE), en lo referente al conocimiento efectivo”, manifestación que pese<br />

a su irrelevancia <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una perspectiva jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial, no <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> implicar <strong>la</strong> confirmación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> interpretación mencionada.<br />

La última sentencia <strong>de</strong>l alto tribunal sobre el tema, que <strong>de</strong>finitivamente <strong>de</strong>ja fijada<br />

<strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia sobre esta cuestión, es <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011. En re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s<br />

16 La Sociedad General <strong>de</strong> Autores <strong>de</strong> España (SGAE) había presentado una <strong>de</strong>manda contra <strong>la</strong> Asociación<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internautas como titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l dominio <strong>de</strong> página web que alojaba otras direcciones gestionadas<br />

a su vez por <strong>la</strong> “P<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> coordinación <strong>de</strong> movilizaciones contra <strong>la</strong> SGAE” por medio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s que,<br />

tanto con el nombre <strong>de</strong> una <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s (putasgae.org) como con los contenidos se había atentado contra<br />

el prestigio profesional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandante. La Asociación resultó con<strong>de</strong>nada en aplicación <strong>de</strong>l artículo<br />

16 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE pese a sus alegaciones en cuanto a que no es titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> una página web sino <strong>de</strong>l dominio<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l servidor <strong>de</strong> Internet en que pue<strong>de</strong> localizarse mediante el nombre <strong>de</strong> dominio <strong>de</strong> una página<br />

cuya Internet Protocolo o IP está situado en Internet y que realmente actúa como un simple “mirror”<br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos e<strong>la</strong>borados por otro, sin tomar parte en su e<strong>la</strong>boración ni divulgación, manteniendo <strong>la</strong><br />

neutralidad y realizando una simple gestión técnica, <strong>de</strong> manera que imponerle un control efectivo <strong>de</strong><br />

los pensamientos, i<strong>de</strong>as u opiniones exteriorizadas por terceros constituiría una censura previa contraria<br />

al <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. Con anterioridad a esta sentencia se habían manifestado en el<br />

mismo sentido <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid en sentencia <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 o <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />

Lugo en <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2009. Posteriormente, sentencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Barcelona<br />

<strong>de</strong> 3 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2010 o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2010.


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

251<br />

manifestaciones y una fotografía <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>mandante con <strong>la</strong> cabeza cortada, alojadas en un foro<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet por participantes anónimos e indiscutidamente atentatorias contra el honor <strong>de</strong><br />

aquél, el Tribunal Supremo se remite a <strong>la</strong> doctrina establecida en sus dos sentencias anteriores.<br />

Reitera que el artículo 16 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 34/2002 permite una interpretación favorable a <strong>la</strong><br />

Directiva que no restrinja los instrumentos aptos <strong>para</strong> alcanzar el conocimiento efectivo que<br />

fundamenta <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong>l prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> alojamiento o almacenamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos. Al enten<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l alto tribunal, con <strong>la</strong> expresión “<strong>otros</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> conocimiento<br />

efectivo que pudieran establecerse”, se atribuye igual valor que al “conocimiento efectivo” “a<br />

aquel que se obtiene por el prestador <strong>de</strong>l servicio a partir <strong>de</strong> hechos o circunstancias aptos<br />

<strong>para</strong> posibilitar, aunque mediatamente o por inferencias lógicas al alcance <strong>de</strong> cualquiera, una<br />

efectiva aprehensión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> realidad <strong>de</strong> que se trate”. Admite asimismo que se atribuya ese<br />

mismo valor reve<strong>la</strong>dor a los contenidos almacenados o en<strong>la</strong>zados por ser su ilicitud patente<br />

y evi<strong>de</strong>nte por sí so<strong>la</strong>, “al no <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> datos o información que no se encuentren a disposición<br />

<strong>de</strong>l intermediario”.<br />

Indudablemente <strong>la</strong>s dos posturas expuestas p<strong>la</strong>ntean dudas y presentan inconvenientes,<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> seguridad jurídica que evi<strong>de</strong>ncia el hecho <strong>de</strong> que existan dos posibilida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

interpretativas, aun cuando a día <strong>de</strong> hoy el Tribunal Supremo ya se haya <strong>de</strong>cantado<br />

por una <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s.<br />

La tesis <strong>de</strong> que el conocimiento efectivo so<strong>la</strong>mente pueda ac<strong>red</strong>itarse con <strong>la</strong> existencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> una resolución, que en principio parece más objetiva y, por tanto, más segura, no<br />

solo genera el riesgo <strong>de</strong> que casi impunemente se pueda atentar en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> contra <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

que incluso pue<strong>de</strong>n ser fundamentales y <strong>de</strong>rivados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia dignidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona<br />

como son el honor, <strong>la</strong> intimidad o <strong>la</strong> propia imagen, sino que también resulta difícil <strong>de</strong><br />

mantener, pese a <strong>la</strong> literalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ley españo<strong>la</strong> 17 , si se interpreta <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

comunitaria que transpone. La Directiva posibilita en el artículo 14 que también<br />

opere <strong>la</strong> exención sobre <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong> un conocimiento indiciario <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el momento en que<br />

en lo que se refiere a una acción <strong>de</strong> in<strong>de</strong>mnización por daños y perjuicios alu<strong>de</strong> al “conocimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> hechos o circunstancias que revelen <strong>la</strong> ilicitud” 18 . Si una persona entien<strong>de</strong> que<br />

17 Lo cierto es que el confuso primer apartado <strong>de</strong> los artículos 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSI cuando se refiere<br />

a “<strong>otros</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo que pudieran establecerse”, inciso en que se ha basado el<br />

Tribunal Supremo <strong>para</strong> mantener su interpretación extensa, más que prever con carácter general otras<br />

posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud por parte <strong>de</strong>l prestador, distintas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> una resolución dictada por un órgano competente, parece referirse al supuesto en que en <strong>la</strong> misma<br />

u otras normas se prevean expresamente, algo que al menos en <strong>la</strong> actualidad no ha sucedido.<br />

18 Así lo ha puesto <strong>de</strong> manifiesto el Tribunal Supremo al interpretar el artículo 16 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE y así<br />

parece enten<strong>de</strong>rlo también PEGUERA PoCH, M. (2007). “Sólo sé que no se nada …”, cit., p.10.<br />

También es cierto, como nos advierte CAVANILLAS MÚJICA, S. (2007), que <strong>la</strong> propia Directiva<br />

también dice, en el consi<strong>de</strong>rando 46, que “<strong>para</strong> beneficiarse <strong>de</strong> una limitación <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad,<br />

el prestador <strong>de</strong> un servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información consistente en el almacenamiento <strong>de</strong><br />

datos habrá <strong>de</strong> actuar con prontitud <strong>para</strong> retirar los datos <strong>de</strong> que se trate o impedir el acceso a ellos<br />

en cuanto tenga conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s ilícitas. La retirada <strong>de</strong> datos o <strong>la</strong> acción encaminada<br />

a impedir el acceso a los mismos habrá <strong>de</strong> llevarse a cabo respetando el principio <strong>de</strong> libertad


252 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

se ha atentado contra su honor, intimidad o imagen por medio <strong>de</strong> los contenidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información que proporciona un prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación y no conoce al<br />

autor <strong>de</strong> los mismos, aún cuando <strong>la</strong> lesión sea grave y patente no tendría otra posibilidad<br />

que solicitar <strong>de</strong>l juzgado que requiriese al prestador <strong>para</strong> que comunicase <strong>la</strong> dirección IP<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que se envía <strong>la</strong> información. Posteriormente habría <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandar al titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

citada dirección <strong>para</strong>, en caso <strong>de</strong> conseguir una sentencia con<strong>de</strong>natoria, comunicar<strong>la</strong> al<br />

prestador y requerirle <strong>para</strong> que <strong>la</strong> retire. Un <strong>la</strong>rgo y penoso peregrinaje <strong>para</strong> una persona<br />

cuyos <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales están siendo vulnerados.<br />

La otra posibilidad, que pueda ac<strong>red</strong>itarse <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo por<br />

cualquier medio, abre por el contrario un ámbito <strong>de</strong> inseguridad. Habrá que <strong>de</strong>terminar en<br />

cada caso concreto cuándo y en qué circunstancias se pue<strong>de</strong> enten<strong>de</strong>r que ha existido dicho<br />

conocimiento y, en caso <strong>de</strong> que se pruebe, si el prestador ha actuado con <strong>la</strong> diligencia necesaria<br />

y suficiente <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r eludir <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad. La Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Lugo, en<br />

<strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2009, ya comentada, no se p<strong>la</strong>ntea dudas acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo por parte <strong>de</strong> los administradores <strong>de</strong> una página web cuando se<br />

envían a <strong>la</strong> misma contenidos por correo electrónico y aquellos intervienen aceptándolos,<br />

abriéndolos y <strong>de</strong>cidiendo su publicación19 . Sin embargo, en el caso los administradores <strong>de</strong><br />

un foro fueron absueltos al no consi<strong>de</strong>rarse probado que tuviesen efectiva certeza <strong>de</strong>l carácter<br />

atentatorio contra el honor <strong>de</strong> los comentarios <strong>de</strong> algunos usuarios porque habían sido localizados<br />

rápidamente en una dirección <strong>de</strong> correo electrónico y los mensajes fueron retirados<br />

<strong>de</strong> forma inmediata tras <strong>la</strong> comunicación efectuada por <strong>la</strong> Guardia Civil.<br />

Algún autor, en principio favorable a <strong>la</strong> interpretación estricta, reconoce no obstante <strong>la</strong><br />

insuficiente c<strong>la</strong>ridad <strong>de</strong>l texto legal y propone una solución <strong>de</strong> compromiso postu<strong>la</strong>ndo que<br />

se <strong>de</strong>be exigir que el conocimiento efectivo se ac<strong>red</strong>ite siempre <strong>de</strong> manera positiva <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

que no se producirá dicho conocimiento por el mero hecho <strong>de</strong> que se notifique al intermediario<br />

<strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> unos materiales ilegales sino que dicha notificación ha <strong>de</strong> ser “seria” <strong>de</strong><br />

manera cualitativa – hecha por sujeto legitimado, <strong>de</strong> forma fehaciente y con aportación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información precisa <strong>para</strong> justificar <strong>la</strong> ilegalidad <strong>de</strong> los datos” –o cuantitativa– un número<br />

relevante <strong>de</strong> usuarios, <strong>de</strong> forma no concertada, l<strong>la</strong>man <strong>la</strong> atención sobre ciertos contenidos<br />

–y/o (el carácter alternativo o disyuntivo no aparece con c<strong>la</strong>ridad en <strong>la</strong> tesis <strong>de</strong>l autor)– existir<br />

“auto-evi<strong>de</strong>ncia” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilegalidad en el sentido <strong>de</strong> que resulte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> simple visión <strong>de</strong> los<br />

<strong>de</strong> expresión y los procedimientos establecidos a nivel nacional. La presente directiva no afecta a <strong>la</strong><br />

posibilidad <strong>de</strong> que los estados miembros establezca requisitos específicos que <strong>de</strong>berán cumplir con<br />

prontitud antes <strong>de</strong> retirar los datos <strong>de</strong> que se trate o se impida el acceso a los mismos”. CAVANILLAS<br />

l<strong>la</strong>ma <strong>la</strong> atención acerca <strong>de</strong> si lo que pue<strong>de</strong> haber querido el legis<strong>la</strong>dor español al limitar el concepto<br />

<strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo no será precisamente fijar como “requisito específico” <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> una<br />

resolución judicial o administrativa que <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re ilícitos los materiales alojados. (“La responsabilidad…”,<br />

cit., p.113).<br />

19 Recor<strong>de</strong>mos que esta es <strong>la</strong> tercera posibilidad que aquí analizábamos <strong>para</strong> imputar responsabilidad a<br />

los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación que filtran <strong>la</strong> información antes <strong>de</strong> hacer<strong>la</strong> visible.


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

253<br />

materiales sin ningún género <strong>de</strong> dudas 20 . En <strong>la</strong> misma línea se ha <strong>de</strong>fendido también que <strong>la</strong><br />

carga <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mostrar con diligencia <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> una lesión <strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>rechos correspon<strong>de</strong> al<br />

perjudicado, que <strong>de</strong>berá i<strong>de</strong>ntificar razonablemente el contenido constitutivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud<br />

mediante <strong>la</strong> indicación pormenorizada <strong>de</strong> URLs u otra forma <strong>de</strong> facilitar <strong>la</strong> contrastación <strong>de</strong><br />

dicho contenido por parte <strong>de</strong>l ISP 21 .<br />

En mi opinión, al sujeto que estima que sus <strong>de</strong>rechos han sido vulnerados, teniendo en<br />

cuenta a<strong>de</strong>más que pue<strong>de</strong> tratarse <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, no pue<strong>de</strong> exigírsele otro comportamiento<br />

que el <strong>de</strong> poner en conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l prestador esta apreciación, por cualquier<br />

medio, aunque por supuesto con <strong>la</strong> mayor precisión posible <strong>para</strong> que resulte efectivo. Si se<br />

prueba que con esa comunicación, <strong>de</strong>l tipo que sea, o incluso sin el<strong>la</strong>, el prestador llegó a<br />

dicho conocimiento, será suficiente. otra cosa es que, <strong>para</strong> mayor seguridad, sea aconsejable<br />

que el ofendido realice un requerimiento en forma fehaciente.<br />

Por supuesto que en muchos casos lo único que podrá saberse con certeza es que el<br />

prestador conoce el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, pero no necesariamente su ilicitud. Por<br />

tanto habrá que probar también que dicho conocimiento basta por si solo <strong>para</strong> tener <strong>la</strong> seguridad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l carácter ilícito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que contiene, lo que únicamente ocurrirá cuando<br />

<strong>la</strong> infracción sea patente. Si no es así, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> una actuación<br />

ilícita <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>rá <strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>raciones jurídicas que el prestador pue<strong>de</strong> no estar en disposición<br />

<strong>de</strong> realizar. Basta con echar un vistazo a <strong>la</strong> copiosa y en no pocas ocasiones contradictoria jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

tanto <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo como <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional en re<strong>la</strong>ción con<br />

los límites entre los <strong>de</strong>rechos al honor, intimidad e imagen, por una parte, y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong><br />

expresión e información, por otra. Por poner solo un ejemplo, siempre es difícil <strong>de</strong>terminar<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lgada línea que se<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> crítica política virulenta, hiriente o <strong>de</strong>sabrida, pero admisible,<br />

<strong>de</strong> los insultos, ofensas o vejaciones intolerables. A<strong>de</strong>más, se ha apuntado también <strong>la</strong> posibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> dimensión internacional <strong>de</strong> Internet pueda exigir el manejo <strong>de</strong> distintas<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>ciones y doctrinas jurispru<strong>de</strong>nciales 22 .<br />

20 Cfr. CAVANILLAS MÚJICA, S. (2007). “La responsabilidad ...”, cit., p. 116.<br />

21 RUBÍ PUIG, A. (2010), “Derecho al honor online y responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> ISPs”, www.indret.<br />

com., pp.13 ss. El autor propone, al efecto, que los tribunales tengan en cuenta el régimen<br />

previsto en <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción norteamericana sobre responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

alojamiento por infracciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> autor (512(c)<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Digital Millennium Copyright<br />

Act (DMCA)) <strong>de</strong> manera que <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r calificar como diligente una comunicación por parte<br />

<strong>de</strong> quien consi<strong>de</strong>ra vulnerados sus <strong>de</strong>rechos ha <strong>de</strong> constar por escrito y contener elementos como<br />

una firma o firma electrónica <strong>de</strong>l perjudicado o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona autorizada a actuar en su nombre, y<br />

sus datos <strong>de</strong> contacto, en especial una dirección <strong>de</strong> correo electrónico; <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación completa<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona cuyos <strong>de</strong>rechos se han visto afectados; <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong>l contenido que se reputa<br />

ilícito y cuya retirada se solicita y, acaso, una <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> que el rec<strong>la</strong>mante cree <strong>de</strong> buena fe<br />

que <strong>la</strong>s manifestaciones son ilícitas y no están am<strong>para</strong>das, en su caso, por <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> información<br />

y <strong>de</strong> expresión.<br />

22 Cfr. CLEMENTE MEoRo, M. (2003). “La responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”. En: Responsabilidad civil y contratos en Internet. Su regu<strong>la</strong>ción en <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

<strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y Comercio Electrónico. Granada: Comares, p.40.


254 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4.2. <strong>la</strong> diligencia exigible al prestador<br />

Las resoluciones <strong>de</strong> los tribunales dictadas hasta el momento nos permiten establecer<br />

ya algunos supuestos jurispru<strong>de</strong>nciales <strong>de</strong> existencia o <strong>de</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> diligencia por parte <strong>de</strong>l<br />

prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación “<strong>para</strong> retirar los datos o hacer imposible el acceso<br />

a ellos” (art. 16.1 b) o “<strong>para</strong> suprimir o inutilizar el en<strong>la</strong>ce correspondiente” (art. 17.1 b).<br />

En primer lugar y sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s sanciones <strong>de</strong> carácter administrativo previstas en<br />

<strong>la</strong> LSSICE, el incumplimiento o cumplimiento <strong>de</strong>fectuoso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s obligaciones <strong>de</strong> los prestadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información previstas en el artículo 10 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> servir <strong>de</strong> base a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> diligencia cuando trae como consecuencia<br />

<strong>la</strong> imposibilidad o dificultad <strong>para</strong> que <strong>la</strong> persona que entien<strong>de</strong> que sus <strong>de</strong>rechos han<br />

sido vulnerados se ponga en contacto con aquellos 23 .<br />

También incumple el <strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> diligencia el prestador que siendo advertido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud<br />

no retira los datos con prontitud, haciendo imposible el acceso a ellos 24 , retirada que<br />

no será suficiente incluso aunque sea inmediata tras conocer <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda cuando el carácter<br />

lesivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información resulte patente <strong>para</strong> el prestador ya con anterioridad 25 . Esta última<br />

apreciación parece contraponerse con <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> quienes <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong>n que si se tiene en cuenta <strong>la</strong><br />

ausencia <strong>de</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación <strong>de</strong> supervisar los<br />

contenidos <strong>la</strong> carga <strong>de</strong> comunicar al prestador <strong>de</strong>l servicio <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información o<br />

actividad lesiva ha <strong>de</strong> recaer en todo caso sobre el posible afectado, salvo que lo haya hecho<br />

un tercero 26 pero, en realidad, todo <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias <strong>de</strong> cada caso concreto.<br />

Aunque no es exigible al prestador una intervención positiva <strong>de</strong> control <strong>de</strong> los contenidos y,<br />

por tanto, con carácter general no pue<strong>de</strong> presumirse <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> conocimiento efectivo<br />

23 Así ocurrió en el caso resuelto por <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011 en<br />

el que se con<strong>de</strong>nó al prestador en cuya página web so<strong>la</strong>mente se especificaba como contacto una dirección<br />

<strong>de</strong> correo electrónico que no probó que fuese eficaz y ello pese a que el <strong>de</strong>mandante pudo al<br />

final conocer su i<strong>de</strong>ntidad utilizando los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>tectives privados. En el mismo sentido pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

verse <strong>la</strong>s sentencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2008 y <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> abril<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2010.<br />

24 La sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2010 revoca <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial<br />

recurrida y absuelve al prestador en un supuesto en que en su página web se alojaban comentarios<br />

emitidos en contra <strong>de</strong> una entidad por alguien que falsamente se hacía pasar por abogado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma.<br />

Cuando el prestador fue requerido por el abogado sup<strong>la</strong>ntado <strong>para</strong> que retirase el comentario, <strong>la</strong><br />

información se retiró inmediatamente. También <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Barcelona<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2010 exoneró a un prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios por enten<strong>de</strong>r que había actuado con <strong>la</strong> diligencia <strong>de</strong>bida.<br />

25 En <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo <strong>de</strong> 9 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 <strong>la</strong> titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l dominio web en el que<br />

se alojaban <strong>la</strong>s direcciones que vulneraban <strong>de</strong>rechos fue con<strong>de</strong>nada pese a que había requerido a sus<br />

gestores nada más tener conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>manda que inició el procedimiento <strong>para</strong> que retirasen<br />

caute<strong>la</strong>rmente los contenidos que se consi<strong>de</strong>raban ilícitos. La con<strong>de</strong>na se fundamentó en que <strong>de</strong>l<br />

título insultante <strong>de</strong>l nombre <strong>de</strong> dominio (“putasgae”) y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias concurrentes, en especial<br />

<strong>la</strong> realidad <strong>de</strong> un conflicto entre <strong>la</strong> proveedora <strong>de</strong> contenidos y <strong>la</strong> entidad <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong><br />

propiedad intelectual <strong>de</strong>mandante, se <strong>de</strong>sprendía el tenor injurioso <strong>de</strong> los datos alojados.<br />

26 GRIMALT SERVERA, P. (2011). “La responsabilidad...”, cit., p. 190.


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

255<br />

hasta que <strong>la</strong> víctima u otra persona le comunique que está intermediando en <strong>la</strong> difusión<br />

<strong>de</strong> una información que vulnera los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> alguna persona, pue<strong>de</strong>n darse situaciones<br />

como <strong>la</strong> enjuiciada por el Tribunal Supremo en que el carácter ilícito <strong>de</strong> aquel<strong>la</strong> sea tan<br />

evi<strong>de</strong>nte que pueda llevar a consi<strong>de</strong>rar probado el conocimiento <strong>de</strong> dicha ilicitud. Pero <strong>para</strong><br />

ello habrá que tener en cuenta <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias específicas <strong>de</strong>l prestador y <strong>de</strong> su actividad,<br />

hechos tales como el volumen <strong>de</strong> información ajena que maneja, si <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> intermediación<br />

que realiza es profesional o no o si tiene o no capacidad <strong>de</strong> medios y económica <strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>tectar, con mayor o menor facilidad, <strong>la</strong> ilicitud <strong>de</strong> los datos.<br />

Por otra parte hay que tener en cuenta que, salvo que <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos sea<br />

patente, lo único que pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse probado es que el prestador tiene conocimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>stinatario consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>la</strong> vulneración ha existido, pero no que objetivamente<br />

se haya producido <strong>la</strong> intromisión. Como ya se ha seña<strong>la</strong>do, hay muchos casos en que expresiones<br />

muy duras y críticas, incluso <strong>de</strong> muy mal gusto, se han entendido am<strong>para</strong>das por<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. ¿Hay que enten<strong>de</strong>r que por el mero hecho <strong>de</strong> que quien se siente<br />

ofendido se dirija al prestador éste <strong>de</strong>ba retirar <strong>la</strong> información aún cuando tenga o pueda tener<br />

serias dudas <strong>de</strong> que realmente sea ilícita? Es indudable que una afirmación semejante en<br />

este sentido constituiría un grave riesgo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión. Es por esta razón que<br />

<strong>la</strong> Audiencia Provincial <strong>de</strong> Madrid, en <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2010, consi<strong>de</strong>ra que los<br />

supuestos en que el perjudicado se hubiera puesto en contacto con el prestador rec<strong>la</strong>mándole<br />

<strong>la</strong> retirada <strong>de</strong>l mensaje o dato que consi<strong>de</strong>re atentatorio a su <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

incluirse <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong>l prestador <strong>de</strong> servicios siempre y cuando se trate<br />

<strong>de</strong> un quebranto <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho que sea indiscutible, c<strong>la</strong>ro y f<strong>la</strong>grante y que en otro caso no<br />

respon<strong>de</strong>ría aunque el remitente <strong>de</strong>l mensaje fuera o <strong>de</strong>biera ser con<strong>de</strong>nado por intromisión<br />

ilegítima en el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental porque <strong>la</strong> ley no permite que se convierta al prestador<br />

<strong>de</strong>l servicio en Juez <strong>de</strong> los contenidos <strong>de</strong> su portal <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

5. consi<strong>de</strong>raciones finales<br />

En mi opinión, <strong>la</strong> a<strong>de</strong>cuada interpretación <strong>de</strong>l “conocimiento efectivo” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información o <strong>de</strong> su carácter lesivo <strong>para</strong> bienes o <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> un tercero susceptibles<br />

<strong>de</strong> in<strong>de</strong>mnización a que se refieren los artículos 16 y 17 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSSICE es <strong>la</strong> realizada por el<br />

Tribunal Supremo, pues es <strong>la</strong> única que resulta acor<strong>de</strong> con <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2000/31/CE. El titu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

<strong>de</strong> los bienes o <strong>de</strong>rechos lesionados podrá probar por cualquier medio, incluso indiciario,<br />

el conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lesión. Acoger <strong>la</strong> interpretación estricta significaría<br />

que <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong>l intermediario prestador <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>rá siempre <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong><br />

un procedimiento y una resolución aún cuando esté incluso co<strong>la</strong>borando activamente en <strong>la</strong><br />

vulneración <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos que, como en el caso <strong>de</strong>l honor, <strong>la</strong> intimidad o <strong>la</strong> imagen, tienen<br />

el carácter <strong>de</strong> fundamentales. A<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>la</strong> víctima se vería obligada a soportar <strong>la</strong> intromisión<br />

durante todo el tiempo que dure el procedimiento.<br />

Pero esta regu<strong>la</strong>ción genera un c<strong>la</strong>ro riesgo <strong>de</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

e información. Podría llevar a imponer a los intermediadores una obligación <strong>de</strong> control y va-


256 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

loración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> licitud <strong>de</strong> los contenidos ajenos, aunque sea “a posteriori”, que necesariamente<br />

ha <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>ntearse en términos jurídicos, algo que los prestadores pue<strong>de</strong>n no estar en disposición<br />

<strong>de</strong> hacer. No habrá problema si el conocimiento efectivo se <strong>de</strong>riva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> notificación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> resolución <strong>de</strong>l órgano competente a que se refiere <strong>la</strong> Ley, pero fuera <strong>de</strong> este supuesto aparecen<br />

dudas. Aun en el caso <strong>de</strong> que el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información sea notoria y patentemente<br />

ilícito, <strong>la</strong> presunción que opera a favor <strong>de</strong>l prestador exige que <strong>la</strong> víctima pruebe igualmente<br />

el conocimiento <strong>de</strong> aquél, aún cuando sea por medios indiciarios, pero en muchas ocasiones<br />

va a ser difícil a<strong>de</strong>más valorar si una <strong>de</strong>terminada información o imagen vulnera alguno <strong>de</strong><br />

los <strong>de</strong>rechos protegidos en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 1/1982.<br />

Tal y como están <strong>la</strong>s cosas es previsible que continúe <strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia, ya <strong>de</strong>tectada, a<br />

<strong>de</strong>mandar siempre a los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios e incluso únicamente a ellos frente al proveedor<br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos, incluso aunque pueda conocerse su i<strong>de</strong>ntidad. Y lo que pue<strong>de</strong> ocurrir<br />

es, o bien que preventivamente los intermediarios más cautos retiren contenidos que los tribunales<br />

hubiesen podido consi<strong>de</strong>rar lícitos, o bien que lo hagan ante cualquier rec<strong>la</strong>mación<br />

<strong>de</strong> una posible víctima, por poco fundada que sea.<br />

Para garantizar que <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

garantice realmente un espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, los tribunales han <strong>de</strong> ser especialmente rigurosos<br />

a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> dar por probada <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud, aún cuando pueda<br />

hacerse por medios indiciarios. Del mero conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información no<br />

<strong>de</strong>be inferirse directamente su contrariedad con el Derecho, salvo en casos muy patentes.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, en caso <strong>de</strong> que exista prueba <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento, el comportamiento diligente <strong>de</strong>l<br />

prestador <strong>para</strong> evitar <strong>la</strong> visibilidad <strong>de</strong> los datos, que también le eximiría <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad,<br />

no <strong>de</strong>be <strong>de</strong> requerirse con tanto rigor que suponga una carga excesivamente gravosa. Pero, en<br />

una a<strong>de</strong>cuada pon<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> los intereses en juego, sobre todo cuando los <strong>de</strong>rechos eventualmente<br />

lesionados tengan el carácter <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, tampoco <strong>de</strong>be exigírsele<br />

a <strong>la</strong> víctima <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lesión otra actuación que <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> poner en conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l prestador con <strong>la</strong><br />

mayor precisión posible <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma.<br />

6. bibliografÍa<br />

Clemente Meoro, M. (2003) “La responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”. En: Responsabilidad civil y contratos en Internet. Su regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>de</strong> Comercio Electrónico.<br />

Granada: Comares, pp. 1-116.<br />

Cavanil<strong>la</strong>s Mújica, S. (2007) “La responsabilidad civil en Internet”. En: La responsabilidad<br />

civil y su problemática actual (coord. Juan Antonio Moreno Martínez). 1ª ed. Madrid:<br />

Diykinson, pp. 101-131.<br />

Grimalt Servera, P. (2011) “La responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”. En: El Derecho a <strong>la</strong> imagen <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> todos los Puntos <strong>de</strong> Vista<br />

(Ve<strong>red</strong>a y Beamonte, coord.). Madrid: Thomson Reuters, pp 167-197.


<strong>la</strong> tensión entre impunidad en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y limitación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión<br />

257<br />

López <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Peña Saldías, J.F. (2010) “Libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión e Internet. Responsabilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. El caso putasgae” (west<strong>la</strong>w,<br />

BIB 2010, 593). Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 19 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011.<br />

Peguera Poch, M. (2007) “Solo sé que no sé nada (efectivamente): <strong>la</strong> apreciación <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento<br />

efectivo y <strong>otros</strong> problemas en <strong>la</strong> aplicación judicial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LSI”, IDP Revista<br />

d’Internet, Dret i Política núm. 5, pp. 2-18 (http: www.uoc.edu/idp/5/dt/esp/peguera.<br />

pdf). Consulta: 19 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011.<br />

Rodríguez <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Heras, T. (2001) “Intermediación en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y responsabilidad civil. Sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s generales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad a <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> intermediación<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>” en I Congreso sobre <strong>la</strong>s Nuevas Tecnologías y sus repercusiones en el<br />

seguro: Internet, Biotecnología y Nanotecnología, Madrid: Fundación Mapfre, Madrid,<br />

pp. 13-51.<br />

Rubí Puig, A. (2010) “Derecho al honor online y responsabilidad civil <strong>de</strong> ISPs”, Indret<br />

(www.indret.com).


14<br />

el esPACIO De lIBertAD, segUrIDAD y JUstICIA<br />

y lA CIBerCrImINAlIDAD eN lA UNIóN eUrOPeA<br />

Alicia Chicharro<br />

Profesora asociada doctora <strong>de</strong> Derecho Internacional Público <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universidad Pública <strong>de</strong> Navarra<br />

AbstrAct: Actualmente asistimos a una revolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, que aboca a importantes<br />

cambios en términos políticos, sociales, culturales, económicos, militares y <strong>de</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ciones interestatales.<br />

La rápida expansión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación (TIC), particu<strong>la</strong>rmente<br />

a través <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo vertiginoso <strong>de</strong> Internet, contribuye al fenómeno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> globalización y rompe<br />

con <strong>la</strong>s tradicionales fronteras espacio-temporales. En este nuevo escenario, también <strong>la</strong> criminalidad<br />

se beneficia <strong>de</strong>l progreso im<strong>para</strong>ble <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informática, lo que provoca <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong> nuevos tipos<br />

<strong>de</strong>lictivos, a <strong>la</strong> vez que <strong>la</strong> facilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>na una especie <strong>de</strong> “mundialización<br />

<strong>de</strong> los peligros”.<br />

El cibercrimen representa, por el momento, uno <strong>de</strong> los estados más sofisticados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> conducta antijurídica,<br />

aunque no existe gran diferencia entre los comportamientos punibles tradicionales y los que se<br />

cometen utilizando medios informáticos. Eso sí, el or<strong>de</strong>nador se convierte en el instrumento <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito,<br />

no por sí sólo, sino por su conexión a una <strong>red</strong>, que generalmente es Internet. Esta <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s no conoce<br />

<strong>de</strong> fronteras, por lo que surgen numerosos problemas re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> tipificación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ley aplicable y <strong>la</strong> jurisdicción competente <strong>para</strong> juzgar <strong>la</strong>s conductas <strong>de</strong>lictivas.<br />

En el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa ha dispuesto <strong>la</strong> consecución <strong>de</strong> un espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad<br />

y justicia. En un campo en el que tradicionalmente los Estados se han mostrado muy celosos<br />

<strong>de</strong> su soberanía, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fronteras interiores y esa globalización <strong>de</strong> los peligros a <strong>la</strong> que<br />

nos hemos referido, han obligado a articu<strong>la</strong>r mecanismos a nivel <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión <strong>para</strong> facilitar, intensificar<br />

y mejorar <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial y policial en materia penal entre los diferentes Estados miembros. Se<br />

trataría <strong>de</strong> combatir infracciones penales especialmente graves y <strong>de</strong> dimensión transfronteriza, como <strong>la</strong><br />

trata <strong>de</strong> seres humanos, <strong>la</strong> explotación sexual <strong>de</strong> mujeres y niños, el tráfico <strong>de</strong> drogas, el tráfico ilícito<br />

<strong>de</strong> armas, el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, <strong>la</strong> corrupción, <strong>la</strong> falsificación <strong>de</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> pago, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia<br />

organizada, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia informática y el terrorismo.<br />

Con el fin <strong>de</strong> favorecer esa cooperación, <strong>la</strong> UE prevé un <strong>de</strong>sarrollo progresivo <strong>de</strong> instrumentos europeos,<br />

cuyo objetivo se centre en <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> los obstáculos que crean <strong>la</strong>s disparida<strong>de</strong>s entre<br />

los sistemas judiciales nacionales y <strong>la</strong> promoción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> necesaria aproximación <strong>de</strong>l Derecho penal<br />

sustantivo.<br />

1. introducción<br />

En <strong>la</strong> actualidad asistimos a una revolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, que aboca a importantes<br />

cambios en términos políticos, sociales, culturales, económicos, militares y <strong>de</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

interestatales. La rápida expansión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

(TIC), particu<strong>la</strong>rmente a través <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>sarrollo vertiginoso <strong>de</strong> Internet, contribuye al fenómeno<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> globalización y rompe con <strong>la</strong>s tradicionales fronteras espacio-temporales. En este<br />

nuevo escenario, también <strong>la</strong> criminalidad se beneficia <strong>de</strong>l progreso im<strong>para</strong>ble <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informá-


260 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tica, lo que provoca <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong> nuevos tipos <strong>de</strong>lictivos, a <strong>la</strong> vez que <strong>la</strong> facilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>na una especie <strong>de</strong> “mundialización <strong>de</strong> los peligros”.<br />

El cibercrimen representa, por el momento, uno <strong>de</strong> los estados más sofisticados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

conducta antijurídica, aunque no existe gran diferencia entre los comportamientos punibles<br />

tradicionales y los que se cometen utilizando medios informáticos. Eso sí, el or<strong>de</strong>nador se<br />

convierte en el instrumento <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, no por sí sólo, sino por su conexión a una <strong>red</strong>, que<br />

generalmente es Internet. Esta <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s no conoce <strong>de</strong> fronteras, por lo que surgen numerosos<br />

problemas re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> tipificación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ley<br />

aplicable y <strong>la</strong> jurisdicción competente <strong>para</strong> juzgar <strong>la</strong>s conductas <strong>de</strong>lictivas.<br />

En el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea (UE), el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa ha dispuesto <strong>la</strong> consecución<br />

<strong>de</strong> un espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia. En un campo en el que tradicionalmente<br />

los Estados se han mostrado muy celosos <strong>de</strong> su soberanía, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fronteras<br />

interiores y esa globalización <strong>de</strong> los peligros a <strong>la</strong> que nos hemos referido, han obligado a<br />

articu<strong>la</strong>r mecanismos a nivel <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión <strong>para</strong> facilitar, intensificar y mejorar <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

judicial y policial en materia penal entre los diferentes Estados miembros, a <strong>la</strong> vez que se<br />

liman <strong>la</strong>s diferencias entre <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones internas con el fin <strong>de</strong> sobrepasar los obstáculos<br />

en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> tipificación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, <strong>la</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong> pruebas, <strong>la</strong> coordinación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s investigaciones,<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ley aplicable y <strong>la</strong> jurisdicción competente y, por último,<br />

el reconocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s sentencias. A través <strong>de</strong> dicha coordinación se tratará <strong>de</strong> combatir<br />

infracciones penales especialmente graves y <strong>de</strong> dimensión transfronteriza, como <strong>la</strong> trata <strong>de</strong><br />

seres humanos, <strong>la</strong> explotación sexual <strong>de</strong> mujeres y niños, el tráfico <strong>de</strong> drogas, el tráfico ilícito<br />

<strong>de</strong> armas, el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, <strong>la</strong> corrupción, <strong>la</strong> falsificación <strong>de</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> pago, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia<br />

organizada, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia informática y el terrorismo.<br />

Con el fin <strong>de</strong> favorecer esa cooperación, <strong>la</strong> UE prevé un <strong>de</strong>sarrollo progresivo <strong>de</strong> instrumentos<br />

europeos, cuyo objetivo se centre en <strong>la</strong> eliminación <strong>de</strong> los obstáculos que crean <strong>la</strong>s<br />

disparida<strong>de</strong>s entre los sistemas judiciales nacionales y <strong>la</strong> promoción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> necesaria aproximación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Derecho penal sustantivo 1 .<br />

2. el esPacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia en el tratado <strong>de</strong><br />

lisboa<br />

2.1. <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> estructura <strong>de</strong> pi<strong>la</strong>res al espacio común <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia<br />

El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Maastricht reguló <strong>la</strong> cooperación en los ámbitos <strong>de</strong> justicia y asuntos <strong>de</strong><br />

interior fuera <strong>de</strong>l entramado comunitario y a salvo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> los procedimientos<br />

1 Des<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> presentación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>nominado Informe Sieber, que recogía <strong>la</strong> normativa penal <strong>de</strong> diversos<br />

países, proponiendo reformas y recomendando un mínimo <strong>de</strong> ilícitos que <strong>de</strong>bieran ser tipificados en<br />

<strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones internas, se ha venido discutiendo sobre <strong>la</strong> proce<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> promulgar una normativa<br />

comunitaria en este ámbito; SIEBER, U., Legal Aspects of Computer-Re<strong>la</strong>ted Crime in the Information<br />

Society –COMCRIME- Study, 1 June 1998, 240 p.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

261<br />

<strong>de</strong> toma <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones previstos <strong>para</strong> el mismo. Constituía uno <strong>de</strong> los pi<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong>nominados<br />

“intergubernamentales”, junto a <strong>la</strong> política exterior y <strong>de</strong> seguridad común (PESC). Estos dos<br />

pi<strong>la</strong>res intergubernamentales se sumaban al pi<strong>la</strong>r principal que era el comunitario, formado<br />

por <strong>la</strong>s entonces tres Comunida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas, lo que le daba a <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea una estructura<br />

que ha venido siendo representada como un templo griego. El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Ámsterdam<br />

comunitarizó parte <strong>de</strong>l contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación en los ámbitos <strong>de</strong> justicia y asuntos <strong>de</strong><br />

interior. Concretamente <strong>la</strong>s materias re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> personas, el<br />

asilo y <strong>la</strong> inmigración pasaron a ser una política comunitaria más, mientras el tercer pi<strong>la</strong>r se<br />

<strong>de</strong>dicaba a <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal. Sin embargo, el Tratado <strong>de</strong><br />

Lisboa ha incluido el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un espacio común <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia, por lo que <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> constituir<br />

un pi<strong>la</strong>r se<strong>para</strong>do al resto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s políticas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

Esta evolución <strong>institucional</strong> se <strong>de</strong>be a <strong>la</strong> notoria ineficacia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s previsiones <strong>de</strong>l tercer<br />

pi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>para</strong> respon<strong>de</strong>r a los <strong>de</strong>safíos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE en <strong>la</strong> materia. El sistema <strong>de</strong> toma <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones<br />

por unanimidad dificultaba mucho los avances: prueba <strong>de</strong> ello es que los objetivos establecidos<br />

en el Consejo Europeo <strong>de</strong> Tampere en 1999 se estaban cumpliendo a un ritmo muy<br />

lento 2 . Por ello, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un primer momento se tuvo muy presente que <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones sobre<br />

justicia y asuntos <strong>de</strong> interior <strong>de</strong>bían ser sometidas a una profunda revisión 3 . Como ponen <strong>de</strong><br />

relieve los profesores Al<strong>de</strong>coa y Guinea, estaba c<strong>la</strong>ro <strong>para</strong> todos que era esencial que hubiera<br />

“más Europa” en los asuntos <strong>de</strong> justicia e interior 4 .<br />

El artículo 3.2 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea (TUE) <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ra que “<strong>la</strong> Unión ofrecerá<br />

a sus ciudadanos un espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia sin fronteras interiores, en el que<br />

esté garantizada <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> personas conjuntamente con medidas a<strong>de</strong>cuadas en<br />

materia <strong>de</strong> control <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fronteras exteriores, asilo, inmigración y prevención y lucha contra<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia”.<br />

Tras esta solemne <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ración el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión (TFUE) le<br />

<strong>de</strong>dica los artículos 67 a 89, que integran el Título V <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Parte Tercera. Des<strong>de</strong> el primer<br />

2 Des<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> celebración <strong>de</strong>l Consejo Europeo <strong>de</strong> Tampere, cada semestre se presentaba una Comunicación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Consejo y al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo titu<strong>la</strong>da “Marcador <strong>para</strong> supervisar el progreso<br />

en <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”. El ba<strong>la</strong>nce<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Programa <strong>de</strong> Tampere lo po<strong>de</strong>mos encontrar en <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Consejo y al<br />

Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, Espacio <strong>de</strong> Libertad, Seguridad y Justicia: ba<strong>la</strong>nce <strong>de</strong>l programa <strong>de</strong> Tampere y<br />

futuras orientaciones, CoM (2004) 401 final, 2.6.2004.<br />

3 Véase Convención Europea, Informe Final <strong>de</strong>l Grupo X “Libertad, seguridad y justicia”, 2 <strong>de</strong> diciembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2002 (CoNV 426/02). La posterior Conferencia Intergubernamental revisó algunos<br />

elementos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pretenciosa reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Convención, limitando algunos aspectos; por ejemplo, <strong>la</strong>s<br />

competencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Fiscalía Europea. También creó el “freno <strong>de</strong> emergencia” en manos <strong>de</strong> los Estados<br />

miembros, con el que se acalló a los que pensaban que se había llegado <strong>de</strong>masiado lejos en esta materia<br />

(véase nota 5).<br />

4 ALDECoA LUZARRAGA, F. / GUINEA LLoRENTE, M., La Europa que viene: El Tratado <strong>de</strong><br />

Lisboa, Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2010, p. 200.


262 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

momento, el texto nos recuerda que el referido espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia se<br />

enmarca <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l respeto <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales y <strong>de</strong> los distintos sistemas y tradiciones<br />

jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros 5 . Sin duda, esta última referencia se justifica por<br />

<strong>la</strong>s numerosas diferencias entre los or<strong>de</strong>namientos <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros, sobre todo en<br />

cuestiones penales.<br />

Los capítulos 4 y 5 se ocupan <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial en materia penal y <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

policial, respectivamente. Aquí po<strong>de</strong>mos constatar un avance importante respecto a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

previsiones anteriores, pues se trata <strong>de</strong> los dos ámbitos que, conformando el tercer pi<strong>la</strong>r, implicaban<br />

un procedimiento <strong>de</strong> toma <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones por unanimidad, distintos instrumentos<br />

jurídicos y escaso control judicial. Frente a ello, <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> Lisboa los intenta ensamb<strong>la</strong>r<br />

al máximo en el puzzle comunitario, aunque que<strong>de</strong>n por limar algunas aristas <strong>para</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s<br />

piezas encajen perfectamente.<br />

En primer lugar, a partir <strong>de</strong> ahora el procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo ordinario va a ser el <strong>de</strong><br />

co<strong>de</strong>cisión (artículo 294 TFUE), que pasa a l<strong>la</strong>marse <strong>de</strong> manera muy significativa procedimiento<br />

ordinario y que se aplicará también, salvo excepciones previstas en el propio Tratado,<br />

al espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia. La utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> co<strong>de</strong>cisión como procedimiento<br />

ordinario <strong>de</strong> toma <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones implica un mayor protagonismo <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

Europeo, equi<strong>para</strong>ble al <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, a <strong>la</strong> vez que los Par<strong>la</strong>mentos nacionales van a ver<br />

incrementados sus po<strong>de</strong>res <strong>para</strong> evaluar los mecanismos <strong>de</strong> implementación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s políticas<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tivas al espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia 6 .<br />

En segundo lugar, otra novedad <strong>de</strong>stacable y <strong>de</strong>rivada <strong>de</strong>l cambio <strong>de</strong> sistema <strong>de</strong> toma<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisiones es <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> nomenc<strong>la</strong>tura <strong>de</strong> los instrumentos utilizados hasta<br />

ahora en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el tercer pi<strong>la</strong>r. Decisiones marco, <strong>de</strong>cisiones, posiciones comunes, acciones<br />

comunes 7 y convenciones <strong>de</strong>saparecen a favor <strong>de</strong> los tradicionales actos comunitarios:<br />

reg<strong>la</strong>mentos, directivas y <strong>de</strong>cisiones. Con ello se logra una mayor seguridad a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>-<br />

5 Ese respeto queda luego garantizado en <strong>la</strong>s previsiones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>nominado “freno <strong>de</strong> emergencia” en<br />

<strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial en materia penal que permiten a un Estado miembro que consi<strong>de</strong>re que un<br />

proyecto <strong>de</strong> acto comunitario afecta a aspectos fundamentales <strong>de</strong> su sistema <strong>de</strong> justicia penal, solicitar<br />

que el asunto se remita al Consejo Europeo, en cuyo caso quedará suspendido el procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo<br />

ordinario. Previa <strong>de</strong>liberación, y en caso <strong>de</strong> que se alcance un consenso, el Consejo Europeo, en<br />

el p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong> cuatro meses a partir <strong>de</strong> dicha suspensión, <strong>de</strong>volverá el proyecto al Consejo, poniendo fin<br />

con ello a <strong>la</strong> suspensión <strong>de</strong>l procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo ordinario. Si no se alcanza dicho consenso, sólo<br />

queda <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>r una cooperación reforzada entre los Estados que quieran. otra<br />

previsión c<strong>la</strong>ramente en pro <strong>de</strong> dicho respeto es <strong>la</strong> que hace referencia a <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l principio <strong>de</strong> subsidiariedad por parte <strong>de</strong> los par<strong>la</strong>mentos nacionales respecto a <strong>la</strong>s propuestas e<br />

iniciativas legis<strong>la</strong>tivas en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial penal y <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial. En realidad<br />

ese control se prevé en el artículo 5 TUE que también seña<strong>la</strong> al procedimiento establecido en el<br />

Protocolo sobre <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> los principios <strong>de</strong> subsidiariedad y proporcionalidad, que conocemos<br />

como mecanismo <strong>de</strong> “alerta temprana” (artículo 6 <strong>de</strong>l Protocolo nº 2).<br />

6 Artículo 12 TUE.<br />

7 Nos referimos a <strong>la</strong>s acciones comunes que pudieran pervivir <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> época anterior al Tratado <strong>de</strong> Ámsterdam.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

terminar los efectos jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los mismos, ayudando a promover una mayor transparencia<br />

y comprensión <strong>de</strong>l proceso legis<strong>la</strong>tivo europeo 8 .<br />

263<br />

Por último, <strong>la</strong> reforma operada por el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa supone que el Tribunal <strong>de</strong><br />

Justicia va a tener jurisdicción general <strong>para</strong> interpretar y revisar <strong>la</strong> vali<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> los actos adoptados<br />

en el marco <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia, con lo cual el control judicial<br />

está garantizado 9 . Ahora bien, según el artículo 276 TFUE <strong>la</strong> excepción se mantiene <strong>para</strong><br />

comprobar <strong>la</strong> vali<strong>de</strong>z o proporcionalidad <strong>de</strong> operaciones efectuadas por <strong>la</strong> policía u <strong>otros</strong><br />

servicios con funciones coercitivas <strong>de</strong> un Estado miembro y en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el ejercicio <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s que incumben a los Estados respecto al mantenimiento <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n público<br />

y <strong>la</strong> salvaguardia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad interior 10 . Estas responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s se <strong>de</strong>jan a salvo <strong>de</strong><br />

lo regu<strong>la</strong>do a nivel comunitario en el nuevo artículo 72 TFUE 11 .<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista formal, el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa hace <strong>de</strong>saparecer <strong>la</strong> se<strong>para</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> regímenes<br />

que constituía <strong>la</strong> arquitectura en pi<strong>la</strong>res. No obstante, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista sustantivo, el<br />

espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia goza <strong>de</strong> una serie <strong>de</strong> mecanismos <strong>de</strong> flexibilidad, que permiten<br />

un número consi<strong>de</strong>rable <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rogaciones a <strong>la</strong>s reg<strong>la</strong>s comunitarias generales. Esto conlleva<br />

un riesgo importante <strong>de</strong> excepcionalismo y diferenciación que pue<strong>de</strong> tener implicaciones serias<br />

en <strong>la</strong> construcción <strong>de</strong> ese “espacio común” y <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> cohesión interna <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia UE 12 .<br />

Por estas razones cabría preguntarse si el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa verda<strong>de</strong>ramente “<strong>de</strong>sintergubernamentaliza”<br />

todas <strong>la</strong>s políticas que caen <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y<br />

8 Eso sí, conforme al artículo 9 <strong>de</strong>l Protocolo nº 10 re<strong>la</strong>tivo a <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones transitorias, los efectos<br />

jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los actos comunitarios adoptados en virtud <strong>de</strong>l TUE antes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entrada en vigor <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa se mantendrán en tanto no hayan sido <strong>de</strong>rogados, anu<strong>la</strong>dos o modificados.<br />

9 Hasta ahora no gozaba per se <strong>de</strong> competencia ni <strong>para</strong> revisar ni <strong>para</strong> interpretar <strong>la</strong>s medidas adoptadas<br />

en el seno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal. El antiguo artículo 35 TUE, los Estados<br />

miembros <strong>de</strong>bían aceptar <strong>la</strong> jurisdicción <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal en este ámbito mediante una <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ración<br />

voluntaria ad hoc. El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Ámsterdam había dotado al Tribunal <strong>de</strong> competencia contenciosa<br />

<strong>para</strong> revisar <strong>la</strong> legalidad <strong>de</strong> los actos adoptados en el pi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial y policial en<br />

materia penal, aún cuando los individuos no podían interponer recurso ni <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>de</strong>nunciar <strong>la</strong>s<br />

infracciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones correspondientes por parte <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros.<br />

10 Véase HATZoPoULoS, V., “Casual but smart: the Court’s new clothes in the Area of Freedom,<br />

Security and Justice (AFSJ) after the Lisbon Treaty”, Research Papers in Law, 2 (2008), avai<strong>la</strong>ble at<br />

www.coleurop.be<br />

11 Esta extensión <strong>de</strong>l control jurisdiccional por parte <strong>de</strong>l TJUE es objeto <strong>de</strong> ap<strong>la</strong>zamiento durante un<br />

periodo <strong>de</strong> 5 años en re<strong>la</strong>ción con los actos <strong>de</strong> cooperación judicial penal y policial existentes en el<br />

momento <strong>de</strong> entrada en vigor <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa, en tanto en cuanto no tenga lugar su <strong>de</strong>rogación,<br />

anu<strong>la</strong>ción o modificación conforme al artículo 10.3 <strong>de</strong>l Protocolo nº 36 sobre <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones<br />

transitorias. Por tanto, <strong>la</strong> generalización <strong>de</strong>l control jurisdiccional <strong>para</strong> el conjunto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas que<br />

conforman el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia no tendrá lugar hasta el 1 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2014.<br />

Véase DE WITTE, F., “The European Judiciary after Lisbon”, Maastricht Journal of European and<br />

Com<strong>para</strong>tive Law, 1 (2008), p. 39.<br />

12 Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, Resolución <strong>de</strong> 11 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2007 sobre <strong>la</strong> conveniencia <strong>de</strong> una Conferencia<br />

Intergubernamental (Artículo 48 TUE), 11222/2007 – C6-0206/2007 – 2007/0808 (CNS), <strong>para</strong>. 4.


264 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

justicia. A su vez parece que este área se <strong>de</strong>smenuza en diferentes piezas que son asumidas<br />

con distintos grados por los Estados miembros, creándose espacios <strong>de</strong> cooperación reforzada<br />

<strong>de</strong> hecho sin haber utilizado el mecanismo previsto en los Tratados <strong>para</strong> ello.<br />

In<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> estos aspectos cuestionables <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

integración, <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia supone un paso muy<br />

positivo no sólo <strong>para</strong> los Estados miembros, sino también <strong>para</strong> nos<strong>otros</strong>, los ciudadanos<br />

europeos.<br />

En dicho espacio común, <strong>la</strong> libertad se garantiza mediante <strong>la</strong> ausencia <strong>de</strong> controles en<br />

<strong>la</strong>s fronteras interiores, una política común <strong>de</strong> asilo, inmigración y control <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fronteras<br />

exteriores. El objetivo <strong>de</strong> alcanzar un alto grado <strong>de</strong> seguridad requiere <strong>la</strong> prevención y lucha<br />

contra <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia, el racismo y <strong>la</strong> xenofobia a través <strong>de</strong> medidas <strong>de</strong> coordinación<br />

y cooperación entre autorida<strong>de</strong>s policiales y judiciales y otras autorida<strong>de</strong>s competentes, así<br />

como mediante el reconocimiento mutuo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s resoluciones judiciales en materia penal y,<br />

si es necesario, mediante <strong>la</strong> aproximación <strong>de</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ciones penales. Esto último en<strong>la</strong>za con el<br />

tercer componente <strong>de</strong>l espacio que es <strong>la</strong> justicia, encarnada en <strong>la</strong> tute<strong>la</strong> judicial que conlleva<br />

también el reconocimiento mutuo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s resoluciones judiciales. La complementariedad <strong>de</strong><br />

los tres factores no pasa <strong>de</strong>sapercibida: <strong>la</strong> libertad sólo pue<strong>de</strong> disfrutarse plenamente en un<br />

entorno <strong>de</strong> seguridad, pero <strong>la</strong> seguridad únicamente se pue<strong>de</strong> garantizar mediante un sistema<br />

<strong>de</strong> justicia eficaz.<br />

2.2. modificaciones sustanciales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial en materia penal<br />

Los artículos 82 a 86 TFUE conforman el capítulo re<strong>la</strong>tivo a <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial<br />

en materia penal y suponen una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s noveda<strong>de</strong>s más importantes <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa, al<br />

transformar en política europea un área tradicionalmente <strong>de</strong> competencia exclusiva <strong>de</strong> los<br />

Estados.<br />

El reconocimiento mutuo <strong>de</strong> resoluciones judiciales es un principio rector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

judicial <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> sus primeros tímidos pasos a partir <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Tampere (1999),<br />

pasando por su reafirmación en el Programa <strong>de</strong> La Haya (2005) 13 , hasta su actual comunitarización<br />

en el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa (2009). El futuro pasa por <strong>la</strong> puesta en marcha <strong>de</strong>l l<strong>la</strong>mado<br />

13 El Programa <strong>de</strong> La Haya fue aprobado en el Consejo Europeo <strong>de</strong> 4-5 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2004 y perseguía<br />

<strong>la</strong> consolidación <strong>de</strong>finitiva <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia en <strong>la</strong> UE. Su objetivo era<br />

<strong>la</strong> mejora <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> capacidad común <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión y <strong>de</strong> sus Estados miembros <strong>de</strong> garantizar los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales, <strong>la</strong>s salvaguardias procesales mínimas y el acceso a <strong>la</strong> justicia, proporcionar a quienes <strong>la</strong><br />

necesitasen <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> Convención <strong>de</strong> Ginebra sobre el estatuto <strong>de</strong> los refugiados<br />

y <strong>otros</strong> tratados internacionales, regu<strong>la</strong>r los flujos <strong>de</strong> migración y contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong>s fronteras exteriores <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión, luchar contra <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia organizada transfronteriza y reprimir <strong>la</strong> amenaza <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo,<br />

explotar el potencial <strong>de</strong> Europol y Eurojust, proseguir con el establecimiento <strong>de</strong>l reconocimiento<br />

mutuo <strong>de</strong> resoluciones judiciales y certificados tanto en materia civil como penal y eliminar obstáculos<br />

legales y judiciales en los litigios en asuntos civiles y familiares con repercusiones transfronterizas.<br />

Consejo Europeo, Programa <strong>de</strong> La Haya: consolidación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad, <strong>la</strong> seguridad y <strong>la</strong> justicia en <strong>la</strong><br />

Unión Europea, Do C 53, 3.3.2005, p. 1.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

265<br />

Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo (2009) 14 , aprobado en el Consejo Europeo <strong>de</strong> 9 y 10 <strong>de</strong> diciembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2009.<br />

La <strong>institucional</strong>ización <strong>de</strong>l reconocimiento mutuo <strong>de</strong> sentencias y otras resoluciones<br />

judiciales como norma general <strong>de</strong> funcionamiento tiene especial relevancia, ya que sienta<br />

<strong>la</strong>s bases <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un espacio jurídico común. En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad,<br />

seguridad y justicia es un ámbito don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s sentencias y resoluciones judiciales en materia<br />

penal dictadas en un Estado miembro tienen vali<strong>de</strong>z y reconocimiento en todo el territorio<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE 15 , obligando al Estado miembro don<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>ba cumplirse esa sentencia dictada en<br />

otro Estado miembro, a limitarse a reconocer<strong>la</strong> y ejecutar<strong>la</strong>. Pero a<strong>de</strong>más habrán <strong>de</strong> tenerse<br />

en cuenta los pronunciamientos con<strong>de</strong>natorios contra una persona <strong>de</strong>terminada, en cuanto<br />

suponen un antece<strong>de</strong>nte y, al mismo tiempo, <strong>la</strong> presentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia absolutoria<br />

sobre un concreto hecho ya juzgado en otro Estado impedirá un nuevo enjuiciamiento <strong>de</strong>l<br />

mismo 16 .<br />

Como argumenta García Moreno, el principio <strong>de</strong> reconocimiento mutuo sólo se sostiene<br />

a partir <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> confianza recíproca <strong>de</strong> los sistemas jurídicos implicados y esa confianza sólo<br />

se logra a través <strong>de</strong> una <strong>la</strong>bor previa <strong>de</strong> armonización normativa 17 .<br />

Así, con el fin <strong>de</strong> que este reconocimiento <strong>de</strong> sentencias y resoluciones judiciales sea<br />

más eficaz se prevé el establecimiento <strong>de</strong> unas normas mínimas procedimentales. Se refieren<br />

a <strong>la</strong> admisibilidad mutua <strong>de</strong> pruebas entre Estados miembros, a los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas<br />

durante el procedimiento penal, los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s víctimas <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

específicos <strong>de</strong>l procedimiento penal. Pero también se podrán dictar normas sustantivas mínimas<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> infracciones penales y sanciones en ámbitos <strong>de</strong>lictivos <strong>de</strong><br />

especial gravedad y que tengan una dimensión transfronteriza. Y el propio Tratado enumera<br />

los ámbitos <strong>de</strong>lictivos a los que viene referida esa potestad legis<strong>la</strong>tiva en <strong>la</strong> actualidad: terrorismo,<br />

trata <strong>de</strong> seres humanos y explotación sexual <strong>de</strong> mujeres y niños, tráfico <strong>de</strong> drogas,<br />

14 El Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo concreta el impulso político <strong>para</strong> el periodo 2010-2014 en torno al espacio<br />

<strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia, <strong>de</strong>finiendo como <strong>la</strong>s priorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>stacadas <strong>la</strong>s siguientes: fomentar<br />

<strong>la</strong> ciudadanía y los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, lograr una Europa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley y <strong>la</strong> justicia, proteger a<br />

los ciudadanos y promover una sociedad europea más integrada en un mundo globalizado. Consejo<br />

Europeo, Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo: una Europa abierta y segura que sirva y proteja al ciudadano, doc.<br />

17024/09, 2 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009.<br />

15 Liro<strong>la</strong> Delgado explica que este reconocimiento mutuo significa que “una <strong>de</strong>cisión judicial <strong>de</strong> un Estado<br />

miembro <strong>de</strong>be ser efectiva en cualquier Estado miembro sin que pueda ser sometida a controles<br />

adicionales <strong>de</strong> conformidad en el or<strong>de</strong>n jurídico <strong>de</strong>l Estado receptor, y su fundamento se basa en una<br />

confianza compartida que se justifica en <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> unos valores y objetivos jurídicos comunes<br />

en todos los Estados miembros”, LIRoLA DELGADo, I., “La cooperación judicial en materia penal<br />

en el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa: ¿un posible proceso <strong>de</strong> comunitarización y consolidación a costa <strong>de</strong> posibles<br />

frenos y fragmentaciones?”, Revista General <strong>de</strong> Derecho Europeo, 16 (2008), p. 7.<br />

16 DE URBANo CASTRILLo, E., “El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa y el espacio común <strong>de</strong> justicia: observaciones<br />

críticas”, Revista Unión Europea Aranzadi, octubre (2009), p. 41.<br />

17 GARCÍA MoRENo, J.M., “La cooperación judicial penal en el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y<br />

justicia <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa”, Revista Unión Europea Aranzadi, octubre (2009), p. 29.


266 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tráfico ilícito <strong>de</strong> armas, b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, corrupción, falsificación <strong>de</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> pago,<br />

<strong>de</strong>lincuencia informática y <strong>de</strong>lincuencia organizada. Teniendo en cuenta <strong>la</strong> evolución futura<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia, el Consejo podrá <strong>de</strong>terminar, por unanimidad y previa aprobación <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, <strong>otros</strong> ámbitos <strong>de</strong>lictivos que <strong>de</strong>ban atribuirse a <strong>la</strong> potestad legis<strong>la</strong>tiva<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

La previsión <strong>de</strong> normas mínimas supone una “armonización mínima” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

penales nacionales, lo que se conjuga con el respeto a <strong>la</strong>s diferencias entre <strong>la</strong>s tradiciones<br />

y los sistemas jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros al que se refiere el artículo 82.2 TFUE18 .<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, aquí también se prevé el “freno <strong>de</strong> emergencia” <strong>para</strong> el supuesto <strong>de</strong> que un Estado<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>re que un proyecto <strong>de</strong> directiva afecta a aspectos fundamentales <strong>de</strong> su sistema <strong>de</strong><br />

justicia penal.<br />

El camino que ahora ha culminado con <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> esta materia en el TFUE había<br />

sido al<strong>la</strong>nado por cierta jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia19 . La tradicional jurispru-<br />

18 Se hab<strong>la</strong>ría <strong>de</strong> “armonización mínima” por oposición a <strong>la</strong> armonización stricto sensu (“armonización<br />

total”), en el sentido <strong>de</strong> preservar <strong>la</strong>s diferencias normativas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s distintas legis<strong>la</strong>ciones nacionales.<br />

Véanse CURTIN, D.M., “European legal integration: <strong>para</strong>dise lost?”, en CURTIN, D.M. / SMITS,<br />

J.M. / KLIP, A. / McCAHERY, J.A., European Integration and Law, oxford: Intersetia, 2006, p. 14;<br />

WEYEMBERGH, A., “Approximation of Criminal Laws, the Constitutional Treaty and the Hague<br />

Programme”, Common Market Law Review, 6 (2006), pp. 1567-1597; y <strong>de</strong>l mismo autor, “The<br />

functions of approximation of penal legis<strong>la</strong>tion within the European Union”, Maastricht Journal of<br />

European and Com<strong>para</strong>tive Law, 2 (2005), pp. 149-172.<br />

19 Véanse sentencias como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2005 [TJCE, 13 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2005, Comisión<br />

v. Consejo, as. C-176/03] don<strong>de</strong>, con cierta imprecisión, el TJCE estatuye <strong>la</strong> competencia comunitaria<br />

<strong>para</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>r en materia penal (FJ 47 y 48). El Tribunal argumentaba que pese a existir una<br />

armonización parcial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción penal <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Decisión marco<br />

2003/80/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2003, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l medio ambiente a<br />

través <strong>de</strong>l Derecho penal, ello “no es óbice <strong>para</strong> que el legis<strong>la</strong>dor comunitario adopte medidas re<strong>la</strong>cionadas<br />

con el Derecho penal <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros y que estime necesarias <strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> plena<br />

efectividad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas que dicte en materia medioambiental, cuando <strong>la</strong> aplicación por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

nacionales competentes <strong>de</strong> sanciones penales efectivas, proporcionadas y disuasorias constituye<br />

una medida indispensable <strong>para</strong> combatir los graves atentados contra el medio ambiente”. Esto dio<br />

lugar a una propuesta <strong>para</strong> instaurar un principio <strong>de</strong> “penalización apropiada” a favor <strong>de</strong>l legis<strong>la</strong>dor<br />

comunitario; en esta línea LABAYLE, H., “Architecte ou spectatrice? La Cour <strong>de</strong> Justice <strong>de</strong> l’Union<br />

dans l’espace <strong>de</strong> liberté, sécurité et justice”, Revue Trimestrielle <strong>de</strong> Droit Européen, 1 (2006), pp. 1-46<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l mismo autor, ”L’ouverture <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> jarre <strong>de</strong> Pandore, réflexions sur <strong>la</strong> compétence <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cour <strong>de</strong><br />

Justice en matière pénale”, Cahiers <strong>de</strong> Droit Européen, 3-4 (2006), pp. 376-428, especialmente p. 387.<br />

Véase también RIoJA GARCÍA, M., “El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa: reformas en el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad<br />

y justicia. Especial referencia al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial penal”, Revista Unión Europea<br />

Aranzadi, abril (2009), p.11. Esta sentencia generó un vivo <strong>de</strong>bate y fue duramente criticada, ya que<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong>jaba abierta <strong>la</strong> discusión <strong>de</strong> si dicha competencia penal a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunidad Europea se<br />

limitaba al área <strong>de</strong> medio ambiente o era extensible a cualquier otro ámbito penal. Ante esta situación<br />

<strong>la</strong> Comisión e<strong>la</strong>boró una Comunicación en <strong>la</strong> que ac<strong>la</strong>raba <strong>la</strong>s consecuencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia, que<br />

por supuesto iban más allá <strong>de</strong>l ámbito medioambiental: Comisión Europea, Comunicación sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong>s consecuencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> 13.9.05 dictada en el asunto C-176/03


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

267<br />

<strong>de</strong>ncia que reconocía <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunidad Europea en materia penal,<br />

sustantiva y procesal 20 , había ido sustituyéndose por otra que permitía una intervención<br />

comunitaria en dicho campo si se consi<strong>de</strong>raba que era necesaria <strong>para</strong> alcanzar los objetivos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión 21 . Hoy esta jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia encuentra su confirmación en el artículo 83.2 TFUE,<br />

que ofrece <strong>la</strong> base jurídica <strong>para</strong> dictar normas en materia penal cuando resulten imprescindibles<br />

<strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> ejecución eficaz <strong>de</strong> una política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión en un ámbito que<br />

haya sido objeto <strong>de</strong> medidas <strong>de</strong> armonización. De nuevo aquí se trata <strong>de</strong> normas sustantivas<br />

mínimas re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infracciones penales y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s sanciones en el ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong> que se trate.<br />

Las nuevas previsiones <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa ayudarán a alcanzar los objetivos marcados<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Decisión 2007/126/JAI que establece el Programa Específico Justicia Penal <strong>para</strong><br />

el periodo 2001-2013 y que hace hincapié en favorecer <strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial en materia<br />

penal, en mejorar el conocimiento recíproco <strong>de</strong> los sistema penales internos, en <strong>la</strong> ejecución<br />

correcta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s medidas comunitarias en <strong>la</strong> materia, en facilitar el acceso a <strong>la</strong> información<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción penal interna, en <strong>la</strong> formación a<strong>de</strong>cuada <strong>de</strong> los profesionales <strong>de</strong>l Derecho<br />

y en el intercambio seguro <strong>de</strong> datos entre <strong>la</strong>s administraciones <strong>de</strong> justicia <strong>de</strong> los Estados22 .<br />

El Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo sobre profundización <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y<br />

justicia fue aprobado en el Consejo Europeo <strong>de</strong> 9 y 10 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009. Está l<strong>la</strong>mado<br />

a concretar algunas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s esperanzas puestas en esta <strong>la</strong>rga andadura <strong>de</strong> avance hacia una verda<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

justicia europea. El Programa se pondrá en marcha durante el próximo quinquenio<br />

y, por lo que se refiere a <strong>la</strong> jurisdicción penal, reconoce los buenos resultados <strong>de</strong>l espacio<br />

Schengen o <strong>la</strong> euroor<strong>de</strong>n, proponiendo dar pasos <strong>de</strong>cisivos en dos capítulos c<strong>la</strong>ve: uno general,<br />

buscando <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un proceso penal europeo con fases y penas comunes; y otro más<br />

concreto, un estatuto europeo <strong>de</strong> prueba penal, en el que se apruebe un mandato europeo<br />

<strong>de</strong> obtención y admisión mutua <strong>de</strong> pruebas judiciales y se dote <strong>de</strong> un marco jurídico común<br />

(Comisión v. Consejo), 23 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2005, CoM (2005) 583 final. La Comisión afirma en<br />

este instrumento que “<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista material, más allá <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cuestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l<br />

medio ambiente, el razonamiento <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia se aplica a todas <strong>la</strong>s políticas y liberta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

comunitarias en <strong>la</strong>s que existan normas vincu<strong>la</strong>ntes a <strong>la</strong>s que <strong>de</strong>berán asociarse sanciones penales <strong>para</strong><br />

garantizar su eficacia”, p. 3.<br />

20 TJCE, 11 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 1981, Casati, as. C-203/80, Rec. 1981, p. 2595, FJ. 27; TJCE, 16 <strong>de</strong><br />

junio <strong>de</strong> 1998, Lemmens, as. C-226/97, Rec. 1998-I, p. 3711, FJ. 19.<br />

21 TJCE, 20 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2008, Comisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas v. Consejo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, as. C-91/05.<br />

Esta sentencia reconoce <strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunidad Europea <strong>para</strong> adoptar medidas en <strong>la</strong> lucha<br />

contra <strong>la</strong> proliferación <strong>de</strong> armas ligeras y <strong>de</strong> pequeño calibre, en cuanto objetivo a incluir en el ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política comunitaria <strong>de</strong> cooperación al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo contemp<strong>la</strong>da en el antiguo artículo 177 TCE,<br />

por lo que <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rada <strong>la</strong> vio<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l antiguo artículo 47 TUE. Así también, <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong><br />

febrero <strong>de</strong> 2009, Ir<strong>la</strong>nda v. Consejo y Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, as. C-301/06.<br />

22 Artículo 3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Decisión 2007/126/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 12 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2007, por <strong>la</strong> que se establece<br />

<strong>para</strong> el período 2007-2013 el programa específico Justicia penal, integrado en el programa general<br />

Derechos fundamentales y justicia, Do L 58, 24.2.2007.


268 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

a <strong>la</strong> prueba electrónica, en el que tengan cabida <strong>la</strong>s vi<strong>de</strong>oconferencias y <strong>de</strong>más sistemas <strong>de</strong><br />

pruebas basadas en <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías.<br />

Le correspondió a <strong>la</strong> Presi<strong>de</strong>ncia españo<strong>la</strong> durante el primer semestre <strong>de</strong> 2010 e<strong>la</strong>borar<br />

el P<strong>la</strong>n <strong>de</strong> Acción <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación práctica <strong>de</strong>l Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo 23 , que concreta <strong>la</strong>s<br />

actuaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE en torno a <strong>la</strong>s priorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> dicho programa.<br />

2.3. noveda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>institucional</strong>es <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>institucional</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia penal<br />

contaba ya con dos órganos con finalidad coordinadora, <strong>de</strong> apoyo y <strong>de</strong> refuerzo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong>bor<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>da en cada Estado miembro: Europol y Eurojust.<br />

Ambos se mantienen y ven reforzada su legitimidad al preverse que se dictarán<br />

reg<strong>la</strong>mentos don<strong>de</strong> se <strong>de</strong>terminarán <strong>la</strong> estructura, el funcionamiento, el ámbito <strong>de</strong> actuación<br />

y <strong>la</strong>s competencias, así como el procedimiento <strong>de</strong> participación <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

Europeo y <strong>de</strong> los par<strong>la</strong>mentos nacionales en <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> cada uno<br />

<strong>de</strong> ellos.<br />

Un paso importante <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista orgánico es <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un Comité<br />

permanente en el Consejo con objeto <strong>de</strong> garantizar <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión el fomento y <strong>la</strong><br />

intensificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación operativa en materia <strong>de</strong> seguridad interior, que se <strong>de</strong>nominará<br />

CoSI 24 . Este Comité propiciará <strong>la</strong> coordinación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

competentes <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros, sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong>l CoREPER, específicamente<br />

en materia policial y aduanera, protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fronteras exteriores y cooperación<br />

judicial en materia penal.<br />

El CoSI será responsable <strong>de</strong> evaluar <strong>la</strong> orientación general y <strong>la</strong> eficacia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

operativa con el objetivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar <strong>de</strong>ficiencias y adoptar recomendaciones <strong>para</strong><br />

resolver<strong>la</strong>s. A su vez tiene también el mandato, junto con el Comité Político y <strong>de</strong> Seguridad<br />

(CPS), <strong>de</strong> asistir al Consejo con arreglo a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada “cláusu<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> solidaridad” (artículo<br />

222 TFUE), que establece que <strong>la</strong> UE “movilizará todos los instrumentos <strong>de</strong> que disponga”,<br />

<strong>para</strong> ayudar a un Estado miembro que haya sido objeto <strong>de</strong> un ataque terrorista o víctima <strong>de</strong><br />

una catástrofe natural o <strong>de</strong> origen humano.<br />

En sus trabajos podrán participar los órganos y organismos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión afectados<br />

-Eurojust, Europol, Frontex y <strong>otros</strong> órganos pertinentes-, y en principio contribuirá a garantizar<br />

una actuación coherente entre ellos. El resultado <strong>de</strong> estos trabajos se pondrá también<br />

en conocimiento <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mente Europeo y <strong>de</strong> los par<strong>la</strong>mentos nacionales, lo que significa<br />

que no va a haber un control par<strong>la</strong>mentario genuino.<br />

23 Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión, <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2010, Garantizar el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y<br />

justicia <strong>para</strong> los ciudadanos europeos – P<strong>la</strong>n <strong>de</strong> acción por el que se aplica el Programa <strong>de</strong> Estocolmo,<br />

CoM (2010) 171 final.<br />

24 Cada Estado miembro enviará <strong>de</strong>legados ministeriales <strong>para</strong> participar en el CoSI. Existe libertad <strong>para</strong><br />

nombrar a uno o más representantes, aunque el número será limitado a fin <strong>de</strong> garantizar su eficacia.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

269<br />

Se hab<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> cooperación y <strong>de</strong> coordinación porque el TFUE <strong>de</strong>ja c<strong>la</strong>ro que todo lo<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>do aquí no afecta al ejercicio <strong>de</strong> responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s que incumben a los Estados miembros<br />

en cuanto al mantenimiento <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n público y <strong>la</strong> salvaguardia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad interior.<br />

Esa misma cooperación y coordinación <strong>la</strong> pue<strong>de</strong>n exten<strong>de</strong>r los Estados miembros, bajo su<br />

responsabilidad y en <strong>la</strong> medida en que lo consi<strong>de</strong>ren apropiado, a los servicios competentes<br />

<strong>de</strong> sus administraciones responsables <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>la</strong>r por <strong>la</strong> seguridad nacional 25 . Sin embargo,<br />

cuando se trata <strong>de</strong> cooperación administrativa entre sus servicios competentes y con <strong>la</strong> Comisión,<br />

los Estados no tienen tanta libertad porque será el Consejo el que tome <strong>la</strong>s medidas<br />

<strong>para</strong> garantizar<strong>la</strong>, a propuesta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión o por iniciativa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cuarta parte <strong>de</strong> los Estados<br />

miembros, y previa consulta al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo. Esto significa a sensu contrario<br />

que el CoSI no participa ni en <strong>la</strong> e<strong>la</strong>boración <strong>de</strong> actos legis<strong>la</strong>tivos –<strong>la</strong>bor que todavía le<br />

correspon<strong>de</strong> al CoREPER–, ni en <strong>la</strong> dirección <strong>de</strong> operaciones.<br />

La creación <strong>de</strong> CoSI obligará a revisar <strong>la</strong>s competencias <strong>de</strong> dos Comités ya existentes<br />

en el seno <strong>de</strong>l Consejo: el Comité <strong>de</strong>l artículo 36 (CATS) y el Comité Estratégico <strong>de</strong> Inmigración,<br />

Fronteras y Asilo (CEIFA). Igualmente se creará un Grupo “terrorismo”, grupo único<br />

general que abor<strong>de</strong> todos los aspectos transversales <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo y consoli<strong>de</strong> los distintos<br />

p<strong>la</strong>nes <strong>de</strong> acción re<strong>la</strong>cionados con él 26 .<br />

El Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa también prevé <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> crear una Fiscalía Europea a partir<br />

<strong>de</strong> Eurojust, con el fin <strong>de</strong> combatir <strong>la</strong>s infracciones que perjudiquen los intereses financieros<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión. Se establecerá mediante reg<strong>la</strong>mentos, <strong>para</strong> cuya aprobación se recurre a un<br />

procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo especial: el Consejo se pronunciará por unanimidad, previa aprobación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo 27 .<br />

El mandato <strong>de</strong> este cuerpo judicial se concreta en <strong>la</strong> investigación, persecución y puesta<br />

a disposición <strong>de</strong>l juzgado o tribunal nacional competente <strong>de</strong> los responsables <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>litos contra<br />

los intereses financieros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión. Aunque dicha referencia es según se mire bastante<br />

imprecisa y amplia, se incluye <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> ampliar sus competencias <strong>para</strong> alcanzar a<br />

<strong>otros</strong> <strong>de</strong>litos graves que tengan una dimensión transfronteriza.<br />

La institución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Fiscalía Europea ya aparecía prevista en el Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> los intereses financieros comunitarios <strong>de</strong> 2001 28 . Ahora el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa viene<br />

a proporcionar una base jurídica expresa <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> instauración <strong>de</strong> este órgano a nivel europeo.<br />

25 El artículo 4.2 TUE <strong>de</strong>ja bien c<strong>la</strong>ro que “<strong>la</strong> seguridad nacional seguirá siendo responsabilidad exclusiva<br />

<strong>de</strong> cada Estado miembro”. A<strong>de</strong>más, el artículo 72 TFUE prevé que el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad<br />

y justicia “se enten<strong>de</strong>rá sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong>l ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s que incumben a los Estados<br />

miembros en cuanto al mantenimiento <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n público y <strong>la</strong> salvaguardia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad interior”.<br />

26 Secretaría General <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, Los efectos <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa en el Consejo <strong>de</strong> Justicia y<br />

Asuntos <strong>de</strong> Interior (JAI): más co<strong>de</strong>cisión y nuevas estructuras <strong>de</strong> trabajo, noviembre 2009, en http://<br />

www.consilium.europa.eu<br />

27 Artículo 86 TFUE.<br />

28 Comisión Europea, Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los intereses financieros comunitarios y <strong>la</strong><br />

creación <strong>de</strong> un Fiscal Europeo, CoM (2001), 11 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2001.


270 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Este cuerpo judicial pue<strong>de</strong> convertirse en un actor po<strong>de</strong>roso y fundamental en el área <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> cooperación judicial in <strong>la</strong> UE. Sin duda su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo merecerá una esmerada atención 29 .<br />

3. el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> ue<br />

3.1. consi<strong>de</strong>raciones generales<br />

Siendo evi<strong>de</strong>nte que el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia esta todavía en construcción,<br />

<strong>la</strong> UE ya había hecho frente a <strong>la</strong>s conductas ilícitas que podían afectar a <strong>la</strong> consecución<br />

<strong>de</strong>l mercado único utilizando una base jurídica general –antiguo artículo 95 TCE– y el<br />

instrumento más a<strong>de</strong>cuado <strong>para</strong> ese fin –<strong>la</strong>s directivas–.<br />

El mercado común podría resultar perjudicado sobre todo por el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>litos<br />

económicos cometidos a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Las directivas europeas, aunque en principio sin<br />

efecto directo respecto a los particu<strong>la</strong>res, han estimu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong>s normas internas (<strong>de</strong> transposición)<br />

que prevén sanciones no sólo administrativas, sino también penales, <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s transgresiones<br />

<strong>de</strong> obligaciones o prohibiciones cometidas a través <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

Como ejemplo podríamos citar <strong>la</strong> Directiva re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> armonización <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados<br />

aspectos <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> autor y afines en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, que impele a<br />

los Estados a imponer sanciones en su legis<strong>la</strong>ción interna en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> vio<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos y obligaciones previstos 30 .<br />

Así mismo, en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos en el entorno <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

informáticas, en <strong>la</strong> UE disponemos <strong>de</strong> una Directiva sobre conservación <strong>de</strong> datos 31 . Este<br />

instrumento obliga a los Estados miembros a adoptar medidas <strong>para</strong> que ciertos datos en<br />

tráfico y comunicaciones sean retenidas por periodos no inferiores a seis meses y no superiores<br />

a dos años <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el momento en que se producen. Esta conservación <strong>de</strong> datos pue<strong>de</strong><br />

resultar especialmente útil en <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>lictivas, permitiendo a los<br />

especialistas seguir <strong>la</strong>s huel<strong>la</strong>s hasta dar con el sistema don<strong>de</strong> se originó el <strong>de</strong>lito y el autor<br />

último <strong>de</strong>l mismo. El <strong>de</strong>bate en torno a <strong>la</strong>s medidas consagradas en esta directiva se centra<br />

en <strong>la</strong> búsqueda <strong>de</strong> equilibrio entre <strong>la</strong> seguridad y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet 32 .<br />

29 “Brussels eyes single European public prosecutor”, eurobserver, 1.8.2007.<br />

30 Directiva 2001/29/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2001, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong><br />

armonización <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados aspectos <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> autor y <strong>de</strong>rechos afines a los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong><br />

autor en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, Do L 167, 22.6.2001, p. 10.<br />

31 Directiva 2006/24/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 15 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2006, sobre conservación<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos generados o tratados en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas <strong>de</strong> acceso público o re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones, Do L 105, 13.4.2006, p. 54.<br />

32 Véase, por ejemplo, VILASAU SoLANA, M., “La Directiva 2006/24/CE sobre conservación <strong>de</strong><br />

datos <strong>de</strong>l tráfico en <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas: seguridad v. privacidad”, Revista <strong>de</strong> Internet, Derecho<br />

y Política, 3 (2006), pp. 1-15.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

271<br />

El panorama cambiará con el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia porque, aunque<br />

<strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE sigue limitada a <strong>de</strong>terminadas conductas y continúa sometida al<br />

principio <strong>de</strong> subsidiariedad, existe <strong>la</strong> base jurídica propia <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> instrumentos<br />

<strong>de</strong> armonización penal.<br />

No obstante, usando los rudimentarios cauces que ofrecía el tercer pi<strong>la</strong>r y <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones<br />

generales sobre el mercado interior, <strong>la</strong> UE ya había comenzado a <strong>la</strong>brar un camino<br />

con el objetivo <strong>de</strong> aproximar legis<strong>la</strong>ciones que nos ha provisto <strong>de</strong> una serie <strong>de</strong> actos jurídicos<br />

<strong>de</strong> bastante interés.<br />

3.2. algunos instrumentos europeos en <strong>la</strong> lucha contra <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad 33<br />

3.2.1. La Decisión Marco sobre ataques contra sistemas <strong>de</strong> información 34<br />

Esta <strong>de</strong>cisión marco está basada en <strong>la</strong> Convención sobre Cibercrimen <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong><br />

Europa, y <strong>la</strong> razón que llevó a establecer ambos instrumentos radica en <strong>la</strong> constatación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

existencia <strong>de</strong> ataques contra los sistemas <strong>de</strong> información, en particu<strong>la</strong>r como consecuencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> amenaza <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia organizada. La posibilidad <strong>de</strong> ataques terroristas contra esos<br />

sistemas que forman parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infraestructuras vitales <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong>safía el<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong>l espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia,<br />

exigiendo una respuesta a nivel europeo.<br />

Dada <strong>la</strong> naturaleza transnacional <strong>de</strong> los mo<strong>de</strong>rnos sistemas <strong>de</strong> información, los ataques<br />

suelen revestir un carácter también transfronterizo, lo que p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> necesidad urgente <strong>de</strong><br />

proseguir <strong>la</strong> aproximación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones penales en este ámbito. La distancia y <strong>la</strong>s divergencias<br />

significativas que existen entre <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

dificultar <strong>la</strong> lucha contra <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia organizada y el terrorismo y, a su vez, complicar <strong>la</strong><br />

cooperación eficaz <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> policía y <strong>la</strong>s administraciones <strong>de</strong> justicia en materia <strong>de</strong><br />

ataques contra los sistemas <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

Al igual que <strong>la</strong> Convención sobre Cibercrimen, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisión marco europea se proponía<br />

obligar a los Estados a asegurar que el acceso sin autorización a sistemas <strong>de</strong> información (artículo<br />

2), <strong>la</strong> obstaculización o interrupción ilegal y <strong>de</strong> manera significativa <strong>de</strong>l funcionamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> un sistema informático (artículo 3) y <strong>la</strong> intromisión, faltando <strong>la</strong> autorización, <strong>para</strong> borrar,<br />

dañar, <strong>de</strong>teriorar, alterar, suprimir o hacer inaccesibles datos informáticos (artículo 4). Todas<br />

estas actuaciones serán sancionables como conductas penales, salvo en los casos menos graves.<br />

Así mismo, se hará punible <strong>la</strong> inducción, <strong>la</strong> complicidad y <strong>la</strong> tentativa <strong>para</strong> cometer<br />

esos <strong>de</strong>litos en <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones penales internas.<br />

33 Haremos referencia a los que consi<strong>de</strong>ramos más <strong>de</strong>stacados dada su trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia en <strong>la</strong> aproximación<br />

o en <strong>la</strong> armonización <strong>de</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ciones, aunque se podrían incluir más actos cuya repercusión, sin embargo,<br />

ha sido muy limitada. Por ejemplo, <strong>la</strong> Decisión 2000/375/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 29 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong><br />

2000, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> lucha contra <strong>la</strong> pornografía infantil en Internet, Do L 138, 9.6.2000, p. 1.<br />

34 Decisión Marco 2005/222/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2005, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a los ataques contra<br />

los sistemas <strong>de</strong> información, Do L 69, 16.3.2005, p. 67.


272 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

3.2.2. Directiva sobre comercio electrónico 35<br />

Los proveedores <strong>de</strong> Internet que transmiten y almacenan el contenido ilegal <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> autores<br />

–entre enormes cantida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> datos legales–, generalmente lo hacen sin el conocimiento <strong>de</strong><br />

esos contenidos y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, sin el conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legalidad o ilegalidad <strong>de</strong> los mismos<br />

<strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los países a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> los cuales los datos han sido transmitidos.<br />

Así, respecto a <strong>la</strong> diseminación <strong>de</strong> contenidos ilegales que fomenten el terrorismo u otras<br />

formas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia grave, <strong>la</strong> cuestión que se p<strong>la</strong>ntea es si los proveedores <strong>de</strong> Internet (que<br />

almacenan el contenido <strong>de</strong> terceros) así como los proveedores <strong>de</strong>l acceso a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> (que transmiten<br />

el contenido <strong>de</strong> terceros) pue<strong>de</strong>n resultar responsables por <strong>la</strong> ilegalidad <strong>de</strong> los mismos.<br />

Lo mismo cabría preguntarnos <strong>de</strong> los buscadores y en general <strong>de</strong> todos los links <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

Los intentos llevados a cabo en varios países <strong>de</strong> hacer frente a estos problemas a través<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas penales generales <strong>de</strong> participación han <strong>de</strong>jado c<strong>la</strong>ro que éstas no son a<strong>de</strong>cuadas<br />

<strong>para</strong> ser aplicadas en el mundo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías, el cual necesita <strong>de</strong> reg<strong>la</strong>s específicas<br />

con el fin <strong>de</strong> cumplir con el principio <strong>de</strong> seguridad jurídica.<br />

La Directiva sobre comercio electrónico aborda estos problemas. Este instrumento<br />

busca contribuir al correcto funcionamiento <strong>de</strong>l mercado interior asegurando <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información entre los Estados miembros. Así,<br />

el artículo 3.2 prohíbe a cualquier Estado miembro restringir <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> prestación <strong>de</strong><br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información <strong>de</strong> otro Estado miembro por razones inherentes<br />

al ámbito coordinado. Sólo en <strong>la</strong>s situaciones previstas en los apartados 4 a 6 <strong>de</strong>l mismo<br />

artículo se permiten <strong>de</strong>rogaciones al apartado 2 (por ejemplo, protección <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n público,<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> salud pública, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública o <strong>de</strong> los consumidores).<br />

La Directiva trata <strong>de</strong> armonizar <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas y jurídicas<br />

que proporcionan servicios en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. Si nos referimos a <strong>la</strong> mera<br />

conducción o transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos, el proveedor <strong>de</strong> acceso a Internet se encuentra prácticamente<br />

exento <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad tanto penal como civil (artículo 12), a condición <strong>de</strong> que<br />

no haya originado él mismo los datos, no los modifique o seleccione. Lo mismo ocurre con<br />

los que prestan servicios <strong>de</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos, cuando guardan automática, temporal y<br />

provisionalmente una información, con <strong>la</strong> única finalidad <strong>de</strong> hacer más eficaz <strong>la</strong> transmisión<br />

ulterior <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma, lo que se viene <strong>de</strong>nominando caching (artículo 13). Cuando se trata <strong>de</strong><br />

almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos, el prestador <strong>de</strong>l servicio no será consi<strong>de</strong>rado responsable, salvo si<br />

se prueba que tenía conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilegalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información o <strong>la</strong> actividad<br />

(artículo 14). No obstante, <strong>la</strong> norma que mejor resume <strong>la</strong> filosofía <strong>de</strong> toda <strong>la</strong> Directiva es el<br />

artículo 15, que proc<strong>la</strong>ma <strong>la</strong> inexistencia <strong>de</strong> obligación general <strong>de</strong> supervisión.<br />

El régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad es importante no sólo <strong>para</strong> garantizar el libre intercambio<br />

<strong>de</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> seguridad jurídica <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> Internet, sino también<br />

35 Directiva 2000/31/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2000, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a ciertos<br />

aspectos jurídicos <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, en particu<strong>la</strong>r el comercio electrónico<br />

en el mercado interior (Directiva sobre el comercio electrónico), Do L 178, 17.7.2000, p. 1.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

273<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> persecución <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos cometidos y <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong> contenidos ilegales en<br />

el futuro. Con ello, se trata sobre todo <strong>de</strong> que los proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información se vean forzados a borrar o bloquear contenidos ilegales <strong>de</strong> sus servidores<br />

una vez que han sido advertidos <strong>de</strong> su existencia. Transmitir a los proveedores este tipo <strong>de</strong><br />

conductas que les lleven a avistar <strong>la</strong> información ilegal y automáticamente <strong>de</strong>scolgar<strong>la</strong>, fomentar<br />

<strong>la</strong> concienciación, <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> autorregu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l sector y publicar códigos<br />

<strong>de</strong> conducta son algunas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s herramientas <strong>para</strong> prevenir los contenidos ilícitos en Internet.<br />

3.2.3. La Decisión Marco sobre lucha contra el terrorismo 36<br />

Esta <strong>de</strong>cisión marco se centra en los resultados <strong>de</strong> los actos terroristas que llevan a <strong>la</strong><br />

producción <strong>de</strong> un daño físico, con <strong>la</strong> concurrencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intencionalidad <strong>de</strong> conseguir un fin<br />

político.<br />

El objetivo <strong>de</strong> esta <strong>de</strong>cisión es hacer más eficaz <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el terrorismo en toda <strong>la</strong><br />

UE y será aplicable a todo acto terrorista cometido <strong>de</strong> forma intencionada que, por su naturaleza<br />

o su contexto, pueda lesionar gravemente a un país o a una organización internacional.<br />

Según el artículo 1, estos actos <strong>de</strong>ben ser cometidos con el fin <strong>de</strong> amenazar a <strong>la</strong> pob<strong>la</strong>ción,<br />

obligar a los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos o a una organización internacional a realizar un acto o a abstenerse<br />

<strong>de</strong> realizarlo, o <strong>de</strong>sestabilizar gravemente o <strong>de</strong>struir <strong>la</strong>s estructuras fundamentales políticas,<br />

constitucionales, económicas o sociales <strong>de</strong> un país o <strong>de</strong> una organización internacional,<br />

cometidos por uno o más individuos y contra uno o más países. Y entre los actos <strong>la</strong> letra d)<br />

incluye <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>strucciones masivas <strong>de</strong> insta<strong>la</strong>ciones gubernamentales o públicas, sistemas <strong>de</strong><br />

transporte, infraestructuras, incluidos los sistemas informáticos, p<strong>la</strong>taformas fijas enc<strong>la</strong>vadas<br />

en <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma continental, lugares públicos o propieda<strong>de</strong>s privadas, que puedan poner en<br />

peligro vidas humanas o producir un gran perjuicio económico.<br />

Y se incluye no sólo <strong>la</strong> comisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s conductas antes <strong>de</strong>scritas por cualquiera <strong>de</strong> los<br />

miembros <strong>de</strong> este grupo, sino también <strong>la</strong> dirección y <strong>la</strong> mera participación en <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> un grupo terrorista, incluido el suministro <strong>de</strong> información o medios materiales, o<br />

mediante cualquier forma <strong>de</strong> financiación <strong>de</strong> sus activida<strong>de</strong>s, con conocimiento <strong>de</strong> que esa<br />

participación contribuirá a <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>lictivas <strong>de</strong>l grupo terrorista 37 . Cada día más,<br />

todos estos comportamientos encuentran en <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong><br />

comunicación el instrumento perfecto <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>rse. Por ello, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisión marco cubre<br />

igualmente <strong>la</strong>s conductas <strong>de</strong> apoyo a grupos terroristas, in<strong>de</strong>pendientemente <strong>de</strong> su motivación<br />

política o económica, también cuando se llevan a cabo a través <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

El texto que venimos analizando también prevé <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas jurídicas,<br />

por lo que los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong>ben tipificar los <strong>de</strong>litos que sean cometidos<br />

36 Decisión Marco 2002/475/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, sobre lucha contra el terrorismo, Do L 164, 22.6.2002,<br />

p. 3.<br />

37 Ver <strong>la</strong> Convención <strong>de</strong> Naciones Unidas sobre el Crimen organizado Transnacional <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong><br />

2001 y sus Protocolos.


274 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

por cuenta <strong>de</strong> éstas por cualquier persona, actuando a título particu<strong>la</strong>r o como parte <strong>de</strong><br />

un órgano <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entidad jurídica. Su responsabilidad se extien<strong>de</strong> a los casos <strong>de</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia<br />

o control por parte <strong>de</strong> ese órgano –o el particu<strong>la</strong>r que forme parte <strong>de</strong> él– sobre <strong>la</strong>s<br />

personas sometidas a su autoridad. La responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas jurídicas se enten<strong>de</strong>rá<br />

sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> incoación <strong>de</strong> acciones penales contra <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas que sean autores,<br />

incitadores o cómplices <strong>de</strong> los actos terroristas.<br />

La <strong>de</strong>cisión marco aboca a los Estados miembros a criminalizar <strong>la</strong>s amenazas <strong>de</strong> cometer<br />

cualquiera <strong>de</strong> los comportamientos enumerados en <strong>la</strong> misma, que vayan dirigidas contra<br />

una persona, <strong>la</strong>s instituciones o el público en general. Y tampoco importa si esa amenaza es<br />

comunicada vía Internet o por los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación tradicionales.<br />

Con el fin <strong>de</strong> castigar los actos terroristas los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong>berán prever en su<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>ción nacional sanciones penales efectivas, proporcionadas y disuasorias que pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

conllevar <strong>la</strong> extradición 38 . Todos los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong>ben aumentar <strong>la</strong>s penas privativas<br />

<strong>de</strong> libertad previstas <strong>para</strong> esos mismos <strong>de</strong>litos cuando concurra motivación (política) terrorista.<br />

Estas penas podrán <strong>red</strong>ucirse si el autor abandona <strong>la</strong> actividad terrorista o co<strong>la</strong>bora<br />

con <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s judiciales y policiales <strong>para</strong> impedir o atenuar los efectos <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, <strong>para</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificar y procesar a los <strong>otros</strong> autores <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito, <strong>para</strong> encontrar pruebas o <strong>para</strong> impedir<br />

que se cometan <strong>otros</strong> actos terroristas 39 . Esta previsión es especialmente importante en el<br />

caso <strong>de</strong>l ciberterrorismo, don<strong>de</strong> el anonimato que garantiza Internet hace muy difícil <strong>la</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong> los responsables, así como hal<strong>la</strong>r pruebas concluyentes <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminadas<br />

conductas terroristas cometidas a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 40 .<br />

Respecto a su ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisión marco no sólo compren<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos <strong>de</strong><br />

terrorismo cometidos en o contra los Estados miembros, sino también los supuestos en que<br />

<strong>la</strong>s conductas realizadas en el territorio <strong>de</strong> uno o más Estados miembros (p<strong>la</strong>nificar, entregar,<br />

financiar) contribuyan a <strong>la</strong> realización <strong>de</strong> un acto terrorista en un tercer país. Precisamente,<br />

<strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s veces éste será el supuesto en el que encaje <strong>la</strong> conducta ciberterrorista, pues<br />

un ataque a través <strong>de</strong> Internet pue<strong>de</strong> ser <strong>la</strong>nzado <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> prácticamente todo el mundo contra<br />

objetivos que se encuentren a miles <strong>de</strong> kilómetros.<br />

Como los medios a través <strong>de</strong> los que se pue<strong>de</strong> producir un atentado terrorista no están<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificados en <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>cisión marco, ésta cubre tanto los violentos ataques tradicionales ya<br />

conocidos, como los más mo<strong>de</strong>rnos basados en <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y<br />

<strong>la</strong> comunicación.<br />

38 Se adapta el concepto <strong>de</strong> “organización criminal”, ya contemp<strong>la</strong>do en <strong>la</strong> Acción Común <strong>de</strong>l Consejo<br />

<strong>de</strong> 21 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 1998, añadiéndole <strong>la</strong> pa<strong>la</strong>bra terrorismo.<br />

39 En re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> cooperación entre Estados miembros <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación y persecución <strong>de</strong> los<br />

<strong>de</strong>litos <strong>de</strong> terrorismo, <strong>la</strong> Decisión 2005/671/JAI ha sido diseñada <strong>para</strong> mejorar el intercambio <strong>de</strong><br />

información en caso <strong>de</strong> actos terroristas, a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> medidas prácticas. Decisión<br />

2005/671/JAI <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2005, sobre intercambio <strong>de</strong> información y cooperación<br />

concerniente a <strong>de</strong>litos terroristas, Do J 253, 29.9.2005, p. 22.<br />

40 Váse SAITA, A., “Antiforensics: The Looming Arms Race”, Information Security, 6-5 (2003), p. 13.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

3.2.4. Directiva sobre b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales y financiación <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo 41<br />

275<br />

Siguiendo <strong>la</strong>s recomendaciones <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong> Acción Financiera Internacional (GAFI) 42 ,<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada Tercera Directiva antib<strong>la</strong>nqueo p<strong>la</strong>ntea una serie <strong>de</strong> medidas preventivas<br />

contra <strong>la</strong> utilización fraudulenta <strong>de</strong>l sistema financiero que conlleve <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> fondos o<br />

bienes <strong>para</strong> fines terroristas.<br />

El esfuerzo comunitario por combatir el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> dinero 43 quedó patente en <strong>la</strong>s<br />

Directivas <strong>de</strong> 1991 y 2001 44 . La puesta al día <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones sobre el tema ha dado lugar<br />

a <strong>la</strong> Tercera Directiva, cuyo objetivo final es mejorar <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el crimen organizado y<br />

el terrorismo.<br />

El b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales y <strong>la</strong> financiación <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo se efectúan, con frecuencia,<br />

en un contexto internacional. Las medidas adoptadas únicamente en el ámbito nacional o<br />

incluso comunitario, sin coordinación ni cooperación internacionales, tendrían efectos muy<br />

limitados45 . Sin este tipo <strong>de</strong> medidas a nivel <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, los b<strong>la</strong>nqueadores <strong>de</strong> dinero y los<br />

patrocinadores <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo podrían aprovechar <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> capitales y <strong>la</strong> libre<br />

prestación <strong>de</strong> servicios financieros <strong>para</strong> facilitar sus activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>lictivas.<br />

De conformidad con <strong>la</strong>s nuevas normas internacionales, <strong>la</strong> Tercera Directiva antib<strong>la</strong>nqueo<br />

exige a <strong>la</strong>s entida<strong>de</strong>s y personas a quienes se aplica46 , <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación y comprobación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r real <strong>de</strong> una transacción o actividad. La comunicación <strong>de</strong> esta información<br />

<strong>de</strong>be realizarse con arreglo a <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones re<strong>la</strong>tivas a <strong>la</strong> transferencia <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

41 Directiva 2005/60/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2005, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong><br />

prevención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong>l sistema financiero <strong>para</strong> el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales y <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> financiación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l terrorismo, Do L 309, 25.11.2005, p.15.<br />

42 GAFI, Documento Consultivo <strong>de</strong> 30 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2002, versión consolidada <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2003<br />

que incluye 40 Recomendaciones, con un Glosario y Notas Interpretativas; en http://www.fatf-gafi.org<br />

43 Véase HETZER, W., “Der Geruch <strong>de</strong>s Gel<strong>de</strong>s-Ziel, Inhalt und Wirkung <strong>de</strong>r Gesetze gegen Geldwäsche”,<br />

Neue Juristische Wocheschrift, (1993), p. 3298.<br />

44 Directiva 91/308/CEE <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 10 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 1991, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización<br />

<strong>de</strong>l sistema financiero <strong>para</strong> el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, Do L 166 <strong>de</strong> 28.6.1991, p. 7, modificada por<br />

<strong>la</strong> Directiva 2001/97/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 4 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2001, sobre<br />

b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, Do L 344 <strong>de</strong> 28.12.2001, p. 76.<br />

45 Véase RoSADo DoMINGUEZ, F., El b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> dinero. Deficiencias en zonas internacionales <strong>de</strong><br />

riesgo, en VVAA, Prevención y represión <strong>de</strong>l b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, Madrid: Consejo General <strong>de</strong>l Po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

Judicial, 2001, p. 155.<br />

46 La Directiva se aplica a entida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> crédito, entida<strong>de</strong>s financieras, auditores, contables externos y<br />

asesores fiscales, proveedores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> socieda<strong>de</strong>s y fi<strong>de</strong>icomisos, agentes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propiedad inmobiliaria,<br />

casinos, notarios y <strong>otros</strong> profesionales in<strong>de</strong>pendientes <strong>de</strong>l Derecho cuando participen, ya<br />

actuando en nombre <strong>de</strong> su cliente y por cuenta <strong>de</strong>l mismo, en cualquier transacción financiera o inmobiliaria.<br />

También se aplica a otras personas físicas o jurídicas que comercien con bienes únicamente<br />

en <strong>la</strong> medida en que los pagos se efectúen al contado y por importe igual o superior a 15.000 euros,<br />

ya se realicen en una o en varias transacciones entre <strong>la</strong>s que parezca existir algún tipo <strong>de</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ción.


276 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

a terceros países previstas en <strong>la</strong> Directiva sobre tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales 47 y en <strong>la</strong><br />

legis<strong>la</strong>ción nacional en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos y secreto profesional.<br />

Los Estados miembros se comprometen a establecer sanciones eficaces, proporcionadas<br />

y disuasorias <strong>de</strong> Derecho interno en caso <strong>de</strong> incumplimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones nacionales<br />

que se adopten en aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> presente Directiva. Se <strong>de</strong>ben prever sanciones tanto personas<br />

físicas como jurídicas.<br />

La propia Directiva en uno <strong>de</strong> sus consi<strong>de</strong>randos asegura que sus disposiciones también<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben ser <strong>de</strong> aplicación cuando <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s entida<strong>de</strong>s y personas contemp<strong>la</strong>das en<br />

<strong>la</strong> misma se lleven a cabo a través <strong>de</strong> Internet. Esto pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto que <strong>la</strong> normativa<br />

aquí tratada sirve <strong>para</strong> los casos <strong>de</strong> ciberterrorismo, cuando aprovechando el anonimato que<br />

granjea <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, los terroristas pretendan lograr financiación <strong>para</strong> sus activida<strong>de</strong>s a través <strong>de</strong>l<br />

b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> dinero y otras activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>lictivas igual <strong>de</strong> lucrativas.<br />

Varios Estados miembros, entre ellos España, no han transpuesto todavía esta Directiva,<br />

hecho que ha sido <strong>de</strong>nunciado por <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea ante el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia. El<br />

retraso <strong>de</strong> España sorpren<strong>de</strong>, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>do, porque muchos preceptos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa comunitaria<br />

ya se encuentran reflejados en el Derecho interno, por lo que no se requieren gran<strong>de</strong>s<br />

cambios legis<strong>la</strong>tivos 48 . Y <strong>de</strong> otro, porque el gobierno español se ha convertido en diversos<br />

foros internacionales en adalid <strong>de</strong> una mayor dureza contra los <strong>para</strong>ísos fiscales, lugares privilegiados<br />

<strong>para</strong> el frau<strong>de</strong> fiscal y el b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales.<br />

4. a modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión<br />

En los últimos años <strong>la</strong> preocupación por los <strong>de</strong>litos cometidos contra o con <strong>la</strong> utilización<br />

<strong>de</strong> estructuras informáticas ha ido creciendo en <strong>la</strong> UE al mismo ritmo que se han<br />

multiplicado los casos re<strong>la</strong>cionados <strong>de</strong> un modo u otro con <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y <strong>la</strong> comunicación. Cada día son más <strong>la</strong>s acciones penales que tienen como objetivo<br />

el ataque al propio sistema cibernético, aunque lo que todavía es más común son los comportamientos<br />

punibles tradicionales que ahora se cometen utilizando medios informáticos.<br />

El reciente informe presentado por Europol acerca <strong>de</strong>l crimen organizado en <strong>la</strong> EU<br />

(oCTA 2011) 49 seña<strong>la</strong> Internet como un medio c<strong>la</strong>ve <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> mayor parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

el crimen organizado. A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> los ciber<strong>de</strong>litos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> alta tecnología informática,<br />

el frau<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> tarjetas <strong>de</strong> crédito, <strong>la</strong> distribución <strong>de</strong> pornografía infantil a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

47 Directiva 95/46/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 1995, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre<br />

circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos, Do L 281, 23.11.1995, p. 31. Directiva modificada por el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

(CE) 1882/2003, Do L 284, 31.10.2003, p. 1.<br />

48 Ley 19/1993, <strong>de</strong> 28 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, sobre Medidas <strong>de</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong>l b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales, revisada<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Ley 19/2003, <strong>de</strong> 4 <strong>de</strong> julio, que transponía <strong>la</strong> Segunda Directiva sobre b<strong>la</strong>nqueo <strong>de</strong> capitales.<br />

49 EURoPoL, EU organised Crime Threat Assessment, oCTA 2011, The Hague, 28 April 2011, pp.<br />

5-6.


el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia y <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> Unión europea<br />

277<br />

<strong>red</strong>, <strong>la</strong> piratería audio-visual, <strong>la</strong> extensión <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> Internet respalda <strong>la</strong> e<strong>la</strong>boración, obtención<br />

y distribución <strong>de</strong> drogas <strong>de</strong> diseño, <strong>la</strong> trata <strong>de</strong> seres humanos, <strong>la</strong> inmigración ilegal,<br />

el mercado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s falsificaciones, el tráfico con especies en vías <strong>de</strong> extinción y otras muchas<br />

activida<strong>de</strong>s criminales. Igualmente, <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s se usa como vía segura <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

entre los <strong>de</strong>lincuentes y como medio eficaz <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>vado <strong>de</strong> dinero <strong>para</strong> numerosos grupos<br />

criminales, entre ellos los terroristas y <strong>la</strong>s mafias. La sensación <strong>de</strong> anonimato y <strong>la</strong> publicidad<br />

masiva que ofrece <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, incrementa <strong>la</strong> discreción y <strong>la</strong> rentabilidad <strong>de</strong> estos servicios, resultando<br />

a su vez en una mayor dificultad <strong>para</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a los criminales a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s técnicas<br />

policiales tradicionales.<br />

La UE comenzó su <strong>la</strong>bor <strong>para</strong> combatir estas conductas sobre <strong>la</strong> base que le proporcionaba<br />

el <strong>de</strong>nominado tercer pi<strong>la</strong>r comunitario <strong>de</strong>dicado a <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial<br />

en materia penal. Hoy en día con el espacio <strong>de</strong> libertad, seguridad y justicia regu<strong>la</strong>do en el<br />

TFUE, aunque <strong>la</strong> competencia comunitaria sigue siendo limitada a <strong>de</strong>terminadas conductas<br />

y continúa sometida al principio <strong>de</strong> subsidiariedad, <strong>la</strong> UE dispone <strong>de</strong> una base jurídica específica<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> instrumentos <strong>de</strong> armonización penal.<br />

En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, los instrumentos europeos más operativos <strong>para</strong> prevenir y castigar los<br />

actos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con el fenómeno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cibercriminalidad en <strong>la</strong> UE, abocan a <strong>la</strong> armonización<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas sustantivas y procedimentales nacionales y a <strong>la</strong> cooperación internacional<br />

en dicho ámbito. Se trata <strong>de</strong> evitar en lo posible el mantenimiento y creación <strong>de</strong> <strong>para</strong>ísos<br />

cibernéticos y <strong>la</strong> diferencia punitiva <strong>de</strong> un país a otro. De forma <strong>para</strong>le<strong>la</strong>, también resulta<br />

necesario arbitrar mecanismos que resuelvan los conflictos <strong>de</strong> jurisdicción y reforzar los instrumentos<br />

<strong>de</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en materia <strong>de</strong> cibercrimen.


15<br />

ANONymIty, “trAsH tAlk” AND<br />

CyBer-smeArINg ON tHe INterNet<br />

Anne W. Salisbury<br />

Attorney at Law. Guzov Ofsink, LLC<br />

AbstrAct: With the increasing prevalence of email, chat rooms, social networking websites and<br />

web logs, the Internet has become essential to the free exchange of i<strong>de</strong>as and opinions, albeit, at times,<br />

absurd, insulting, profane or rhetorical. A common misconception is that you can blog or post material<br />

anonymously or pseudonymously and your i<strong>de</strong>ntity is forever hid<strong>de</strong>n. In fact, there are legal ways<br />

to discover the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of anonymous or pseudonymous online speakers.<br />

The recent wave of <strong>la</strong>wsuits against internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs attempting to force internet service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs to reveal the names of anonymous online commenters arguably threaten the free exchange<br />

of i<strong>de</strong>as on the internet.<br />

In my recent case, an anonymous blogger faced a petition from New York mo<strong>de</strong>l named Lisku<strong>la</strong><br />

Cohen to force Google to reveal the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of the Blogger who had posted anonymous statements<br />

online, calling Ms. Cohen a “skank” and “ho” among other insulting loose, hyperbolic statements.<br />

Despite its seemingly petty un<strong>de</strong>rpinnings, actions such as these have the potential to harm fundamental<br />

free speech rights. Without proper safeguards, forcibly unmasking online commenters could<br />

have a dangerous chilling effect upon what has become the p<strong>red</strong>ominant forum for free speech in<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>rn society.<br />

Un<strong>de</strong>r U.S. <strong>la</strong>w, a Petitioner must carry the bur<strong>de</strong>n of <strong>de</strong>monstrating a meritorious c<strong>la</strong>im for <strong>de</strong>famation,<br />

before he or she can force an ISP to reveal the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of an anonymous online blogger or<br />

commenter.<br />

Keywords: anonymity, free speech, ISPs, online <strong>de</strong>famation, chilling effects.<br />

Should bloggers who post messages anonymously that others consi<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>famatory be<br />

able to keep their i<strong>de</strong>ntities unknown? Anyone tempted to say a reflexive “no” needs to stop<br />

and consi<strong>de</strong>r some of the unforeseen and serious ramifications.<br />

From its inception, the internet has been characterized by the prevalence of anonymous<br />

(or pseudonymous) speech. Instead of using their true names to post, bloggers and<br />

on-line commenters often choose to post using pseudonyms (assumed names) or anonymously<br />

(no name at all) 1 .<br />

During the disputed Iranian elections, the uprising in Egypt and recent pro-<strong>de</strong>mocracy<br />

cyber-activism in countries such as China and Burma, blogs and social media sites<br />

1 Jeremy Stone Weber, Note, Defining Cyberlibel: A First Amendment Limit for Libel Suits Against<br />

Individuals Arising from Computer Bulletin Board Speech, 46 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 235, 239-41<br />

(1995).


280 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

allowed people to provi<strong>de</strong> an uncenso<strong>red</strong> account of what was really happening in the world<br />

surrounding them. These ordinary citizens turned citizen journalists, cyber-activists and<br />

chroniclers –particu<strong>la</strong>rly in oppressive regimes– <strong>de</strong>sperately need the cloak of anonymity to<br />

protect against retaliation, harassment, or even physical safety.<br />

Forcibly revealing an anonymous blogger’s true i<strong>de</strong>ntity at the command of a judge or<br />

other governmental official <strong>de</strong>als a severe blow to healthy dissent and discourse in countries<br />

where it is most vital.<br />

However, the same anonymity that allows those seeking to expose the corruption or<br />

oppression insi<strong>de</strong> a brutal regime can also be used in less-lofty en<strong>de</strong>avors,e.g.: the familiar<br />

“trash-talkers” found throughout the internet throwing out insults and invective while hiding<br />

behind a fake name. For those who strongly believe in forcibly unmasking these on-line<br />

insulters, it behooves them to think carefully about stifling the good speech while stamping<br />

out the bad. Many legitimately fear that forced non-anonymity might have a chilling effect<br />

on the good as well as “bad” speech. By forcing transparency and stripping bloggers and<br />

commenters of the cloak of anonymity, crucial discussions will be stifled along with the<br />

trivial and petty.<br />

1. tHe role of anonymity<br />

Anonymous and pseudononymous communications have an important p<strong>la</strong>ce in our<br />

political and social discourse. In fact, in America, the tradition of anonymous speech is ol<strong>de</strong>r<br />

than the United States itself 2 . The U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly recognized that the<br />

right to anonymous free speech is protected by the First Amendment. A much-cited passage<br />

from a 1995 Supreme Court ruling in McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission reads:<br />

Protections for anonymous speech are vital to <strong>de</strong>mocratic discourse. Allowing dissenters<br />

to shield their i<strong>de</strong>ntities frees them to express critical, minority views… Anonymity<br />

is a shield from the tyranny of the majority… It thus exemplifies the purpose behind<br />

the Bill of Rights, and of the First Amendment in particu<strong>la</strong>r: to protect unpopu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

individuals from retaliation… at the hand of an intolerant society 3 .<br />

Although protections for anonymity were first applied to protect the authors of pamphlets<br />

and leaflets, the Court has since ma<strong>de</strong> clear that these protections extend to mo<strong>de</strong>rn<br />

forms of on-line communication 4 . There are two opposing views on the virtues on-line<br />

2 our Founding fathers Alexan<strong>de</strong>r Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote the Fe<strong>de</strong>ralist Papers<br />

–the fundamental document outlining the philosophy of the United State’s entire system of government,<br />

the authors used the pseudonym “Publius” See Alexan<strong>de</strong>r Hamilton, John Jay, and James<br />

Madison (Jacob E. Cooke, ed., The Fe<strong>de</strong>ralist (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961).<br />

3 McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Comm’n, 514 U.S. 334, 342-43, 115 S.Ct. 1511 (1995) McIntyre, 514 U.S.<br />

at 347, 357<br />

4 See e.g. Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 870, 117 S.Ct. 2329, 138 L.Ed.2d 874 (1997)


Anonymity, “trash talk” and cyber-smearing on the Internet<br />

281<br />

anonymity. There are those who think people abuse their anonymity to engage in irresponsible<br />

attacks on the internet without any accountability –whether it be socially or legally– and<br />

those who think anonymity is the cornerstone of free and vigorous <strong>de</strong>bate and that its negative<br />

effects are outweighed by the positive benefits of this free and open discourse.<br />

one prominent blogger who ma<strong>de</strong> his start pseudononymously summarize these competing<br />

aims thusly:<br />

While it enables some to hurl reckless charges and gross epithets, it also facilitates the<br />

engagement of more individuals in on-line discussion and <strong>de</strong>bate. There are many<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstandable reasons why intelligent and knowledgeable people in various fields are<br />

reluctant to blog un<strong>de</strong>r their own name. Adopting a pseudonym is not necessarily a<br />

cowardly or sinister act 5 .<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntifying information<br />

Usually, bloggers provi<strong>de</strong> their true i<strong>de</strong>ntities to the Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r (“ISP”)<br />

when setting up the blog, but adopt entirely new personae when presenting their view, facts<br />

or opinions to the public 6 . But, many posters on message boards, chatrooms or Twitter have<br />

not provi<strong>de</strong>d their true i<strong>de</strong>ntities to anyone 7 . The only i<strong>de</strong>ntifier is the IP address which<br />

can pinpoint the location of the computer terminal, but not the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of the user. This<br />

ability to remain anonymous by using pseudonyms or false names to i<strong>de</strong>ntify themselves<br />

on-line can create significant hardships for those hoping to sue posters or commenters for<br />

<strong>de</strong>famation and libel.<br />

A common mistaken belief is that by posting anonymously or pseudonymously, one<br />

cannot be sued because one’s i<strong>de</strong>ntity is forever hid<strong>de</strong>n. In fact, there are legal procedures<br />

that individuals, companies, and the government can use to discover the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of an anonymous<br />

or pseudonymous on-line speaker un<strong>de</strong>r certain circumstances.<br />

5 Jonathan Adler, Another Blogging Pseudonym Bites the Dust, volokh.com/posts/1244411084.shtml<br />

June 7, 2009 at 7:39pm<br />

6 “Blog services typically offer users a number of options in terms of anonymity. People can choose<br />

to be totally anonymous, pseudonymous, or i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable. For example, when a user starts to set up<br />

a new blog on Blogger, s/he is only requi<strong>red</strong> to provi<strong>de</strong> a user name, email address, and a disp<strong>la</strong>y<br />

name. only the disp<strong>la</strong>y name will be shown on the blog, because it is used to sign blog posts.<br />

However, users can choose an easily igno<strong>red</strong> meaningless sign to avoid providing a name. A pseudonym<br />

or a real name is equally acceptable. Provision of any other personal profile information,<br />

such as one’s real name, gen<strong>de</strong>r, date of birth, location, job, homepage, and interests, is optional.<br />

Users can select to share or withhold their profile information as they like.” Qian, H. and Scott, C.<br />

R. (2007), Anonymity and Self-Disclosure on Weblogs Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,<br />

12: 1428–1451.<br />

7 While you have a right to engage in anonymous speech in the U.S., there are certain situations in<br />

which you can lose this protection. For one, certain sites simply do not allow their users to be anonymous.<br />

Social networking sites, for example, like Facebook, often require their users to act un<strong>de</strong>r their<br />

real names


282 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

1.1. suits for <strong>de</strong>famation<br />

Recently, in the United States, an increasing number of suits have been filed by p<strong>la</strong>intiffs<br />

who c<strong>la</strong>im to have been <strong>de</strong>famed by anonymous “postings” in comment sections, blogs,<br />

tweets or elsewhere on-line. of course the anonymity presents a unique problem: the inju<strong>red</strong><br />

party doesn’t know whom to sue. Unlike the p<strong>la</strong>intiffs in most traditional <strong>de</strong>famation<br />

c<strong>la</strong>ims, these p<strong>la</strong>intiffs are unable to name their <strong>de</strong>famers, since only the screen names of the<br />

posters are ascertainable 8 . Before they can sue these alleged <strong>de</strong>famers, these p<strong>la</strong>intiffs have to<br />

find out who they are by filing actions refer<strong>red</strong> to as “John Doe” <strong>la</strong>wsuits.<br />

1.2. Process<br />

A p<strong>la</strong>intiff sues an unknown anonymous blogger or commenter (“John or Jane Doe”) who<br />

allegedly libeled the p<strong>la</strong>intiff on-line. once the p<strong>la</strong>intiff has filed a John Doe <strong>la</strong>wsuit, the p<strong>la</strong>intiff<br />

subpoenas the ISP (for example, Google) where the offending post appea<strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong>manding that it<br />

turn over information revealing the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of the John or Jane Doe. This could mean the real<br />

name, phone number an address, or just the IP address, <strong>de</strong>pending on the situation.<br />

This tool is supposed to be used only where the P<strong>la</strong>intiff needs the i<strong>de</strong>ntity in or<strong>de</strong>r to<br />

proceed with a legal action. In reality, some p<strong>la</strong>intiffs file John Doe <strong>la</strong>wsuits against anonymous<br />

Internet users only to expose their i<strong>de</strong>ntities, not because they want to pursue a<br />

legally valid c<strong>la</strong>im against them. In many instances the motivation behind these petitions to<br />

unmask is the same as in traditional <strong>de</strong>famation cases – an inju<strong>red</strong> party is seeking to <strong>red</strong>ress<br />

the supposed harm to their reputation that the <strong>de</strong>famation has caused 9 . In some cases, however,<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>intiff may be more interested in simply unmasking the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of the anonymous<br />

speaker than in obtaining a judicial remedy 10 .<br />

To <strong>de</strong>termine whether the ISP should have to reveal the user’s i<strong>de</strong>ntity, courts have<br />

been forced to ba<strong>la</strong>nce the p<strong>la</strong>intiff’s interest in pursuing a <strong>de</strong>famation c<strong>la</strong>im against the First<br />

Amendment rights of anonymous speakers.<br />

1.3. brief summary of u. s. <strong>de</strong>famation <strong>la</strong>w<br />

In brief, un<strong>de</strong>r U.S. <strong>la</strong>w, <strong>de</strong>famation requires a statement that is:<br />

8 See Julie Hil<strong>de</strong>n, Why Anonymous Internet Speakers Can’t Count on ISPs to Protect Them, at http://<br />

writ.news.find<strong>la</strong>w.com/hil<strong>de</strong>n/20010101.html (Jan. 1, 2001) (“[I]f the target of anonymous, damaging<br />

Internet speech wants to seek out the speaker, the ISP is still the entity to which he must direct<br />

his subpoena. After all, he can’t serve a subpoena on a person he can’t even i<strong>de</strong>ntify.”).<br />

9 Jennifer o’Brien, “Putting a Face to a (Screen) Name: The First Amendment Implications of Compelling<br />

ISPs to Reveal the I<strong>de</strong>ntities of Anonymous Internet Speakers in on-line Defamation Cases,”<br />

70 Fordham Law Review 2745 (2002).<br />

10 Nadine Strossen, Protecting Privacy and Free Speech in Cyberspace, 89 Geo. L.J. 2103, 2106-07<br />

(2001) (discussing recent efforts of the American Civil Liberties Union to ensure protection for<br />

anonymous and pseudoanonymous communications un<strong>de</strong>r the First Amendment).


Anonymity, “trash talk” and cyber-smearing on the Internet<br />

283<br />

a) a fact (not opinion);<br />

b) false;<br />

c) <strong>de</strong>famatory;<br />

d) concerning another person;<br />

e) published to a third party; and<br />

f) with some <strong>de</strong>gree of fault or malice 11 .<br />

The first prong –<strong>de</strong>termining whether a statement is one of fact or “opinion”– is a<br />

much-litigated component of <strong>de</strong>famation <strong>la</strong>w, particu<strong>la</strong>rly in the context of on-line <strong>de</strong>famation.<br />

This is a crucial point, because expressions of opinion, no matter how ru<strong>de</strong> or how<br />

offensive, are absolutely protected un<strong>de</strong>r U.S. <strong>la</strong>w 12 . In <strong>de</strong>termining whether a particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

statement constitutes actionable <strong>de</strong>famation so as to survive a motion to dismiss, New York<br />

courts have consistently followed the standard set by the Court of Appeals in the seminal<br />

case of Gross v. New York Times Co., involving a three (3) part analysis:<br />

(1) whether the specific <strong>la</strong>nguage in issue has a precise meaning which is readily un<strong>de</strong>rstood;<br />

(2) whether the statements are capable of being proven true or false; and (3)<br />

whether either the full context of the communication in which the statement appears or the<br />

broa<strong>de</strong>r social context and surrounding circumstances are such as to signal rea<strong>de</strong>rs or listeners<br />

that what is being read or heard is likely to be opinion, not fact 13 .<br />

The First Amendment provi<strong>de</strong>s broad protection for such statements of rhetorical hyperbole<br />

“no matter how offensive” 14 . This dispositive inquiry must be ma<strong>de</strong> from the perspective<br />

of an “ordinary, reasonable” viewer of the website at issue 15 .<br />

11 Restatement (Second) of Torts § 558 (1977).<br />

12 Torain v. Liu, 279 Fed. Appx 46, No. 07-3672-cv, 2008 WL 2164659, at *1 (2d Cir. May 22, 2008).<br />

13 Gross v. New York Times Co., 82 N.Y.2d 146, 623 N.E.2d 1163, 603 N.Y.S.2d 813, (1993), 82<br />

N.Y.2d at 153 (emphasis ad<strong>de</strong>d) (citations and quotation marks omitted).<br />

14 See, e.g., Mann v. Abel, 10 N.Y.3d 271, 279, 885 N.E.2d 884, 856 N.Y.S.2d 31 (2008); See also, Old<br />

Dominion Branch No. 496, Nat’l Ass’n of Letter Carriers v. Austin, 418 U.S. 264, 286, 94 S.Ct. 2770,<br />

2780, 41 L.Ed.2d 745 (1974) (protecting “rhetorical hyperbole, a lusty and imaginative expression<br />

of contempt” such as <strong>de</strong>fendant’s characterization of p<strong>la</strong>intiff as a “scab” and a “traitor” with “rotten<br />

principles”); Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46, 50, 108 S.Ct. 876, 99 L.Ed.2d 41 (1988)<br />

(First Amendment <strong>de</strong>feated c<strong>la</strong>ims for, inter alia, libel based upon a parody that “could not reasonably<br />

have been interpreted as stating actual facts”); 600 W. 115th St. Corp. v. Von Gutfeld, 80 N.Y.2d 130,<br />

139, 603 N.E.2d 930, 589 N.Y.S.2d 825 (1992) (“loose, figurative or hyperbolic” speech negates “the<br />

impression that an apparently verifiable assertion was in-ten<strong>de</strong>d” and is not actionable); Roth v. United<br />

Fe<strong>de</strong>ration of Teachers, 5 Misc3d 888,897, 787 N.Y.S.2d 603, 610 (Sup. Ct. Kings 2004) (“statements<br />

of opinion are absolutely privileged and shiel<strong>de</strong>d from c<strong>la</strong>ims of <strong>de</strong>famation un<strong>de</strong>r article I, §<br />

8 of the New York State Constitution, no matter how vituperative or unreasonable the opinions may<br />

be”) (emphasis ad<strong>de</strong>d) (citations omitted).<br />

15 See Mr. Chow of New York v. Ste. Jour Azur S.A., 759 F.2d 219(2d Cir. 1985); Home v. Matthews, No.<br />

97Civ.3605 (JSM), 1997 WL 598452, at *2 (S.D.N.Y. Sept. 25, 1997) (“[i]n <strong>de</strong>termining whether


284 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

In <strong>de</strong>termining whether the challenged statements are protected opinion, courts must<br />

look at the <strong>la</strong>nguage itself to <strong>de</strong>termine whether it has “a precise meaning which is readily<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstood” and whether it is “capable of being proven true or false 16 ” as well as the context<br />

in which the statements were ma<strong>de</strong>. It is imperative that courts learn to view libel allegations<br />

within the unique context of the Internet.<br />

2. bad facts make bad <strong>la</strong>w: tHe lisku<strong>la</strong> coHen case<br />

In a recent, prece<strong>de</strong>nt-setting case of mine that may have far-reaching consequences<br />

in the burgeoning social media sphere, former mo<strong>de</strong>l, Lisku<strong>la</strong> Cohen, brought an action<br />

against Google to force Google to unmask the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of an anonymous blogger who had<br />

insulted her, calling her a “skank” and a “ho” in a series of blog posts on a single day.<br />

The New York State Judge si<strong>de</strong>d with Ms. Cohen and or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> Google to turn over<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntifying information about the anonymous blogger 17 . The ruling has divi<strong>de</strong>d the blogosphere,<br />

with some praising the <strong>de</strong>cision, and others fearing it sets a dangerous prece<strong>de</strong>nt for<br />

informational privacy on the internet. Hund<strong>red</strong>s of articles, blogs, TV shows and other media<br />

have commented on this case, which has now been dubbed the “skank case” 18 . Privacy<br />

groups have publicly expressed concerns about this ruling 19 .<br />

Although there is a vocal chorus app<strong>la</strong>uding the ruling because of the belief that<br />

anonymity on the internet is nothing more than a <strong>de</strong>vice for “cowards” to hurl insults<br />

without suffering consequences 20 , others fear that this <strong>de</strong>cision will have harmful and<br />

unforeseen repercussions. Free speech and privacy advocates fear once this form of censorship<br />

is established on-line, it will stifle more than just the petty and personal invective, but<br />

will muffle and inhibit all discussions – from lofty political discourse to casual, offhand<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>intiff has been <strong>de</strong>famed, the court must test the statement by its effect upon the average and<br />

ordinary rea<strong>de</strong>r to whom the publication is addressed”). In this inquiry, courts look “at the content<br />

of the whole communication, its tone and apparent purpose . . . to <strong>de</strong>termine whether a reasonable<br />

person would view [it] as expressing or implying any facts.” Immuno A,G. v .J. Moor-Jankowsi, 77<br />

N.Y.2d 235, 250, 254, 567 N.E.2d 1270,1278, 1281, 566 N.Y.S.2d 906, 914, 1281 (1991).<br />

16 Mann, 10 N.Y.3d at 271, 279.<br />

17 Cohen v. Google Inc., 25 Misc.3d 945, 887 N.Y.S.2d 424 (Sup. Ct. New York County 2009).<br />

18 A Google search of the case reveals hund<strong>red</strong>s of press reports concerning this case and the potential<br />

implications, e.g. Jose Martinez, Mo<strong>de</strong>l Lisku<strong>la</strong> Cohen sues Google over blogger’s ‘skank’ comment,<br />

january 6, 2009, NY Daily News, http://www.nydailynews.com/gossip/2009/01/05/2009-01-05_<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>l_lisku<strong>la</strong>_cohen_sues_google_over_blo.html?print=1&page=all (<strong>la</strong>st visited May 24, 2011);<br />

The Two Si<strong>de</strong>s of Accused Mo<strong>de</strong>l-Skank Lisku<strong>la</strong> Cohen, August 21, 2009, http://nymag.com/daily/intel/2009/08/the_two_si<strong>de</strong>s_of_accused_mo<strong>de</strong>l.html<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st visited May 24, 2011)<br />

19 For example, the Electronic Freedom Foundation, The Reporter’s Committee for Freedom of Speech,<br />

the American Civil Liberties Union, among other groups, have expressed displeasure in the ruling.<br />

20 Judge H. Lee Sarokin: Does Anonymity on the Internet Breed Bravery or Cowardice?, Huffington<br />

Post, June 9, 2010.


Anonymity, “trash talk” and cyber-smearing on the Internet<br />

285<br />

comments on silly blogs. The ruling has incur<strong>red</strong> starkly divi<strong>de</strong>d reaction, with some praising<br />

the <strong>de</strong>cision, and others expressing fear it sets a dangerous prece<strong>de</strong>nt that will enable<br />

companies, individuals and even governments to forcibly unmask internet commentators<br />

that they take a dislike to.<br />

2.1. facts of cohen case<br />

In brief, Lisku<strong>la</strong> Cohen was a thirty-six-year-old mo<strong>de</strong>l living in New York City 21 . on<br />

August 21, 2008, an anonymous blogger (the “Blogger”) posted five messages about Ms.<br />

Cohen on a website owned by Google, Inc. that allows users to create and publish their own<br />

blogs. The blogger posted these messages on a blog entitled “SKANKS IN NYC.” The postings<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>d pictures of Ms. Cohen accompanied by captions <strong>de</strong>scribing her as: a “skank”;<br />

“skanky”; our #1 skanky superstar”; and a “ho.” Some of the pictures <strong>de</strong>picted Ms. Cohen in<br />

a sexually suggestive manner, and one caption suggested that Ms. Cohen was experienced<br />

in performing oral sex 22 .<br />

Ms. Cohen maintained she had been <strong>de</strong>famed by the Blogger who posted photos of her,<br />

along with <strong>de</strong>rogatory comments. Ms. Cohen argued that the Blogger’s comments constituted<br />

<strong>de</strong>famation per se because they “impugn[ed] her chastity. 23 ” Further, Ms. Cohen argued<br />

that the Blogger’s statements, particu<strong>la</strong>rly the use of “skank” and “ho,” were actionable<br />

statements of fact rather than of opinion. Id. The Blogger argued that the statements were<br />

opinion because the statements “skank” and “ho” are not capable of being proven true or<br />

false and the context of the statements on a blog “signal[s] rea<strong>de</strong>rs . . . that what is being read<br />

or heard is likely to be opinion, not fact. 24 ”<br />

The court held that Ms. Cohen “sufficiently established the merits of her proposed<br />

cause of action for <strong>de</strong>famation . . . and that the information sought is material and necessary<br />

to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the potential <strong>de</strong>fendant.” Id. Specifically, the court ruled that the words “skank”<br />

and “ho,” as used in the blogger’s commentary, constituted statements of fact rather than<br />

of opinion because they were capable of being proven true or false and, when taken in context,<br />

conveyed a sense to a rea<strong>de</strong>r that the comments were factual in nature 25 . The Blogger<br />

argued that its statements constitute no more than “rhetorical hyperbole” and “vigorous<br />

epithets 26 ” and are therefore non-actionable opinions entitled to absolute protection un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

21 Dareh Gregorian, Ex-Vogue Mo<strong>de</strong>l Sna<strong>red</strong> in Ugly Web, N.Y. Post, Jan. 6, 2009, http://www.nypost.<br />

com/p/news/regional/ex_vogue_mo<strong>de</strong>l_sna<strong>red</strong>_in_ugly_web_aUTAquID0xeSF3RGKc6RcJ.<br />

22 Cohen, 25 Misc.3d at 950, 887 N.Y.S.2d at 428.<br />

23 Cohen, 25 Misc.3d at 947, 887 N.Y.S.2d at 426.<br />

24 Cohen, 25 Misc.3d at 950, 887 N.Y.S.2d at 428 (quoting Gross v. New York Times Co., 82 N.Y.2d<br />

146, 153, 603 N.Y.S.2d 813, 623 N.E.2d 1163 (1993).<br />

25 Id.<br />

26 Id.


286 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and Article 1, Section 8 of the New York<br />

Constitution 27 .<br />

The Blogger further argued that no reasonable viewer of the Blog would or could conclu<strong>de</strong><br />

that the statements referring to Petitioner as a “skank”, or “skanky”, or “acting like a<br />

ho” actually purport to convey verifiable statements of fact. These loose statements carry an<br />

unmistakable comic tone and constitute mere rhetoric, which, in a forum notorious for the<br />

unbridled exchange of caustic comments, invective and insult, would never be construed by<br />

a reasonable viewer as conveying actual facts about Ms. Cohen. Accordingly, the Blogger asked<br />

the Court to keep their i<strong>de</strong>ntity a secret because the Petitioner’s threatened <strong>de</strong>famation<br />

c<strong>la</strong>im would fail as a matter of <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

2.2. fact v. opinion<br />

Prior the Google v. Cohen case, it seemed beyond dispute that words such as “skank”<br />

and “ho” were not statements of objective fact, capable of being true or false28 .<br />

In light of the nature and tone of the specific <strong>la</strong>nguage at issue here and the way in<br />

which all members of society, but young adults in particu<strong>la</strong>r, attribute different meanings to<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r words and phrases over time, such that the usage and meaning of any particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

term may well change over time, it is important that the Court remain mindful of the axiomatic<br />

principle that:<br />

Whether <strong>la</strong>nguage has that ten<strong>de</strong>ncy <strong>de</strong>pends, among other factors, upon the temper of<br />

the time, the current of contemporary public opinion, with the result that words, harmless<br />

27 The First Amendment provi<strong>de</strong>s, in pertinent part: “Congress shall make no <strong>la</strong>w... abridging the freedom<br />

of speech, or of the press.” Article 1, Section 8 of the New York Constitution states: “Every<br />

citizen may freely speak, write and publish his or her sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for<br />

the abuse of that right; and no <strong>la</strong>w shall be passed to restrain or abridge the liberty of speech or of the<br />

press. In all criminal prosecutions or indictments for libels, the truth may be given in evi<strong>de</strong>nce to the<br />

jury; and if it shall appear to the jury that the matter charged as libelous is true, and was published<br />

with good motives and for justifiable ends, the party shall be ac-quitted; and the jury shall have the<br />

right to <strong>de</strong>termine the <strong>la</strong>w and the fact.”<br />

28 See, e.g., Seelig v. Infinity Broadcasting Corp., 97 Cal. App,4 th 798, 811, 119 Cal.Rptr.2d 108, 118 (1 st<br />

Dist. App. Ct. 2002) (“[t]he phrase ‘big skank’ is not actionable because it is too vague to be capable<br />

of being proven true or false”); Nunez v. A-T Financial Information, Inc., 957 F. Supp. 438, 442<br />

(S.D.N.Y. 1997) (rejecting s<strong>la</strong>n<strong>de</strong>r per se based on statement that “you, you need to suck more. You<br />

need to get out your knee pads and start sucking”, finding that such statements were mere innuendo);<br />

Bolton v. Strawbridge, 156 N.Y.S.2d 722, 724 (Sup. Ct. Westchester 1956) (statement that “you’d do<br />

anything for five dol<strong>la</strong>rs, so I am told in the vil<strong>la</strong>ge” did not impute unchastity); Pearlstein v. Draizin,<br />

190 Misc. 27, 73 N.Y.S.2d 594 (Sp. Term 1947) (statement “charging the p<strong>la</strong>intiff with being a<br />

‘tramp’ is not actionable per se”); Ward v. Zelikovsky, 136 N.J. 516, 537, 643 A.2d 972, 982 (1994)<br />

(“‘Bitch’ in its common everyday use is vulgar but non-actionable name-calling that is incapable of<br />

objective truth or falsity”).


Anonymity, “trash talk” and cyber-smearing on the Internet<br />

287<br />

in one age, in one community, may be highly damaging to reputation at another time<br />

or in a different p<strong>la</strong>ce 29 .<br />

Here, Blogger argued that the loose, hyperbolic use of the words “ho” and “skank”<br />

exemplify precisely the type of rhetorical hyperbole and vigorous epithets that both the Supreme<br />

Court and New York courts alike have vigorously protected. These words have become<br />

a popu<strong>la</strong>r form of “trash talk” ubiquitous across the Internet as well as network television<br />

and should be treated no differently than “jerk” or any other form of loose and vague insults<br />

that the Constitution protects.<br />

2.3. The context of the blog informing <strong>de</strong>famatory meaning<br />

Even if a Court were to find the “skank” and “ho” comments at issue in Cohen v. Google<br />

to be capable of a <strong>de</strong>famatory meaning, the context negated any impression that a verifiable<br />

factual assertion was inten<strong>de</strong>d. Context is critical, if not dispositive, to the <strong>de</strong>termination<br />

of whether a statement is protected opinion 30 . Here, any ordinary visitor to a website entitled<br />

“SKANKS IN NYC” would undoubtedly expect this very sort of loose hyperbole and<br />

would have un<strong>de</strong>rstood the challenged statements to be statements of opinion, not objective<br />

fact, especially in light of their immediate context – a garbled mishmash of unintelligible<br />

captions based on Petitioner’s own public photos containing their own vague yet familiar<br />

epithets. Simi<strong>la</strong>rly, in one New Jersey case, the Court found that no reasonable person could<br />

read a book named “Hot Chicks with Douchebags,” and believe it was meant to contain<br />

assertions of fact that “anyone would take seriously” 31 .<br />

In Cohen v Google, the critical issue of context cannot be overstated. In recent years<br />

blogs have become a phenomenon, providing an excessively popu<strong>la</strong>r medium not only for<br />

conveying i<strong>de</strong>as, but also for mere venting purposes, affording the less outspoken a protected<br />

forum for voicing gripes, leveling invectives, and ranting about anything at all. In this<br />

way, the blogs have evolved as the mo<strong>de</strong>rn day soapbox for one’s personal opinions. Contemporary<br />

<strong>de</strong>finitions of the term “blog” hinge on the personal –rather than factual– outlet<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>d by Internet blogs today. For instance, the Merriam Webster on-line Dictionary<br />

<strong>de</strong>fines a “blog” as “a Web site that contains an on-line personal journal with reflections,<br />

comments, and often hyperlinks provi<strong>de</strong>d by the writer” 32 .<br />

29 Mencher v. Chesley, 297 N.Y. 94, 100, 259 (1947)<br />

30 See Immun A.G., 77 N.Y.2d 235, 250, 254, 567 N.E.2d 1270,1278, 1281, 566 N.Y.S.2d 906, 914,<br />

1281 (1991) (“statements must first be viewed in their context in or<strong>de</strong>r for courts to <strong>de</strong>termine<br />

whether a reasonable person would view them as expressing or implying any facts”); Knievel v. ESPN,<br />

393 F.3d 1068, 1075 (9th Cir. 2005) (“[t]he context in which the statement appears is <strong>para</strong>mount in<br />

our analysis, and in some cases it can be dispositive”); Koch v. Goldway, 817 F.2d 507, 509 (9th Cir.<br />

1987) (“[c]ontext does resolve the matter”).<br />

31 See Gorze<strong>la</strong>ny v. Simon & Schuster, Inc. No. BER-L-7775-08 at *4-5 (N.J. Super. Feb. 6, 2009)<br />

32 Merriam Webster’s Collegiate® Dictionary, Eleventh Edition, retrievable from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blog.<br />

( ).


288 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

The Ninth Circuit recognized as much in a recent case where a photograph of Evel<br />

Knievel was posted on www.expn.com, a website that covers “extreme” sports such as skateboarding<br />

and motorcycle racing. The photograph contained a caption saying “Evel Knievel<br />

proves that you’re never too old to be a pimp.” The Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court’s<br />

dismissal of Knievel’s <strong>de</strong>famation <strong>la</strong>wsuit reasoning that “although the word ‘pimp’ may<br />

be reasonably capable of a <strong>de</strong>famatory meaning when read in iso<strong>la</strong>tion, we agree with the<br />

District Court’s assessment that ‘the term loses its meaning when consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> in the context<br />

presented here.’” 33 . The court cited the youthful, loose nature of the website and reiterated<br />

the importance of the context in which the photo appea<strong>red</strong> in holding that a reasonable<br />

person would interpret the caption as hyperbole rather than as a factual allegation34 .<br />

In Cohen v. Google, the judge igno<strong>red</strong> the all-important analysis of the specific context<br />

at issue here, namely, “banter blogs” such as the Blog at issue here, which is obviously an<br />

amateur work of authorship in every sense. Any reasonable viewer would instantly un<strong>de</strong>rstand<br />

the Blog to be nothing more than a personal opinion page with otherwise irrelevant<br />

rhetoric. No reasonable viewer would construe the Blog – p<strong>red</strong>ominated as it is by a host<br />

of grammatical and typographical errors and employment of s<strong>la</strong>ng terms such as “ho” and<br />

“skank” – and conclu<strong>de</strong> that the Blog conveys or even purports to convey a single statement<br />

of fact about Petitioner. “It is the full context of the communication in which the statement<br />

appears [and] the broa<strong>de</strong>r social context and surrounding circumstances are such as to signal<br />

rea<strong>de</strong>rs or listeners that what is being read or heard is likely to be opinion, not fact” 35 .<br />

In sum, Judge Mad<strong>de</strong>n rejected the argument that any ordinary viewer of the blog at<br />

issue would conclu<strong>de</strong> that the Blogger’s statements –ma<strong>de</strong> in a comic tone with hyperbolic<br />

<strong>la</strong>nguage and in contexts known for expressions of caustic comments– were not conveying<br />

actual facts about Petitioner, but rather were nothing more than “rhetorical hyperbole,” “vigorous<br />

epithets” and statements of opinion. Judge Mad<strong>de</strong>n forced Google to reveal the i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />

of the Blogger. After nearly two years of fallout, an appel<strong>la</strong>te court in New York issued<br />

an opinion that suggested that the Cohen v. Google case should have come out the other way.<br />

on May 12, 2011, an appel<strong>la</strong>te court in New York ruled that certain allegedly <strong>de</strong>famatory<br />

should be interpreted as opinions because they appea<strong>red</strong> on-line and were autho<strong>red</strong><br />

anonymously:<br />

The culture of Internet communications, as distinct from that of print media such a<br />

newspapers and magazines, has been characterized as encouraging a ‘freewheeling, anything-goes<br />

writing style’... rea<strong>de</strong>rs give less cre<strong>de</strong>nce to allegedly <strong>de</strong>famatory remarks<br />

published on the Internet than to simi<strong>la</strong>r remarks ma<strong>de</strong> in other contexts 36 ...<br />

33 Knievel v. ESPN, 393 F.3d 1068, 1074 (9 th Cir. 2005).<br />

34 Id.<br />

35 Gross v. New York Times, 82 N.Y.2d 146, 153, 623 N.E.2d 1163, 1167, 603 N.Y.S.2d 813, 817<br />

36 Sandals Resorts Intl. Ltd. v Google, Inc., –N.Y.S.2d–, 2011 WL 1885939*8, 2011 NY Slip op 04179,<br />

(1 st Dep’t May 19, 2011).


Anonymity, “trash talk” and cyber-smearing on the Internet<br />

289<br />

That <strong>la</strong>nguage could affect a wi<strong>de</strong> swath of these forced-unmasking cases, turning the<br />

ti<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>dly in favor of anonymous posters.<br />

Although contributing to the full and free nature of speech on the Internet, anonymous<br />

speech has undoubtedly presented unique problems for those seeking justice for<br />

on-line <strong>de</strong>famation they have suffe<strong>red</strong>. When faced with petitions seeking to force the unmasking<br />

of an on-line poster, Courts must ba<strong>la</strong>nce the right of the p<strong>la</strong>intiff to <strong>red</strong>ress of his<br />

injury against that of the <strong>de</strong>fendant to speak anonymously.


COMUNICACIONES SOBRE DERECHO AL OLVIDO,<br />

PROTECCIÓN DE DATOS Y PRIVACIDAD


16<br />

BeHAVIOUrAl ADVertIsINg IN<br />

eleCtrONIC COmmUNICAtIONs<br />

A benefit to electronic communication <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

and an intrusion of individual’s right to privacy<br />

and data protection<br />

Jelena Burnik<br />

Attorney at Law. Guzov Ofsink, LLC<br />

AbstrAct: online behavioural advertising enables tracking of internet user activity and <strong>de</strong>livering<br />

only relevant advertisements, based on the data collected and analysed over a period of time. Its<br />

potential in terms of advertising efficiency and user experience enhancement is vast however users,<br />

privacy pressure groups, specialists, and regu<strong>la</strong>tory bodies have expressed many concerns about user<br />

privacy and data protection.<br />

Up to date coherent regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising is a non-solved issue. The main issue to<br />

start with is user consent to collection of his/her data for the purpose of behavioural advertising. The<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tors and the industry are still negotiating ways to obtain consent, causing legal uncertainty for<br />

the companies conducting behavioural advertising and the individuals, concerned about their privacy<br />

and data protection. The EU and the US have presented different solutions: US p<strong>la</strong>ces more emphasis<br />

on industry self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, whereas EU insists on guidance in statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion, possibly backed<br />

up by self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

This paper argues that a mix of regu<strong>la</strong>tory approaches (statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion and self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion) is<br />

necessary for better ba<strong>la</strong>ncing the potential behavioural targeting has for <strong>de</strong>velopment of electronic<br />

communications with an a<strong>de</strong>quate privacy and data protection. The regu<strong>la</strong>tors and the industry need<br />

to cooperate in <strong>de</strong>veloping privacy friendly solutions that will foster innovation and <strong>de</strong>velopment of<br />

electronic communications market. Crucial concepts for the future regu<strong>la</strong>tion are Privacy by Design,<br />

Privacy Enhancing Technologies and Privacy Impact Assessments.<br />

Keywords: behavioural advertising, data protection, prior consent, cookies, self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, privacy-friendly<br />

solutions.<br />

1. introduction<br />

Behavioural advertising enables tracking of internet user activity (web browsing, ente<strong>red</strong><br />

search terms, viewed content) and then <strong>de</strong>livering only relevant advertisements, based<br />

on the data collected and analysed over a period of time (WP29, 2010; LSE, 2009b). In the<br />

<strong>la</strong>st few years it has been employed by service provi<strong>de</strong>rs at different <strong>la</strong>yers on the internet:<br />

at application <strong>la</strong>yer (website publishers and advertising networks), navigation <strong>la</strong>yer (search<br />

engines) and most recently at connectivity <strong>la</strong>yer, in connection with internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

It also has the potential to be exploited through digital TV p<strong>la</strong>tform (Burke, 2003;<br />

Näränen, 2003). Its potential in terms of advertising efficiency and user experience enhan-


294 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cement is vast, however, since the introduction users, privacy pressure groups, specialists,<br />

and regu<strong>la</strong>tory bodies have exposed many concerns about user privacy and data protection.<br />

The attempts of behavioural advertising executed by internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs were highly<br />

criticized (Bohm, 2008; C<strong>la</strong>yton, 2008, out-<strong>la</strong>w.com, 2008, IWGDPT, 2010, Cooper,<br />

2010) and currently there is no such activity in the EU. That is why this paper focuses on<br />

behavioural advertising executed by other service provi<strong>de</strong>rs on the internet, and does not<br />

question the internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

Up to date coherent regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising is a non-solved issue. The main<br />

issue to start with is user consent to collection of his/her data (by means of a cookie) for the<br />

purpose of behavioural advertising. Currently the industry is operating an opt-out principle,<br />

meaning that it may collect information on users via cookies, but has to offer them a way to<br />

opt-out. In reality opting-out is often not such an easy and transparent process and the public<br />

is un<strong>de</strong>r educated about cookies and behavioural advertising. The current opt-out principle<br />

thus does not suffice in protecting users’ right to privacy and data protection.<br />

As an answer to this <strong>de</strong>ficiency both, EU and US, started to employ means to better<br />

ba<strong>la</strong>nce the rights of users and the interests of the industry. US p<strong>la</strong>ced emphasis on industry<br />

self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, which in the end provi<strong>de</strong>d for an enhanced way to opt-out and for provisions<br />

on user education. The concerned public however warns that self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion alone did<br />

not provi<strong>de</strong> for efficient user protection and calls for the US to introduce statutory measures.<br />

In the EU, on the other hand, the ePrivacy Directive was changed 1 , and introduced an optin<br />

principle. The industry now has to acquire consent prior to p<strong>la</strong>cing a cookie on the user’s<br />

computer. This caused an outcry in the industry which suggested a self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong>,<br />

more simi<strong>la</strong>r to the US requirements, cent<strong>red</strong> on an enhanced opt-out. The negotiations as<br />

to the meaning of the changed Directive are still taking p<strong>la</strong>ce in the EU – does it require<br />

strict opt-in or is an enhanced opt-out enough. The answer may in the end wary <strong>de</strong>pending<br />

on how the Directive will be implemented in different Member States.<br />

Legal frameworks in the EU and US are thus far from being clear and quite different<br />

when it comes to regu<strong>la</strong>tion of on-line practices and rights of the users. The US currently<br />

employs self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, whereas EU (for now) insists on guidance in statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

possibly backed up by self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion (WP29, 2010; Kroes, 2010). The regu<strong>la</strong>tors and the<br />

industry are still negotiating on the main issue –how to acquire user consent to such advertising<br />

practices. Companies conducting behavioural advertising and individuals, whose rights<br />

may have been breached, are thus facing legal uncertainties, additionally because many service<br />

provi<strong>de</strong>rs come from the US but operate in the EU as well. Changes in frameworks<br />

have been announced to happen on both si<strong>de</strong>s in the next years (EC, 2010; FTC, 2010; Department<br />

of Commerce, 2010), however, in the light of regu<strong>la</strong>tion <strong>de</strong>velopment so far it is a<br />

1 Directive 2009/136/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2002/22/<br />

EC on universal service and users’ rights re<strong>la</strong>ting to electronic communications networks and services,<br />

Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in<br />

the electronic communications sector and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004 on cooperation between<br />

national authorities responsible for the enforcement of consumer protection <strong>la</strong>ws.


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

295<br />

legitimate fear that the ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the rights and wishes of the industry and the rights<br />

and expectations of individuals regarding their privacy and data protection, may be struck<br />

closer to the industry si<strong>de</strong>, in the light of two competing economies and concentration of<br />

ownership on the electronic communications markets.<br />

In this context of rapid <strong>de</strong>velopments of advertising practices, often invading the rights of<br />

individuals, and not yet clearly <strong>de</strong>fined standards regarding privacy and data protection in legal<br />

frameworks in the EU and US, I strongly believe that in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt aca<strong>de</strong>mic research is nee<strong>de</strong>d<br />

to aid the <strong>de</strong>bate on the matter and to help shaping the frameworks of the future. The research<br />

conducted so far is more or less the input by different stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs which present support of their<br />

cases, however scarce aca<strong>de</strong>mic resources are currently avai<strong>la</strong>ble to c<strong>la</strong>rify the issues at stake.<br />

The main purpose of the present paper is to contribute to the <strong>de</strong>bate by trying answer<br />

the question, to what extent does behavioural advertising call for a different regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

approach due to its intrusive nature in terms of user privacy and data protection. I will firstly<br />

present an overview of behavioural advertising practices and critically assess its positive effect<br />

on the electronic communication industry <strong>de</strong>velopment together with the issues of privacy<br />

and data protection it engages. Secondly I will evaluate regu<strong>la</strong>tory tools, currently avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

in the EU and US, for limiting the impact of behavioural advertising on user privacy and<br />

data protection and i<strong>de</strong>ntify the main risks and strengths of the situation today. The paper<br />

will <strong>la</strong>ter focus on the role and efficiency of statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion versus self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion in the<br />

provision of user protection together with protection of industry’s interests. In the end I<br />

will propose elements I see necessary for regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising in the future<br />

and argue that a mix of regu<strong>la</strong>tory approaches (statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion and self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion) is<br />

necessary for better ba<strong>la</strong>ncing the potential behavioural targeting has for <strong>de</strong>velopment of<br />

electronic communication with an a<strong>de</strong>quate privacy and data protection.<br />

I propose to explore the issue through the conceptual lens of the political economy of media<br />

which emphasises that media are foremost commercial organizations which produce and<br />

distribute commodities (Murdock and Golding, 1997). They operate in a dual market of producing<br />

products for the audiences and at the same time producing audiences and <strong>de</strong>livering<br />

them to advertisers (Smythe in Mosco, 1996: 148-149). Media markets are becoming more<br />

and more controlled by <strong>la</strong>rge multi-national corporations (Mansell, 2004; Rogers, 2004; Van<br />

Couvering 2003, Noam, 2009) and competitiveness of countries in terms of media markets<br />

is an increasingly important factor (Galperin, 2004). The <strong>de</strong>sire for competitiveness in global<br />

media markets often creates regu<strong>la</strong>tory environment fit to support the industry (Grant, 2006),<br />

however, serious privacy concerns invoked by new forms of advertising activity and increased<br />

concentration of power in the hands of a few corporations may require rethinking of the regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

approach towards behavioural advertising in electronic communications.<br />

2. current state of P<strong>la</strong>y regarding beHaVioural adVertising<br />

As advertising is a major supporter, if not a necessary condition of free internet content,<br />

of which users benefit the most, targeting is seen as a great improvement due to its possibi-


296 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

lities of precise segmentation. The knowledge about users, who are getting increasingly segmented<br />

and ignorant towards the click-on ads on websites, enables advertisers to target specifically<br />

and thus loose much less money on non-relevant audiences. It also enhances users’<br />

experience –as much of the content, now even the ads, can be personalized and relevant.<br />

2.1. behavioural advertising and electronic service provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

Behavioural advertising executed by service provi<strong>de</strong>rs (to mention just a few of the biggest<br />

such as AoL, Microsoft, Yahoo!, eBay, Google, Facebook, etc.) involves the following<br />

roles: Publishers who are the website owners looking for revenues by selling space to disp<strong>la</strong>y<br />

ads on their website (first party), advertising networks, the most important distributors of<br />

behavioural advertising since they connect publishers with advertisers (third party) and advertisers<br />

who want to promote a product or service to a specific audience (WP29, 2010; LSE,<br />

2009b; CNIL, 2009).<br />

It involves use of tracking technologies, usually a “cookie”, p<strong>la</strong>ced on the user’s computer<br />

each time the user visits a website. The cookie is assigned a unique cookie ID, by which<br />

users are recognized when they revisit the website. Because normally cookies are p<strong>la</strong>ced by<br />

an ad network - a third party that is distinct from the web server that disp<strong>la</strong>ys the main<br />

content of the webpage (i.e. the publisher) they are often refer<strong>red</strong> to as “third party cookies”.<br />

Cookies have different life spans 2 . Some ad networks are rep<strong>la</strong>cing or supplementing traditional<br />

tracking cookies with new enhanced tracking technologies such as “F<strong>la</strong>sh Cookies”,<br />

which cannot be <strong>de</strong>leted through the traditional privacy settings of a web browser (WP29,<br />

2010). The danger of this practice is that it may lead to the accumu<strong>la</strong>tion of significant<br />

amount of data about a single user and raises serious concerns about user privacy and data<br />

protection. The <strong>de</strong>bate about behavioural advertising heated up especially with the introduction<br />

of targeted advertising at Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>r level due to its unique position of<br />

connection provi<strong>de</strong>rs (Bohm, 2008; C<strong>la</strong>yton, 2008; FTC, 2007; ICo, 2008; NAI, 2008;<br />

oFCoM, 2008). Because the trials of the technology by ISPs were ma<strong>de</strong> without explicit<br />

user consent 3 UK is currently un<strong>de</strong>rgoing and infringement procedure initiated by the European<br />

Commission (EC, 2009a, 2009b).<br />

Any behavioural advertising inclu<strong>de</strong>s the use of tracing <strong>de</strong>vices p<strong>la</strong>ced on users computer<br />

and thus almost always involves acquiring of personal i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable data, because it at least<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>s IP-addresses and UIDs, which constitute personal data (WP29, 2010). Because it<br />

involves personal data processing many re<strong>la</strong>ted issues arise: transparency of advertising activity,<br />

user consent and notice, security of collected data, limited retention of data, using users’<br />

sensitive data for advertising, and secondary use of collected data for other purposes (Bohm<br />

2 “Persistent cookies” either have a precise expiry date far in the future or until they are manually <strong>de</strong>leted.<br />

3 The EU Directive on privacy and electronic communications 2002/58/EC requires EU Member<br />

States to ensure confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality of the communications and re<strong>la</strong>ted traffic data by prohibiting un<strong>la</strong>wful<br />

interception and surveil<strong>la</strong>nce unless the users concerned have consented (Article 5(1)).


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

297<br />

2008; C<strong>la</strong>yton 2008; CNIL 2009; FIPR, 2008; FTC, 2007, LSE, 2009b; WP29 2010). The<br />

industry is re<strong>la</strong>tively sensitive towards privacy concerns. As a result, a key differentiator in<br />

the operation of these advertising p<strong>la</strong>tforms comes down to how (much) personal information<br />

is processed (LSE, 2009b).<br />

2.2. regu<strong>la</strong>tory context in the eu – The new “cookie directive” requires prior consent<br />

Legal guidance regarding behavioural advertising, conducted by electronic service provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

has been given in June 2010 by Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (WP29) 4 .<br />

In its non-binding opinion WP29 does not question the economic benefits that behavioural<br />

advertising may bring for stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’, but states that such practice must not be carried out<br />

at the expense of individuals’ rights to privacy and data protection. In particu<strong>la</strong>r, the opinion<br />

notes that advertising network provi<strong>de</strong>rs (who are seen as the responsible data controllers<br />

in most cases 5 ) are bound by the new Article 5(3) 6 of the e-Privacy Directive pursuant to<br />

which p<strong>la</strong>cing and obtaining information through cookies is only allowed with the informed<br />

consent of the user. Behavioural advertising is based on the use of i<strong>de</strong>ntifiers that enable the<br />

creation of very <strong>de</strong>tailed user profiles which, in most cases, will be <strong>de</strong>emed personal data,<br />

thus Data Protection Directive is also applicable. Those engaged in behavioural advertising<br />

have to comply with requirements regarding the provision of notice, sensitive data processing,<br />

the rights of individuals to access, rectify, object to data thus collected, and other (WP29, 2010).<br />

WP29 c<strong>la</strong>rifies that “consent” by <strong>de</strong>fault web browser settings may not be sufficient to<br />

comply with both directives, and states that to <strong>de</strong>liver valid consent browsers should reject<br />

third-party cookies by <strong>de</strong>fault, and convey clear, comprehensive and fully visible information.<br />

Most web browsers currently do not meet these requirements. WP29 also states that consent<br />

must expire after a certain period of time, and that there must be a simple way for users to<br />

be able to revoke it. Finally, the user’s consent must be informed and the WP29 “consi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

that providing a minimum of information directly on the screen, interactively, easily visible and<br />

un<strong>de</strong>rstandable, would be the most effective way to comply with this principle.” Furthermore,<br />

information should be provi<strong>de</strong>d repeatedly using messages appearing on the webpage to<br />

remind individuals that their behaviour is being monito<strong>red</strong> (WP29, 2010).<br />

4 This Working Party was set up un<strong>de</strong>r Article 29 of Directive 95/46/EC. It is an in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

European advisory body on data protection and privacy.<br />

5 The roles of website publishers may differ <strong>de</strong>pending on context, and thus require a case-by-case<br />

analysis. The Working Party acknowledges that although the website publishers may in some<br />

cases be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> data controllers, they may be subject to limited data protection obligations.<br />

The Working Party emphasizes several times that in or<strong>de</strong>r to protect the privacy of individuals,<br />

cooperation between ad network provi<strong>de</strong>rs and publishers is essential. Cooperation with web<br />

browser <strong>de</strong>velopers also is crucial.<br />

6 Article 5(3) of the e-Privacy Directive 2002/56/EC was amen<strong>de</strong>d by Directive 2009/136 – the<br />

former article requi<strong>red</strong> srevice provi<strong>de</strong>rs to offer an opt-out option when p<strong>la</strong>cing cookies, whereas<br />

the new article specifically requires an informed opt-it prior p<strong>la</strong>cing the cookie.


298 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Currently the industry is still operating the opt-out principle, as was requi<strong>red</strong> by the<br />

e-Privacy Directive. The amendments are to be transposed to national legis<strong>la</strong>tion by May<br />

2011, however only a small number of Member States is expected to finish the transposition<br />

by that date. Therefore it is currently not possible to enforce the opt-in principle, additionally<br />

because the industry strongly opposes the opinion and does not seem to be cooperating.<br />

2.2.1. The industry response<br />

After publication of the opinion Europe’s media and advertising industry 7 united to<br />

reject the opinion, saying that it takes no account of the consumers’ support for interestbased<br />

advertising nor of the exchange in value they receive between effective advertising and<br />

access to high quality media content for free. The industry believes that Europe’s internet<br />

would become less attractive to users and would significantly un<strong>de</strong>rmine the growth potential<br />

of the digital economy, jeopardise the existence of European online companies and call<br />

into question the EU’s ambitious Digital Agenda. The industry is in favour of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

which offers a more nuanced approach (WFA, 2010; IAB Europe, 2010a; EACA, 2010), a<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>l of regu<strong>la</strong>tion closer to the US one, which has according to Global Privacy Alliance 8<br />

<strong>de</strong>live<strong>red</strong> good results in ba<strong>la</strong>ncing consumer concern and industry innovation (GPA, 2010).<br />

In September 2010 came a call from Neelie Kroes, the Vice-Presi<strong>de</strong>nt of the European<br />

Commission responsible for the Digital Agenda who recognizes that Europe should work<br />

towards a realistic solution which will enhance users’ trust but not impe<strong>de</strong> the growth of<br />

the digital economy. She sees self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion as a possible solution if compliant with EU<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions and invites the industry to act quickly in <strong>de</strong>veloping a co<strong>de</strong> that would base<br />

on transparency, consent, user friendly solution, possibly by browser settings and effective<br />

enforcement (Kroes, 2010).<br />

To support the industry’s case, IAB Europe recently published their own research,<br />

which finds that user benefits from Web services are <strong>la</strong>rge –very significantly <strong>la</strong>rger than the<br />

advertising revenues earned from providing those services, and very significantly <strong>la</strong>rger, too,<br />

than any disturbance linked to advertising and privacy issues (IAB Europe, 2010b). In April<br />

2011 the self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework for Europe came to light. The EASA co<strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>ces much<br />

emphasis on the notice to individuals and centres on a consumer oriented website, where<br />

the individual will be able to exercise its right to opt-out. The website http://www.youronlinechoices.com/<br />

educates the user in an accessible <strong>la</strong>nguage about cookies and behavioural<br />

advertising (EASA, 2011). The website is a valuable tool for the users, but would have to<br />

offer the users choice to opt-in to be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as following the requirements of the Directive.<br />

The self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion initiative in the EU thus offers some improvements for the now<br />

7 such as World Fe<strong>de</strong>ration of Advertisers, Interactive Advertising Bureau Europe, European Association<br />

of Communications Agencies and others.<br />

8 The Global Privacy Alliance (“GPA”) is comprised of a cross section of global businesses from the financial<br />

services, automobile, aerospace, consumer products, computer and computer software, communications<br />

and electronic commerce sectors.


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

299<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r-regu<strong>la</strong>ted <strong>la</strong>ndscape of behavioural advertising but fails to provi<strong>de</strong> the crucial – an<br />

option for a prior consent to cookies being p<strong>la</strong>ced on user’s computers for the purpose of<br />

behavioural targeting. The co<strong>de</strong>’s comp<strong>la</strong>ints mechanism also does not inclu<strong>de</strong> any external<br />

subjects<br />

2.3. regu<strong>la</strong>tory context in the us – reliance on self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

The US privacy framework is composed of sectoral <strong>la</strong>ws combined with constitutional,<br />

statutory, regu<strong>la</strong>tory and common <strong>la</strong>w protections, in addition to industry self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

Sectoral <strong>la</strong>ws govern the handling of personal data consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> most sensitive 9 . In addition<br />

to these sectoral <strong>la</strong>ws, the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission (FTC) combats unfair or <strong>de</strong>ceptive<br />

business practices and provi<strong>de</strong>s guidance for businesses regarding privacy and security practices.<br />

Advertising practices on the internet are thus left primarily to industry self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

(Department of Commerce, 2010a). Behavioural targeting and the <strong>la</strong>ck of user protection<br />

was initially addressed by the FTC and Network Advertising Initiative (NAI) with a draft<br />

of a self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong> that called for a <strong>de</strong>finition of behavioural advertising practices, and<br />

principles which advertisers should respect in or<strong>de</strong>r to protect the users (FTC, 2007; NAI,<br />

2008).<br />

2.3.1. Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong> for behavioural advertising<br />

Later on in 2010, as a response to this call, a coalition of marketing associations 10<br />

issued Self-Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Principles for Online Behavioral Advertising with an implementation<br />

gui<strong>de</strong>, to address consumer concerns about the use of personal information and interest<br />

based advertising while preserving the innovative and robust advertising that supports the<br />

vast array of free online content and the ability to <strong>de</strong>liver relevant advertising to consumers.<br />

The Principles are as follows: (1) the Education Principle calls for organizations to educate<br />

individuals and businesses about online behavioural advertising; (2) the Transparency<br />

Principle calls for clearer and easily accessible disclosures to consumers about data collection;<br />

(3) the Consumer Control Principle provi<strong>de</strong>s consumers with an expan<strong>de</strong>d ability to choose<br />

whether data is collected and used for online behavioural advertising purposes. This choice<br />

will be avai<strong>la</strong>ble through a link from the notice provi<strong>de</strong>d on the Web page where data is collected.<br />

It requires ISPs to obtain the consent of users before engaging in online behavioural<br />

advertising, and take steps to <strong>de</strong>-i<strong>de</strong>ntify the data used for such purposes; (4) the Data<br />

Security Principle calls for organizations to provi<strong>de</strong> appropriate security and limited reten-<br />

9 For instance, the Communications Act inclu<strong>de</strong>s privacy protections that telecommunication provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

and cable operators must follow when handling the personal information of subscribers. The<br />

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act stipu<strong>la</strong>tes how ‘‘cove<strong>red</strong>’’ health care entities can<br />

use and disclose data. The Fair C<strong>red</strong>it Reporting Act governs how consumer reporting agencies share<br />

personal information (Department of Commerce, 2010a).<br />

10 American Association of Advertising Agencies, Association of National Advertisers, Direct Marketing<br />

Association, Interactive Advertising Bureau, Council of Better Business Bureaus.


300 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tion of data; (5) the Material Changes Principle calls for consumer consent before a material<br />

change is ma<strong>de</strong> to an entity’s data collection; (6) the Sensitive Data Principle recognizes that<br />

data collected from children and used for online behavioural advertising merits heightened<br />

protection, and requires parental consent for behavioural advertising to children; (7) the Accountability<br />

Principle calls for <strong>de</strong>velopment of programs to further advance these Principles,<br />

including programs to monitor and report instances of uncorrected non-compliance with<br />

these Principles to appropriate government agencies (American Association of Advertising<br />

Agencies, Association of National Advertisers, Direct Marketing Association, Interactive Advertising<br />

Bureau, Council of Better Business Bureaus, 2010a and b).<br />

2.3.2. US recognizes issues with behavioural advertising<br />

Recently, in December 2010 the FTC, recognizing recent problems, issued a report<br />

that proposes a framework to ba<strong>la</strong>nce the privacy interests of consumers with innovation<br />

that relies on consumer information to <strong>de</strong>velop beneficial new products and services. The<br />

report suggests implementation of a Do Not Track mechanism –likely a persistent setting<br />

on consumers’ browsers– so consumers can choose whether to allow the collection of data<br />

regarding their online searching and browsing activities. The report recommends companies<br />

to adopt a privacy by <strong>de</strong>sign approach by building privacy protections into their everyday<br />

business practices, to provi<strong>de</strong> reasonable security for consumer data, limited collection and<br />

retention of such data, and reasonable procedures to promote data accuracy. The report also<br />

proposes that stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs un<strong>de</strong>rtake a broad effort to educate consumers about commercial<br />

data practices and the choices avai<strong>la</strong>ble to them (FTC, 2010). In January 2011 Mozil<strong>la</strong> as<br />

the first industry entity announced p<strong>la</strong>ns to incorporate a Do Not Track feature into their<br />

next browser release, taking a clear lead and building a practical way forward for people who<br />

want privacy when they browse the web (Reitman, 2011).<br />

The Department of Commerce <strong>la</strong>ter presented its own green paper on online privacy,<br />

which echoes many of the above concerns. As a solution it recommends consi<strong>de</strong>ration of<br />

broad adoption of comprehensive Fair Information Practice Principles. But the Commerce<br />

Department seems reluctant to endorse enforceable consumer privacy rules. The green<br />

paper instead recommends the creation of a Privacy Policy Office within the Commerce<br />

Department that would help <strong>de</strong>velop voluntary privacy co<strong>de</strong>s of conduct within a<br />

multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r negotiation process (Department of Commerce, 2010b). As a response<br />

the Electronic Frontier Foundation (an NGo) states “that approach has serious problems.<br />

Agency rulemaking is by no means i<strong>de</strong>al, but it is governed by <strong>la</strong>w and yields legal rules subject<br />

to judicial review based on a <strong>de</strong>fined administrative record. Multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r negotiation is<br />

more political, and such a political consensus may only lead to general principles that are hard<br />

to enforce. It’s also less accountable to the facts; we’re concerned about how it would get verifiable<br />

information about commercial surveil<strong>la</strong>nce technologies, practices and data flows. Nor is<br />

it clear that businesses would follow voluntary co<strong>de</strong>s of conduct. Multi-stakehol<strong>de</strong>r negotiation<br />

may have a p<strong>la</strong>ce within agency rulemaking, but it doesn’t strike us as a substitute for enforceable<br />

rules (Tien, 2010).


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

3. a reflection on tHe two inter-<strong>de</strong>Pendant regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

frameworks<br />

301<br />

Some of the most prominent p<strong>la</strong>yers in the field of behavioural marketing come from<br />

the US, but operate in the EU too. Statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion in the EU is currently stricter,<br />

however enforcement is hard to achieve due to the above <strong>de</strong>scribed industry reluctance. The<br />

framework and safeguards that US provi<strong>de</strong> to protect the consumers are thus very important<br />

for the EU consumers. And so are the gaps in the protection. To mention just a few: US<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>l does not specifically call for the subjects not to perform tracking on children, enforcement<br />

of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong> is not clearly <strong>de</strong>fined and viable.<br />

US traditionally p<strong>la</strong>ces more emphasis on digital economy success, therefore creating<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tory environment more fit to support this goal, however in the light of consumer unease<br />

towards their data processing, US is announcing changes to the overall framework to follow<br />

in the next years. But as observed above, it still sees flexible self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion as the most<br />

appropriate to meet the challenges of the future. It also criticizes EU mo<strong>de</strong>l of regu<strong>la</strong>tion for<br />

p<strong>la</strong>cing too little emphasis on education of consumers and respectively argues, that notice of<br />

the advertising activity is the most important - then the consumer may be left free to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong><br />

whether targeting is acceptable for him (Department of Commerce, 2010b). Whether the<br />

consumer is always equipped enough to judge his best interests, that is another question. The<br />

global industry also calls for Europe to reconsi<strong>de</strong>r its ways of reliance on statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

and come closer to the US mo<strong>de</strong>l of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, a more flexible way of ensuring consumer<br />

rights (GPA, 2010). It seems very much possible that a form of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, more or less<br />

compliant with the requirements and interpretations of the directives, would come to light in<br />

EU, as a consequence of industry objection to the current obligations and in or<strong>de</strong>r not to hin<strong>de</strong>r<br />

EU competitiveness. Even though the prominence of WP29 opinion is recognized, the<br />

industry also has a strong argument in tight regu<strong>la</strong>tion stifling the European digital economy.<br />

The question however is, whether rapidly evolving industry should rely on self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

with respect to filling the gaps in consumer privacy protection, or whether statutory<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion measures should limit the amount of information that online advertisers can<br />

collect and use (Boucher Ferguson, 2008). Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion is often seen as effective on the<br />

internet, however in the case of behavioural advertising the standards are far from being as<br />

clear as in the case of traditional advertising, and leaving it to the industry to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> might<br />

be a step back from protection of consumers. Additionally the industry is <strong>de</strong>veloping very<br />

fast, an example are the freshly emerging practices of non-transparent profile trading 11 . Self–<br />

11 Three privacy groups have filed a comp<strong>la</strong>int with the U.S. Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission about behavioral<br />

advertising practices, accusing Google, Yahoo and other advertising vendors of creating a “Wild<br />

West” atmosphere with few rules for protecting consumer privacy. The comp<strong>la</strong>int, centers around the<br />

practice of real-time trading and sale of individual Internet users’ profiles, based on their interests<br />

and surfing habits. The growing and little un<strong>de</strong>rstood practice, combined with targeted ad vendors<br />

incorporating a wi<strong>de</strong>r range of outsi<strong>de</strong> data sources to build user profiles, constitutes a major privacy<br />

vio<strong>la</strong>tion, the groups said in their comp<strong>la</strong>int. “A user is bought and sold for targeting and retargeting


302 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion is captu<strong>red</strong> by the interests of the industry by <strong>de</strong>fault – it may as well occur, that<br />

new, potentially unfair practices would start occurring without being bound by the co<strong>de</strong>s<br />

or sanctioned by co<strong>de</strong>s. Also it might be argued that self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory bodies in this context<br />

would <strong>la</strong>ck c<strong>red</strong>ibility due to concentration of power in internet media market<br />

3.1. statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion versus self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

The main strengths of European approach towards regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising,<br />

are the possibility of harmonization of regu<strong>la</strong>tion throughout the Member States, the technological<br />

neutrality of the Directive 12 and the possibility of setting a common standard to protect<br />

the rights of individuals. The opponents would however argue that the common standard may<br />

as well be the lowest common <strong>de</strong>nominator, lower than what might be the standard when<br />

self-regu<strong>la</strong>ting across the industry sector. The problem EU regu<strong>la</strong>tion is also the margin of<br />

appreciation the Member States have in implementation of Directives. As <strong>de</strong>scribed, it is yet<br />

not clear, how will the cookie-consent article be implemented in different Member States. Will<br />

they require strict opt-in, or will a softer version –with an enhanced opt-out prevail.<br />

In the years to come the EU framework will un<strong>de</strong>rgo changes, but most likely different<br />

interpretations regarding applicability to specific electronic services and activities will still<br />

be present. To say that the Data Protection Directive and the ePrivacy Directive offer all the<br />

answers to how regu<strong>la</strong>te behavioural advertising to protect the rights of individuals and at<br />

the same time protect wi<strong>de</strong>r interests of information society <strong>de</strong>velopment is not at all realistic.<br />

The Directives set standards which need to be applied to all data processing, including by<br />

the conductors of behavioural advertising (prior consent, based on a notice, etc.), however,<br />

to ba<strong>la</strong>nce the interests of the industry with the rights of individuals, much is left to the<br />

industry in terms of the technical means with which to achieve compliance and at the same<br />

time further their own goals.<br />

Many on the above arguments speak of the benefits of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion in specific industry<br />

sectors. The case for self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion rests primarily on consi<strong>de</strong>rations of expertise and efficiency.<br />

Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory bodies, comprised of industry p<strong>la</strong>yers can <strong>de</strong>finitely provi<strong>de</strong> a high level<br />

of expertise, and the rules, set by the industry are theoretically more realistic to abi<strong>de</strong> by the<br />

members. This contributes to efficiency of such regu<strong>la</strong>tion, as it is more flexible than statutory<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion. on the other hand worries tend to centre on concerns regarding accountability<br />

and fairness of procedures. If left free to regu<strong>la</strong>te itself, the industry can hardly prove to be accountable.<br />

However, if exposed to certain level of external control, self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory systems can<br />

produce <strong>de</strong>sirable results. The external control might be in the form of rules that are approved<br />

by other bodies, agency oversight, judicial review, comp<strong>la</strong>ints handling mechanisms, reporting<br />

-- all without their awareness and consent.” (Center for Digital Democracy, U.S. PIRG, World Privacy<br />

Forum (2010)).<br />

12 Among the strenghts of the Data Protection Directive are also: the Directive serves as a refence mo<strong>de</strong>l<br />

for good practice, the principle based framework permits flexibility, the Directive has improved awareness<br />

of data protection concerns (Robinson, 2009).


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

303<br />

requirements etc. It is recommen<strong>de</strong>d for the self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework to inclu<strong>de</strong> representation<br />

of consumers and other stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs, and a<strong>de</strong>quate sanctions for non-observance of the<br />

co<strong>de</strong>. Another problem is membership, as the self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong> usually binds the signatories<br />

of it, which may leave p<strong>la</strong>yers on the market, not bound to the rules (Baldwin and Cave, 1999).<br />

In the EU, self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong>s on data protection can be validated through Working<br />

Party 29, which was the case with the Fe<strong>de</strong>ration of European Direct and Interactive Marketing<br />

co<strong>de</strong> of conduct (FEDMA, 2010). However, as the first attempt show, the self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

co<strong>de</strong> for behavioural advertising would not pass validation, as it ignores the changes of<br />

the ePrivacy Directive. The EASA co<strong>de</strong> doesn’t address the issue of consent and as such fails<br />

to be compliant with the requirements of statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

4. imPlications for regu<strong>la</strong>tion of beHaVioural targeting in<br />

tHe future<br />

4.1. The crucial elements of future behavioural advertising regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

Learning from all the above experience I will firstly focus on some of the main elements<br />

I believe should be of utmost importance in the future regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising.<br />

Firstly I will touch upon the element of user’s consent to his/her data being collected and<br />

used for the purpose of behavioural advertising The consumer concerns about the current<br />

situation clearly show that the industry is failing to provi<strong>de</strong> them with meaningful choice<br />

regarding the use of their data. online advertising practices <strong>la</strong>ck transparency and the users<br />

<strong>la</strong>ck the power to freely <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> on their own data. With this in mind this paper strongly<br />

argues for a version of informed prior consent to be acqui<strong>red</strong> by the company before p<strong>la</strong>cing<br />

a cookie and collecting data on internet users. Although the arguments of the industry that<br />

opposes this view and calls instead for a stronger opt-out regime are legitimate, the fact remains,<br />

that only with prior consent the advertising practice becomes transparent.<br />

As US experience shows, the enhanced opt-out, provi<strong>de</strong>d by self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion, did not<br />

fully succeed in convincing the consumers and other relevant public as to the benefits of<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tively un-transparent behavioural advertising. Therefore, to gain users trust the industry<br />

should also consi<strong>de</strong>r being more positive towards gaining a prior consent and towards <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

of innovative solutions that would enable transparent ways of advertising.<br />

Regarding the means for obtaining user consent, browsers and other mechanisms such as<br />

the proposed to-not-track in the toolbar should be taken into account as they might be best to<br />

serve the purpose of user protection. At the same time these mechanisms seem the closest to<br />

the industry <strong>de</strong>sire not to obtain consent for every cookie in real time, as this would hamper<br />

the users’ internet experience. of course when <strong>de</strong>veloped to such level as to ensure users can<br />

actually exercise their choice by opting-in to the advertising cookies they prefer. Intrinsically<br />

linked to the question of consent is the notice on data processing. The notice should convey<br />

all the necessary information to make advertising activity transparent in an easily accessible<br />

<strong>la</strong>nguage. Education of users, trough <strong>de</strong>dicated websites, such as suggested by the European<br />

self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory initiative is a valuable tool for achieving positive results.


304 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4.2. The interp<strong>la</strong>y between self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory and statutory means of regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

Learning from the US self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework and the European self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory proposal<br />

it is reasonable to conclu<strong>de</strong> that sole reliance on self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion as a primary regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

tool is not sufficient to protect user privacy and data protection in the context of behavioural<br />

advertising. Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion alone will not provi<strong>de</strong> for a true opt-in, which is crucial for<br />

transparency of advertising activity and consumer trust. on the other hand solely statutory<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion will most likely not provi<strong>de</strong> for enhanced rules and initiatives, such as consumer<br />

websites. A mix of regu<strong>la</strong>tory approaches is therefore arguably best for ba<strong>la</strong>ncing the potential<br />

behavioural targeting has for <strong>de</strong>velopment of electronic communication with an a<strong>de</strong>quate<br />

privacy and data protection. Setting harmonized standards with statutory regu<strong>la</strong>tion, but<br />

accompanied with self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory initiatives (compliant with the standards but offering a<br />

higher level of protection) seems a better way to regu<strong>la</strong>te. In terms of the European initiative<br />

– if the co<strong>de</strong> was to be compliant with the requirements of the Directive(s) regarding the<br />

prior consent, but would further on provi<strong>de</strong> for internal comp<strong>la</strong>ints mechanisms, education<br />

of users, etc., the interests would have been ba<strong>la</strong>nced better. It is therefore necessary for the<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tors to work hand in hand with the industry, as the industry should be invited and<br />

supported to <strong>de</strong>velop privacy friendly solutions while at the same time further innovation.<br />

The final suggestion this paper offers is for the regu<strong>la</strong>tors, the industry and other affected<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs to p<strong>la</strong>ce more emphasis on the use and support of <strong>de</strong>velopment of Privacy<br />

Enhancing Technologies (PETs), the use of Privacy Impact Assessments 13 , Privacy by Design<br />

principle (Cavoukian, 2009) and certifications of privacy-friendly products and services as<br />

a form of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion 14 . The regu<strong>la</strong>tors should endorse and the industry should embrace<br />

the use of the above tools and concepts, as transparency and care for user privacy and data<br />

protection throughout <strong>de</strong>velopment of advertising solutions and practices will in the future<br />

most likely present a competitive advantage and not only additional bur<strong>de</strong>n.<br />

5. conclusion<br />

Behavioural advertising online is currently a hot issue. The benefits it offers to electronic<br />

communications markets <strong>de</strong>velopment have to be benchmarked against the issues of<br />

privacy and data protection it engages. Up to date coherent regu<strong>la</strong>tion of behavioural advertising<br />

is a non-solved issue, mostly because of the problem of user consent to collection of<br />

his/her data for the purpose of behavioural advertising. Currently the industry is operating<br />

13 Privacy Impact Assessments are in the centre of the concept of Privacy by Design, which envisages<br />

care for the protection of privacy in all phases of a project which inclu<strong>de</strong>s processing of personal data.<br />

They are crucial in the initial phases because the retrospective actions are usually time consuming and<br />

require radical changes to the system.<br />

14 Such as European Privacy Seal which at the same time foster consumer protection and trust and<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> a marketing incentive to manufacturers and vendors for privacy relevant goods and services<br />

(European Privacy Seal, 2010).


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

an opt-out principle, but that does not suffice in protecting users’ right to privacy and data<br />

protection.<br />

305<br />

As an answer to this <strong>de</strong>ficiency, EU and US, started to employ means to better ba<strong>la</strong>nce<br />

the rights of users and the interests of the industry. US p<strong>la</strong>ces emphasis on industry selfregu<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

which provi<strong>de</strong>s for an enhanced way to opt-out together with emphasis on consumer<br />

education. The concerned public however warns that self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion alone does not<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> for efficient user protection and calls for the US to introduce statutory measures. In<br />

the EU, on the other hand, the amen<strong>de</strong>d ePrivacy Directive introduced an opt-in principle,<br />

and the industry would now have to acquire consent prior to p<strong>la</strong>cing a cookie on the user’s<br />

computer. This caused an outcry in the industry which suggested a self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory co<strong>de</strong>,<br />

more simi<strong>la</strong>r to the US requirements, cent<strong>red</strong> on enhanced opt-out. The negotiations as to<br />

the meaning of the amen<strong>de</strong>d Directive are still taking p<strong>la</strong>ce in the EU –does it require strict<br />

opt-in or in enhanced opt-out enough.<br />

At the moment the ba<strong>la</strong>nce between the interests of the industry and the rights of<br />

individuals to privacy and data protection is struck closer to the industry si<strong>de</strong>. Different<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs are arguing their cases supported by evi<strong>de</strong>nce that fits their interests. There is<br />

a <strong>la</strong>ck of in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt aca<strong>de</strong>mic research that would take into account all the dimensions<br />

of the situation. The goal of the present paper was to contribute to filling this gap by trying<br />

to answer the question, to what extent do user privacy and data protection issues require<br />

rethinking of regu<strong>la</strong>tory system for behavioural targeting, to better ba<strong>la</strong>nce the interests of<br />

all affected parties.<br />

Learning from the US regu<strong>la</strong>tory framework and the European self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory proposal<br />

it is reasonable to conclu<strong>de</strong> that sole reliance on self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion as a primary regu<strong>la</strong>tory tool<br />

is not sufficient to protect user privacy and data protection in the context of behavioural<br />

advertising. This paper strongly argues for a mix of regu<strong>la</strong>tory approaches complementing<br />

each-other for ba<strong>la</strong>ncing the potential behavioural targeting has for <strong>de</strong>velopment of electronic<br />

communication with an a<strong>de</strong>quate privacy and data protection, starting with a true<br />

choice offe<strong>red</strong> to users. It is therefore necessary for the regu<strong>la</strong>tors to work hand in hand with<br />

the industry, as the industry should be invited and supported to <strong>de</strong>velop privacy friendly<br />

solutions while at the same time further the <strong>de</strong>velopment of electronic communications.<br />

6. bibliograPHy<br />

20/80 THINKING (2008). Privacy Impact Assessment. Last accessed 15. 12. 2009, from<br />

http://www.phorm.com/assets/reports/Phorm_PIA_Final.pdf.<br />

American Association of Advertising Agencies, Association of National Advertisers,<br />

Direct Marketing Association, Interactive Advertising Bureau, Council<br />

of Better Business Bureaus (2010, July). Self-Regu<strong>la</strong>tory Principles for online<br />

Behavioral Advertising, Last assessed 15. 12. 2010, from http://www.iab.net/media/<br />

file/ven-principles-07-01-09.pdf.


306 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

At Kearney (2010). A viable future mo<strong>de</strong>l for the internet. Last assessed 30. 1. 2011, from<br />

http://www.atkearney.com/images/global/pdf/Viable_Future_Mo<strong>de</strong>l_for_Internet.pdf.<br />

Baldwin, R. & CAVE, M. (1999). Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding regu<strong>la</strong>tion. Theory, Strategy, and Practice.<br />

New York: oxford University Press.<br />

Bennett, C. J. (1992). Regu<strong>la</strong>ting privacy: Data protection and public policy in Europe and<br />

the United States. Ithaca Cornell University Press.<br />

Bohm, N. (2008). The Phorm “Webwise” System - a Legal Analysis. Last accessed 2. 11.<br />

2008, from: http://www.fipr.org/080423phormlegal.pdf.<br />

Boucher Ferguson, R. (2008). A Battle Is Brewing over online Behavioral Advertising.<br />

Last accessed 30. 6. 2008, from: http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Enterprise-Apps/A-Battle-Is-Brewing-over-online-Behavioral-Advertising-Market/.<br />

Burke, D. (2003). Your TV is watching you. Last accessed 30. 4. 2008, from: http://www.<br />

open<strong>de</strong>mocracy.net/.<br />

Cavoukian, A. (2008). Privacy and radical pragmatism. Change the Paradigm. ontario: Information<br />

and Privacy Commissioner of ontario.<br />

Centre For Digital Democracy, U.S. Pirg, World Privacy Forum (2010, April 8). Before<br />

the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission. Comp<strong>la</strong>int, Request for Investigation, Injunction,<br />

and other Relief, In the Matter of Real-time targeting and auctioning, Data Profiling,<br />

optimization and Economic Loss to Consumers and Privacy, Last accessed 31. 1. 2011,<br />

from http://www.uspirg.org/uploads/eb/6c/eb6c038a1fb114be75ecabab05b4b90b/<br />

FTCfiling_Apr7_10.pdf.<br />

C<strong>la</strong>yton, R. (2008). The Phorm “Webwise” System. Last accessed 2. 11. 2008, from: http://<br />

www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/080404phorm.pdf.<br />

Cooper, A. (2010). The Singu<strong>la</strong>r Challenges of ISP Use of Deep Packet Inspection. Last accessed<br />

30. 1, 2011, from http://www.<strong>de</strong>eppacketinspection.ca/the-singu<strong>la</strong>r-challengesof-isp-use-of-<strong>de</strong>ep-packet-inspection/.<br />

CNIL Commission Nationale <strong>de</strong> l'Informatique el <strong>de</strong>s Liberies (2009). Targeted online Advertising.<br />

Last accessed 12. 1. 2010, from http://pg.droit.officelive.com/Documents/<br />

online%20Targeted%20Advertising%20-%20CNIL%20Report%202009%20-%20<br />

Cabinet%20Gelly.pdf).<br />

Department of Commerce (2010a). Notice of Inquiry. Information Privacy and Innovation<br />

in the Internet Economy. Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Register / Vol. 75, No. 78 / Friday, April 23.<br />

Last accessed January 28, from http://www.ntia.doc.gov/frnotices/2010/FR_Privacy-<br />

NoI_04232010.pdf.<br />

Department of Commerce, Internet Policy Task Force (2010b). Commercial Data<br />

Privacy and Innovation in the Internet Economy: A Dynamic Policy Framework. Last<br />

accessed January 28, from http://www.ntia.doc.gov/reports/2010/IPTF_Privacy_<br />

GreenPaper_12162010.pdf.<br />

EACA European Association of Communications Agencies (2010, June 25). Europe’s data<br />

privacy regu<strong>la</strong>tors’ <strong>la</strong>test opinion on cookies is out of step with online businesses and


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

307<br />

their consumers. Last accessed January 25, from http://www.eaca.be/news/press<strong>de</strong>tail.<br />

asp?release=253.<br />

EASA European Advertising Standards Alliance (2011, April 14). Best Practice Recommendation<br />

for online Behavioural Advertising. Last assessed 20. 5. 2011, from http://<br />

www.easa-alliance.org/News/News/page.aspx/46?xf_itemId=131&xf_selectionDatapartId=91.<br />

EC European Commission IoN (1995). Directive 95/46/EC on data protection. Brussels:<br />

EC.<br />

EC European Commission (2002). Directive 2002/58/EC on privacy and electronic communications.<br />

Brussels: EC.<br />

EC European Commission (2009a): Telecoms: Commission <strong>la</strong>unches case against UK over<br />

privacy and personal data protection, Brussels, 14. April 2009, Last accessed 14. 3.<br />

2010, from http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/09/570&for<br />

mat=HTML&aged=0&<strong>la</strong>nguage=EN&guiLanguage=en.<br />

EC European Commission (2009b): Telecoms: Commission steps up UK legal action over<br />

privacy and personal data protection, Brussels, 29. october, Last accessed 14. 3. 2010,<br />

from http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/09/1626.<br />

EC European Commission (2010, November): Communication from the Commission to<br />

the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the<br />

Committee of the regions “A Comprehensive Approach on Data Protection in the<br />

European Union”. Last accessed 16. 12. 2011, from http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/<br />

consulting_public/0006/com_2010_609_en.pdf.<br />

European Privacy Seal (2010, July). Position paper on the impact of the new “Cookie<br />

Law” on certifiability of behavioural advertising systems according to EuroPriSe. Last<br />

accessed 30. 1. 2011, from https://www.european-privacy-seal.eu/results/Position-<br />

Papers/PDF%20-%20EuroPriSe%20position%20paper%20on%20the%20new%20<br />

cookie%20<strong>la</strong>w.pdf.<br />

FEDMA Fe<strong>de</strong>ration of European Direct And Interactive Marketing (2010). European<br />

Co<strong>de</strong> of Practice For The Use of Personal Data In Direct Marketing Electronic Communications<br />

Annex. Brussels.<br />

FIPR Foundation for Information Policy Research (2008). open Letter to the Information<br />

Commissioner. Last accessed 30. 6. 2008, from: http://www.fipr.org/080317icoletter.<br />

html.<br />

FTC Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission (2007). FTC Staff Proposes online Behavioral Advertising<br />

Privacy Principles. Last accessed 30. 6. 2008, from: http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2007/12/<br />

principles.shtm.<br />

FTC Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission (2010, December). Protecting Consumer Privacy in an<br />

Era of Rapid Change, A proposed framework for Business and Policymakers, Preliminary<br />

FTC Staff Report. Last accessed 31. 1. 2011 from http://www.ftc.gov/<br />

os/2010/12/101201privacyreport.pdf.


308 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Galperin, H. (2004). New Television, Old Politics. The Transition to Digital Television in the<br />

United States and Britain. New York: Cambridge University Press.<br />

GPA Global Privacy Alliance (2010, September 17). Comments of the Global Privacy Alliance<br />

on Cookies and Web Beacons, Last accessed 11. 11. 2010, from http://www.ip-rs.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Pdf/novice/GPA_Comments_on_Cookies_and_Web_Beacons.pdf.<br />

Grant, J. (2006). “oFCoM buys into product p<strong>la</strong>cement: consultation on issues re<strong>la</strong>ted to<br />

product p<strong>la</strong>cement”. Entertainment Law Review, 1-5.<br />

Home office (2008). Home office notice. Last accessed 2. 11. 2011, from: http://cryptome.org/ho-phorm.htm.<br />

IAB Europe Interactive Advertising Bureau Europe (2010a, June 25). Industry unites to<br />

reject privacy opinion. Last accessed 25. 1. 2011, from http://www.iabuk.net/en/1/<br />

europeanmediaindustryunitesagainstarticle29opinion.mxs.<br />

IAB Europe Interactive Advertising Bureau Europe (2010b, September).Consumers driving<br />

the digital uptake. The economic value of online advertising-based services for<br />

consumers. Last accessed 25. 1. 2011, from http://iabeurope.eu/media/39559/whitepaper%20_consumerdrivingdigitaluptake_final.pdf.<br />

ICo Information Commissioner’s office (2008). Phorm – Webwise and open Internet<br />

Exchange. Last accessed 14. 1. 2009, from: http://www.ico.gov.uk/.<br />

IWGDPT International Working Group on Data Protection in Telecommunications<br />

(2010). Working Paper on the Use of Deep Packet Inspection for Marketing Purposes.<br />

Last accessed 6. 1. 2011, from www.datenschutz-berlin.<strong>de</strong>/attachments/726/<br />

WP_DPI_07_09_2010_675_41_10__2_.pdf.<br />

KRoES, N. (2010, September 17). Towards more confi<strong>de</strong>nce and more value for European<br />

Digital Citizens. Speech at European Roundtable on the Benefits of online Advertising<br />

for Consumers, Brussels. Last accessed 30. 1. 2011, from http://europa.eu/rapid/<br />

pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/452.<br />

LSE London School of Economics and Political Science, 80/20 Thinking, Working Group<br />

on Consumer Consent (2009a). From legitimacy to informed consent: mapping best practices<br />

and i<strong>de</strong>ntifying risks. London.<br />

LSE London School of Economics and Political Science, Policy Engagement Network The<br />

Information Systems and Innovation Group (2009b). Online Advertising, Confronting<br />

the Challenges. London.<br />

Mansell, R. (2004). “Political economy, power and new media”. New Media & Society, 6(1), 96-105.<br />

Mocso, V. (1996). The political economy of communication: rethinking and renewal. London;<br />

Thousand oaks: Sage Publications.<br />

Murdock, G., & Golding, P. (1997). “For a Political Economy of Mass Communications”.<br />

In: The Political Economy of the Media. Cheltenham; Brookfield: Edward Elgar, pp. 3-32.<br />

Näränen, P. (2003). “European Regu<strong>la</strong>tion of Digital Television: The opportunity Lost<br />

and Found?” In: G. Ferrel Lowe & T. Hujanen (Eds.), Broadcasting & Convergence:<br />

New Articu<strong>la</strong>tions of the Public Service Remit. Göteborg: NoRDICoM, pp. 57–69.


Behavioural advertising in electronic communications<br />

309<br />

NAI Network Advertising Initiative (2008). Self-regu<strong>la</strong>tory Co<strong>de</strong> of Conduct for online<br />

Behavioral Advertising. Last accessed 30. 6. 2008, from: http://www.networkadvertising.org/networks/principles.asp.<br />

Noam, Eli M. (2009). Media Ownership and Concentration an America. oxford: University<br />

Press.<br />

oFCoM (2008). Delivering super-fast broadband in the UK, setting the right policy framework.<br />

Last accessed 2. 11. 2008, form: http://ofcom.org.uk<br />

office of The Privacy Commissioner of Canada. Deep Packet Inspection. A Collection<br />

of Essays from Industry Experts. Last accessed 29. 1. 2011, from http://dpi.priv.<br />

gc.ca/in<strong>de</strong>x.php/essays/.<br />

ohm, P. (2009). Broken Promises of Privacy: Responding To The Surprising Failure Of Anonymization.<br />

Article presented at Harvard University’s Center for Research and Computer<br />

Science.<br />

out-Law (2008). The <strong>la</strong>w of Phorm. Last accessed 3. 12. 2008, from: http://www.out-<strong>la</strong>w.<br />

com/page-9090.<br />

Reitman, R. (2011, January 24). Mozil<strong>la</strong> Leads the Way on Do Not Track. Last accessed<br />

30. 1. 2011, from http://www.eff.org/<strong>de</strong>eplinks/2011/01/mozil<strong>la</strong>-leads-the-way-ondo-not-track.<br />

Robinson, N. et al. (2009). Review of the EU Data Protection Directive. Last accessed<br />

10. 5. 2011, from http://www.ico.gov.uk/upload/documents/library/data_protection/<br />

<strong>de</strong>tailed_specialist_gui<strong>de</strong>s/review_of_eu_dp_directive.pdf.<br />

Rogers, R. (2004). Information Politics on the Web. Cambridge: The MIT Press.<br />

Tien, L. (2010). Commerce Department’s online Privacy Report a Positive Step, But Self-<br />

Regu<strong>la</strong>tion Isn’t Enough. Last accessed 28. 1. 2011, from http://www.eff.org/<strong>de</strong>eplinks/2010/12/commerce-<strong>de</strong>partments-online-privacy-report.<br />

Van Couvering, E. (2004). New Media? The Political Economy of Internet Search Engines.<br />

Last accessed 6. 1. 2008, from: http://personal.lse.ac.uk/vancouve/IAMCR-<br />

CTP_SearchEnginePoliticalEconomy_EVC_2004-07-14.pdf.<br />

Wells, T. (2006). How and Why Behavioral Advertising Works. Last accessed 30. 6. 2008,<br />

from: http://www.seochat.com/c/a/Website-Marketing-Help/How-and-Why-Behavioral-Advertising-Works/<br />

WFA World Fe<strong>de</strong>ration of Advertisers (2010, June 28). WFA responds to EU opinion on<br />

interest-based advertising. Last accessed 25. 1. 2011, from http://www.wfanet.org/globalnews.cfm?id=381.<br />

WP29 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2010, June). opinion 2/2010 on online<br />

behavioral advertising. Last accessed 31. 7. 2010, from http://ec.europa.eu/justice/<br />

policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2010/wp171_en.pdf.<br />

Working Party 29 (2010, June 13). opinion 4/2010 on the European co<strong>de</strong> of conduct of<br />

FEDMA for the use of personal data in direct marketing. Last accessed 30. 1. 2011,<br />

from http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2010/wp174_en.pdf


17<br />

DAtA trANsfer frOm germANy Or sPAIN<br />

tO tHIrD COUNtrIes. QUestIONs Of CIVIl lIABIlIty<br />

fOr PrIVACy rIgHts INfrINgemeNt<br />

Philipp E. Fischer<br />

LL.M. School of Law of Queen Mary University of London and Technical University Dres<strong>de</strong>n.<br />

Lawyer, based in Munich, Germany<br />

Rafael Ferraz Vazquez<br />

Brazilian <strong>la</strong>wyer, specialised in Intellectual Property Laws. Master on Intellectual Property<br />

and Information Society at the University of Alicante (Magister Lucentinus)<br />

AbstrAct: In the present welfare and economy the digital information p<strong>la</strong>ys a prominent role. Every<br />

data flow has become steadily faster as well as broa<strong>de</strong>r because of<br />

• new technological measures,<br />

• quantity and information power of data controllers and -storage units,<br />

• expanding networks of international affiliated groups who increasingly <strong>de</strong>pend on the avai<strong>la</strong>bility<br />

of new technologies to exchange data,<br />

• new business mo<strong>de</strong>ls such as Cloud Computing, highly frequented and worldwi<strong>de</strong> sha<strong>red</strong><br />

internet-based applications, and<br />

• politicians´ po<strong>la</strong>rised and partisan <strong>de</strong>bates between net neutrality and tight regu<strong>la</strong>tion of IT<br />

business practices through international standardisation.<br />

Thus, quotidian business processes suffer a challenging level of technological, commercial and political<br />

complexity and inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncies of international data transfers.<br />

Deep in this whirlpool of data flow, personal data, any information which concerns personal and<br />

objective re<strong>la</strong>tions of the respective person, can be inclu<strong>de</strong>d. Data transfers third (non-EU and non-<br />

EEA) countries created higher risk potentials for the affected person(s) as the Web 2.0 processes<br />

personal data across national bor<strong>de</strong>rs “at the click of a mouse”, bor<strong>de</strong>rs have practically lost their<br />

meaning.<br />

Important cases of data breaches in German and Spanish companies have startled today’s “Information<br />

Society”. If data leaves a secu<strong>red</strong> area, an uninten<strong>de</strong>d flow of information is provoked<br />

which is, already <strong>de</strong>monstrated by the occurrence of “WikiLeaks”, afterwards not only technically<br />

hardly control<strong>la</strong>ble. This has heated up the public discussion, calls have become lou<strong>de</strong>r to improve<br />

the different legal frameworks regarding civil liability of data sen<strong>de</strong>r (controller) and data receiver<br />

(processor).<br />

Keywords: international data transfer, data protection, privacy rights infringement, civil liability,<br />

data controller, data processor, Bun<strong>de</strong>sdatenschutzgesetz, BDSG, LoPD, Net Neutrality, European<br />

Data Protection Directive, EU-DPD, Safe Harbor, Binding Corporate Rules, BCR, Standard Contractual<br />

C<strong>la</strong>uses, SCC, supervisory authority, a<strong>de</strong>quacy test, a<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection, applicable<br />

<strong>la</strong>w, jurisdiction, tort statute, contract statute, data protection statute.


312 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

1. toPicality and comPlexity<br />

In the present welfare and economy the information as such p<strong>la</strong>ys a prominent role and<br />

forms an important basis of the society. Important cases of data breaches in German 1 and<br />

Spanish 2 companies have startled today’s “Information Society” and have heated up the public<br />

discussion about the civil liability of data sen<strong>de</strong>r (controller) and data receiver (processor).<br />

The issue at stake in international transfers of personal data is very simple: “If a country<br />

has established a level of legal protection for the fundamental rights of its citizens, it is<br />

unlikely to accept that such protection can be escaped simply by exporting the personal data<br />

to a third country” 3 .<br />

But as we will emphasize, the data protection measures could fail if more attention is<br />

not given to enforcement measures, especially in view of data transfers from Germany or<br />

Spain to third countries. As Wand and Griffiths wisely stated: “Cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r data transfer<br />

and enforcement is one of the most complicated issues concerning the protection of personal<br />

data and privacy. There are bi<strong>la</strong>teral and multi<strong>la</strong>teral agreements about seeking to enhance<br />

and encourage cooperation between the countries on these matters” 4 .<br />

We spot many complex issues on the <strong>de</strong>sk if we bring forward the important question<br />

of how the infringement of privacy rights should be handled on a global data transfer level.<br />

This contribution will try to illuminate the reasons of the inability of the legal profession to<br />

a<strong>de</strong>quately cope with this complexity and to give some answers.<br />

1.1. technological complexity<br />

A global data flow is close-knit with the quickly progressive <strong>de</strong>velopment of the information<br />

technology. It has become steadily faster through new technical measures as well as<br />

broa<strong>de</strong>r because of the increased number and information power of data controllers and<br />

–storage units. This favors the economic, scientific and social <strong>de</strong>velopment, but however, also<br />

has a shady si<strong>de</strong>: Deep in this whirlpool of data flow, personal data can be found. Does data<br />

leave a secu<strong>red</strong> area, then this originates an uninten<strong>de</strong>d flow of digital personal information<br />

which, already shown by the occurrence of „WikiLeaks“, is afterwards not only technically<br />

hardly control<strong>la</strong>ble. Technological phenomena like behavioural advertising, social networks,<br />

1 “T-Mobile Lost 17 Million Subscribers’ Personal Data,” Information Week, october 6, 2008, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at<br />

http://www.informationweek.com/news/security/attacks/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=210700232<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

2 “C<strong>red</strong>it card security breach fear”, BBC News, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8366204.stm<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

3 ALDHoUSE, F. The transfer of Personal Data to Third Countries Un<strong>de</strong>r the EU Directive 95/46/<br />

EC. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology. Issue 13, Volume 1, p. 75 - 79.<br />

4 WANG, F.F. and GRIFFITHS, N. (2010) “Protecting privacy in automated transaction systems: A<br />

legal and technological perspective in the European Union”, International Review of Law, Computers<br />

& Technology, Issue 24, Volume 2, p. 153 - 162.


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

313<br />

road toll collecting and geo-location <strong>de</strong>vices profoundly changed the way in which data are<br />

processed and pose enormous challenges for data protection.<br />

Cloud Computing, to mention only one illustrious example for data transfers to non-<br />

European countries in the course of new IT <strong>de</strong>velopments, has recently become a highly<br />

frequented internet-based application. Many people are using it, but due to the <strong>la</strong>ck of<br />

knowledge, often do not care about their personal data. From a <strong>la</strong>wyer´s perspective Cloud<br />

Computing is highly problematic. Mainly because users have no control over the accessauthorised<br />

persons, <strong>de</strong>stination and exact location during the flow of their personal data.<br />

1.2. commercial complexity<br />

The European Data Protection Supervisor states: “The progressive abolition of tra<strong>de</strong> barriers<br />

has given businesses an increasing worldwi<strong>de</strong> dimension. Cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r data processing<br />

and international transfers have tremendously increased over the past years. Furthermore, data<br />

processing has become ubiquitous due to Information and Communication Technologies” 5 .<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rn companies generate masses of digital information every day. Many different<br />

companies with own juridical personality can belong to an affiliated group. This wi<strong>de</strong>spread<br />

network of international affiliated groups increasingly <strong>de</strong>pend on the avai<strong>la</strong>bility of new<br />

technologies, their everyday major business processes have created a challenging level of<br />

technological complexity and inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncies. This brings us to the c<strong>la</strong>ssic issue of the<br />

increasing transfer of personal data in the framework of current globalisation and the question<br />

of how to allow the <strong>la</strong>rge amount of data transfer the integrated economy requires<br />

(multinational companies internal data, commercial partnerships, trans-bor<strong>de</strong>rs merging<br />

and acquisitions, outsourcing, exchanging of information between governmental authorities<br />

and many other situations require such transfer), and at the same time, ensure respect<br />

for citizen’s privacy rights. Lawyers try to handle this ba<strong>la</strong>nce by ensuring legal compliance<br />

in multinational IT businesses.<br />

1.3. Political complexity<br />

Politicians have discove<strong>red</strong> the invasion of privacy as a new item on their agenda. Proponents<br />

of both si<strong>de</strong>s are fighting a hard discussion between Net Neutrality and more regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

of the Internet and its data flows. An over-regu<strong>la</strong>tion could possibly <strong>de</strong>rive from new or<br />

upcoming international legal treaties, such as the Lisbon Treaty 6 or binding global instruments.<br />

5 opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor on the Communication from the Commission<br />

to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee<br />

of the Regions - “A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union, p.<br />

5, http://idpc.gov.mt/dbfile.aspx/EDPS_11.pdf [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

6 Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European<br />

Community, signed at Lisbon of 13 December 2007, official Journal of the European Union, C 306,<br />

Volume 50, 17 December 2007


314 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Art.16 TFEU 7 contains an individual right of the data subject and a direct legal basis<br />

for a strong EU-wi<strong>de</strong> data protection <strong>la</strong>w. Furthermore, the abolition of the pil<strong>la</strong>r structure<br />

obliges the European Parliament and Council to provi<strong>de</strong> for data protection in all areas of<br />

EU <strong>la</strong>w. The Stockholm Programme 8 consistently states in this regard that the Union must<br />

secure a comprehensive strategy to protect data within the EU and in its re<strong>la</strong>tions with other<br />

countries. Another important <strong>de</strong>velopment regards the adoption of international standards<br />

on the protection of personal data and privacy, which might possibly lead to the adoption of<br />

a binding global instrument on data protection. In or<strong>de</strong>r to find a ba<strong>la</strong>nce with the calls for<br />

Net Neutrality, their common goal should be ensuring effective and consistent protection<br />

in a technologically driven and globalised environment without overreaction. Too often, in<br />

our haste to plug legis<strong>la</strong>tive holes we rush in and unleash a whole host of uninten<strong>de</strong>d consequences.<br />

So, storm clouds are forming around a topic that will undoubtedly overshadow the<br />

current Net Neutrality <strong>de</strong>bate: Privacy. Questions arise if transparency, non-blocking and<br />

the prevention of unreasonable discrimination will help to strengthen Net Neutrality. And<br />

if they do so, should privacy legis<strong>la</strong>tion be improved in or<strong>de</strong>r to tackle a data stream being<br />

as free as never before? of course privacy is an important issue but should it encroach on<br />

what makes the internet so good? Transparency as a key part of the Net Neutrality <strong>de</strong>bate, is<br />

it really an antagonist to privacy?<br />

2. legal instruments of tHe euroPean union<br />

The above mentioned “factual mortgages” now c<strong>la</strong>sh with data transfers which are very<br />

relevant for business. First it has to be shown to which juridical control such data transfers<br />

to third countries are subjected by the EU Data Protection Directive 9 (EU-DPD) and which<br />

principles and exceptions have to be taken into account. Afterwards the most important<br />

contractual instruments of the EU will be examined, which have complementary and specifying<br />

functions besi<strong>de</strong> the EU-DPD.<br />

2.1. european data Protection directive (eu-dPd)<br />

A row of actions of the parties involved in a data transfer is prohibited by different legal<br />

frameworks. Norms have been <strong>de</strong>signed to protect the transmission of personal data. No<br />

7 Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, official Journal C<br />

115, 09/05/2008, p. 0047 - 0199<br />

8 The Stockholm Programme An open and secure Europe serving and protecting citizens, oJ C115,<br />

04/05/2010, p. 1-38, at p. 10<br />

9 Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 october 1995 on the<br />

protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of<br />

such data, official Journal L 281 , 23/11/1995, p. 0031 - 0050


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

315<br />

specific problems arise concerning a cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r data transport as long as the transfer takes<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce within the member states of the European Union (EU) or European Economic Area<br />

(EEA), they do arise during a data transfer into a third country.<br />

Art.2 EU-DPD offers relevant <strong>de</strong>finitions, the most important ones (e.g. personal data,<br />

processing, recipient, data controller, data processor) are provi<strong>de</strong>d by Art.2 (a) – (h) EU-<br />

DPD. According to the role of the data controller and data recipient, a usual data transfer<br />

can be divi<strong>de</strong>d into teams 10 :<br />

Sen<strong>de</strong>r = Controller<br />

Sen<strong>de</strong>r = Processor<br />

Receiver = Processor Receiver = Controller<br />

Controller-Processor Transfer<br />

(contracted data processing)<br />

Processor-Processor Transfers (subcontracted<br />

data processing)<br />

Controller-Controller Transfers<br />

(transfer of functions)<br />

Processor-Controller Transfers<br />

(unusual)<br />

The distinction between controller and processor is not always clear in practice and has<br />

to be subjected to a comprehensive consi<strong>de</strong>ration of all circumstances. Regarding certain<br />

data the receiver could become a “processor” and for other data a “controller”. The basic<br />

concept is that a controller makes <strong>de</strong>cisions about what data to collect and how to use it,<br />

while a processor performs operations on data only on behalf of the controller and according<br />

to its instructions. Recommendations 11 of the Art.29 Data Protection Working Party 12 are of<br />

help to differentiate: Crucial becomes the question of who <strong>de</strong>termines the purpose (“why?”)<br />

and the essential means (“how?”) of the processing. It is <strong>de</strong>cisive which data transmitter is<br />

actually authorised to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> on these questions. Who <strong>de</strong>termines the purpose or <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>s on<br />

essential elements of technical means of the data processing automatically becomes a data<br />

controller. Essential means of the data processing concern legality. The member states <strong>de</strong>veloped<br />

one helpful question on that differentiation. In Germany, for example, who appears<br />

towards the affected persons as responsible for the data, or with whom the affected person<br />

has a legal re<strong>la</strong>tion or for whose business purposes the processing is carried out.<br />

The Directive also brings a set of principles to be observed by the member states. Art.23<br />

EU-DPD directs the member states to guarantee the protection of personal data by a corresponding<br />

national regu<strong>la</strong>tion on liability. Every un<strong>la</strong>wful data processing as well as any<br />

infringement of national <strong>la</strong>ws having implemented this Directive shall raise liability, in particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

omitted information and c<strong>la</strong>rification duties or the omitted conclusion of a contract<br />

10 Based upon: HELBING, T., “Datenschutz im Konzern: Internationale Datentransfers (Teil 1)”, German<br />

version avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.thomashelbing.com/<strong>de</strong>/datenschutz-konzern-internationaledatentransfers-standardvertragsk<strong>la</strong>useln-safe-harbor-binding-corporate-rules-teil-1<br />

[Last accessed: 30<br />

May 2011]<br />

11 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “opinion 1/2010 on the concepts of “controller” and “processor””,<br />

16 February 2010, WP 169<br />

12 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/workinggroup/in<strong>de</strong>x_en.htm [Last accessed: 30 May<br />

2011]


316 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

for the purposes of Art.26 (2) EU-DPD. The resulted damage must be caused causally. The<br />

affected person meets the bur<strong>de</strong>n of proof concerning his damages as well as the legal cause,<br />

so it must be proven that causality, or a “sufficient causal link” re<strong>la</strong>tes the data controller´s<br />

or data processor´s actions to the damage in question.<br />

Although the wording of Art.23 (1) EU-DPD lefts unanswe<strong>red</strong> whether the liability<br />

is <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on fault, a fault-based liability has to be presumed, otherwise the exculpation<br />

rule of Art.23 (2) EU-DPD would not be necessary. It is doubtful whether only material or<br />

also immaterial disadvantages are meant with “damage” for the affected person; even in the<br />

recitals of the EU-DPD no statements can be found on this issue; hence, a margin of discretion<br />

can be assumed as to be turned over to any member state.<br />

Art.25 (1) EU-DPD imposes on member states to prohibit the transfer of personal<br />

data to third countries <strong>la</strong>cking simi<strong>la</strong>r legal protections, unless a) the national supervisory<br />

authority (Art.25 (2) EU-DPD) or the European Commission approves the data transfer, b)<br />

one of several limited exceptions applies (Art.26 (1) EU-DPD) or c) approved safeguards are<br />

in p<strong>la</strong>ce (Art. 25 (6), Art.26 (2), Art. 26 (4) EU-DPD).<br />

The European Commission has recognised through “a<strong>de</strong>quacy tests” (Art.25 (4) EU-<br />

DPD, Art.25 (6) EU-DPD, Art.31 (2) EU-DPD) a sufficient level of protection (Art.25 (1)<br />

EU-DPD) only for a few countries 13 . The EU member states must allow a data transfer to<br />

one of countries (Art. 31 (2), Art. 25 (6) EU-DPD). other countries should soon be un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

review for a possible addition to the white list if their <strong>la</strong>ws are ultimately <strong>de</strong>emed a<strong>de</strong>quate 14 .<br />

For the remaining countries an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection must be guaranteed individually.<br />

Four of them are most often used: Unambiguous consent and several contractual<br />

instruments as the accession to Safe Harbor Principles, the conclusion of Standard Contractual<br />

C<strong>la</strong>uses (SCC) or the adoption of Binding Corporate Rules (BCR).<br />

It has to be carefully taken into account where Art.26 EU-DPD stands within the<br />

system of principles and <strong>de</strong>rogations on a European and on a national basis. The Art.29<br />

Data Protection Working Party states that “The juxtaposition of these different rules on<br />

transfers of personal data may give a <strong>para</strong>doxical impression, and can easily give rise to<br />

misun<strong>de</strong>rstanding. […] Un<strong>de</strong>r these provisions, the data controller originating the transfer<br />

neither has to make sure that the receiver will provi<strong>de</strong> a<strong>de</strong>quate protection nor usually needs<br />

to obtain any kind of prior authorisation for the transfer from the relevant authorities, if<br />

this procedure would be applicable. Furthermore, these provisions do not require the data<br />

receiver to comply with the Directive requirements as regards any processing of the data in<br />

his own country (e.g. principles of purpose, security, right of access, etc.)” 15 .<br />

13 Switzer<strong>la</strong>nd, Canada, Argentina, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Israel (with <strong>de</strong>cision of 31 January 2011<br />

(2011/61/EU)<br />

14 Some Latin American countries and Morocco which has recently adopted new legis<strong>la</strong>tion to protect<br />

personal data<br />

15 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “Working document on a common interpretation of Article<br />

26(1) of Directive 95/46/EC”, 24 october 1995, WP 114, p. 6


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

317<br />

on the one hand, <strong>de</strong>rogations of Art.26 (1) EU-DPD can apply, e.g. Art.26 (1) a)<br />

EU-DPD: Such consent must be given by the person whose personal data is to be transfer<strong>red</strong>.<br />

It must be “clear, freely, given and informed”, Art.26 (1) EU-DPD. Consent can be<br />

refused and be withdrawn any time. Technological measures to ensure a consent that may<br />

be evi<strong>de</strong>nced and enforced <strong>la</strong>ter on can greatly vary one from another. The range inclu<strong>de</strong>s<br />

e.g. user pop-ups with an option to consent by ticking the box of their choice before they<br />

may continue entering the website. A problematic issue is the freedom of consent in an<br />

employment context. The Art.29 Data Protection Working Party has released a document<br />

in which it states that employees would not be able to freely give their consent due to their<br />

subordination link with their employer (“reliance on consent should be confined to cases<br />

where the worker has a genuine free choice and is subsequently able to withdraw the consent<br />

without <strong>de</strong>triment”) 16 . In practice however, this form of consent can be a valid <strong>de</strong>rogation<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r certain circumstances: The data transfer is submitted to the works council or it is<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> clearly for the benefit of the employee, without small print. Nevertheless, the Art.29<br />

Data Protection Working Party consi<strong>de</strong>rs that “consent is unlikely to provi<strong>de</strong> an a<strong>de</strong>quate<br />

long-term framework for data controllers in cases of repeated or even structural transfers for<br />

the processing in question”. This opinion is clearly opposed to the exemptions in Art.26 (1)<br />

EU-DPD.<br />

on the other hand, to transfer the <strong>de</strong>rogation provisions of Art.26 (2), (4) EU-DPD into<br />

practice, several contractual instruments have been <strong>de</strong>veloped: Safe Harbor Privacy Principles,<br />

BCR, SCC I 17 and SCC II 18 and “Standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses for data processors established<br />

in third countries” (SCC-DP) 19 . Their consequences of liability can exist in addition to national<br />

<strong>la</strong>w. All instruments differ in terms of standardisation level and liability rules:<br />

2.2. safe Harbor 20<br />

With regard to the US, the European Commission adopted the Decision on Safe Harbor<br />

whereby “for the purposes of Art.25 (2) of Directive 95/46/EC, for all the activities falling<br />

within the scope of that Directive, the Safe Harbor Privacy Principles […] as set out in Annex<br />

16 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party WP 48, “opinion 8/2001 on the processing of personal data<br />

in the employment context”, 13 September 2001, WP 48, p. 3<br />

17 Commission Decision 2001/497/EC of 15 June 2001 on standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses for the transfer<br />

of personal data to third countries, un<strong>de</strong>r Directive 95/46/EC, official Journal L 181 , 04/07/2001,<br />

p. 0019 - 0031<br />

18 Commission Decision 2004/915/EC of 27 December 2004 amending Decision 2001/497/EC as regards<br />

the introduction of an alternative set of standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses for the transfer of personal<br />

data to third countries, official Journal L 385 , 29/12/2004, p. 0074 - 0084<br />

19 Commission Decision 2010/87/EU of 5 February 2010 on standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses for the transfer<br />

of personal data to processors established in third countries un<strong>de</strong>r Directive 95/46/EC of the<br />

European Parliament and of the Council, official Journal L 39, 12/02/2010, p. 0005 - 0018<br />

20 http://www.export.gov/safeharbor [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]


318 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

I to this Decision, implemented in accordance with the guidance provi<strong>de</strong>d by the frequently<br />

asked questions […] are consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to ensure an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of protection for personal data<br />

transfer<strong>red</strong> from the Community to organizations established in the United States” 21 . The Safe<br />

Harbor Principles issued and the accompanying Frequently Asked Question 22 set forth the<br />

provisions ensuring the a<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection. Nevertheless, national supervisory<br />

authorities do often critical look at the level of protection in Safe Harbor principles. Sometimes<br />

the representation by a US entity that it is Safe Harbor certified now is not enough according<br />

to national supervisory agencies because, in their view, European and US regu<strong>la</strong>tors<br />

currently do not ensure that the US companies comply with the self-certification.<br />

2.3. binding corporate rules (bcr)<br />

BCRs serve to create a uniform contractual basis for the exchange of personal data in<br />

an affiliated group (Privacy Policy). An a<strong>de</strong>quate data protection level can be thereby guaranteed<br />

at all companies of the group but not to group-external companies. This solution is,<br />

based on the expression of Safe Harbor, also called “Safe Haven”.<br />

A liability regime corresponding to Art.22, 23 EU-DPD has to be inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the BCR.<br />

If the head office of the affiliated companies involved in the data transfer is inner-European,<br />

this office is liable for the breaches of contract of all his affiliated companies beyond the<br />

EU. If she is not seated in the domestic market, a group member resi<strong>de</strong>nt in the EU must<br />

be named by the group of companies. This “liable team member” must prove that it has<br />

sufficient assets to pay compensation for damages resulting from the breach of the BCRs 23 .<br />

If the involved companies have their seats in different EU countries, the regu<strong>la</strong>tions in the<br />

BCR must be approved by every single responsible authority (in Germany coordinated with<br />

the “Düsseldorfer Kreis”) 24 . The liable team member must not compensate for breaches of<br />

other inner-European team members 25 .<br />

The same rights must be granted to the affected person towards the liable team member,<br />

as if the liable action had been committed by a member within the EU. This regime is no legal,<br />

but a contractual liability. His results are <strong>de</strong>termined by the applicable (substantive) <strong>la</strong>w<br />

e.g. in Germany or Spain, according to the BCR. This shows how important the <strong>de</strong>termination<br />

of the applicable <strong>la</strong>w is for cases of data transfers to third countries. Another significant<br />

21 Art. 1 of the Decision regarding the Safe Harbor Principles as an A<strong>de</strong>quate Level of Protection;<br />

[2000] o.J. L 215/7; http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/dataprot/a<strong>de</strong>quacy/in<strong>de</strong>x.htm.,<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

22 http:///www.export.gov/safeharbor [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

23 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “Working Document setting up a table with the elements<br />

and principles to be found in Binding Corporate Rules”, 24 June 2008, WP 153<br />

24 The “Düsseldorfer Kreis” is a working group of representatives from Germany’s sixteen state data<br />

protection authorities that provi<strong>de</strong>s a uniform “German” approach to data protection questions.<br />

25 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “Working Document Setting up a framework for the structure<br />

of Binding Corporate Rules”, 24 June 2008, WP 154


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

question then remains, to what extent restrictions of liability are allowed, the Art.29 Data<br />

Protection Working Party gives no exact statement on this.<br />

2.4. standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses (scc)<br />

319<br />

The Council and the European Parliament have given the Commission the power to<br />

<strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>, on the basis of Art.26 (4) of Directive 95/46/EC that certain SCCs offer sufficient<br />

safeguards as requi<strong>red</strong> by Art.26 (2). However, it is admitted that individual contracts do<br />

not, of course, provi<strong>de</strong> an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of protection for an entire country. The European<br />

Commission has approved two alternative sets of SCCs for use in transferring personal data<br />

to a data “controller” outsi<strong>de</strong> the EU/EEA (SCC I and SCC II), and a set of SCCs to be used<br />

when transferring data to a “processor” (SCC-DP).<br />

SCCs are contract <strong>de</strong>faults, complementing and specifying the <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d minimum<br />

standards of data protection, Art.25 (2) EU-DPD. The rights and duties of the parties are<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ted and must be adopted consistently. The member states are bound by the <strong>de</strong>cisions<br />

of the EU commission. Thus, the member states must recognise that the companies which<br />

use the SCCs show an a<strong>de</strong>quate data protection level. Then permission by the supervisory<br />

authority is not obligatory as far as the supervisory authorities are able to check the use<br />

of the contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses and they are presented to the authority on inquiry. As soon as,<br />

however, modified contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses are used, an official authorisation by the supervisory<br />

authority must be caught up.<br />

SCCs are not used where data is being transfer<strong>red</strong> to a US company that participates in the<br />

Safe Harbor program, or to a company relying on informed consent, Binding Corporate Rules<br />

approved by one national supervisory authority, or one of the other <strong>de</strong>rogations un<strong>de</strong>r Art.26<br />

EU-DPD. US companies –which have not self-certified for Safe Harbor– and other countries<br />

beyond the EU anyhow have a further possibility to ensure an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of protection. According<br />

to EU-DPD, a transfer to a third country, which does not ensure an a<strong>de</strong>quate level<br />

of protection, may take p<strong>la</strong>ce in cases “where the controller adduces a<strong>de</strong>quate safeguards with<br />

respect to the protection of the privacy and fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals and<br />

as regards the exercise of the corresponding rights”; the Directive follows to state “such safeguards<br />

may in particu<strong>la</strong>r result from appropriate contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses”, Art.26 (2) EU-DPD.<br />

The SCCs in some way recognise the difficulty of data subjects to seek compensation.<br />

Not only by establishing the applicable <strong>la</strong>w and the responsability of the data exporter, but<br />

also by providing that alternative dispute resolution (ADR) could be used as well as that the<br />

data subject could be represented by entities (recitals number 20, 21 and 22 of Decision<br />

2010/87/EU). In case it is not possible to seek compensation for the data exporter, the same<br />

<strong>de</strong>cision says that the data importer should offer ADR means.<br />

2.4.1. Version 1 (SCC I)<br />

The SCC I were adopted by the EU already in 2001. However, it appea<strong>red</strong> afterwards<br />

in practice that the realities of the data transfers as well as the application of current business<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>ls have not been consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> enough. Thus, practitioners did not often apply these con-


320 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tract <strong>de</strong>faults. The most practice-re<strong>la</strong>ted case that data should be transfer<strong>red</strong> by a data controller<br />

to a data processor was not cove<strong>red</strong> and the bureaucratic requirements were re<strong>la</strong>tively<br />

high. This hin<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> the application of SCC I although especially SCC I should facilitate the<br />

data flow. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, companies often did not accept their obligation to agree on conciliatory<br />

proceedings over liability.<br />

Un<strong>de</strong>r the SCC I, data exporter and data importer were jointly and severally liable.<br />

They were in<strong>de</strong>mnified from it only if none of both would have been found responsible for<br />

the vio<strong>la</strong>tion of personal data (c<strong>la</strong>use 6 (1)). Between the parties, data exporter and data<br />

importer are obliged to <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re in<strong>de</strong>mnity if they have inclu<strong>de</strong>d the optional c<strong>la</strong>use 6 (3) in<br />

the contract. In particu<strong>la</strong>r because of the problems which result from this joint and several<br />

liability, the SCC I were criticized and seldom used.<br />

2.4.2.Version 2 (SCC II)<br />

From the 15/5/2010 on the new SCC II must be used, the old c<strong>la</strong>uses are amen<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

Already existing arrangements keep their validity as long as in the contractual re<strong>la</strong>tion data<br />

is transfer<strong>red</strong> and transmission as well as processing remains unchanged. The concerns addressed<br />

in SCC II is that processors today often subcontract some processing, storage, and<br />

technical support functions to third parties. This is common in cloud computing, where several<br />

entities might be involved in handling and storing the data. SCC II are <strong>de</strong>signed to ensure<br />

that the company that remains responsible as the data controller in Europe is informed<br />

about any proposed subcontracting, and that all parties handling the data are subjected to<br />

the same obligations of confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality and security. They contain a mandatory arbitration<br />

c<strong>la</strong>use to which many companies have objected. Four different liabilities for the breach of<br />

data protection rules can be i<strong>de</strong>ntified: Contractual liability according to the SCC II (either<br />

between the contracting parties or against third person), and Tortious liability (based on the<br />

SCC II or national <strong>la</strong>w).<br />

Between the parties of the SCC II, every contracting party is liable “inter partes” for<br />

the damages which are caused by an offence against the c<strong>la</strong>uses. This liability is limited to<br />

the <strong>de</strong> facto suffe<strong>red</strong> damage, “punitive damages” are therefore exclu<strong>de</strong>d26 .<br />

In case of damages to a third person, every party is liable for damages caused by the<br />

infringement of rights which arise for an affected third person directly from the SCC II. The<br />

affected person can immediately assert his right against the data importer or data exporter<br />

as a third party beneficiary un<strong>de</strong>r one condition: If the data importer infringes obligations<br />

from the SCC II, the data exporter must take action on requirement of the affected person<br />

first and has to act upon the data importer with the aim that the <strong>la</strong>tter fulfils his obligations.<br />

only if the exporter is not able to remedy the wrong conduct of the data importer within<br />

one month, the affected person can proceed directly against the importer.<br />

26 Tthis limitation is probably valid also for the re<strong>la</strong>tion to the third person affected by the offence.


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

321<br />

When the tortious liability is to be applied, the data exporter is liable for offences conducted<br />

by the data importer because of fault through a poor choice of one’s vicarious agent<br />

(culpa in eligiendo) if he has not assu<strong>red</strong> himself within the scope of the reasonable time of<br />

the fact that the data importer is able to fulfil his juridical obligations. The data exporter is,<br />

nevertheless, able to absolve itself from liability, if he proves that he has taken all reasonable<br />

efforts to fulfil his obligations of choice (Annex, C<strong>la</strong>use III b s. 2).<br />

All the mentioned SCC II regu<strong>la</strong>tions do not change the liability of the data exporter<br />

according to national data protection <strong>la</strong>ws, which remains untouched, because these cannot<br />

be exclu<strong>de</strong>d by contractual arrangement between the contracting parties of the SCC II. If<br />

the SCC II <strong>de</strong>fault documents are adopted by the parties without changes, an authorisation<br />

by a data protection authority of an EU member state is not necessary. The current SCC<br />

II permit the simplified employment of subsidiaries. In<strong>de</strong>ed, an EU-based company must<br />

make sure that the subsidiary complies with the European data security level.<br />

2.4.3. Special version for data processors established in third countries (SCC-DP) 27<br />

If personal data is transmitted within the scope of a contracted data processing from<br />

the EU in a third country, the SCC-DP apply. Contracted data processing is <strong>de</strong>fined that<br />

a company or<strong>de</strong>rs personal data as for example customer’s data or employee’s data to be<br />

processed by a foreign company, see above. Relevant areas of the contracted data processing<br />

are in this particu<strong>la</strong>r respect forms of IT outsourcing (external data servers, external human<br />

resources data management etc.). The SCC-DP cover transfers from the EU to a data in a<br />

third country, although data protection authorities “may” allow use of the SCC-DP in such<br />

situations as well.<br />

Annex C<strong>la</strong>use 6 (1) SCC-DP obliges the parties to grant to the affected person a contractual<br />

c<strong>la</strong>im for compensation against the data exporter because of certain breaches of<br />

obligations of the data importer and/or the subcontractor. Annex C<strong>la</strong>use 3 (1) SCC-DP provi<strong>de</strong>s<br />

direct c<strong>la</strong>ims of the affected person against the data exporter. Exceptionally the affected<br />

person can also proceed directly against the data importer if the <strong>la</strong>tter or his subcontractor is<br />

responsible for a breach of obligations and the data exporter does not exist anymore on a factual<br />

or juridical basis, Annex C<strong>la</strong>use 3 (2) SCC-DP. The arbitration c<strong>la</strong>use has been <strong>de</strong>leted.<br />

3. jurisdiction and aPPlicable <strong>la</strong>w<br />

Especially fresh business mo<strong>de</strong>ls such as Cloud Computing, the newest driver to illustrate<br />

the speed and breadth of the online environment, allow data to be processed across<br />

27 Commission Decision 2010/87/EU of 5 February 2010 on standard contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses for the transfer<br />

of personal data to processors established in third countries un<strong>de</strong>r Directive 95/46/EC of the<br />

European Parliament and of the Council, official Journal L 39, 12/02/2010, p. 0005 - 0018


322 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

national bor<strong>de</strong>rs “at the click of a mouse” 28 , bor<strong>de</strong>rs have practically lost their meaning. This<br />

“free flow of data” 29 confronts the <strong>la</strong>w with questions of International Private Law (IPL).<br />

3.1. jurisdiction<br />

Brussels I 30 set rules to <strong>de</strong>termine which court should hear a case when there is a crossbor<strong>de</strong>r<br />

conflict. Possible infringements of privacy rights are subjected to Art.5 No. 3 Brussels<br />

I. The “locus <strong>de</strong>licti” encloses according to Art.5 No. 3 Brussels I all p<strong>la</strong>ces at which a<br />

constituent fact of a tortious act has been realised, so the p<strong>la</strong>ce of performance as well as the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect.<br />

An interpretation of the scope of Art.5 No. 3 Brussels I, stating that only a bare „accessibility“<br />

of the contents is sufficient for its application, would lead actually to a p<strong>la</strong>intiff‘s free<br />

choice jurisdiction. Then the p<strong>la</strong>intiff would mostly choose the country with the worldwi<strong>de</strong><br />

strictest privacy rights. The court having jurisdiction could then not be foreseen any more by<br />

the alleged tortfeasor. This result is somehow opposite to basic principles of international jurisdiction<br />

rules. The “p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect” could possibly be put down to „<strong>de</strong>signated space” of the<br />

data transfer. In<strong>de</strong>ed, this approach bumps into consi<strong>de</strong>rable difficulties when there is not<br />

such a space in the geographic sense regarding Internet services. Privacy rights are because of<br />

their immateriality basically “everywhere and nowhere” resi<strong>de</strong>nt, however, their abstractness<br />

becomes then more concrete, as soon as they are affected. Since the actions affecting the privacy<br />

right can be absolutely assigned to a certain p<strong>la</strong>ce. Hence, there must also be in case of<br />

“online infringement” of a privacy right a p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect. This “objectification” of the privacy<br />

right leads then to the question where then this site of crime should lie.<br />

Hence, it is discussed to limit the <strong>de</strong>cision authority of the court already at the level of<br />

the jurisdiction to attenuate the problem of the application of a huge number of different<br />

legal systems. The ECJ took care of these questions in “Shevill V. Press Alliance” 31 to avoid<br />

an unreasonable preferential treatment of the affected person. The ECJ held that:<br />

• the p<strong>la</strong>ce where the damage occurs is the p<strong>la</strong>ce where the publication is distributed,<br />

when the victim is known in that p<strong>la</strong>ce (<strong>para</strong>graph 29); and<br />

• the p<strong>la</strong>ce of the event giving rise to the damage takes p<strong>la</strong>ce is the country where the<br />

newspaper was produced (<strong>para</strong>graph 24).<br />

28 KUNER, C., “An international legal framework for data protection: Issues and prospects”, Computer <strong>la</strong>w<br />

& Security Review, 2009, vol. 25, iss. 5, p. 307-317 (308)<br />

29 KUNER, C., “An international legal framework for data protection: Issues and prospects”, Computer <strong>la</strong>w<br />

& Security Review, 2009, vol. 25, iss. 5, p. 307-317 (309)<br />

30 Council Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 44/2001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and<br />

enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, official Journal, L 012 , 16/01/2001, p.<br />

0001 – 0023, p. 1<br />

31 ECJ, Case C-68/93, “Fiona Shevill and others v Presse Alliance SA”, Decision of 07/03/1995


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

323<br />

The ECJ also held in Shevill that as regards the assessment by the English court applying<br />

Article 5(3) of Brussels I of whether „damage“ actually occur<strong>red</strong> or not, the national<br />

court should apply national rules provi<strong>de</strong>d that the result did not impair the effectiveness of<br />

the general objectives of the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion. Furthermore the ECJ held that where a libel causes<br />

damage in several different EU Member States, the victim may sue in any of the jurisdictions<br />

where the libel is published in respect of the damage suffe<strong>red</strong> in that jurisdiction. For<br />

this purpose the unrestricted choice of <strong>la</strong>w rule of the inju<strong>red</strong> person has been limited. The<br />

cognitive authority of the courts at the p<strong>la</strong>ce of success (Art.5 No. 3 Brussels I) is limited to<br />

the respective local damage. If the inju<strong>red</strong> person wants to assert his whole damage suffe<strong>red</strong><br />

in different states, he must sue at the p<strong>la</strong>ce(s) of performance, so before the courts of that<br />

state in which the potential tortfeasor is resi<strong>de</strong>nt. The argument of the ECJ, to reach familiarity<br />

with the subject by limiting the cognitive authority, nevertheless, does not fit with<br />

privacy-juridical and data protection-juridical torts which are scatte<strong>red</strong> to the four winds.<br />

The current Brussels I regu<strong>la</strong>tion creates uncertainty and disproportionate risk of <strong>la</strong>w<br />

suits in multiple jurisdictions and many call for amendments to Brussels I to remove the<br />

uncertainty which Art.5 No. 3 Brussels I and Shevill have together created. The German<br />

courts 32 have already <strong>de</strong>alt with this subject and have held international jurisdiction for German<br />

courts if the data transfer shows „clear re<strong>la</strong>tions“ to Germany. However, this solution<br />

is still no clear and therefore not i<strong>de</strong>al and it remains to be seen how this problem is solved.<br />

3.2. applicable <strong>la</strong>w<br />

3.2.1. Contract statute<br />

a) SCC<br />

SCC I, II and SCC-DP <strong>de</strong>termine that basically the right of the country in which the<br />

data exporter is resi<strong>de</strong>nt (“established”) applies, C<strong>la</strong>use 10 SCC, C<strong>la</strong>use 4 Annex to SCC II,<br />

C<strong>la</strong>use 9 SCC-DP. The parties are obliged to contractually agree on the application of this<br />

national <strong>la</strong>w, the free choice of <strong>la</strong>w rule is <strong>red</strong>uced to zero.<br />

The SCC II grant to the data importer a choice between a) the national <strong>la</strong>ws of the<br />

country in which the data exporter is resi<strong>de</strong>nt, b) the principles of Appendix A and c) the<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions of a recognition <strong>de</strong>cision provi<strong>de</strong>d by Art.25 (6) EU-DPD. Nevertheless, this<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>s no choice of <strong>la</strong>w, because Art.12 Rome I 33 does not allow a choice of <strong>la</strong>w for data<br />

protection issues. Thus, the choice of <strong>la</strong>w cannot be valid through a)-c) but only on the basis<br />

of other contractual arrangements in substantive <strong>la</strong>w, not in the conflict of <strong>la</strong>ws rules.<br />

32 Bun<strong>de</strong>sgerichtshof (BGH), Case „Sedlmayr“, Decision of 10/11/2009 - VI ZR 217/08 (oLG Hamburg);<br />

Bun<strong>de</strong>sgerichtshof (BGH), Case „New York Times“, Decision of 02/03/2010 - VI ZR 23/09<br />

(oLG Düsseldorf)<br />

33 Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on<br />

the <strong>la</strong>w applicable to contractual obligations (Rome I), official Journal of the European Union, L<br />

177, p. 0006-0016


324 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

C<strong>la</strong>use 11 SCC-DP provi<strong>de</strong>s an obligation for the parties to agree upon this choice<br />

of <strong>la</strong>w also regarding the subcontractor’s re<strong>la</strong>tion. This choice of <strong>la</strong>w contract itself, which<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>s the corresponding national <strong>la</strong>ws of the data exporter, is mostly to be assessed by<br />

another national <strong>la</strong>w, in this case of the respective (sub)contractor.<br />

b) BCR<br />

Un<strong>de</strong>r IPL, BCRs are qualified as private <strong>la</strong>w contracts. Due to possible specific national<br />

<strong>la</strong>ws in the data exporter´s country, agreement can be drafted as uni<strong>la</strong>teral or multi<strong>la</strong>teral<br />

within the affiliated group 34 . If German courts have jurisdiction and a German lex<br />

fori is given, the subject matter of contract is assessed by the contract statute. The <strong>la</strong>tter is<br />

<strong>de</strong>termined by a) choice of <strong>la</strong>w (Art.3 (1) Rome I 35 ), and - in the absence of choice of <strong>la</strong>w - b)<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>ce of typical performance of the contract (Art.4 (2) Rome I) or the <strong>la</strong>w of the p<strong>la</strong>ce of<br />

the closest connection to the contract (Art.4 (4) Rome I). If a member of the affiliated group<br />

and BCR´s contract party breaches his obligations of the BCR, the contract statute assesses<br />

issues of this contract for the benefit of a third party (the affected person).<br />

The p<strong>la</strong>ce of the closest connection to the contract often is hardly <strong>de</strong>terminable, a<br />

choice of <strong>la</strong>w agreement should be inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the BCRs. It has to be taken into account<br />

that the affected person can choose between raising a c<strong>la</strong>im at the courts of the state where<br />

the data exporter is resi<strong>de</strong>nt, where the <strong>de</strong>signated liable group member is resi<strong>de</strong>nt or an<br />

administrative appeal at the national supervisory authority. Against the background that<br />

the resi<strong>de</strong>ncy of the data exporter can change, the contractual parties are better advised to<br />

choose the <strong>la</strong>w of the liable group member.<br />

3.2.2. Tort statute / Data protection statute<br />

a) Rules of IPL in international <strong>la</strong>ws<br />

Some questions regarding tort- and data protection statute are unclear and still to be<br />

answe<strong>red</strong> by the European Commission. In the meantime, one can refer to important opinions<br />

given by the Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party:<br />

• Controller established in one or more Member States, Art. 4 (1) a EU-DPD<br />

“With regard to Art. 4 (1) a EU-DPD, the reference to “an” establishment means that<br />

the applicability of a Member State’s <strong>la</strong>w will be trigge<strong>red</strong> by the location of an establishment<br />

of the controller in that Member State, and other Member States’ <strong>la</strong>ws could be trigge<strong>red</strong> by<br />

the location of other establishments of that controller in those Member States. To trigger the<br />

application of the national <strong>la</strong>w, the notion of the “context of activities” of the establishment is<br />

<strong>de</strong>cisive. It implies that the establishment of the controller is involved in activities implying the<br />

34 ICC Report on binding corporate rules for international transfers of personal data”, 28.10.2004,<br />

www.iccwbo.org [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

35 Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on<br />

the <strong>la</strong>w applicable to contractual obligations (“Rome I”), official Journal of the European Union, L<br />

177/6, 04/07/2008


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

325<br />

processing of personal data, taking into consi<strong>de</strong>ration its <strong>de</strong>gree of involvement in the processing<br />

activities, the nature of the activities and the need to guarantee effective data protection” 36 .<br />

• Controller not established on Community territory but processing data through equipment<br />

located in a Member State, Art. 4 (1) c EU-DPD<br />

“With regard to the “use of equipment” provision in Art.4 (1) c, which may entail the<br />

application of the Directive to controllers not established in the EU/EEA territory, the<br />

opinion c<strong>la</strong>rifies that it should apply in those cases where there is no establishment in the<br />

EU/EEA which would trigger the application of Art. 4 (1) a or where the processing is not<br />

carried out in the context of such an establishment. The opinion also notes that a broad<br />

interpretation of the notion of “equipment’ –justified by its expression by “means” in other<br />

EU <strong>la</strong>nguages– may in some cases result in European data protection <strong>la</strong>w being applicable<br />

where the processing in question has no real connection with the EU/EEA” 37 .<br />

b) Rules of IPL in national <strong>la</strong>ws<br />

• German IPL<br />

According to § 1 (5) BDSG the scope of applicability of national data protection <strong>la</strong>ws<br />

to cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r data transfers within the EU is dominated not by the territorial principle,<br />

but the country of resi<strong>de</strong>nce principle. The applicable national <strong>la</strong>w is trigge<strong>red</strong> not by the<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce of the collecting or processing of data, but by the p<strong>la</strong>ce where the controller has his<br />

seat. The purpose of this regu<strong>la</strong>tion is to guarantee that an international operative company<br />

during his activities within the EU is obliged to meet the provisions of the <strong>la</strong>w at the<br />

company´s seat only.<br />

Nevertheless, the territoriality principle does apply if the controller in another EU state<br />

has a subsidiary in Germany and pursues from this point a data processing; the German<br />

BDSG becomes applicable for the data processing of this subsidiary. § 1 (5) 2 BDSG applies<br />

if a controller pursues a data processing to Germany from outsi<strong>de</strong> of the EU or EEA. For<br />

these cases the territorial principle remains applicable. Nevertheless, according to § 1 (5) 4<br />

BDSG the country of resi<strong>de</strong>nce principle again takes effect if the data is processed through<br />

Germany, so a bare date transfer which cannot be accessed in Germany.<br />

Un<strong>de</strong>r German <strong>la</strong>w it remains argumentative whether c<strong>la</strong>ims for compensation are to<br />

be tied to a se<strong>para</strong>te connecting factor in § 7 BDSG, so that the tort statute would apply and<br />

Art. 40 EGBGB 38 appoints to the p<strong>la</strong>ce of performance or alternatively to the p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect;<br />

or whether these c<strong>la</strong>ims for compensation are subjected to the „data protection statute“ of<br />

§ 1 (5) BDSG. An infringement of privacy rights in Germany then leads to the application<br />

36 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “opinion 8/2010 on applicable <strong>la</strong>w”, 16 December 2010,<br />

WP 179, p. 2<br />

37 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “opinion 8/2010 on applicable <strong>la</strong>w”, 16 December 2010,<br />

WP 179, p. 2<br />

38 Einführungsgesetz zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch (EGBG), <strong>la</strong>st version of 17 January 2011 (BGBl.<br />

2011 I, p. 34), English version avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.<strong>de</strong>/englisch_bgbeg/in<strong>de</strong>x.<br />

html [Last accessed: 31 May 2011]


326 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

of either the German <strong>la</strong>w or the right of domicile of the affected person. To avoid a legal<br />

fragmentation, Art.41 (2) 1 EGBGB opens the possibility of prior application of the contract<br />

statute (i.e. the <strong>la</strong>w that applies to the SCC or BCR) as the <strong>la</strong>w of a substantially closer<br />

connection which in this respect then edges out the tort statute.<br />

• Spanish IPL<br />

The Spanish Law 15/1999 Art. 2 (1) a) LoPD (Ley orgánica <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos<br />

-LoPD) governs any processing of personal data<br />

“a) when the processing is carried out on Spanish territory as part of the activities of an<br />

establishment belonging to the person responsible for the processing.<br />

b) When the person responsible for the processing is not established on Spanish territory but is<br />

subject to Spanish <strong>la</strong>w pursuant to the norms of public international <strong>la</strong>w.<br />

c) When the person responsible for the processing is not established on the territory of the<br />

European Union and is using for the processing means situated on Spanish territory,<br />

unless such means are used solely for transit purposes.”<br />

3.3. outlook<br />

“At present, Rome II does not apply to infringement of privacy rights, whereas Brussels<br />

I does. However, because in all cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r cases of privacy vio<strong>la</strong>tions, the jurisdiction<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r Brussels I is the first matter to be settled, the absence of a rule to <strong>de</strong>termine thereafter<br />

which country’s <strong>la</strong>w should apply is an issue for media companies when <strong>de</strong>fending cases<br />

of <strong>de</strong>famation and vio<strong>la</strong>tions of privacy in countries outsi<strong>de</strong> the p<strong>la</strong>ce of editorial control<br />

because un<strong>de</strong>r Brussels I, media companies find themselves <strong>de</strong>fending cases according to<br />

foreign <strong>la</strong>ws, often in multiple jurisdictions” 39 .<br />

The European data protection <strong>la</strong>ws still rely upon the territoriality principle. The liability<br />

of a data controller is judged according to the <strong>la</strong>w of the state in which the data is<br />

collected or processed. This principle becomes problematical in terms of Cloud Computing,<br />

because data is sto<strong>red</strong> worldwi<strong>de</strong> and it is unclear which components of data can concern<br />

personal data. Also cloud service companies can sometimes hardly ascertain on which server<br />

the data lies at which time. This causes two dangers: „Forum shopping” on the one hand and<br />

on the other hand that a judge simply states not to have jurisdiction. Even if one can <strong>de</strong>termine<br />

the p<strong>la</strong>ce of the data for a certain time, this can change, and with it also the applicable<br />

<strong>la</strong>w, within fractions of one second. Hence, the territoriality principle should be given up in<br />

this respect in or<strong>de</strong>r to apply a national <strong>la</strong>w when the controller, resi<strong>de</strong>nt in a third country,<br />

directs his performances recognizably to users in this state.<br />

Approaches:<br />

• Restriction on a main p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect at the p<strong>la</strong>ce where the data processing is concentrated<br />

to. In <strong>de</strong>fault of such a p<strong>la</strong>ce in the seat of the controller.<br />

39 http://www.epceurope.org/factsheets/epc-brussels-I-and-rome-II-fact-sheet-april-2010.pdf


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

327<br />

• Restriction on a main p<strong>la</strong>ce of effect at the p<strong>la</strong>ce of the primary centre of interest of<br />

the affected person<br />

• Mosaic principle: All affected legal systems at the different p<strong>la</strong>ces of effect are applicable,<br />

merely only concerning that damage which has taken effect in the area of application<br />

of the respective legal system.<br />

4. german substantiVe <strong>la</strong>w<br />

4.1. case study<br />

A typical case nowadays: A German company is part of an international affiliated group.<br />

The American parent company <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>s to introduce a new human resources information system<br />

(HRIS). This system is centrally run by an IT service company belonging to the group, technically<br />

supported by other resi<strong>de</strong>nt IT service companies and customer-re<strong>la</strong>ted supported by a<br />

callcenter agency seated in Asia; all of them share the same Cloud Computing services (SaaS).<br />

How can such a scenario comply with the <strong>la</strong>w, who would be liable for the infringement<br />

of privacy rights, taking into account e.g. German Data Protection Law?<br />

4.2. system of bdsg<br />

The implementation of the EU-DPD in the BDSG contains a two-step audit for a <strong>la</strong>wful<br />

data transfer to third countries:<br />

• 1 st step: Legal basis for the transfer of data<br />

• 2 nd step: A<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection of the data receiver<br />

The se<strong>para</strong>tion of both steps is indisputable and is also carried out by supervisory authorities.<br />

However, unfortunately, it is still a wi<strong>de</strong>spread mistake that the second step is<br />

enough to meet the requirements of the European data protection level. It is totally misjudged<br />

that together with an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection legal basis is still requi<strong>red</strong>, e.g.<br />

it is not true that only a Safe Harbor “certification” of the US company or use of the SCC<br />

II already complies with all requirements of EU-DPD. Reason for the commingling of both<br />

steps may be that some aspects during the first step also p<strong>la</strong>y a role during the second step.<br />

E.g. if an approval must be caught up for a data transfer to a third country within the scope<br />

of the first step (legal basis), the second step can be discussed at the same time, while with a<br />

corresponding <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ration of consent an exemption is created.<br />

4.3. subsumtion to the regu<strong>la</strong>tions of bdsg<br />

4.3.1. Legal basis (first step)<br />

a) § 3 BDSG<br />

Talking about “data transfer” assumes neither a physical transmission for the purposes<br />

of handing over the data carrier nor the storage of the receiver. Data is already been trans-


328 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

fer<strong>red</strong> if the receiver has access to the data, e.g. see and recall data, in cases when another<br />

group company receives access to a company computer with personal data. This wi<strong>de</strong> interpretation<br />

arises in § 3 (4) No. 3 b) BDSG from the <strong>de</strong>finition of “transmission” in § 3<br />

BDSG.<br />

Different companies with own juridical personality can belong to an affiliated group.<br />

A transmission is given, finally, also if the data transmitter (first juridical personality) and<br />

data receiver (second juridical personality) belong to the same group (§3 (4) No. 3 b BDSG).<br />

Also a data access of the parent company on employee’s data of the subsidiary means transmission,<br />

as well as a central customer’s file which is pursued on computers of the parent<br />

company and is fed with customer’s data of all subsidiaries. Each of these companies is a<br />

“data controller” for the purposes of § 3 (7) BDSG.<br />

As a consequence the data exchange within the group is still treated as a “data exchange<br />

between foreign companies”, being absent the “group privilege” of the BDSG. Hence, in<br />

the above mentioned example, the German company must check if the passing on of the<br />

employee’s data to the computer centre and to the other IT service companies is <strong>la</strong>wful.<br />

b) § 4 BDSG<br />

“The collection, processing and use of personal data shall be <strong>la</strong>wful only if permitted or<br />

or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> by this Act or other <strong>la</strong>w, or if the data subject has provi<strong>de</strong>d consent”, § 4 (1) BDSG.<br />

E.g. § 11 (contracted data processing), § 32 (employee’s data) and § 28 (1) 1 No. 2 (interest<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ration c<strong>la</strong>use) BDSG have to be taken into consi<strong>de</strong>ration as <strong>de</strong>rogations for a groupinternal<br />

data transfer.<br />

c) § 7 BDSG<br />

“If a controller harms a data subject through collection, processing or use of his or her<br />

personal data which is un<strong>la</strong>wful or improper un<strong>de</strong>r this Act or other data protection provisions,<br />

the controller or its supporting organization shall be obligated to compensate the data<br />

subject for damage suffe<strong>red</strong>”, § 7 BDSG.<br />

d) § 11 BDSG<br />

outsourcing or the acquisition of computer centre services usually meets the <strong>de</strong>finition<br />

of a “contracted data processing”, “<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on instruction” in terms of § 11 BDSG. Such<br />

contracted data processing is a “transmission” and needs a legal basis. In or<strong>de</strong>r to transfer<br />

data to third countries, data controller and data processor must agree on a contracted data<br />

processing which complies with § 11 BDSG.<br />

During a contracted data processing (controller-processor) a row by points must be<br />

fixed in the contract to make sure that the data receiver processes the data only after the<br />

instructions of the data transmitter. The German legis<strong>la</strong>tor has established in § 11 BDSG<br />

a 10-points catalogue of regu<strong>la</strong>tion objects. In contrast, the EU-DPD requires “only” one<br />

written contract. It is <strong>de</strong>batable, to what extent § 11 BDSG is also valid for processors in<br />

third countries. Using the SCC for the data export in third countries it has to be distinguished<br />

after whether the receiver is a processor or controller, because in each case different<br />

sets of c<strong>la</strong>uses apply.


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

329<br />

The “Düsseldorfer Kreis” has summarized already in 2007 the most frequent case<br />

groups of international contracted data processings and has given practical tips. Therefore,<br />

the German company should conclu<strong>de</strong> SCC either with the subsidiary, or the subsidiary<br />

should join the agreed SCC between the original German and American contracting partners<br />

by a corresponding formal obligation. Besi<strong>de</strong> they have to ensure that also the subsidiary<br />

is pledged to the regu<strong>la</strong>tions provi<strong>de</strong>d in § 11 BDSG.<br />

4.3.2. A<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection (second step)<br />

a) §§ 4 b and 4 c BDSG<br />

The data transfer to third countries must meet the requirements of § 4 b and § 4 c<br />

BDSG. A data transfer may basically not take p<strong>la</strong>ce to a third country if this level of protection<br />

cannot be guaranteed, §§ 4 b (2), 4 b (3) BDSG. Then measures of the supervisory<br />

authority and penalties according to §§ 43, 44 BDSG are possible.<br />

But § 4 c (1) BDSG provi<strong>de</strong>s various <strong>de</strong>rogations after which a transmission can be<br />

allowed. E.g. the effective consent of the affected person or that the transmission is necessary<br />

for the fulfilment of a contract between the affected person and the data controller. To<br />

obtain an unanimous consent is normally not suitable in practice. The other <strong>de</strong>rogations in<br />

§ 4 c (1) no. 2-6 BDSG do not have practical relevance to legitimise the export of data of a<br />

group company to another.<br />

§ 4 c (2) BDSG allows the transfer into the third country if the national supervisory<br />

authority allows the data transfer because the data exporter and the data importer – in the<br />

above mentioned example the IT service company of the group – do provi<strong>de</strong> guarantees by<br />

taking further legal measures concerning the exercise of the personal rights of the affected<br />

persons and of associated rights. As such measures are consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong>:<br />

• Participation of American companies in the Safe-Harbor-Programme<br />

• Use of BCR<br />

• Use of the SCC<br />

• Individual Contractual C<strong>la</strong>uses authorised by the supervisory authority<br />

To gain control within an international affiliated group over a sufficient data protection<br />

level (the second step), the following actions are recommen<strong>de</strong>d: First it must be ascertained<br />

which data should be transfer<strong>red</strong> by and to which group companies. This concerns questions<br />

about the quality of data (particu<strong>la</strong>rly Art.8 (1) EU-DPD, § 3 (IX) BDSG), transfer directions,<br />

inten<strong>de</strong>d purpose, instructor (starting point), forwardings, etc. Step 2 confronts us<br />

with mapping, which company in the group is the data controller and which role the data<br />

receiver takes. The role of the single companies as a data controller and data processor is of<br />

essential meaning for several issues:<br />

• Applicable Law: The <strong>la</strong>w of the EU member state is applicable in which the controller<br />

is resi<strong>de</strong>nt.<br />

• Responsability: The controller is responsible for the compliance of the data protection<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions.


330 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• Contractual re<strong>la</strong>tionship: In or<strong>de</strong>r to carry out a contracted data processing, some<br />

contract contents have to ensure that the data receiver processes the data only after the<br />

instructions of the data controller.<br />

During the <strong>la</strong>st step an arrangement of a contract has to be done which contains the<br />

corresponding c<strong>la</strong>uses.<br />

b) German approach to Safe Harbor<br />

The uppermost supervisory authority for data protection in German, the “Düsseldorfer<br />

Kreis”, has issued an opinion 40 that requires additional steps for German entities using the<br />

Safe Harbor Principles for the transfer of personal data from Germany to the United States.<br />

Previously it was assumed that registration un<strong>de</strong>r the Safe Harbor by a US receiver was, by<br />

itself, a<strong>de</strong>quate for the transfers to proceed. Now, in Germany at least, greater diligence is<br />

requi<strong>red</strong> by the exporter of the data to the US to confirm that the Safe Harbor principles are<br />

fulfilled by the receiver in the US.<br />

The US Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Tra<strong>de</strong> Commission 41 does no exhaustive audit of the Safe Harbor selfcertifications.<br />

A study 42 which has uncove<strong>red</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rable <strong>de</strong>ficits in the actual conversion of Safe<br />

Harbor principles might also have contributed to the step of the German authorities. The supervisory<br />

authorities do not question the Safe Harbor programme basically, however, require from<br />

the data exporter to make sure that the data receiver meets the legal requirements. If this does<br />

not succeed, alternative instruments have to function as a fall-back-point, in particu<strong>la</strong>r the SCC.<br />

5. sPanisH substantiVe <strong>la</strong>w<br />

5.1. spanish legal framework<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain data protection <strong>la</strong>w enforcement, the possibilities are limited to three<br />

options: National Protection Authorities, alternative dispute resolutions or court litigation 43 .<br />

In the Spanish case, the national authority is the „Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos“<br />

(AEPD). In regard to cross-bor<strong>de</strong>r transfer, the Spanish Law 15/1999 (Ley orgánica <strong>de</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos - LoPD 44 ) stipu<strong>la</strong>tes the duties of AEPD, where it is inclu<strong>de</strong>d the<br />

40 Decision of 28/29 April 2010, German version only: http://www.bfdi.bund.<strong>de</strong>/Sha<strong>red</strong>Docs/Publikationen/Entschliessungssammlung/DuesseldorferKreis/290410_SafeHarbor.html?nn=409242,<br />

[Last<br />

accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

41 http://www.ftc.gov, [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

42 http://www.galexia.com/public/research/articles/research_articles-pa08.html, [Last accessed: 30 May<br />

2011]<br />

43 WANG, F.F. and GRIFFITHS, N. (2010), “Protecting privacy in automated transaction systems: A<br />

legal and technological perspective in the European Union”, International Review of Law, Computers<br />

& Technology, Issue 24, Volume 2, pp. 153 - 162.<br />

44 An English version of LoPD is avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/canaldocumentacion/legis<strong>la</strong>cion/estatal/common/pdfs_ingles/Ley_orgnica_15-99_ingles.pdf


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

331<br />

power to give authorisations of data transfer for those countries that do not provi<strong>de</strong> the<br />

“same level 45 ” of protection given in Spain. only in 2010, 148 of such authorisations 46 were<br />

given. Being in third countries, the data will be regu<strong>la</strong>ted by that country’s legis<strong>la</strong>tion but<br />

it is not rare that third countries do not provi<strong>de</strong> the same level of data protection given in<br />

Spain.<br />

It is interesting to note that most of Spanish data importers are located in Latin<br />

American countries, China and United States. Five years after the EU-DPD most of those<br />

countries would not still be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as a<strong>de</strong>quate 47 countries to receive data transfer, once<br />

they hadn´t enough guarantees for confi<strong>de</strong>ntial data. But even for those countries <strong>la</strong>beled as<br />

a<strong>de</strong>quate, as we mentioned at the beginning of the text, some attention should be drawn to<br />

enforcement measures.<br />

As highlighted before, and according to the Art.29 Data Protection Working Group,<br />

oECD and several authors state that enforcement is the main issue to provi<strong>de</strong> guarantees<br />

and answers to this question. How to enforce national legis<strong>la</strong>tion is a thorny issue. The<br />

Spanish LoPD in its Art.2.1 <strong>de</strong>fines the scope of application, briefly resumed as when the<br />

process is carried out on the Spanish territory or the technical means used in or<strong>de</strong>r to carry<br />

out the data processing are located there. Also, if according to international public <strong>la</strong>w principles<br />

the governing <strong>la</strong>w is the Spanish 48 .<br />

5.2. system of loPd<br />

once the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion, or national legis<strong>la</strong>tion of any member state, applies accordingly<br />

to the territoriality principle, there appears the need to restrict or at least oversee<br />

the transfer of confi<strong>de</strong>ntial data to third countries. In the EU-DPD, that need is trans<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

in the division of three scenarios for the data transfer from the EU and third countries:<br />

countries with a<strong>de</strong>quate protection, countries non-a<strong>de</strong>quate but un<strong>de</strong>r the exceptions of<br />

the Art.26.1 and non-a<strong>de</strong>quate countries that require authorisation. The Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

adopted a slightly different approach: there is a general statement of when data transfer may<br />

45 The wording found in the Spanish Data Protection Act (LoPD) is slightly different from that<br />

brought in the Directive 95/46/EC. While the EC Directive speaks of “a<strong>de</strong>quate” level of protection<br />

in third countries, the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion speaks of “equivalent” level of protection. It is interesting to<br />

note that the “Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of<br />

Personal Data” first provision was simi<strong>la</strong>r to the Spanish one. In the practice this difference does not<br />

have any legal consequence, especially if we note that the Spanish authorities and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion LoPD<br />

recognises as “equivalent” all the countries approved by the European Commission as a<strong>de</strong>quate.<br />

46 https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/resoluciones/autorizacion_transf/auto_transf_2010/in<strong>de</strong>xi<strong>de</strong>s-idphp.php<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

47 Data Protection Roundup, Privacy Laws and Business International Newsletter. avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://<br />

www.worldlii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl/int/journals/PLBIN/2000/13.html?stem=0&synonyms=0&query<br />

=data%20transfer [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

48 Art.2.1 LoPD


332 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

not occur (Art.33 LoPD) followed by a single list of exceptions (Art.34). The effect in both<br />

cases is that only the transfer to countries outsi<strong>de</strong> the EEA are un<strong>de</strong>r the requirements of<br />

a<strong>de</strong>cuation (Art.55 RLoPD) and the control of the national data authorities.<br />

This way, for those who are not consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to have the same Spanish level of protection<br />

(outsi<strong>de</strong> the EEA) there is a need of an authorisation from the Spanish data protection authority.<br />

Also, the countries that the European Commission approved 49 do not need such approval. Such<br />

countries that were consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> by the Commission as having an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of protection,<br />

presently only a few, also are recognized by the Spanish authorities, according to the exception<br />

brought by the Art.3(k) of LoPD and Art.66 of the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion LoPD, which basically gives<br />

the Commission the same power of authorizing that the Director of the AEPD presently enjoys.<br />

Although there is some criticism 50 from the Art.29 Data Protection Working Group<br />

in respect to the application of the exceptions mentioned above, the Spanish Courts somehow<br />

went in the opposite direction. The Spanish Supreme Court 51 , in 2006, <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong><strong>red</strong> that<br />

the Spanish Agency could not regu<strong>la</strong>te or impose proceedings such as further information<br />

regarding the transfer of data within the EEA. The reasoning was that if the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

and the Directive itself established such exceptions the AEPD could not, by the means<br />

of co<strong>de</strong> of proceedings impose such obligations.<br />

5.2.1. Authorisation through AEPD<br />

As the Art.33 LoPD mentions, in or<strong>de</strong>r to be allowed by the AEPD’s Director, some<br />

guarantees should be provi<strong>de</strong>d before the transfer. Those guarantees come often in a form of<br />

contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses, good professional practice rules or BCRs.<br />

Regarding contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses there are two options. The data exporter can provi<strong>de</strong><br />

an ad hoc contract and it will be analysed by the AEPD, or he can make use of one of the<br />

SCCs provi<strong>de</strong>d by the European Commission 52 . Both options are brought by the Regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

LoPD, Art.70. The <strong>la</strong>st version of the SCC brings some interesting provisions regarding<br />

enforcement, see above.<br />

It is to early to assess the consequences of such provisions in Spain, but it is a start<br />

regarding the compensation for data breaches. But in view of this first option for the data<br />

transfer, it seems that the guarantees are in p<strong>la</strong>ce and the enforcement is greatly facilitated,<br />

giving that un<strong>de</strong>r this contract, the data exporter will be held responsible for the damages,<br />

whether caused by him or not, and that the national legis<strong>la</strong>tion of where the data subject is<br />

will be applied.<br />

49 list of approved countries is avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/thridcountries/<br />

in<strong>de</strong>x_en.htm [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

50 Art. 29 Data Protection Working Party, “Working document on a common interpretation of Article<br />

26(1) of Directive 95/46/EC”, 24 october 1995, WP 114<br />

51 http://sentencias.juridicas.com/docs/00257672.html [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

52 Decisions 2001/497/CE, 2002/16/CE, 2004/915/CE and 2010/87/UE.


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

333<br />

The third option of the Spanish data exporters are the BCR or Standard Co<strong>de</strong>s of<br />

Conduct (Art.32 LoPD). Those rules are <strong>de</strong>signed when a group of companies from the<br />

same affiliated group wants to transfer data between their companies. It is also possible to<br />

be a sectoral rule (therefore not the same group of companies), proposed for example by an<br />

association (Title IX, Chapter V of RLoPD).<br />

one main issue regarding the binding effect of those rules is the provision of Art.72<br />

(2) of the RLoPD: “The co<strong>de</strong>s of conduct shall have the status of co<strong>de</strong>s of ethics or good<br />

professional practice and shall be binding on subscribers.”<br />

one request is that the rules are binding, and consequently the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

could regu<strong>la</strong>te the private data transfer<strong>red</strong> (Art.70.4 LoPD). The co<strong>de</strong> can also regu<strong>la</strong>te the<br />

compensation for data subjects. In a presentation ma<strong>de</strong> by the AEPD Director on problems<br />

regarding the International Transfer of Data 53 , it was highlighted that the <strong>la</strong>ck of uniformity<br />

in several European legis<strong>la</strong>tion and foreign legis<strong>la</strong>tion, would result in some uncertainty<br />

regarding data protection and application of such BCR as an instrument of protection. This<br />

is foreseeable, once most of the sector rules come as a mean of self-regu<strong>la</strong>tion and in many<br />

cases are merely recommendations, not binding. In or<strong>de</strong>r to provi<strong>de</strong> enough guarantees for<br />

a data transfer (as requested by the Art.33 LoPD and Art.72 (2) RLoPD), some binding<br />

instruments would be necessary, like a contract. only by such instrument all the units of<br />

the company, all employees and all further companies engaged in a business re<strong>la</strong>tion would<br />

be obliged to follow the Spanish data protection rules, and therefore provi<strong>de</strong> enough guarantees.<br />

The result of such observations is that although some options to fulfil the requirements<br />

are offe<strong>red</strong>, in many cases some contractual c<strong>la</strong>uses are necessary in or<strong>de</strong>r to ensure that data<br />

importer or processors are un<strong>de</strong>r the scope of Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

5.2.2. Subcontracting<br />

In a consultation 54 addressed to the AEPD, it is easily noted how does the Spanish<br />

scheme for data transfer works. In such consultation the question of authorization for hiring<br />

a sub-processor in a third country that did not provi<strong>de</strong> an a<strong>de</strong>quate level of data protection<br />

was possible and what were the options in such case. In his answer, the AEPD first set the<br />

standards for hiring a sub-processor within Spain. In such case there were two options:<br />

• The sub- processor works on behalf and un<strong>de</strong>r the responsibility of the data controller,<br />

according to Art.12 (2) LoPD<br />

53 Presentation avai<strong>la</strong>ble at https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/jornadas/transferencias_internacionales_datos/common/pdfs/Problematica_juridica_TIs.pdf<br />

54 Answer in Spanish of the consultation avai<strong>la</strong>ble at https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/canaldocumentacion/informes_juridicos/transferencias_internacionales/common/pdfs/2004-0582_Subcontrataci-oo-n-<strong>de</strong>-un-encargado-<strong>de</strong>l-tratamiento-en-tercer-pais-que-no-ofrece-nivel-a<strong>de</strong>cuado-<strong>de</strong>protecci-oo-n.pdf<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]


334 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• The sub processor works on his own name and responsibility, in which case the following<br />

conditions: 1. That the hiring of the processor was expressly inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the<br />

offer or contract with the data controller; 2. That the acts performed by the sub processor<br />

is specified in the contract or offer; 3. That the processing of personal data is done<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r the data controllers instructions.<br />

After setting such conditions in the Spanish environment, the transferring element of<br />

third countries was ad<strong>de</strong>d to the equation. It was highlighted that in the consultation, it<br />

was mentioned the possibility of using the Standard Contractual C<strong>la</strong>uses brought by the<br />

<strong>de</strong>cisions of the European Commission, for example the repealed Decision 2002/16/EC.<br />

The AEPD expressed that this SCC, as all the other SCCs, did not allowed responsibility<br />

of more than one data controller at the same time, only one part of the contract is held<br />

responsible for the processing, either the controller or a data processor. This way, in respect<br />

to the consultation, it was not possible to obtain the authorization of AEPD to allow the<br />

sub-processing in a non-a<strong>de</strong>quate third country, once that it is not possible that both data<br />

importer and exporter are data controllers.<br />

In a more recent consultation 55 the answer was clearer easier to provi<strong>de</strong>. This because<br />

the Regu<strong>la</strong>tions of the LoPD were already in force and the Art.21 (1) LoPD brings a provision<br />

on Possibility of Subcontracting Services. Summarizing the possibilities, the AEPD<br />

emphasizes that the Controller must always take part in the contract. It was listed the following<br />

options, all of them including the SCC:<br />

a) Processor, acting on behalf and responsibility of the controller, signs a contract with the<br />

sub processor<br />

b) The processor, having the authorization and power to do so in name of the sub processor,<br />

signs a contract with the controller.<br />

c) The controller and the processor sign a contract which the sub processor adhere by a<br />

different instrument with the participation of all parts, controller, processor and sub<br />

processor.<br />

Those options were the case of applying for the AEPD’s authorization, but there is<br />

always the option to transfer the data according to the exceptions of the Art.34 LoPD, as<br />

obtaining the data subject authorization or transferring to some of the United States safe<br />

harbors.<br />

5.2.3. Alternative route: The <strong>de</strong>rogation of Art.34 (e) LOPD<br />

It was clea<strong>red</strong> limited by the Spanish Courts that the exceptions brought by the EU-<br />

DPD and implemented in the Art.34 LoPD make unnecessary the authorisation of the<br />

AEPD. one of those exceptions is that “e) The data subject has given his unambiguous<br />

55 Answer in Spanish of the consultation avai<strong>la</strong>ble at https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/canaldocumentacion/informes_juridicos/transferencias_internacionales/common/pdfs/2008-0108_Transferencia-Internacional-<strong>de</strong>-encargado-a-subencargado.pdf<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

consent to the proposed transfer.” This exception in many cases can represent an easy way to<br />

avoid the analysis of the AEPD for data transfer.<br />

335<br />

This basically put the data exporter in a p<strong>la</strong>ce where he can choose which route to take:<br />

By informing the data subject about the transfer or applying some of the tools for providing<br />

a guarantee that would make possible the authorisation of the AEPD. In many cases obtaining<br />

the consent of the users or those inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the database may be the easiest option and<br />

may tie the hands of the AEPD regarding the avoidance of the transfer of the data to other<br />

territories where there are not enough guarantees.<br />

The Spanish national legis<strong>la</strong>tion brings very few provisions on the consent of data<br />

subject, but it can be noted that there is a concern on the fact that this consent was really<br />

conscious. This concern reflects in protective provisions regarding this consent, as the Art.11<br />

(3) LoPD.<br />

5.3. The limited role of aePd<br />

According to Art.37 LoPD, the AEPD is entitled to ensure the compliance of the<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tion and to impose penalties in case of infringement. Also, the authority can receive<br />

comp<strong>la</strong>ints (Art.18 LoPD) about infringements and finally impose sanctions.<br />

The LoPD suffe<strong>red</strong> a recent reform regarding the administrative sanctions in case of<br />

non-compliance to the data protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion. The recent Law 2/2011 clearly lowe<strong>red</strong><br />

the sanctions by changing the gravity of some actions, establishing smaller amounts of<br />

the fines in case of infringement as well as stopping consi<strong>de</strong>ring infringement others actions.<br />

Apparently in the name of further economic <strong>de</strong>velopment (main purpose of the Law<br />

2/2011), the data protection should receive lower sanctions. Even though the modifications<br />

do not represent a major change, the thinking behind it can be dangerous to the privacy<br />

rights in the future.<br />

5.4. data subject and the compensation for damages<br />

But it is important to distinguish that those sanctions are not in<strong>de</strong>mnity for the data<br />

subjects that might have their personal data published or illegally transfer<strong>red</strong>. This is an<br />

exclusive administrative procedure. In or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain compensation, Art.19 LoPD establishes<br />

“3. In the case of files in private ownership, the case shall be heard by the civil courts.”<br />

Regarding the type of damages the data subject can seek, Art.19 LoPD is not very<br />

clear when it says: “[…] suffer damage to their possessions or rights, shall have the right to<br />

damages.” It seems that the roles of the type of damages are open, whether it is material or<br />

moral damages. Another discussion concerns the types of responsibility applying to the data<br />

controller. There is p<strong>la</strong>ce of compensation by the fact there is a failure to comply with the<br />

LoPD, or should the damages be proved?<br />

Those answers still need to be exp<strong>la</strong>ined by the National Courts, once the cases of<br />

court actions un<strong>de</strong>r the Art.19 are very rare and so far have not called any attention. This is


336 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

because the possibility to recover damage through a long and expensive court action clearly<br />

works as a barrier for those trying to enforce their rights.<br />

Much better would be the possibility to obtain any kind of fair, secure and inexpensive<br />

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). As noted, the recent 2010 European Commission<br />

<strong>de</strong>cision regarding the SCC established the possibility of ADR regarding the data importer.<br />

Provisions allowing ADR for data exporters or even for data controllers within Spain and EEA<br />

would be of great use. In Spain, a regional association of e-commerce of Andalucía <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to<br />

offer a mediation services in some cases 56 . This is a great initiative and should be foste<strong>red</strong> as a<br />

way to give simple and fast means to citizens in obtaining rights to damage. Such alternative<br />

would also require a reform of Art.19 LoPD, which restricts such in<strong>de</strong>mnity only to the courts.<br />

6. comParatiVe <strong>la</strong>w analysis<br />

It is interesting to note how EU Member States implemented the EU-DPD. As to<br />

regard the <strong>de</strong>finitions, both legis<strong>la</strong>tions (German BDSG and Spanish LoPD) ma<strong>de</strong> use of<br />

broad <strong>de</strong>finitions of what constitutes a transmission of data or, as <strong>de</strong>fined in Spain, assignment<br />

or communication of data. This intends to serve the purpose not to allow the circumvention<br />

of the data protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion through data transfer actions that could not be<br />

consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as a transmission of data.<br />

Regarding the damages, some slight difference is found in both legis<strong>la</strong>tions. While the<br />

BSDG says “…compensate the data subject for damage suffe<strong>red</strong>” the LoPD talks about “…<br />

damage to their goods or rights…” Again, this writing difference should not represent different<br />

implementation of the EU-DPD, but it seems that the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion wanted to c<strong>la</strong>rify<br />

that moral damages should also be compensated.<br />

The BSDG (§ 4) prohibits international transmission of data if the level of protection<br />

cannot be guaranteed, and says that “a<strong>de</strong>quate safeguards” should be in p<strong>la</strong>ce in or<strong>de</strong>r the<br />

transmission to be allowed. Meanwhile, the LoPD requires a “com<strong>para</strong>ble protection” and<br />

if not, asks for “a<strong>de</strong>quate guarantees” (Art.33 LoPD).<br />

Such measures, or guarantees, may consist in an open-list once the Individual Contractual<br />

C<strong>la</strong>uses may also be suitable to provi<strong>de</strong> the level of protection requi<strong>red</strong> for a transmission.<br />

Nevertheless, the Spanish legis<strong>la</strong>tion also mentions the use of Co<strong>de</strong> of Conduct<br />

(Art.33) as a tool for ensuring the data privacy protection.<br />

Such small differences do not result in greater difference in the way companies can look<br />

for national legis<strong>la</strong>tion compliance in case of transmission for third countries. The practical<br />

gui<strong>de</strong> brought to the German Law above, is as well suitable to the Spanish Legis<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

Still, legis<strong>la</strong>tion within the EU is not harmonised enough. The German Approach to<br />

the Safe Harbor Principles shall serve as one example. Even the European Data Protection<br />

56 Information about the service is avai<strong>la</strong>ble at the webpage http://www.proteccion<strong>de</strong>datosenandalucia.<br />

es/?p=414 [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

337<br />

Supervisor states that “ […] International transfers (Articles 25-26). This is an area which has<br />

given rise to wi<strong>de</strong>spread criticism because of the <strong>la</strong>ck of a uniform practice throughout the EU.<br />

Stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs criticised that the Commission’s <strong>de</strong>cisions on a<strong>de</strong>quacy are interpreted and implemented<br />

very differently by the Member States. Binding Corporate Rules (BCRs) are a further<br />

element where the EDPS recommends further harmonisation (see Chapter 9)” 57 .<br />

7. conclusion<br />

Cloud Computing is <strong>de</strong>emed to become the standard technological solution in the<br />

world. Will the data protection measures be able to keep path with the technology boost of<br />

easiness of communications? While the countries struggle to provi<strong>de</strong> data protection, and<br />

avoid that data from their territory is not be transfe<strong>red</strong> to data “<strong>para</strong>dises” where control<br />

of privacy and confi<strong>de</strong>ntiality is inexistent, the international commerce <strong>de</strong>mands more and<br />

more transfer of data.<br />

It is also clear that data protection cannot be limited to EU members, US or a short list<br />

of countries. The need of an international cooperation regarding minimal global standards<br />

(original i<strong>de</strong>a of the 1980 oECD initiative for establishing principles of data protection) is<br />

essential to provi<strong>de</strong> a <strong>de</strong>finite solution for this global problem. Meanwhile, the supervisory<br />

agencies try to ensure compliance without <strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>ying the transfer of data to companies.<br />

The solution may consist of several measures. It should consist of a technological neutral<br />

solution, otherwise it would fall in likeliness to be over<strong>la</strong>pped by short-term future technologies.<br />

As an essential mean for data transfer (and maybe the only one applied), Net Neutrality<br />

should also be respected. More efficient schemes of authorisations, mainly from the<br />

EU, should be p<strong>la</strong>ced as soon as possible for the supervisory agencies. And, maybe the most<br />

urgent call, better enforcement for data breaches including easier and more accessible compensation<br />

for non-compliance with data privacy legis<strong>la</strong>tions should be provi<strong>de</strong>d to citizens.<br />

This <strong>la</strong>st solution may lead to a movement of clear and effective international legis<strong>la</strong>tions.<br />

Each data exporter finds oneself confronted with this kind of <strong>de</strong>cision tree if exporting<br />

data from Spain or Germany:<br />

• Export to EU/EEA members only<br />

• Export on the basis of Art. 26 (1) EU-DPD <strong>de</strong>rogations (e.g. consent of the data<br />

subject)<br />

• Export to US companies who join the Safe Harbor Programme, together with a previous<br />

check of the national supervisory authority´s opinion on Safe Harbor<br />

57 opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor on the Communication from the Commission<br />

to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee<br />

of the Regions - “A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union, p.<br />

14, http://idpc.gov.mt/dbfile.aspx/EDPS_11.pdf [Last accessed: 30 May 2011]


338 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• Export to countries inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the EU Commission´s list of countries with a<strong>de</strong>quate<br />

protection level Export to others countries and using other contractual instruments<br />

only un<strong>de</strong>r authorisation of the national supervisory authority after providing guarantees.<br />

Anyhow, the exporter should use one of the contractual instruments e<strong>la</strong>borated by the<br />

EU. Each of the instruments has its specific advantages and disadvantages, the choice of the<br />

“right” instrument <strong>de</strong>pends on the affected data, data flows, structure of his affiliated group<br />

and, in the end, the value which the data security has in the own company. In particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

cases it can also make sense to use different instruments for different data, streams or company<br />

shares.<br />

The following table 58 tries to summarise the mentioned advantages and disadvantages<br />

as a kind of “roadmap”:<br />

SCC BCR Safe Harbor<br />

<strong>de</strong>scription<br />

Contracts with given c<strong>la</strong>uses of<br />

the EU commission<br />

implementation cost<br />

(+) Quick and easy convertible,<br />

because standard c<strong>la</strong>uses in<br />

which only appendices have to<br />

be filled out.<br />

(-) Consi<strong>de</strong>rable administrative<br />

expenses by different obligatory<br />

compulsory registrations and<br />

obligations to obtain a permit<br />

in EU member states<br />

(-) Increasingly unclear if<br />

huge amount of group<br />

companies, if net-like data<br />

transfers (transmission of many<br />

companies to many companies)<br />

and if changes in data<br />

directions and group structure<br />

Binding in-house gui<strong>de</strong>lines<br />

concerning the handling of<br />

personal data<br />

(-) High conversion expenses<br />

because of comprehensive<br />

content <strong>de</strong>faults<br />

(-) Protracted procedure<br />

to obtain the approval of<br />

all supervisory authorities,<br />

however, at <strong>la</strong>st facilitated by<br />

mutual recognition.<br />

observation of certain Safe<br />

Harbor Principles through the<br />

US company including selfcertification.<br />

(+) Quick and slightly<br />

introduceable, because selfcertification<br />

and re<strong>la</strong>tively<br />

general principles<br />

58 Based upon: HELBING, T., “Datenschutz im Konzern: Internationale Datentransfers (Teil 2)”, German<br />

version avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.thomashelbing.com/<strong>de</strong>/datenschutz-konzern-internationaledatentransfer-teil-2-safe-harbor-bcr-binding-corporate-rules-eu-standardvertragsk<strong>la</strong>useln<br />

[Last accessed:<br />

30 May 2011]


Data transfer from germany or spain to third countries. Questions of civil liability for privacy rights…<br />

SCC BCR Safe Harbor<br />

individualisation opportunities<br />

(-) None / difficult adaptation<br />

to the commercial <strong>la</strong>w<br />

specifications of the group<br />

company<br />

liability<br />

(-) joint and several liability of<br />

the exporting and importing<br />

group company<br />

(-) Group companies in<br />

third countries submit to EU<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions/supervision<br />

special features<br />

typical use<br />

Short-term conversion from<br />

easy (e.g., star-shaped) and<br />

static (itself not changing) data<br />

flows.<br />

8. bibliograPHy<br />

(+)Individual adaptation to the<br />

specific features of the group<br />

company possible<br />

(+) promotes consciousness for<br />

data security in the company<br />

(-) Liability of an EU-group<br />

company for braches of privacy<br />

rights of group company<br />

beyond the EU<br />

(+) Suitable to standardise data<br />

security level within the whole<br />

affiliated group and to produce<br />

data security organisation andcompliance.<br />

(+) Demonstrates to the outsi<strong>de</strong><br />

a high value of the data security<br />

in the group<br />

Medium-term and long-term<br />

conversion of a comprehensive<br />

strategy to the safeguarding<br />

of data security level,<br />

implementing of a data security<br />

organisation and safeguarding<br />

the data security compliance in<br />

big affiliated groups.<br />

(-)No adaptation to the<br />

commercial <strong>la</strong>w specifications<br />

of the group company<br />

339<br />

(+) Activation of subcontractors<br />

slightly possible<br />

(-) Surveil<strong>la</strong>nce of the FTC<br />

(-) only for transfer in US<br />

possible, as far as receiver is<br />

subjected to supervision of the<br />

FTC is <strong>de</strong>feated<br />

(-) Scepticism of some<br />

(e.g. German) supervisory<br />

authorities<br />

US companies which receive<br />

subsidiaries in the EU / EWR<br />

(star-shaped data flow)<br />

Aldhouse, F., “The transfer of Personal Data to Third Countries Un<strong>de</strong>r the EU Directive<br />

95/46/EC”, International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, Issue 13, Volume<br />

1, p. 75 - 79.<br />

Helbing, T., “Datenschutz im Konzern: Internationale Datentransfers (Teil 2)”, German<br />

version avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.thomashelbing.com/<strong>de</strong>/datenschutz-konzern-interna-


340 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tionale-datentransfer-teil-2-safe-harbor-bcr-binding-corporate-rules-eu-standardvertragsk<strong>la</strong>useln<br />

[Last accessed: 30 May 2011]<br />

Kuner, C., “An international legal framework for data protection: Issues and prospects”,<br />

Computer <strong>la</strong>w & Security Review, 2009, vol. 25, Issue 5, p. 307 - 317<br />

Wang, F.F. And Griffiths, N., “Protecting privacy in automated transaction systems: A<br />

legal and technological perspective in the European Union”, International Review of<br />

Law, Computers & Technology, 2010, Issue 24, Volume 2, p. 153 - 162


18<br />

lA PrIVACIDAD De lAs COmUNICACIONes<br />

eN lA INVestIgACIóN PeNAl: UNO De lOs retOs De lA<br />

JUstICIA eN UNA sOCIeDAD glOBAlIzADA<br />

Inmacu<strong>la</strong>da López-Barajas Perea<br />

Profesora Contratada Doctora <strong>de</strong> Derecho Procesal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Universidad Nacional <strong>de</strong> Educación a Distancia<br />

AbstrAct: La aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación ha supuesto<br />

<strong>la</strong> superación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s formas tradicionales <strong>de</strong> comunicación. La facilidad <strong>de</strong> acceso así como el<br />

carácter anónimo y <strong>de</strong>scentralizado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> facilita <strong>la</strong> comisión <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>lito y dificulta su persecución.<br />

Los esquemas clásicos <strong>de</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s encargadas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención y persecución <strong>de</strong><br />

los <strong>de</strong>litos han quedado obsoletos. Resulta necesario acudir a nuevas técnicas <strong>de</strong> investigación. Se<br />

abre paso el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías dirigidas a <strong>la</strong> interceptación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones que permiten<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más el almacenamiento y reutilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información obtenida. En <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> estos<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>rnos instrumentos resulta necesario pon<strong>de</strong>rar <strong>de</strong>spacio <strong>la</strong> injerencia en <strong>la</strong> esfera <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales, aun en el caso <strong>de</strong> que estén previstas en <strong>la</strong> Ley, <strong>para</strong> que no se <strong>de</strong>svirtúe su contenido<br />

esencial dada <strong>la</strong> potencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología utilizada. Como ha dicho el Tribunal Europeo <strong>de</strong> Derecho<br />

humanos <strong>la</strong> vida privada es un término abierto no susceptible <strong>de</strong> una <strong>de</strong>finición exhaustiva, que <strong>de</strong>ber<br />

ser interpretado a <strong>la</strong> luz <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s condiciones actuales <strong>de</strong> vida propias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

en <strong>la</strong> que estamos inmersos <strong>para</strong> proteger al individuo <strong>de</strong> forma real y efectiva en aquellos ámbitos a<br />

los que se refiere.<br />

Esta realidad contrasta con <strong>la</strong> parquedad <strong>de</strong> nuestra regu<strong>la</strong>ción vigente. Resulta urgente una actualización<br />

<strong>de</strong> nuestra normativa procesal como medio <strong>de</strong> confrontación <strong>para</strong> lograr <strong>la</strong> represión eficaz<br />

<strong>de</strong> estas nuevas formas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l respeto a los principios básicos <strong>de</strong>l Derecho Penal<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l proceso <strong>de</strong>bido.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: privacidad, intimidad, protección <strong>de</strong> datos, <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones,<br />

investigación penal, tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información.<br />

1. <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> los<br />

<strong>de</strong>recHos<br />

La aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías ha supuesto <strong>la</strong> superación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s formas tradicionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> comunicación, mediante una expansión <strong>de</strong> los contenidos transmitidos, que<br />

abarcan no sólo <strong>la</strong> voz, sino también <strong>otros</strong> datos en soportes y formatos diversos. Hasta hace<br />

pocas décadas <strong>la</strong> telefonía fija era <strong>la</strong> única vía <strong>de</strong> telecomunicación al alcance real <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía.<br />

Hoy se pue<strong>de</strong> afirmar que <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones telefónicas clásicas han quedado superadas<br />

o, mejor dicho absorbidas, por <strong>la</strong>s telemáticas o electrónicas. Las centrales digitales<br />

<strong>de</strong> conmutación automática, totalmente electrónicas y contro<strong>la</strong>das por or<strong>de</strong>nador, permiten


342 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más multitud <strong>de</strong> servicios complementarios al propio establecimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

como por ejemplo los <strong>de</strong>nominados servicios <strong>de</strong> valor añadido 1 .<br />

El uso generalizado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> telefonía móvil ha ampliado consi<strong>de</strong>rablemente <strong>la</strong>s faculta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> control <strong>de</strong> los sujetos dado el enorme volumen <strong>de</strong> información que pue<strong>de</strong> obtenerse y<br />

registrarse como consecuencia <strong>de</strong> su utilización. Los operadores disponen <strong>de</strong> una gran base<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos que permite almacenar multitud <strong>de</strong> datos, entre <strong>otros</strong>, los datos <strong>de</strong> localización que<br />

indican <strong>la</strong> posición geográfica <strong>de</strong>l equipo terminal <strong>de</strong> un usuario 2 .<br />

El número <strong>de</strong> personas que participan en esos procesos es cada vez mayor, en contraste<br />

con lo que sucedía hace escasos años en que sólo unos pocos tenían acceso a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas formas<br />

<strong>de</strong> telecomunicación. Una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s características básicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación en Internet<br />

consiste en <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> unas mínimas barreras <strong>de</strong> entrada <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación, tanto<br />

<strong>para</strong> emisores como <strong>para</strong> los receptores. Se trata <strong>de</strong> un espacio abierto a los usuarios que<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n acce<strong>de</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> información y a los servicios propios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> cualquiera que sea <strong>la</strong> parte<br />

<strong>de</strong>l p<strong>la</strong>neta en que se encuentren 3 . La instantaneidad y <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparición <strong>de</strong> distancias son <strong>la</strong>s<br />

notas que caracterizan <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones que se producen en <strong>la</strong> nueva realidad <strong>de</strong>rivada <strong>de</strong>l<br />

progreso tecnológico 4 .<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, el acceso a internet constituye no solo un servicio sino un <strong>de</strong>recho que los<br />

po<strong>de</strong>res públicos <strong>de</strong>ben garantizar y proteger. El <strong>de</strong>recho a acce<strong>de</strong>r libremente a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> es<br />

un <strong>de</strong>recho cuya titu<strong>la</strong>ridad correspon<strong>de</strong> a todas <strong>la</strong>s personas. Por ello, los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos<br />

<strong>de</strong>ben adoptar <strong>la</strong>s medidas necesarias <strong>para</strong> que el acceso a Internet sea universal, <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

que <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías estén al alcance <strong>de</strong> todos los sujetos en cualquier punto <strong>de</strong>l Estado,<br />

por remoto que éste sea y, a ser posible, en <strong>la</strong>s mismas condiciones que en cualquier gran<br />

ciudad 5 . Deben <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>rse <strong>la</strong>s medidas necesarias <strong>para</strong> evitar que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> sea accesible a los<br />

ciudadanos únicamente en función <strong>de</strong> criterios <strong>de</strong> rentabilidad 6 . La Unión Internacional <strong>de</strong><br />

Telecomunicaciones, en <strong>la</strong> Conferencia Mundial <strong>de</strong> Desarrollo <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones <strong>de</strong><br />

2002, señaló que correspon<strong>de</strong> a los gobiernos crear y promover un entorno propicio que permita<br />

un acceso razonable y asequible a los servicios básicos <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones <strong>para</strong> todos.<br />

La Directiva 2002/22/CE, re<strong>la</strong>tiva al servicio universal y a los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios<br />

en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas contemp<strong>la</strong> ya el ac-<br />

1 Wikipedia.org.<br />

2 PÉREZ GIL, J., ”Los datos sobre localización geográfica en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal”, en Protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos y proceso penal (Coord. Pedraz Penalva), La Ley, 2010, pp. 307-353.<br />

3 LLANEZA GoNZÁLEZ, P., Internet y comunicaciones digitales, Bosch, Barcelona, 2000, p. 207.<br />

4 Vid. URBANo CASTRILLo Y MAGRo SERVET, La prueba tecnológica en <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Enjuiciamiento<br />

Civil, Thomson-Aranzadi, 2003.<br />

5 En <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea, <strong>la</strong> iniciativa <strong>de</strong> 1999 <strong>de</strong>nominada “e-Europa. Una Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información<br />

<strong>para</strong> todos”, puso <strong>de</strong> manifiesto el insuficiente <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas aplicaciones y servicios, todavía<br />

lentos, inseguros, caros y poco extendidos entre <strong>la</strong> pob<strong>la</strong>ción.<br />

6 Vid. Comisión Especial sobre re<strong>de</strong>s informáticas, Boletín oficial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Cortes Generales Senado, 27<br />

<strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 1999.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

343<br />

ceso a Internet como parte <strong>de</strong>l servicio universal <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones. Por su parte, <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones 32/2003, <strong>de</strong> 3 <strong>de</strong> noviembre, establece que <strong>la</strong> conexión a<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> telefónica pública <strong>de</strong>be permitir comunicaciones <strong>de</strong> fax y datos a velocidad suficiente<br />

<strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> forma funcional a Internet. El hecho <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías se hayan<br />

incorporado en <strong>la</strong> gestión y control <strong>de</strong> los servicios públicos más importantes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

refuerza <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> garantizar su acceso a todos los sujetos.<br />

Sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección otorgada por <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción general <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> los<br />

consumidores y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa específica sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos, recientemente se ha<br />

establecido un régimen <strong>de</strong> protección específica <strong>para</strong> los usuarios <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas que incluye nuevas garantías y <strong>de</strong>rechos adicionales en sus re<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

con los operadores fortaleciendo así su nivel <strong>de</strong> protección. El art. 31 <strong>de</strong>l RD 899/2009, <strong>de</strong><br />

22 <strong>de</strong> mayo, por el que se aprueba <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> Derechos <strong>de</strong>l Usuario <strong>de</strong> los Servicios <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones<br />

Electrónicas dispone que <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales en los servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicaciones electrónicas se regirá por <strong>la</strong> Ley 32/2003, <strong>de</strong> 3 <strong>de</strong> noviembre, General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones,<br />

por el título V <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento aprobado por el Real Decreto 424/2005,<br />

<strong>de</strong> 15 <strong>de</strong> abril y, en lo no previsto por dichas normas, por lo dispuesto en <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

vigente sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal.<br />

Pero, el carácter c<strong>la</strong>ramente positivo <strong>de</strong> los avances tecnológicos en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> telefonía<br />

y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas al que nos hemos referido, no impi<strong>de</strong> que su uso<br />

pueda <strong>de</strong>rivarse hacia <strong>la</strong> consecución <strong>de</strong> fines <strong>de</strong>lictivos. El carácter anónimo y <strong>de</strong>scentralizado<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ha sido aprovechado por los criminales <strong>para</strong> comunicarse y cometer más <strong>de</strong>litos.<br />

Internet es un medio perfecto <strong>para</strong> el anonimato. La usurpación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad digital es<br />

una práctica cada vez más frecuente. La facilidad <strong>para</strong> generar nuevos dominios o accesos a <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong>, tanto localizados como remotos, han <strong>de</strong>jado anticuados los esquemas clásicos <strong>de</strong> actuación<br />

utilizados por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s encargadas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención y persecución <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos.<br />

Para contrarrestar los sofisticados medios <strong>de</strong> que se sirven los grupos criminales organizados,<br />

así como el carácter internacional <strong>de</strong> su actividad, resulta necesario recurrir a nuevas<br />

técnicas <strong>de</strong> investigación 7 . La Policía judicial tiene que contar con los medios necesarios<br />

toda vez que <strong>la</strong> eficacia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actividad probatoria se fundamenta, en última instancia, en <strong>la</strong><br />

eficacia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación policial previa. Se abre paso el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías<br />

dirigidas a <strong>la</strong> interceptación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones que a su vez permiten el almacenamiento<br />

y reutilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información obtenida.<br />

Esta realidad contrasta con <strong>la</strong> parquedad, insuficiencia e ina<strong>de</strong>cuación <strong>de</strong> nuestra regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

procesal vigente. La lucha contra <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia <strong>de</strong>be producirse <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los<br />

límites autorizados por el Convenio Europeo sobre Derechos Humanos, <strong>de</strong> tal forma que<br />

<strong>la</strong>s medidas adoptadas no <strong>red</strong>uzcan los niveles <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales<br />

que caracterizan <strong>la</strong>s socieda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mocráticas.<br />

7 ZARAGoZA AGUADo, J. A., “Tratamiento penal y procesal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s organizaciones criminales en el<br />

Derecho español. Especial referencia al tráfico ilegal <strong>de</strong> drogas”, en Delitos contra <strong>la</strong> salud pública y el<br />

contrabando, CGPJ, 2000.


344 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

2. el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

El secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones se reconoce como garantía en todas <strong>la</strong>s Constituciones,<br />

así como en <strong>la</strong>s normas internacionales, entre otras, en <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración Universal <strong>de</strong><br />

Derechos Humanos 8 y en el Pacto Internacional <strong>de</strong> Derechos Civiles y Políticos 9 .<br />

En una sociedad tecnológicamente avanzada como <strong>la</strong> actual, el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

constituye no sólo una garantía <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> libertad individual sino <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> múltiples<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s como <strong>la</strong> propiedad, el secreto <strong>de</strong>l sufragio activo, <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> opinión,<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ológica y <strong>de</strong> pensamiento, <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> empresa o <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> asistencia<br />

letrada. Como ha <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rado el Tribunal Constitucional, constituye un instrumento <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

cultural, científico y tecnológico colectivo y, en todo caso, una garantía <strong>de</strong>l pluralismo<br />

y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia 10 . Basta recordar que, el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, concretado en<br />

el secreto postal, y por tanto, con el ámbito muchísimo mas <strong>red</strong>ucido que en <strong>la</strong> actualidad,<br />

constituyó un pi<strong>la</strong>r fundamental <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Revolución Francesa en su lucha frente al po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Estado.<br />

En nuestro texto constitucional se reconoce, con el rango <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental,<br />

en el art.18.3, según el cual “se garantiza el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y, en especial, <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s postales, telegráficas y telefónicas, salvo resolución judicial”. Queda sujeto a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

reforzada que establece el que art.53.2 CE <strong>de</strong> manera que cualquier ciudadano podrá recabar<br />

su tute<strong>la</strong> ante los Tribunales ordinarios por un procedimiento basado en los principios<br />

<strong>de</strong> preferencia y sumariedad y, en su caso, a través <strong>de</strong>l recurso <strong>de</strong> amparo ante el Tribunal<br />

Constitucional.<br />

El art. 8 <strong>de</strong>l Convenio Europeo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales 11 , <strong>de</strong> forma más amplia, establece que toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al respeto <strong>de</strong> su vida privada y familiar, <strong>de</strong> su domicilio y <strong>de</strong> su correspon<strong>de</strong>ncia. El Tribunal<br />

Europeo <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos ha puesto <strong>de</strong> manifiesto que <strong>la</strong> vida privada es un término<br />

abierto no susceptible <strong>de</strong> una <strong>de</strong>finición exhaustiva, que <strong>de</strong>ber ser interpretado a <strong>la</strong> luz <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

8 En su art. 12 establece que “Nadie será objeto <strong>de</strong> injerencias arbitrarias en su vida privada, su familia,<br />

su domicilio o su correspon<strong>de</strong>ncia, ni <strong>de</strong> ataques a su honra y su reputación. Toda persona tiene<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley contra tales injerencias y ataques”.<br />

9 Con idéntico contenido, su art. 17 dispone que“1. Nadie será objeto <strong>de</strong> injerencias arbitrarias o<br />

ilegales en su vida privada, su familia, su domicilio o su correspon<strong>de</strong>ncia, ni <strong>de</strong> ataques ilegales a su<br />

honra y su reputación. 2. Toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley contra esas injerencias<br />

y ataques”.<br />

10 SSTC 281/2006, 56/2003, 123/2002.<br />

11 Art. 8 “1. Toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho al respeto <strong>de</strong> su vida privada y familiar, <strong>de</strong> su domicilio y <strong>de</strong> su<br />

Correspon<strong>de</strong>ncia. 2. No podrá haber injerencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> autoridad pública en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> este <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

salvo cuando esta injerencia esté prevista por <strong>la</strong> Ley y constituya una medida que, en una sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong>mocrática, sea necesaria <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad nacional, <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública, el bienestar económico <strong>de</strong>l<br />

país, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n y <strong>la</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s infracciones penales, <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> salud o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

moral, o <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> terceros”.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

345<br />

condiciones actuales <strong>de</strong> vida propias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> que estamos inmersos<br />

<strong>para</strong> proteger al individuo <strong>de</strong> forma real y efectiva en aquellos ámbitos a los que se refiere 12 .<br />

Por su parte, el art. 33 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones 32/2003, <strong>de</strong> 3 <strong>de</strong> noviembre,<br />

dispone que los operadores que exploten re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones o que<br />

presten servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas disponibles al público <strong>de</strong>berán garantizar el<br />

secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones <strong>de</strong> conformidad con los artículos 18.3 y 55.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución,<br />

<strong>de</strong>biendo adoptar <strong>la</strong>s medidas técnicas necesarias. En análogo sentido se manifiesta el art. 18<br />

g) <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Comunicaciones Electrónicas aprobado por RD 424/2005,<br />

<strong>de</strong> 15 <strong>de</strong> abril, según el cual los operadores que exploten re<strong>de</strong>s públicas <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas <strong>de</strong>berán procurar <strong>la</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s públicas contra el acceso no autorizado<br />

y garantizar <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los mensajes transmitidos y el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones.<br />

Mas recientemente, el art. 5.2 <strong>de</strong>l Real Decreto 899/2009, <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> mayo, por el que<br />

se aprueba <strong>la</strong> carta <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong>l usuario <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas,<br />

dispone que los operadores no podrán acce<strong>de</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> línea <strong>de</strong> un usuario final sin su consentimiento<br />

expreso e inequívoco.<br />

La doctrina 13 ha <strong>de</strong>stacado <strong>la</strong> enorme virtualidad expansiva <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> vida privada<br />

y al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en un contexto en el que existe una gran capacidad tecnológica<br />

<strong>de</strong> control social en manos <strong>de</strong>l Estado. La garantía <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> esfera privada es<br />

uno <strong>de</strong> los gran<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>safíos <strong>de</strong> los or<strong>de</strong>namientos jurídicos en <strong>la</strong> actualidad toda vez que los<br />

ciudadanos se sienten cada vez más amenazados en su ámbito <strong>de</strong> libertad personal. Como ha<br />

seña<strong>la</strong>do nuestro Tribunal Constitucional, los avances tecnológicos que en los últimos tiempos<br />

se han producido en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones, especialmente en conexión con el<br />

uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informática, hacen necesario un nuevo entendimiento <strong>de</strong>l concepto <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l objeto <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental, que extienda <strong>la</strong> protección a esos nuevos ámbitos, como<br />

se <strong>de</strong>riva necesariamente <strong>de</strong>l tenor literal <strong>de</strong>l art. 18.3 CE 14 . Nuestra jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia se enfrenta<br />

al nuevo reto <strong>de</strong> tener que <strong>de</strong>limitar los riesgos que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> esfera privada se <strong>de</strong>rivan <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización<br />

en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mo<strong>de</strong>rnas técnicas <strong>de</strong> investigación 15 .<br />

3. <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carÁcter Personal, <strong>la</strong> intimidad y<br />

el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

El sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas es un ámbito don<strong>de</strong> confluyen tres <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales íntimamente re<strong>la</strong>cionados: el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad, el <strong>de</strong>recho al secre-<br />

12 Caso Raninen c. Fin<strong>la</strong>ndia, Sentencia <strong>de</strong> 16 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 1997; Caso Burghartz c. Suiza, Sentencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 1994.<br />

13 ARZoZ SANTISTEBAN, X., “Derecho al respeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada y familiar” en Convenio Europeo<br />

<strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos. Comentario sistemático, Thomson-Civitas, 2004, p. 260.<br />

14 STC 70/2002.<br />

15 PÉREZ GIL, J.,”Los datos sobre localización geográfica en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal”, op. cit., pp. 346 Y 347.


346 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

to <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos frente al uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informática,<br />

también <strong>de</strong>nominado <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa 16 .<br />

La especificidad <strong>de</strong> los intereses jurídicos protegidos en cada caso supone el reconocimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>limitar progresivamente <strong>de</strong>terminados aspectos parciales<br />

pero sustantivos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada y convertirlos en contenidos materialmente autónomos,<br />

susceptibles <strong>de</strong> aplicación se<strong>para</strong>da e in<strong>de</strong>pendiente respecto <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho general al respeto a<br />

<strong>la</strong> vida privada 17 . Así, aunque que se trate <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos conexos, resulta necesario proce<strong>de</strong>r a<br />

su <strong>de</strong>limitación toda vez que se están sujetos a un régimen jurídico diferente.<br />

Un c<strong>la</strong>ro ejemplo viene representado por el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos que ha adquirido<br />

con el tiempo un estatus jurídico propio y ha sido reconocido por nuestro Tribunal<br />

Constitucional como un <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental autónomo respecto a <strong>la</strong> intimidad 18 . Encuentra<br />

su fundamento en el art.18.4 CE y se regu<strong>la</strong> por <strong>la</strong> Ley 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal. En el or<strong>de</strong>namiento comunitario su régimen jurídico<br />

se integra por <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en<br />

lo que respecta al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos y,<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>la</strong> tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas.<br />

La libertad informática o <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa ha sido calificado<br />

por una parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> doctrina 19 como un <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental propio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actual sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> que estamos inmersos. Los partidarios <strong>de</strong> esta posición 20 consi<strong>de</strong>ran que<br />

no existe ningún problema <strong>para</strong> que se produzcan nuevas concreciones o nuevos “<strong>de</strong>sprendimientos”<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales vincu<strong>la</strong>dos al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo tecnológico. De hecho, el Tribunal<br />

constitucional Alemán ha reconocido recientemente el nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong><br />

integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas técnicos <strong>de</strong> información frente a <strong>la</strong>s intromisiones que se producen<br />

como consecuencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong> técnicas <strong>de</strong> acceso on line que permiten obtener <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

remota información <strong>de</strong> un sistema informático sin necesidad <strong>de</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r al espacio físico en el<br />

que se encuentra situado (programas espía- spyware). Esta conducta que supone una grave in-<br />

16 MARTÍN REToRTILLo BAQUER, L., “Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones comunes a los artículos 49, 50 y 51 <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Ley General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones”, en AAVV, Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Ley General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones,<br />

Cívitas, Madrid, 1998, p. 428.<br />

17 Cfr. ARZoZ SANTISTEBAN?, X., “Derecho al respeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada y familiar” en Convenio<br />

Europeo <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos, op. cit., p. 256.<br />

18 Vid. STC 292/2000.<br />

19 oLIVER LALANA, D., “El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental virtual a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. Tecnología transparente<br />

y normas privadas”, Diario La Ley, Nº 5592, <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2002; ÁLVAREZ GARCÍA,<br />

F., “El acceso por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado a ficheros <strong>de</strong> datos personales”,<br />

en Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y proceso penal (Coord. Pedraz Penalva), La Ley, 2010, pp.65-67; PÉREZ<br />

LUño, A. E., “El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa”, Anuario <strong>de</strong> jornadas 1989-1990,<br />

Servicio <strong>de</strong> Estudios <strong>de</strong>l IVAP, 1991, pp. 299-331.<br />

20 ÁVAREZ GARCÍA, F.J., “El acceso por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fuerzas y cuerpos <strong>de</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado a ficheros<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos personales”, en Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y proceso penal (Coord. Pedraz Penalva), La Ley, 2010, p.65.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

347<br />

trusión en <strong>la</strong> intimidad <strong>de</strong> los usuarios afectados no se encontraba a<strong>de</strong>cuadamente tute<strong>la</strong>da por<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> invio<strong>la</strong>bilidad <strong>de</strong>l domicilio. Por ello, afirma que será <strong>la</strong> evolución tecnológica<br />

<strong>la</strong> que marcará el paso en esta materia (BVerfGE 27 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008).<br />

De forma diferente, <strong>otros</strong> autores 21 entien<strong>de</strong>n que el nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong><br />

libertad informática no es tal, sino que constituye una manifestación más <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad <strong>de</strong>terminado por el uso generalizado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y <strong>la</strong> comunicación a través <strong>de</strong> medios electrónicos y telemáticos. Su contenido se concreta<br />

en el <strong>de</strong>recho que tiene toda persona a contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> información sobre si misma cuando sus<br />

datos personales han sido sometidos a tratamiento informatizado. Por ello, consi<strong>de</strong>ran que<br />

el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> informática no es más que una nueva forma <strong>de</strong> manejar <strong>la</strong> información.<br />

Con objeto <strong>de</strong> fijar el régimen jurídico al que <strong>de</strong>ben adscribirse los datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico y,<br />

en consecuencia, <strong>la</strong>s garantías <strong>para</strong> que sea lícita su utilización, tomamos como punto <strong>de</strong><br />

partida los pronunciamientos <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional sobre el contenido <strong>de</strong>l art.18 <strong>de</strong><br />

nuestro Texto Constitucional.<br />

En primer lugar, <strong>de</strong>be <strong>de</strong>limitarse el ámbito <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos con<br />

respecto al <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad. A juicio <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional, el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental<br />

a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, comparte con el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad el objetivo <strong>de</strong><br />

ofrecer una eficaz protección constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada personal y familiar, si bien se<br />

diferencia <strong>de</strong>l mismo en dos aspectos fundamentales.<br />

La primera nota distintiva se refiere al objeto <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos que es más amplio. No se <strong>red</strong>uce sólo a los datos íntimos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona sino<br />

a cualquier tipo <strong>de</strong> dato personal, sea o no íntimo, cuyo conocimiento o empleo por terceros<br />

pueda afectar a sus <strong>de</strong>rechos, sean o no fundamentales. Por consiguiente, también alcanza a<br />

aquellos datos personales públicos que, por el hecho <strong>de</strong> serlo, esto es, <strong>de</strong> ser accesibles al conocimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> cualquiera, no escapan al po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> disposición <strong>de</strong>l afectado. El que los datos sean <strong>de</strong><br />

carácter personal no significa que sólo tengan protección los re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong> vida privada o íntima<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, sino que los datos am<strong>para</strong>dos son todos aquellos que permitan <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, pudiendo servir <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> confección <strong>de</strong> su perfil i<strong>de</strong>ológico, racial, sexual, económico<br />

o <strong>de</strong> cualquier otra índole, o que sirvan <strong>para</strong> cualquier otra utilidad que, en <strong>de</strong>terminadas<br />

circunstancias, constituya una amenaza <strong>para</strong> el individuo. Así, el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos amplía <strong>la</strong> garantía constitucional a aquellos <strong>de</strong> esos datos que sean relevantes<br />

o tengan inci<strong>de</strong>ncia en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> cualesquiera <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, sean o no re<strong>la</strong>tivos<br />

al honor, <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ología, <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar o a cualquier otro bien constitucionalmente<br />

am<strong>para</strong>do 22 . No es imprescindible que i<strong>de</strong>ntifiquen c<strong>la</strong>ra e inequívocamente a su titu<strong>la</strong>r,<br />

sino que pue<strong>de</strong>n ser datos que sirvan como medio <strong>para</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificarlo.<br />

La segunda peculiaridad que posee el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

y lo distingue <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar <strong>de</strong>l art. 18.1 CE radica en su<br />

21 Vid. oRTÍ VALLEJo, A., Derecho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad e informática, Comares, Granada, 1995; CARBoNELL<br />

MATEU, J.C. y GoNZÁLEZ CUSSAC, J.L., Derecho Penal, Parte Especial, Valencia, 1999, p.170.<br />

22 SSTC 110/1984, 144/1999.


348 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

contenido. A diferencia <strong>de</strong> este último que confiere a <strong>la</strong> persona el po<strong>de</strong>r jurídico <strong>de</strong> imponer<br />

a terceros el <strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> abstenerse <strong>de</strong> toda intromisión en <strong>la</strong> esfera íntima <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona y <strong>la</strong><br />

prohibición <strong>de</strong> hacer uso <strong>de</strong> lo así conocido, el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos atribuye a su<br />

titu<strong>la</strong>r un haz <strong>de</strong> faculta<strong>de</strong>s consistente en diversos po<strong>de</strong>res jurídicos cuyo ejercicio impone a<br />

terceros <strong>de</strong>beres, que no se contienen en el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> intimidad 23 . Se garantiza<br />

a <strong>la</strong> persona un po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> control y disposición sobre sus datos personales imponiendo a<br />

terceros <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>beres <strong>de</strong> hacer. Sirvan como ejemplo, el <strong>de</strong>recho a que se requiera<br />

el previo consentimiento <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> recogida y uso <strong>de</strong> los datos personales, el <strong>de</strong>recho a saber y<br />

ser informado sobre el <strong>de</strong>stino y uso <strong>de</strong> esos datos y, el <strong>de</strong>recho a acce<strong>de</strong>r, rectificar y cance<strong>la</strong>r<br />

dichos datos 24 .<br />

De todo lo expuesto se <strong>de</strong>duce que el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> intimidad referido en<br />

el art. 18.1 CE no aporta por sí solo una protección suficiente frente a esta nueva realidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>rivada <strong>de</strong>l progreso tecnológico, dadas <strong>la</strong>s amplísimas posibilida<strong>de</strong>s que <strong>la</strong> informática<br />

ofrece tanto <strong>para</strong> recoger como <strong>para</strong> comunicar datos personales. Afirma nuestro Tribunal<br />

Constitucional 25 que <strong>la</strong> garantía <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona y <strong>de</strong> su reputación poseen<br />

hoy una dimensión positiva que exce<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>l ámbito propio <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> intimidad<br />

(art. 18.1 CE), y que se traduce en un <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> control sobre los datos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a<br />

<strong>la</strong> propia persona. La l<strong>la</strong>mada “libertad informática” es así el <strong>de</strong>recho a contro<strong>la</strong>r el uso <strong>de</strong> los<br />

mismos datos insertos en un programa informático (habeas data) y compren<strong>de</strong>, entre <strong>otros</strong><br />

aspectos, <strong>la</strong> oposición <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano a que <strong>de</strong>terminados datos personales sean utilizados<br />

<strong>para</strong> fines distintos <strong>de</strong> aquel legítimo que justificó su obtención.<br />

Lo expuesto no ha impedido que el propio Tribunal Constitucional conecte ambos <strong>de</strong>rechos,<br />

afirmando que un sistema normativo que, autorizando <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> datos incluso<br />

con fines legítimos, y <strong>de</strong> contenido aparentemente neutro, no incluyese garantías a<strong>de</strong>cuadas<br />

frente a su uso potencialmente invasor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano, a través <strong>de</strong> su tratamiento<br />

técnico, vulneraría el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma manera que lo harían <strong>la</strong>s<br />

intromisiones directas en el contenido nuclear <strong>de</strong> ésta 26 .<br />

Por su parte, el TEDH afirma que el mero hecho <strong>de</strong> memorizar datos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong> vida<br />

privada <strong>de</strong> una persona constituye una injerencia en el sentido <strong>de</strong>l artículo 8, con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

<strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información memorizada se utilice o no posteriormente. Sin embargo, <strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>terminar si <strong>la</strong> información <strong>de</strong> carácter personal conservada por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s hace que<br />

entre en juego uno <strong>de</strong> los aspectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> noción <strong>de</strong> vida privada, el Tribunal tendrá <strong>de</strong>bidamente<br />

en cuenta el contexto particu<strong>la</strong>r en el que ha sido recogida y conservada <strong>la</strong> información,<br />

el carácter <strong>de</strong> los datos consignados, <strong>la</strong> manera en <strong>la</strong> que son utilizados y tratados y los<br />

resultados que pue<strong>de</strong>n extraerse <strong>de</strong> ellos 27 .<br />

23 SSTC 73/1982, 89/1987, 231/1988, 197/1991, 134/1999 y 115/2000.<br />

24 STC 254/1993.<br />

25 SSTC 202/1999, 202/2000.<br />

26 STC 143/1994.<br />

27 STEDH <strong>de</strong> 4 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2008, caso S. y Marper contra Reino Unido.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

349<br />

Una vez <strong>de</strong>limitado el ámbito <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos respecto al <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

<strong>la</strong> intimidad, proce<strong>de</strong> ahora, <strong>de</strong>limitarlo con re<strong>la</strong>ción al <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones.<br />

Para ello resulta necesario aten<strong>de</strong>r al aspecto dinámico o estático <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación.<br />

De esta manera, mientras dura el proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación, resulta afectado el <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, ya incida <strong>la</strong> injerencia sobre el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

o sobre sus elementos externos o adyacentes. En cambio, cuando <strong>la</strong> comunicación se ha<br />

consumado y se almacenan en una base los datos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, pasan a<br />

configurarse como datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal.<br />

A juicio <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional 28 , los datos <strong>de</strong>l emisor y receptor <strong>de</strong> una comunicación,<br />

una vez finalizada ésta ya no <strong>de</strong>ben protegerse por el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental al secreto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, a pesar <strong>de</strong> su estrecha conexión con <strong>la</strong> comunicación realizada, sino<br />

a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas que regu<strong>la</strong>n <strong>la</strong> intimidad u <strong>otros</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos, toda vez que no suponen<br />

una interferencia en un proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación.<br />

Así, <strong>la</strong> entrega por <strong>la</strong> operadora <strong>de</strong>l listado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s l<strong>la</strong>madas ya ejecutadas con anterioridad<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>terminado número <strong>de</strong> teléfono no afecta al contenido propio <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, toda vez que se trata, en <strong>de</strong>finitiva, <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, custodiados<br />

en ficheros automatizados, a los que se refiere <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre,<br />

<strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal en <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> lo previsto en el apartado 4 <strong>de</strong>l<br />

artículo 18 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitución. En el<strong>la</strong>, se establece que el tratamiento automatizado <strong>de</strong> los datos<br />

<strong>de</strong> carácter personal requerirá el consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l afectado, el cual, sin embargo, no será preciso<br />

cuando <strong>la</strong> cesión que <strong>de</strong>ba efectuarse tenga por <strong>de</strong>stinatario al Defensor <strong>de</strong>l Pueblo, al Ministerio<br />

Fiscal o a los Jueces o Tribunales en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s funciones que tiene atribuidas.<br />

De hecho, tal información, propia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación judicial en <strong>la</strong> fase <strong>de</strong> instrucción,<br />

es simi<strong>la</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>tiva al movimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cuentas corrientes bancarias y no afecta en forma<br />

alguna al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones telefónicas. El registro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s l<strong>la</strong>madas efectuadas<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>terminado número <strong>de</strong> teléfono forma parte <strong>de</strong>l conjunto <strong>de</strong> datos que <strong>la</strong>s correspondientes<br />

compañías telefónicas obtienen y conservan <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>terminar el precio<br />

que periódicamente <strong>de</strong>be abonarles el titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> aquél, <strong>de</strong> forma semejante a como hacen <strong>la</strong>s<br />

entida<strong>de</strong>s bancarias con los titu<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cuentas corrientes, al remitirles periódicamente<br />

información sobre el movimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas 29 .<br />

La Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos ha reconocido conforme con <strong>la</strong> normativa<br />

vigente, <strong>la</strong> cesión <strong>de</strong> datos reservados <strong>de</strong> carácter personal a petición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Policía judicial,<br />

esto es, sin mediar resolución judicial previa, en situaciones excepcionales cuando se trate<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos necesarios <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención y represión <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>litos graves, siempre<br />

que estén <strong>de</strong>bidamente motivados y se comunique inmediatamente a <strong>la</strong> autoridad judicial.<br />

Una vez expuesta <strong>la</strong> posición mayoritaria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Supremo 30 , resulta necesario <strong>de</strong>stacar que no han faltado resoluciones <strong>de</strong><br />

28 STC 70/2002.<br />

29 SSTS 459/1999 y <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2001.<br />

30 STS <strong>de</strong> 11 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2003.


350 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

estos mismos Tribunales discrepantes o imprecisas que no <strong>de</strong>limitan el régimen <strong>de</strong> garantía<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones <strong>de</strong>l régimen propio <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones ya mantenidas.<br />

Como ejemplo, pue<strong>de</strong> citarse <strong>la</strong> reciente STC 230/2007, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> noviembre don<strong>de</strong> se<br />

analiza un supuesto en el que <strong>la</strong> Policía accedió a los registros <strong>de</strong> l<strong>la</strong>madas <strong>de</strong> varios teléfonos<br />

móviles sin el consentimiento <strong>de</strong> los titu<strong>la</strong>res ni autorización judicial. En <strong>la</strong> mencionada sentencia,<br />

<strong>de</strong> forma contradictoria con <strong>la</strong> doctrina expuesta, en lugar <strong>de</strong> afirmar <strong>la</strong> no afectación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, toda vez que no resultaba afectado el proceso<br />

<strong>de</strong> comunicación mismo, el Tribunal Constitucional proc<strong>la</strong>mó <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

reconocido en el art.18.3. Para ello se fundó, en <strong>la</strong> doctrina constitucional en virtud <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

cual <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong> los intervinientes en <strong>la</strong> comunicación queda cubierta por el secreto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, cuando lo relevante en el caso analizado no radicaba en el ámbito<br />

objetivo <strong>de</strong>l secreto que, por supuesto, incluye <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad subjetiva <strong>de</strong> los interlocutores,<br />

sino en el momento en el que se produjo <strong>la</strong> injerencia en que el proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

ya había concluido. Una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s notas esenciales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación es, precisamente, que<br />

se trata <strong>de</strong> un proceso que se <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong> en un <strong>la</strong>pso <strong>de</strong> tiempo <strong>de</strong>terminado, durante el cual<br />

únicamente se dispensa <strong>la</strong> protección específica otorgada por el 18.3 CE.<br />

4. <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>tección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s c<strong>la</strong>Ves imsi e imei<br />

Tal y como hemos seña<strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>limitación <strong>de</strong>l ámbito <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al<br />

secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones tiene importantes consecuencias prácticas, toda vez que marca<br />

<strong>la</strong> frontera <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación policial en <strong>la</strong> materia, <strong>la</strong> cual no pue<strong>de</strong> afectar al núcleo protegido<br />

por dicho <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental sin que medie autorización judicial.<br />

No pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sconocerse que <strong>la</strong> enorme variedad <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal y <strong>la</strong> pluralidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> bases <strong>de</strong> información en po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> sujetos muy diversos, dificulta mucho <strong>la</strong> posibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> conseguir una legis<strong>la</strong>ción uniforme sobre <strong>la</strong> materia en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación<br />

penal31 . Existen multitud <strong>de</strong> normas reg<strong>la</strong>mentarias sectoriales que contemp<strong>la</strong>n excepciones<br />

a <strong>la</strong> norma general.<br />

Un buen ejemplo concreto que ilustra lo expuesto es <strong>la</strong> obtención por <strong>la</strong> Policía Judicial<br />

<strong>de</strong> los códigos (IMSI e IMEI) <strong>de</strong> los teléfonos móviles mediante el rastreo <strong>de</strong>l espacio<br />

radioeléctrico.<br />

El IMSI (Internacional Mobile Subscriber I<strong>de</strong>ntity- I<strong>de</strong>ntidad Internacional <strong>de</strong>l Abonado<br />

a un Móvil) es una re<strong>la</strong>ción alfanumérica vincu<strong>la</strong>da a una tarjeta SIM <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> mundial<br />

GSM. El IMEI (Internacional Mobile Equipment I<strong>de</strong>ntity- I<strong>de</strong>ntidad internacional <strong>de</strong><br />

31 PEDRAZ PENALVA, E., “La utilización en el proceso penal <strong>de</strong> datos personales recopi<strong>la</strong>dos sin<br />

indicios <strong>de</strong> comisión <strong>de</strong>lictiva”, en Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y proceso penal (Coord. Pedraz Penalva), La Ley,<br />

2010, p.34.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

351<br />

Equipo Móvil) es un código vincu<strong>la</strong>do a un teléfono móvil GSM y que, por tanto, i<strong>de</strong>ntifica<br />

un terminal <strong>de</strong> telefonía móvil.<br />

La técnica consistente en <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong> estos códigos (IMSI e IMEI) ha sido <strong>de</strong>finida<br />

como un procedimiento que permite <strong>de</strong>tectar <strong>la</strong>s c<strong>la</strong>ves <strong>de</strong> los teléfonos móviles que llevan<br />

<strong>la</strong>s personas que se encuentran a <strong>de</strong>terminada distancia mediante el rastreo <strong>de</strong>l espacio radioeléctrico.<br />

Los captadores <strong>de</strong> IMSI simu<strong>la</strong>n <strong>la</strong> estación base <strong>de</strong> telefonía. Se basa en <strong>la</strong> existencia<br />

<strong>de</strong> un teléfono operativo, sin necesidad <strong>de</strong> que se esté siendo utilizado en ese momento.<br />

En un primer momento <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia consi<strong>de</strong>ró que esta técnica suponía una intromisión<br />

en el <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> medida en que, por una vía<br />

más indirecta (<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>l código <strong>de</strong>l terminal), se pue<strong>de</strong> obtener el mismo efecto <strong>de</strong> invasión<br />

<strong>de</strong>l ámbito <strong>de</strong>l secreto (SSTS <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2007 y <strong>de</strong> 19 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008). Pocos<br />

meses <strong>de</strong>spués, cambió <strong>de</strong> criterio al consi<strong>de</strong>rar que no afectaba al núcleo protegido por el<br />

art. 18.3 CE, toda vez que <strong>la</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong> esta información, por sí so<strong>la</strong>, no permite conocer<br />

<strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong> los comunicantes, ni <strong>la</strong> titu<strong>la</strong>ridad <strong>de</strong>l teléfono móvil, ni dato alguno sobre<br />

el tráfico <strong>de</strong> l<strong>la</strong>madas entrantes o salientes <strong>de</strong>l sospechoso. No se interviene ningún aspecto<br />

re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong> comunicación sino el terminal mismo objeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación. A<strong>de</strong>más,<br />

esa numeración pue<strong>de</strong> llegar a aprehen<strong>de</strong>rse, incluso, sin necesidad <strong>de</strong> que el proceso <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicación se halle en curso.<br />

Por ello, el voto particu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> STS <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2007entendió que esta información<br />

no pue<strong>de</strong> constituir, por sí misma, materia am<strong>para</strong>da por el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones,<br />

pues afirmar lo contrario supondría confundir los medios que posibilitan <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

con <strong>la</strong> comunicación misma. Por ello, no pue<strong>de</strong>n ser consi<strong>de</strong>rados condiciones<br />

específicas <strong>de</strong> comunicación sino que se trata <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal que se integran<br />

<strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l ámbito <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa.<br />

Ello no obstante, no <strong>de</strong>be olvidarse que <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Conservación <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Comunicaciones<br />

Electrónicas 25/2007 <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> octubre, incluye <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> su ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación<br />

los datos IMSI e IMEI (art. 3.1 e)), <strong>para</strong> cuya cesión resulta exigible <strong>la</strong> misma reg<strong>la</strong><br />

impuesta que al resto <strong>de</strong> los datos a los que se refiere, esto es, <strong>la</strong> preceptiva autorización<br />

judicial. Con esta especial protección podría parecer que el Legis<strong>la</strong>dor los está consi<strong>de</strong>rando<br />

como parte <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones 32 . Pero frente a esa consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong>be tenerse en cuenta que <strong>la</strong> mencionada Ley tiene por objeto regu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> cesión <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una<br />

base <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> un conjunto heterogéneo <strong>de</strong> información, <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los que se encuentran<br />

también datos intrínsecamente ligados al <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y que,<br />

por en<strong>de</strong>, se sustraen al régimen <strong>de</strong> tute<strong>la</strong> constitucional que ofrece el art. 18.4 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CE y<br />

sus leyes <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo, acogiéndose a <strong>la</strong> protección reforzada que impone el art. 18.3 en el<br />

que, siempre y en todo caso, se exige autorización judicial <strong>para</strong> cualquier forma <strong>de</strong> injerencia.<br />

Sobre este aspecto se ha pronunciado <strong>la</strong> STS 249/2008, <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong> mayo según <strong>la</strong> cual<br />

<strong>de</strong>be distinguirse, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>do, el supuesto en el cual <strong>la</strong> cesión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información sobre el IMSI<br />

32 oRTIZ NAVARRo y LUCAS MARTÍN, “Ámbito <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones”,<br />

op. cit., p.34.


352 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

se produce <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> los ficheros automatizados que obran en po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicio<br />

(regu<strong>la</strong>da por <strong>la</strong> Ley 25/2007) y, <strong>de</strong> otro, el acceso a esta información <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el propio<br />

teléfono celu<strong>la</strong>r por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado, sobre <strong>la</strong> nada dice <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

<strong>de</strong> Conservación <strong>de</strong> Datos.<br />

Frente al silencio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> nueva regu<strong>la</strong>ción, resulta <strong>de</strong> aplicación lo dispuesto en <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos 15/1999, según <strong>la</strong> cual <strong>la</strong> recogida y tratamiento <strong>para</strong> fines policiales<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad sin consentimiento <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s personas afectadas están limitados a aquellos supuestos y categorías <strong>de</strong> datos que resulten<br />

necesarios <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong> un peligro real <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública o <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> represión<br />

<strong>de</strong> infracciones penales, <strong>de</strong>biendo ser almacenados en ficheros específicos establecidos al<br />

efecto, que <strong>de</strong>berán c<strong>la</strong>sificarse por categorías en función <strong>de</strong> su grado <strong>de</strong> fiabilidad (art. 22.2<br />

LoPD).<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>la</strong> recogida y tratamiento <strong>de</strong> estos datos por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad<br />

podrán realizarse exclusivamente en los supuestos en que sea absolutamente necesario<br />

<strong>para</strong> los fines <strong>de</strong> una investigación concreta, sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong>l control <strong>de</strong> legalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actuación<br />

administrativa o <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> resolver <strong>la</strong>s pretensiones formu<strong>la</strong>das en su caso por<br />

los interesados que correspon<strong>de</strong>n a los órganos jurisdiccionales (art. 22.3 LoPD).<br />

Ac<strong>la</strong>ra <strong>la</strong> sentencia citada que <strong>la</strong> facultad <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> datos que <strong>la</strong> Lo 15/1999<br />

otorga a <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado, no pue<strong>de</strong>, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> luego, servir <strong>de</strong><br />

excusa <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> un régimen incontro<strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong> excepcionalidad a su favor. Pero tampoco<br />

cabe <strong>de</strong>sconocer que <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> ese dato en el marco <strong>de</strong> una investigación criminal<br />

-nunca con carácter puramente exploratorio-, <strong>para</strong> el esc<strong>la</strong>recimiento <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>lito <strong>de</strong> especial<br />

gravedad, pue<strong>de</strong> reputarse proporcionada, necesaria y, por tanto, ajena a cualquier vulneración<br />

<strong>de</strong> relieve constitucional. También parece evi<strong>de</strong>nte que esa legitimidad que <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

confiere a <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado nunca <strong>de</strong>bería operar en re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

con datos referidos al contenido <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones (art. 18.3 CE)<br />

o respecto <strong>de</strong> datos susceptibles <strong>de</strong> protección por <strong>la</strong> vía <strong>de</strong>l art. 18.4 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CE que afectaran<br />

a lo que se ha l<strong>la</strong>mado el núcleo duro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad o, con <strong>la</strong> terminología legal, los datos<br />

especialmente protegidos (art. 7.2 Lo 15/1999).<br />

Teniendo en cuenta que el IMSI, por sí solo, no un dato integrable en el concepto<br />

<strong>de</strong> comunicación, ni pue<strong>de</strong> ser encuadrado entre los datos especialmente protegidos, su<br />

recogida o captación técnica no necesita autorización judicial. Sin embargo, <strong>la</strong> obtención<br />

<strong>de</strong> su plena funcionalidad, mediante <strong>la</strong> cesión <strong>de</strong> los datos que obran en los ficheros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

operadora, sí requerirá el control jurisdiccional <strong>de</strong> su proce<strong>de</strong>ncia.<br />

En el mimo sentido se ha pronunciado <strong>la</strong> posterior STS 776/2008, <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> noviembre<br />

según <strong>la</strong> cual <strong>la</strong> averiguación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s calves alfanuméricas, cuando se lleva a cabo en el<br />

marco <strong>de</strong> una investigación criminal re<strong>la</strong>tiva a un <strong>de</strong>lito <strong>de</strong> especial gravedad, difícilmente<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse que suponga una in<strong>de</strong>bida y <strong>de</strong>sproporcionada restricción <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

fundamental y que, por ello, suponga una vulneración constitucional con sus lógicas consecuencias<br />

(art. 11.1 LoPJ).<br />

Los mismos argumentos se recogen en los siguientes pronunciamientos <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal<br />

Supremo que sostienen que <strong>la</strong>s c<strong>la</strong>ves IMSI pue<strong>de</strong>n ser obtenidas por los agentes policiales


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

por sus propios medios sin que ello acarree nulidad alguna <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s pruebas obtenidas ya que<br />

no entran en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones 33 .<br />

353<br />

El Tribunal Constitucional Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Alemán, en su Sentencia <strong>de</strong> 22 <strong>de</strong> agosto <strong>de</strong> 2006 34 ,<br />

<strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ró conforme a su Ley Fundamental <strong>la</strong> captación <strong>de</strong>l IMSI y <strong>de</strong>l IMEI <strong>para</strong> los fines <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> investigación penal. Consi<strong>de</strong>ra que no se vulnera el <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

pues tales datos no están vincu<strong>la</strong>dos al proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación, sino que son in<strong>de</strong>pendientes<br />

<strong>de</strong> él. En <strong>la</strong> captación <strong>de</strong> estos datos no hay comunicación humana sino mero<br />

funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> dispositivos técnicos.<br />

Pero <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> nuestra Sa<strong>la</strong> 2ª ha dado un paso más. La STS 40/2009, <strong>de</strong> 28<br />

<strong>de</strong> enero consi<strong>de</strong>ra que el IMSI y el IMEI difícilmente pue<strong>de</strong>n consi<strong>de</strong>rarse datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal. Des<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista pericial, <strong>la</strong> doctrina especializada suele enten<strong>de</strong>r que el<br />

IMSI equivale a una <strong>la</strong>bor <strong>de</strong> vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia convencional, en <strong>la</strong> que se <strong>de</strong>termina con quién se<br />

encuentra el vigi<strong>la</strong>do, con quién hab<strong>la</strong>, por dón<strong>de</strong> se <strong>de</strong>sp<strong>la</strong>za o qué objetos toca; o bien cuál<br />

es el domicilio <strong>de</strong> una persona, <strong>para</strong> cuya entrada y registro, conocido tal dato, se solicitará<br />

en su momento el pertinente mandamiento judicial. Así, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma manera en se pue<strong>de</strong><br />

ver en una vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia (mediante prismáticos, por ejemplo), <strong>la</strong> marca y mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong>l teléfono<br />

móvil que utiliza un sospechoso, se pue<strong>de</strong> obtener <strong>la</strong> información <strong>de</strong>l IMSI, mediante estos<br />

“prismáticos especiales inalámbricos”.<br />

Una vez más, proce<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>nunciar <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción legal completa <strong>de</strong> esta compleja<br />

materia, tan novedosa y cambiante por otra parte, por lo que <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia tiene<br />

que llevar a cabo <strong>la</strong> difícil y <strong>de</strong>licada tarea <strong>de</strong> complementar el or<strong>de</strong>namiento jurídico35 .<br />

De hecho, aunque existe ya una jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia reiterada en esta materia, no es uniforme<br />

pues, en un principio, se dictaron pronunciamientos que contenían criterios contradictorios.<br />

Por eso, en <strong>la</strong> práctica, <strong>la</strong> Policía Judicial suele acudir a <strong>la</strong> autoridad judicial <strong>para</strong> que autorice<br />

el uso <strong>de</strong>l interceptador o, cuando menos, <strong>para</strong> informarle previamente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intención <strong>de</strong><br />

utilizarlo. De esta manera, <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado evitan incurrir en<br />

responsabilidad por <strong>la</strong> eventual vulneración el <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y <strong>la</strong><br />

obtención ilícita <strong>de</strong> pruebas, lo cual va en <strong>de</strong>trimento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> eficacia <strong>de</strong> su actuación.<br />

5. conclusión<br />

Nuestro Derecho positivo está necesitado <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción completa y <strong>de</strong>tal<strong>la</strong>da <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación<br />

criminal, superando <strong>la</strong> disparidad <strong>de</strong> criterios que, en numerosos aspectos, refleja <strong>la</strong> juris-<br />

33 SSTS <strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2009, 29 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2009.<br />

34 2 BvR 1345/2003.<br />

35 SSTS 630/2008, <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> octubre; 776/2008, <strong>de</strong> 18 <strong>de</strong> noviembre; 760/2008, <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> diciembre;<br />

ATS 811/2009, <strong>de</strong> 2 abril).


354 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

pru<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> nuestros Tribunales. Una norma <strong>de</strong>cimonónica no pue<strong>de</strong> dar respuesta por vía<br />

interpretativa a <strong>la</strong> nueva realidad <strong>de</strong>rivada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas.<br />

La normativa administrativa en materia <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones, que ha sido <strong>la</strong> vía <strong>para</strong>le<strong>la</strong><br />

utilizada por el legis<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>rnización <strong>de</strong> esta materia, ha suscitado ciertas<br />

dudas <strong>de</strong> constitucionalidad en cuanto pue<strong>de</strong> incidir, al menos indirectamente, sobre el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones.<br />

Resulta necesaria una respuesta <strong>de</strong>l legis<strong>la</strong>dor procesal <strong>para</strong> avanzar en el camino <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

actualización y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> búsqueda <strong>de</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>rnas técnicas <strong>de</strong> investigación que abran nuevas posibilida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

en <strong>la</strong> investigación criminal, como medio necesario <strong>para</strong> hacer frente a los <strong>de</strong>safíos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, siempre <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l respeto a los principios básicos <strong>de</strong>l Derecho<br />

Penal y <strong>de</strong>l proceso <strong>de</strong>bido.<br />

6. bibliografÍa sobre <strong>la</strong> materia<br />

Álvarez García, F., “El acceso por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado a<br />

ficheros <strong>de</strong> datos personales”, en Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y proceso penal, La Ley, 2010.<br />

Arzoz Santisteban, X., “Derecho al respeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada y familiar” en Convenio<br />

Europeo <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos. Comentario sistemático, Thomson-Civitas, 2004.<br />

Ballesteros Moffa, L.A., “Hacia un difícil equilibrio entre privacidad y seguridad: <strong>la</strong><br />

conservación <strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y <strong>la</strong> transferencia <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

<strong>de</strong> pasajeros por <strong>la</strong>s compañías aéreas”, Revista Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Derecho Administrativo,<br />

Thomson-Civitas, Nº 137, 2008.<br />

Corripio Gil-Delgado M.R. y Marroig Pol, L., El tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> datos, 2001, Madrid.<br />

De Jorge Mesas, L.F., “La incorporación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías informáticas y <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones<br />

al proceso penal”, en Los nuevos medios <strong>de</strong> investigación en el proceso penal.<br />

Especial referencia a <strong>la</strong> tecnovigi<strong>la</strong>ncia, CGPJ, Madrid, 2008.<br />

Etxeberría Guridi, J.F. “La Previsión legal y <strong>la</strong>s diligencias <strong>de</strong> investigación restrictivas <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales: a propósito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> STC 49/1999, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> abril”, Diario La Ley,<br />

Nº 4919, 1999.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Espinar, G., “El levantamiento <strong>de</strong>l secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones telefónicas en<br />

el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s diligencias <strong>de</strong> investigación y aseguramiento en el proceso penal”, Po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

Judicial, Nº 32, diciembre 1993.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Esteban, M. L., Nuevas tecnologías, Internet y Derechos Fundamentales, McGraw<br />

Hill, Madrid, 1998.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Lázaro, F., “Medios técnicos en <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos informáticos”, en<br />

Los nuevos medios <strong>de</strong> investigación en el proceso penal. Especial referencia a <strong>la</strong> tecnovigi<strong>la</strong>ncia,<br />

CGPJ, Madrid, 2008.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Rodríguez, J.J., Secreto e intervención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en Internet, Thomson,<br />

Civitas, Madrid, 2004.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

355<br />

Guerrero Picó, M. C., El impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, Thomson-Civitas, Navarra, 2006.<br />

Gimeno Sendra, V.:<br />

—, Los procesos penales. Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Enjuiciamiento Criminal con formu<strong>la</strong>rios<br />

y jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia, Tomo IV, Bosch, Barcelona, 2000.<br />

—, “Las intervenciones electrónicas y <strong>la</strong> Policía Judicial”, Diario La Ley, Nº 7298, 2009.<br />

González Cuel<strong>la</strong>r Serrano, N.: “Garantías constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persecución penal en el<br />

entorno digital”, en Derecho y Justicia Penal en el siglo XXI, Colex, Madrid, 2006.<br />

Gónzález López, J.J.: Los datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas en el proceso penal,<br />

La ley, Madrid, 2007.<br />

González Rus, J.J., “Los ilícitos en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>: Hackers, crackers cyberpunkns, sniffers”, en El<br />

cibercrimen. Nuevos <strong>retos</strong> jurídico- penales, nuevas respuestas político criminales, Biblioteca<br />

Comares <strong>de</strong> Ciencia Jurídica, Granada 2006.<br />

Guerrero Picó, M. C.:<br />

—, “Protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales e Internet: <strong>la</strong> conservación indiscriminada <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico”, Revista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Granada,<br />

Nº 8, 2005.<br />

—, El impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en el Derecho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter<br />

Personal, Thomson-civitas, Navarra, 2006.<br />

Hubmann, Das Personlichkeitsrecht, Colonia, 1967.<br />

Jiménez Campo, J.:“La garantía constitucional <strong>de</strong>l secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones”, en Revista <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho Constitucional, año 7, Nº 20, Centro <strong>de</strong> Estudios Constitucionales, Madrid, 1987.<br />

L<strong>la</strong>mas Fernán<strong>de</strong>z, M. Y Gordillo Luque, J.M., “Medios técnicos <strong>de</strong> vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia”, en Los<br />

nuevos medios <strong>de</strong> investigación en el proceso penal. Especial referencia a <strong>la</strong> tecnovigi<strong>la</strong>ncia,<br />

CGPJ, Madrid, 2008.<br />

L<strong>la</strong>neza González, P., Internet y comunicaciones digitales, Bosch, Barcelona, 2000.<br />

Llera Suárez-Barcena, E., “El régimen jurídico ordinario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s observaciones telefónicas<br />

en el proceso penal”, Po<strong>de</strong>r Judicial, Nº 3, septiembre 1996.<br />

López ortega, J.J.:<br />

—, “La protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: necesidad y proporcionalidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> injerencia como presupuesto <strong>de</strong> vali<strong>de</strong>z”, en Perfiles <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho constitucional<br />

a <strong>la</strong> vida privada y familiar, Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos <strong>de</strong> Derecho Judicial, CGPJ, Madrid,<br />

1997.<br />

—, Internet y Derecho Penal, La intervención judicial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones a través <strong>de</strong> Internet,<br />

Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos <strong>de</strong> Derecho Judicial, X, Consejo General <strong>de</strong>l Po<strong>de</strong>r Judicial, 2001.<br />

Loza Corera, M., y Rodríguez Casal, C., “Nueva legis<strong>la</strong>ción Europea en materia <strong>de</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos”, Diario La Ley, Nº 5549, mayo 2002.<br />

Martín Morales, R.: La intervención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones telefónicas en el proceso penal:<br />

un estudio jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial, tirant lo b<strong>la</strong>nch, Valencia, 1999.


356 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Martín Pallín, J.A.: “El equilibrio en <strong>la</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong> datos y secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones:<br />

implicaciones en el proceso penal”, La protección <strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

policial y judicial, Thomson-Aranzadi, 2008<br />

Martín Retortillo Baquer, L., “Consi<strong>de</strong>raciones comunes a los artículos 49, 50 y 51 <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Ley General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones”, en Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Ley General <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones,<br />

Cívitas, Madrid, 1998.<br />

Martínez Ginesta, G., “Límites técnicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ayuda prestada por <strong>la</strong>s operadoras en <strong>la</strong><br />

investigación <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos”, en Los nuevos medios <strong>de</strong> investigación en el proceso penal.<br />

Especial referencia a <strong>la</strong> tecnovigi<strong>la</strong>ncia, CGPJ, Madrid, 2008.<br />

Maza Martín, J.M.: “La intervención judicial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones a través <strong>de</strong> Internet”,<br />

en Internet y Derecho Penal, Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos <strong>de</strong> Derecho Judicial, Nº 10, 2001.<br />

Morales Prats, F., Internet: riesgos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad, en “Internet y Derecho Penal”, Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos<br />

<strong>de</strong> Derecho Judicial, Consejo General <strong>de</strong>l Po<strong>de</strong>r Judicial, Madrid, 2002.<br />

Moreno Catena, V.: “Ley <strong>de</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong> datos y garantías procesales”, en La protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial, Thomson-Aranzadi, 2008<br />

oliver La<strong>la</strong>na, D., “El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental virtual a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. Tecnología<br />

transparente y normas privadas”, Diario La Ley, Nº 5592, 2002.<br />

ortí Vallejo, A., Derecho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad e informática, Comares, Granada, 1995.<br />

ortiz Navarro y Lucas Martín, “Ámbito <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones”,<br />

en Práctica Penal, SepinNET revista.<br />

Parejo Alfonso, L., “El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> intimidad y sus restricciones”, en Perfiles<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho constitucional a <strong>la</strong> vida privada y familiar, Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos <strong>de</strong> Derecho Judicial,<br />

CGPJ, Madrid, 1997.<br />

Pedraz Penalva, E., “La utilización en el proceso penal <strong>de</strong> datos personales recopi<strong>la</strong>dos<br />

sin indicios <strong>de</strong> comisión <strong>de</strong>lictiva”, en Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y proceso penal, La Ley, 2010.<br />

Pérez Gil, J.:<br />

—, ”Los datos sobre localización geográfica en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal”, en Protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos y proceso penal, La Ley, 2010.<br />

—, “Investigación penal y nuevas tecnologías: algunos <strong>retos</strong> pendientes”, Revista jurídica<br />

<strong>de</strong> Castil<strong>la</strong> y León, Nº 7, octubre, 2005,<br />

Pérez Luño, “El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa”, Anuario <strong>de</strong> jornadas 1989-<br />

1990, Servicio <strong>de</strong> Estudios <strong>de</strong>l IVAP, 1991.<br />

Pérez-Ugena, M. y Pérez-Ugena, A., “Implicaciones constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías”,<br />

Revista <strong>de</strong> Derecho Político, Nº 54, 2002.<br />

Rives Seva, A. P. La intervención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia penal, Aranzadi,<br />

Madrid, 2000.<br />

Rodriguez Lainz, J.L.:<br />

—, La intervención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones telefónicas, Bosch, Barcelona, 2002.


<strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones en <strong>la</strong> investigación penal: uno <strong>de</strong> los <strong>retos</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> justicia…<br />

357<br />

—, “Dirección IP, IMSI e intervención judicial <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas”, Diario<br />

La Ley, Nº 7886, 2009.<br />

Rodríguez Ruiz, B., El secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones: tecnología e intimidad, McGraw-Hill,<br />

Madrid, 1998.<br />

Romeo Casabona, C.M.:“La protección penal <strong>de</strong> los mensajes <strong>de</strong> correo electrónico y <strong>de</strong><br />

otras comunicaciones <strong>de</strong> carácter personal a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>”, Revista Aranzadi <strong>de</strong> Derecho<br />

y Nuevas Tecnologías, Nº 10, 2006.<br />

Ruiz Miguel, C.: La configuración constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad, Tecnos, Madrid,<br />

1995.<br />

Salom Clotet, J., “Inci<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> nueva regu<strong>la</strong>ción en <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos<br />

cometidos a través <strong>de</strong> medios informáticos”, en La protección <strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong> cooperación<br />

policial y judicial, Thomson-Aranzadi, 2008.<br />

Urbano Castrillo, E., Y Magro Servet, V., La prueba tecnológica en <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Enjuiciamiento<br />

Civil, Thomson-Aranzadi, 2003.<br />

Ve<strong>la</strong>sco Núñez, E.:<br />

—, “Aspectos procesales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa en los <strong>de</strong>litos informáticos”,<br />

Diario La Ley, Nº 6506, 2006.<br />

—, “Eliminación <strong>de</strong> contenidos ilícitos y c<strong>la</strong>usura <strong>de</strong> páginas web en Internet (medidas<br />

<strong>de</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong> servicios informáticos), en Los nuevos medios <strong>de</strong> investigación en el<br />

proceso penal. Especial referencia a <strong>la</strong> tecnovigi<strong>la</strong>ncia, CGPJ, Madrid, 2008.<br />

Zaragoza Aguado, J. A., “Tratamiento penal y procesal <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s organizaciones criminales en<br />

el Derecho español. Especial referencia al tráfico ilegal <strong>de</strong> drogas”, en Delitos contra <strong>la</strong><br />

salud pública y el contrabando, CGPJ, 2000.


19<br />

lA BAse ADAms De lA AgeNCIA mUNDIAl ANtIDOPAJe.<br />

PrOBlemAs De PrOteCCIóN De DAtOs<br />

Ricardo Morte Ferrer<br />

Abogado en ejercicio, Palma <strong>de</strong> Mallorca. Vocal <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Balear <strong>de</strong>l Deporte.<br />

Doctorando en Derecho Deportivo, Universidad <strong>de</strong> Lleida<br />

AbstrAct: En el campo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje po<strong>de</strong>mos encontrar un c<strong>la</strong>ro ejemplo <strong>de</strong>l eterno<br />

<strong>de</strong>bate entre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales y <strong>la</strong> seguridad. En este <strong>de</strong>bate se manifiesta<br />

una ten<strong>de</strong>ncia bastante c<strong>la</strong>ra a priorizar <strong>la</strong> seguridad sin valorar, al menos esa es mi opinión, <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

a<strong>de</strong>cuada el riesgo que suponen <strong>la</strong>s agresiones contra los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. En el campo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

lucha contra el dopaje, esta situación se manifiesta en una corriente <strong>de</strong> pensamiento y actuación según<br />

<strong>la</strong> cual el dopaje es uno <strong>de</strong> los mayores problemas con los que nos encontramos y por ello prácticamente<br />

cualquier cosa que se haga <strong>para</strong> solucionar ese problema es válida.<br />

Los principales problemas generados por <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Mundial Antidopaje (WADA-<br />

AMA) 1 en lo que afecta a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos son: los datos referentes a <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones o “whereabouts”,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos, <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> acceso,<br />

cance<strong>la</strong>ción, rectificación y oposición, el consentimiento informado, el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> salud<br />

y <strong>la</strong> publicidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s sanciones<br />

El objeto <strong>de</strong> estudio <strong>de</strong> esta comunicación será el anti-doping administration & management<br />

system (adams), popu<strong>la</strong>rmente conocido como Base ADAMS, y <strong>para</strong> centrar el trabajo en algunos<br />

aspectos <strong>de</strong> su utilización, me centraré en <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones y en <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong><br />

datos. Se trata <strong>de</strong> una base <strong>de</strong> datos en base Web, que según <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA simplifica <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

diarias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s organizaciones y atletas involucrados en <strong>la</strong> lucha antidopaje. En mi opinión, <strong>la</strong> Base<br />

ADAMS refleja fielmente todos los problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos antes mencionados y p<strong>la</strong>ntea,<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más, algunos problemas técnicos que también mencionaré.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: dopaje, lucha antidopaje, whereabouts, protección <strong>de</strong> datos, transferencias internacionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos, base ADAMS.<br />

1. introducción al tema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lucHa antidoPaje<br />

La WADA-AMA, en su Código Mundial Antidopaje, menciona los siguientes objetivos:<br />

1 La agencia mundial antidopaje (en francés y oficialmente Agence mondiale antidopage, AMA y en<br />

inglés World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA) es una fundación in<strong>de</strong>pendiente sujeta al <strong>de</strong>recho suizo<br />

creada por una iniciativa colectiva apoyada por el CoI. Fue inaugurada el 10 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 1999<br />

en Lausana (Suiza) <strong>para</strong> promover, coordinar y monitorizar <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte. Su<br />

se<strong>de</strong> se encuentra actualmente en Montreal (Canadá).


360 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• Proteger el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>portistas a participar en activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>portivas<br />

libres <strong>de</strong> dopaje, fomentar <strong>la</strong> salud y garantizar <strong>de</strong> esta forma <strong>la</strong> equidad y <strong>la</strong> igualdad<br />

en el <strong>de</strong>porte <strong>para</strong> todos los <strong>de</strong>portistas <strong>de</strong>l mundo.<br />

• Ve<strong>la</strong>r por <strong>la</strong> armonización, <strong>la</strong> coordinación y <strong>la</strong> eficacia <strong>de</strong> los programas contra el dopaje<br />

a nivel internacional y nacional con respecto a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>tección, disuasión y prevención<br />

<strong>de</strong>l dopaje.<br />

En primer lugar l<strong>la</strong>ma <strong>la</strong> atención que se mencione el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>portistas<br />

a participar en activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>portivas libres <strong>de</strong> dopaje, pero no se mencione ningún<br />

otro <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental. En lo que afecta a fomentar <strong>la</strong> salud, es más que evi<strong>de</strong>nte que el<br />

<strong>de</strong>porte <strong>de</strong> alto rendimiento no es sano 2 . Partiendo <strong>de</strong> esa afirmación, creo que se <strong>de</strong>bería hacer<br />

mayor inci<strong>de</strong>ncia en <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje entre los <strong>de</strong>portistas jóvenes y no centrarse<br />

<strong>de</strong> forma casi exclusiva en el máximo nivel. Referente a <strong>la</strong> equidad y <strong>la</strong> igualdad, quizás convenga<br />

mencionar lo que Jan Ullrich siempre ha comentado referente a su dopaje “yo nunca<br />

he engañado a nadie ni he hecho trampa”, queriendo <strong>de</strong>cir con eso que más o menos todos<br />

los <strong>de</strong>portistas recurren al dopaje y que <strong>la</strong>s diferencias radican en los medios <strong>de</strong> que disponen,<br />

y a ese nivel <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>sigualdad se mantendría aunque <strong>de</strong>sapareciera el dopaje.<br />

2. localizaciones o wHereabouts<br />

En el art.11.1.3 <strong>de</strong> los Estándares Internacionales <strong>de</strong> Control Antidopaje, se requiere a los<br />

atletas incluidos por su Fe<strong>de</strong>ración Internacional en el listado <strong>de</strong> atletas a contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>para</strong> que<br />

proporcionen su localización durante el siguiente trimestre. Esa localización supone informar<br />

a <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA, con <strong>la</strong> mencionada ante<strong>la</strong>ción, sobre don<strong>de</strong> estarán disponibles por el período<br />

<strong>de</strong> una hora entre <strong>la</strong>s 6 y <strong>la</strong>s 23h <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r ser contro<strong>la</strong>dos. Esa localización no supone<br />

limitación alguna <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r ser contro<strong>la</strong>dos a cualquier hora <strong>de</strong>l día y en<br />

cualquier lugar en que se encuentren. Hay que mencionar que los atletas pue<strong>de</strong>n comunicar<br />

variaciones en sus localizaciones por medio <strong>de</strong> correo electrónico o <strong>de</strong> mensajes SMS.<br />

La sanción prevista <strong>para</strong> el incumplimiento <strong>de</strong> los antes mencionados requisitos está recogida<br />

en el Art.2.4 Código WADA-AMA:” Vulneración <strong>de</strong> los requisitos sobre <strong>la</strong> disponibilidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>portista <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> realización <strong>de</strong> controles fuera <strong>de</strong> competición. Incluye el no presentar <strong>la</strong><br />

información requerida sobre su localización, así como los controles que se consi<strong>de</strong>ren fallidos<br />

en base a <strong>la</strong>s normas internacionales <strong>para</strong> controles. Cualquier combinación <strong>de</strong> tres controles<br />

fallidos y/o no presentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información sobre su localización, que se produzca en un período<br />

<strong>de</strong> dieciocho meses establecido por <strong>la</strong>s organizaciones antidopaje con jurisdicción sobre<br />

el <strong>de</strong>portista constituirá una infracción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas antidopaje”. En un intento por ac<strong>la</strong>rar<br />

<strong>la</strong> críptica <strong>red</strong>acción <strong>de</strong> esta norma, su pue<strong>de</strong> resumir en que el incumplimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas<br />

referentes a <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones o “whereabouts” equivale a un positivo por dopaje.<br />

2 http://apren<strong>de</strong>enlinea.u<strong>de</strong>a.edu.co/revistas/in<strong>de</strong>x.php/educacionfisicay<strong>de</strong>porte/article/<br />

view/4606/4050, disponible el 10.03.2010


<strong>la</strong> base ADAms <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia mundial Antidopaje. Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

361<br />

Antes <strong>de</strong> iniciar cualquier reflexión respecto a posibles problemas en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos, quiero resaltar que, al menos en mi opinión, esta regu<strong>la</strong>ción supone<br />

una f<strong>la</strong>grante vio<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> presunción <strong>de</strong> inocencia. En realidad supone una aplicación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> presunción <strong>de</strong> culpabilidad.<br />

En primer lugar me gustaría mencionar que <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción actual supone una mejora respecto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> anterior, que exigía localizaciones 24 horas al día, 7 días a <strong>la</strong> semana, 365 días al año.<br />

La justificación <strong>para</strong> el uso <strong>de</strong> estas localizaciones radica, según <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA, en <strong>la</strong><br />

necesidad <strong>de</strong> realizar controles fuera <strong>de</strong> competición que resulten efectivos. De todas maneras,<br />

hay que resaltar que los datos personales obtenidos por este procedimiento <strong>de</strong>ben ser utilizados<br />

<strong>de</strong> forma proporcionada, <strong>para</strong> fines justificados y siempre <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con los principios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> los datos personales. En este aspecto, el Convenio <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa contra<br />

el dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte <strong>de</strong> 1989(art.7.3.a) regu<strong>la</strong>ba que los controles antidopaje <strong>de</strong>bían ser llevados<br />

a cabo por medio <strong>de</strong> métodos a<strong>de</strong>cuados y en momentos apropiados, <strong>de</strong> forma que no<br />

supusieran una interferencia <strong>de</strong>sproporcionada en <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> los atletas. Parece evi<strong>de</strong>nte<br />

que es complicado evitar <strong>la</strong>s interferencias en <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> los atletas con el aquí estudiado<br />

sistema <strong>de</strong> localizaciones. De todas formas, y aceptando <strong>la</strong> pretendida necesidad <strong>de</strong> recurrir a<br />

este procedimiento, se <strong>de</strong>be proce<strong>de</strong>r a recoger únicamente información que sea relevante <strong>para</strong><br />

el control antidopaje, evitando utilizar información sensible <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong>l atleta o <strong>de</strong><br />

otras personas re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con él, como su pareja o sus parientes.<br />

El Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 3 ha hecho notar que en <strong>la</strong> valoración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

a recoger, en el sentido <strong>de</strong> si es a<strong>de</strong>cuada a <strong>la</strong> ya mencionada finalidad, habría que incluir el factor<br />

<strong>de</strong> riesgo aplicable al <strong>de</strong>portista en cuestión. El ya mencionado grupo ha resaltado también que<br />

esa valoración <strong>de</strong>be ser incluso previa a <strong>la</strong> e<strong>la</strong>boración por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ración Internacional<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lista <strong>de</strong> atletas a contro<strong>la</strong>r. En <strong>la</strong> e<strong>la</strong>boración <strong>de</strong> esa lista nos encontramos con <strong>la</strong> primera<br />

incongruencia con los presuntos objetivos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA. Como ya he mencionado anteriormente,<br />

el criterio esencial seguido es el <strong>de</strong> contro<strong>la</strong>r a los atletas <strong>de</strong>l máximo nivel, que no son<br />

necesariamente los <strong>de</strong> máximo riesgo, aunque sí los <strong>de</strong> máximo impacto publicitario.<br />

Aparte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> hora concreta en <strong>la</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>portista <strong>de</strong>be estar disponible <strong>para</strong> ser contro<strong>la</strong>do,<br />

el formu<strong>la</strong>rio <strong>de</strong> localización incluye información sobre <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s normales durante el día,<br />

incluyendo si se encuentra en período <strong>de</strong> entrenamiento o no, <strong>de</strong> forma que el <strong>de</strong>portista sea<br />

fácilmente localizable durante el día (art.13.3.3 <strong>de</strong>l International Standard Testing), sin que el ya<br />

mencionado p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong> una hora <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r ser contro<strong>la</strong>do le libere <strong>de</strong> esa obligación. Pese a que<br />

el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 ha consi<strong>de</strong>rado <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> información <strong>para</strong> un volumen<br />

<strong>de</strong> tiempo <strong>de</strong> unas 4 horas como proporcionada, en mi opinión no lo es. Para fundamentar esa<br />

opinión creo que basta con preguntarse si existen otras organizaciones, privadas o públicas, que<br />

puedan efectuar controles <strong>de</strong> ese tipo sin una or<strong>de</strong>n judicial. Aunque será mencionado más tar<strong>de</strong>,<br />

conviene recordar que <strong>la</strong> aceptación <strong>de</strong>l Código WADA-AMA es condición imprescindible <strong>para</strong><br />

po<strong>de</strong>r participar en competición, con lo cual <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> ser una <strong>de</strong>cisión totalmente libre, ya que el<br />

negarse a firmar supone que el <strong>de</strong>portista no podrá ejercer su profesión.<br />

3 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2009/wp162_es.pdf disponible el 20.05.2010.


362 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

3. transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos. <strong>la</strong> base adams<br />

En este punto habrá dos aspectos a consi<strong>de</strong>rar: los generales que afectan a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias<br />

internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos y los originados por <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong><br />

datos a <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS con base en Montreal, Canadá.<br />

Empezando con algunas generalida<strong>de</strong>s sobre <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos,<br />

hay que mencionar que <strong>la</strong> norma general en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

95/46/CE, es <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> datos personales. Esa misma norma, así como <strong>la</strong><br />

LoPD y su Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (RD 1720/2007), imponen garantías adicionales cuando los datos<br />

se encuentran en un territorio cuya legis<strong>la</strong>ción no garantice unas garantías equi<strong>para</strong>bles a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

vigentes en <strong>la</strong> UE. Esa condición se aplica, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> a toda <strong>la</strong> UE, a Is<strong>la</strong>ndia, Noruega y<br />

Liechtenstein. La información al respecto es importante en nuestro caso, ya que <strong>la</strong>s transferencias<br />

internacionales que nos ocupan se producen con Canadá.<br />

Antes <strong>de</strong> pasar al caso concreto objeto <strong>de</strong> estudio mencionaré dos casos que tienen<br />

cierta similitud con el mismo:<br />

• El whistle-blowing o sistemas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>nuncias o alertas profesionales que vienen exigidos<br />

por <strong>la</strong> normativa estadouni<strong>de</strong>nse (Sarbanes-oxley Act) o japonesa (<strong>de</strong>nominada<br />

coloquialmente “J-SoX”). El Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 4 , tras <strong>de</strong>scartar que<br />

<strong>la</strong> obligación impuesta por una norma extranjera (Sarbanes-oxley Act) que exija el<br />

establecimiento <strong>de</strong> sistemas <strong>de</strong> información constituya una obligación jurídica en virtud<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cual se legitime el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong> UE, basa <strong>la</strong> legitimidad <strong>de</strong> este<br />

tipo <strong>de</strong> sistemas en <strong>la</strong> causa <strong>de</strong>l “interés legítimo” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE [letra f)<br />

<strong>de</strong>l artículo 7]. Se hace referencia a <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>rar ese interés legítimo, <strong>de</strong><br />

forma que no prevalezca sobre los <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s fundamentales <strong>de</strong>l interesado/<br />

afectado. De todas formas, conviene <strong>de</strong>stacar que <strong>la</strong>s causas <strong>de</strong> legitimación <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

encontrarse en <strong>la</strong> propia normativa interna <strong>de</strong>l Estado miembro o en el control <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

re<strong>la</strong>ción contractual entre <strong>la</strong>s partes. La AEPD consi<strong>de</strong>ró que si existía conocimiento<br />

pleno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> sistemas, éstos podrían encontrarse incardinados<br />

en <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> un vínculo contractual y por lo tanto am<strong>para</strong>dos por <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica<br />

15/1999, artículo 6.2. 5<br />

• El caso “SWIFT” pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto también los problemas existentes <strong>para</strong> encontrar<br />

legitimación <strong>para</strong> el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos en una norma <strong>de</strong> un Estado no miembro <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> UE:<br />

4 Dictamen 1/2006 re<strong>la</strong>tivo a <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE a los sistemas<br />

internos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>nuncia <strong>de</strong> irregu<strong>la</strong>rida<strong>de</strong>s en los ámbitos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> contabilidad, controles <strong>de</strong> auditoría<br />

internos, cuestiones <strong>de</strong> auditoría, lucha contra <strong>la</strong> corrupción y <strong>de</strong>litos financieros y bancarios, WP<br />

117, <strong>de</strong> 1 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2006.<br />

5 Informe <strong>de</strong> 2007 referente a <strong>la</strong> Creación <strong>de</strong> sistemas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>nuncias internas en <strong>la</strong>s empresas (mecanismos<br />

whistleblowing).localizable en http://www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/informes_<br />

juridicos/otras_cuestiones/common/pdfs/2007-0128_Creaci-oo-n-<strong>de</strong>-sistemas-<strong>de</strong>-<strong>de</strong>nuncias-internas-en-<strong>la</strong>s-empresas-mecanismos-<strong>de</strong>-whistleblowing.pdf<br />

el 10.03.2011.


<strong>la</strong> base ADAms <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia mundial Antidopaje. Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

363<br />

El tratamiento y el almacenamiento por duplicado podían haber sido necesarios <strong>para</strong> el<br />

cumplimiento <strong>de</strong> una obligación legal a <strong>la</strong> que esté sujeto el responsable <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento.<br />

SWIFT, con su se<strong>de</strong> en Bélgica, no invocó formalmente una base jurídica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

belga o europea <strong>para</strong> este tratamiento particu<strong>la</strong>r. El Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo observa a<strong>de</strong>más que<br />

no es una obligación legal impuesta por <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción belga o europea <strong>para</strong> esta actividad<br />

concreta <strong>de</strong> tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos. A<strong>de</strong>más, el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo ya <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ró en su “Dictamen<br />

SOX”3 que “una obligación impuesta por una norma extranjera (…) pue<strong>de</strong> no constituir<br />

una obligación jurídica en virtud <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cual se legitime el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos en <strong>la</strong> UE.<br />

Cualquier otra interpretación facilitaría el que <strong>la</strong>s normas extranjeras bur<strong>la</strong>ran <strong>la</strong>s normas<br />

comunitarias establecidas en <strong>la</strong> Directiva”. El Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo consi<strong>de</strong>ra que este razonamiento<br />

también es totalmente aplicable en este caso.<br />

El artículo 7, letra c, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva no pue<strong>de</strong> utilizarse por lo tanto <strong>para</strong> justificar el tratamiento<br />

y almacenamiento por duplicado <strong>de</strong> los datos personales en este caso. 6<br />

Aunque más a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte volveré a ocuparme <strong>de</strong>l tema al referirme específicamente a <strong>la</strong><br />

base ADAMS, creo conveniente hacer referencia a un aspecto esencial en el tema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos a países no pertenecientes a <strong>la</strong> UE. Al respecto, el<br />

Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29, en su “Documento <strong>de</strong> Trabajo sobre Transferencias <strong>de</strong><br />

datos personales a terceros países y aplicación <strong>de</strong> los artículos 25 y 26 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva sobre<br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UE”, WP 12, adoptado el 24 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 1998 7 , señaló que los<br />

estándares <strong>de</strong> protección que <strong>de</strong>be ofrecer <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> un Estado <strong>para</strong> ser consi<strong>de</strong>rado<br />

como “a<strong>de</strong>cuados” han <strong>de</strong> ser calibrados <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una doble perspectiva: el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

normas aplicables a los datos personales y los mecanismos procedimentales existentes <strong>de</strong>stinados<br />

a garantizar <strong>la</strong> eficacia <strong>de</strong> dichas normas.<br />

En lo referente a los principios <strong>de</strong> contenido, se efectúa una distinción entre principios<br />

<strong>de</strong> contenidos básicos y adicionales, siendo estos últimos aplicables a tipos específicos <strong>de</strong><br />

tratamiento.<br />

Se enumeran seis principios básicos:<br />

• Limitación <strong>de</strong> objetivos: los datos <strong>de</strong>ben tratarse con una finalidad específica y posteriormente<br />

utilizarse o transferirse únicamente en cuanto no sea incompatible con <strong>la</strong><br />

finalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transferencia, estableciendo como únicas excepciones <strong>la</strong>s contemp<strong>la</strong>das<br />

en el artículo 13 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE.<br />

• Proporcionalidad y calidad <strong>de</strong> los datos: los datos <strong>de</strong>ben ser exactos y, cuando sea necesario,<br />

estar actualizados así como a<strong>de</strong>cuados, pertinentes y no excesivos con re<strong>la</strong>ción a<br />

<strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> que se transfieren o traten posteriormente.<br />

6 Dictamen 10/2006, <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 sobre el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales<br />

por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> Telecomunicaciones Financieras Interbancarias Mundiales (Worldwi<strong>de</strong><br />

Interbank Financial Telecommunications-SWIFT) localizable en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/<br />

privacy/docs/wpdocs/2006/wp128_es.pdf el 13.03.2011<br />

7 Localizable en https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/docu_grupo_trabajo/<br />

wp29/1998/common/pdfs/wp12_es.pdf el 13.03.2011


364 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

• Transparencia: <strong>de</strong>be informarse a los interesados acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento<br />

y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong>l responsable <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento en el país tercero, y <strong>de</strong> cualquier otro<br />

elemento necesario <strong>para</strong> garantizar un tratamiento legítimo, constando como únicas<br />

excepciones <strong>la</strong>s previstas en los artículos 11.2 y 13 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE.<br />

• Seguridad: el responsable <strong>de</strong>be adoptar <strong>la</strong>s medidas técnicas y organizativas a<strong>de</strong>cuadas<br />

a los riesgos que presente el tratamiento y toda persona que actúe bajo su autoridad,<br />

incluido el encargado, no <strong>de</strong>be tratar los datos salvo bajo sus instrucciones.<br />

• Derechos <strong>de</strong> acceso, rectificación y oposición: el interesado <strong>de</strong>be tener <strong>de</strong>recho a obtener<br />

una copia <strong>de</strong> todos sus datos y a rectificar los inexactos y, en <strong>de</strong>terminadas situaciones,<br />

también <strong>de</strong>be po<strong>de</strong>r oponerse al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> sus datos, constando como únicas<br />

excepciones <strong>la</strong>s previstas en el artículo 26.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE.<br />

• Restricciones respecto a ulteriores transferencias a países terceros: únicamente <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

permitirse en el caso <strong>de</strong> que el país tercero <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>stino garantice asimismo un nivel <strong>de</strong><br />

protección a<strong>de</strong>cuado, constando como únicas excepciones <strong>la</strong>s previstas en el artículo<br />

26.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE.<br />

Los principios adicionales hacen referencia a los siguientes tipos específicos <strong>de</strong> tratamiento:<br />

• Datos sensibles: cuando se trate <strong>de</strong> categorías <strong>de</strong> datos sensibles (recogidos en el artículo<br />

8 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, los ya conocidos <strong>de</strong> salud, religión,..), <strong>de</strong>berán establecerse<br />

protecciones adicionales, tales como el consentimiento explícito <strong>de</strong>l interesado.<br />

• Marketing directo: cuando <strong>la</strong> transferencia tenga por objeto el marketing directo, el interesado<br />

<strong>de</strong>berá tener <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> negarse a que sus datos sean tratados con dicho<br />

propósito en cualquier momento.<br />

• Decisión individual automatizada: cuando el objetivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> transferencia sea <strong>la</strong> adopción<br />

<strong>de</strong> una <strong>de</strong>cisión automatizada en el sentido <strong>de</strong>l artículo 15 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/<br />

CE, el interesado <strong>de</strong>berá tener <strong>de</strong>recho a conocer <strong>la</strong> lógica aplicada a dicha <strong>de</strong>cisión, y<br />

<strong>de</strong>berán adoptarse otras medidas <strong>para</strong> proteger el interés legítimo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona.<br />

Sobre los mecanismos procedimentales: un mecanismo a<strong>de</strong>cuado <strong>de</strong>be ofrecer tanto un<br />

nivel satisfactorio <strong>de</strong> cumplimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas como un apoyo y asistencia a los interesados<br />

en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>rechos y vías a<strong>de</strong>cuadas <strong>de</strong> recurso a los que resulten perjudicados<br />

en el caso <strong>de</strong> que no se observen <strong>la</strong>s normas.<br />

Aunque más a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte, al estudiar <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS y posteriormente en <strong>la</strong>s conclusiones<br />

<strong>de</strong>l presente trabajo, volveré sobre ello, me gustaría mencionar ya que en mi opinión muchos<br />

<strong>de</strong> estos principios son infringidos <strong>de</strong> forma f<strong>la</strong>grante en <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA.<br />

En lo que afecta a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos ya en el campo concreto <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> lucha antidopaje, hay que mencionar el artículo 36 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 7/2006, <strong>de</strong> 21 <strong>de</strong><br />

noviembre, <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> salud y <strong>de</strong> lucha contra el dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte (LoPSLDD),<br />

que establece una cláusu<strong>la</strong> general <strong>de</strong> comunicación internacional <strong>de</strong> los datos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a<br />

“los datos y ficheros re<strong>la</strong>tivos a los controles <strong>de</strong> dopaje”, al indicar que los mismos “podrán<br />

ser cedidos, en los términos previstos en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, <strong>de</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal, a los organismos públicos o privados <strong>de</strong> los que


<strong>la</strong> base ADAms <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia mundial Antidopaje. Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

365<br />

nuestro país sea parte y que participen en <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje en el ámbito <strong>de</strong>portivo,<br />

en el marco <strong>de</strong> lo que dispongan los compromisos internacionales legalmente vincu<strong>la</strong>ntes<br />

asumidos por España”.<br />

La regu<strong>la</strong>ción establecida por <strong>la</strong> LoPD es c<strong>la</strong>ve en este tema, aunque en <strong>la</strong> actualidad el<br />

tema ha quedado <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do por el RD 1720/2007 en su artículo 65: “La transferencia internacional<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos no excluye en ningún caso <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones contenidas<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, y en el presente reg<strong>la</strong>mento”. reiterando<br />

los criterios expuestos en un documento tan antiguo como <strong>la</strong> Norma segunda <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Instrucción<br />

1/2000, <strong>de</strong> 1 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD, re<strong>la</strong>tiva al movimiento internacional <strong>de</strong> datos,<br />

“<strong>la</strong> transferencia internacional <strong>de</strong> datos no excluye <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones contenidas<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, conforme a su ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación, correspondiendo a<br />

<strong>la</strong> Agencia <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>para</strong> verificar su cumplimiento”. De ello<br />

cabe extraer que únicamente podrían ser objeto <strong>de</strong> transferencia internacional <strong>de</strong> datos los<br />

datos y ficheros que también podrían serlo en caso <strong>de</strong> tratarse <strong>de</strong> una transferencia <strong>de</strong>ntro<br />

<strong>de</strong>l territorio nacional. Eso supone que sólo podrían realizarse transferencias en el marco y<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje, y afectando a datos exactos y actualizados y que<br />

no hubieran sido objeto <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción. Si <strong>la</strong> LoPD impusiera al responsable <strong>de</strong>l fichero el<br />

<strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>r los datos, <strong>de</strong>bería proce<strong>de</strong>rse a <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los mismos por parte <strong>de</strong>l<br />

cesionario, en este caso también importador <strong>de</strong> los datos.<br />

Referente a los compromisos internacionales, es primordial tener en cuenta si se trata<br />

<strong>de</strong> acuerdos realmente vincu<strong>la</strong>ntes. Este <strong>de</strong>talle es importante ya que <strong>la</strong> transferencia internacional<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos sin contar con <strong>la</strong> necesaria autorización <strong>de</strong>l Director <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia sólo<br />

sería posible, siguiendo el artículo 34 a) LoPD cuando <strong>la</strong> misma resulte “<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación<br />

<strong>de</strong> tratados o convenios en los que sea parte España”. La AEPD, en su informe respecto al<br />

Anteproyecto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPSLDD, ya hizo notar que el Código Mundial Antidopaje carece <strong>de</strong><br />

ese carácter vincu<strong>la</strong>nte.<br />

Quizás convenga hacer una breve referencia a <strong>la</strong> situación previa a <strong>la</strong> entrada en vigor el<br />

1 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2007 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Convención Internacional contra el Dopaje en el Deporte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

UNESCo. En esa situación <strong>la</strong> AEPD emitió un informe al respecto el 29 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2006<br />

en re<strong>la</strong>ción con un supuesto muy concreto: <strong>la</strong> transmisión por el Consejo Superior <strong>de</strong> Deportes<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>portivas <strong>de</strong> un Estado miembro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea y parte <strong>de</strong>l<br />

Convenio 135 <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados datos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong>s investigaciones<br />

llevadas a cabo por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el<br />

posible consumo <strong>de</strong> sustancias dopantes por <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>portistas. La consulta se refería<br />

a “<strong>la</strong> proce<strong>de</strong>ncia o no <strong>de</strong> adoptar medidas <strong>de</strong> cooperación internacional (con el Estado <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>stino) encaminadas a <strong>la</strong> erradicación <strong>de</strong>l dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte consistentes en remitirles<br />

<strong>la</strong> información re<strong>la</strong>tiva a posibles infracciones a <strong>la</strong> disciplina <strong>de</strong>portiva en esta materia”. El<br />

informe resaltaba lo siguiente:<br />

“En materia <strong>de</strong> lucha contra el dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte resulta <strong>de</strong> aplicación lo dispuesto en el<br />

Convenio núm. 135 <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa, <strong>de</strong> 16 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 1989, contra el dopaje,<br />

ratificado por España por instrumento <strong>de</strong> 29 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 1992.


366 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

El artículo 8.1 <strong>de</strong>l citado Convenio establece que” Las partes cooperarán estrechamente en<br />

los ámbitos a que se refiere el presente Convenio y fomentarán una cooperación análoga<br />

entre sus organizaciones <strong>de</strong>portivas”. Asimismo, el artículo 8..c), analizado por esta Agencia<br />

en su informe <strong>de</strong> 25 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2005, ya citado, dispone que “Las Partes se comprometen<br />

a (…)establecer una cooperación bi<strong>la</strong>teral y multi<strong>la</strong>teral entre sus organismos, autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

y organizaciones competentes, con el fin <strong>de</strong> alcanzar, incluso en el p<strong>la</strong>no internacional, los<br />

objetivos enunciados en el artículo 4.1”.<br />

En citado artículo 4.1 establece que “Las partes adoptarán, según los casos, disposiciones<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tivas y reg<strong>la</strong>mentarias o medidas administrativas <strong>para</strong> <strong>red</strong>ucir <strong>la</strong> disponibilidad (y, en<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r, disposiciones encaminadas a contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> circu<strong>la</strong>ción, <strong>la</strong> tenencia, <strong>la</strong> importación,<br />

<strong>la</strong> distribución y <strong>la</strong> venta) así como <strong>la</strong> utilización en el <strong>de</strong>porte <strong>de</strong> agentes <strong>de</strong> dopaje y <strong>de</strong><br />

métodos <strong>de</strong> dopaje prohibidos y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, <strong>de</strong> esteroi<strong>de</strong>s anabolizantes”.<br />

De este modo, en <strong>la</strong> medida en que <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos a <strong>la</strong> que se refiere <strong>la</strong> consulta permitiera<br />

el cumplimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s finalida<strong>de</strong>s citadas en el artículo 4.1 que acaba <strong>de</strong> ser objeto<br />

<strong>de</strong> reproducción, entre <strong>la</strong>s que se encuentra “<strong>red</strong>ucir <strong>la</strong> utilización en el <strong>de</strong>porte <strong>de</strong> agentes<br />

<strong>de</strong> dopaje y <strong>de</strong> métodos <strong>de</strong> dopaje”, <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> medidas <strong>de</strong> cooperación bi<strong>la</strong>teral <strong>para</strong><br />

el logro <strong>de</strong> dicho fin encontraría encaje en lo dispuesto en el artículo 8.2 c) <strong>de</strong>l Convenio<br />

135 <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa, existiendo en consecuencia una norma con rango suficiente que<br />

otorgaría, en dicho supuesto, cobertura a <strong>la</strong> cesión p<strong>la</strong>nteada, haciendo <strong>la</strong> misma posible”.<br />

De todas maneras, hay que recalcar que el informe hace referencia a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos entre Administraciones Públicas <strong>de</strong> los Estados exportador e importador <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información. Por lo tanto no cabe consi<strong>de</strong>rar que lo aquí expuesto se pudiera aplicar a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones entre <strong>la</strong>s mencionadas Administraciones y <strong>la</strong>s fe<strong>de</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong>portivas internacionales,<br />

o <strong>la</strong>s realizadas entre diferentes fe<strong>de</strong>raciones. Tampoco se pue<strong>de</strong> incluir a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

organizaciones internacionales como <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA.<br />

Después <strong>de</strong> esta referencia al pasado, hay que mencionar lo regu<strong>la</strong>do por <strong>la</strong> Convención<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> UNESCo ya citada. En su artículo 3 b) establece el <strong>de</strong>ber <strong>de</strong> los Estados <strong>de</strong> “promover <strong>la</strong><br />

cooperación internacional entre los Estados Parte y <strong>la</strong>s principales organizaciones encargadas <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> lucha contra el dopaje en el <strong>de</strong>porte, en particu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> Agencia Mundial Antidopaje”, añadiendo<br />

específicamente el artículo 14 que “los Estados Parte se comprometen a prestar apoyo al importante<br />

contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Mundial Antidopaje en <strong>la</strong> lucha internacional contra el dopaje”.<br />

El artículo 16 impone asimismo a los Estados los <strong>de</strong>beres <strong>de</strong> “facilitar <strong>la</strong> tarea <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Agencia Mundial Antidopaje y otras organizaciones antidopaje que actúan <strong>de</strong> conformidad<br />

con el Código, a reserva <strong>de</strong> los reg<strong>la</strong>mentos pertinentes <strong>de</strong> los países anfitriones, en <strong>la</strong> ejecución<br />

<strong>de</strong> los controles a sus <strong>de</strong>portistas, durante <strong>la</strong>s competiciones o fuera <strong>de</strong> el<strong>la</strong>s, ya sea en su<br />

territorio o en <strong>otros</strong> lugares”, “alentar y apoyar los acuerdos <strong>de</strong> controles recíprocos entre <strong>la</strong>s<br />

organizaciones antidopaje <strong>de</strong>signadas, <strong>de</strong> conformidad con el Código” y “reconocer mutuamente<br />

los procedimientos <strong>de</strong> control <strong>de</strong>l dopaje <strong>de</strong> toda organización antidopaje y <strong>la</strong> gestión<br />

<strong>de</strong> los resultados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s pruebas clínicas, incluidas <strong>la</strong>s sanciones <strong>de</strong>portivas correspondientes,<br />

que sean conformes con el Código”.<br />

A continuación pasaré a estudiar los posibles problemas que p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> transferencia <strong>de</strong><br />

datos a <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS con se<strong>de</strong> en Montreal, Canadá. Como ya hemos visto anteriormente,


<strong>la</strong> base ADAms <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia mundial Antidopaje. Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

367<br />

<strong>la</strong> cuestión sobre si es o no aceptable que se transfieran datos personales a esta base <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> si el nivel protección ofrecido en Canadá es a<strong>de</strong>cuado. Aunque el tema podría<br />

parecer fácil <strong>de</strong> resolver, no es así. Tan sólo existe una <strong>de</strong>cisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea referente<br />

a <strong>la</strong> a<strong>de</strong>cuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos personales conferida por <strong>la</strong> ley canadiense<br />

Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) 8 , <strong>de</strong>biendo hacerse<br />

notar que esta ley sólo es aplicable a entida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l sector privado que recojan, utilicen o<br />

divulguen datos personales en el transcurso <strong>de</strong> sus activida<strong>de</strong>s económicas. De acuerdo con<br />

el Standard <strong>de</strong> Privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> WADA, <strong>la</strong> información privada referente a los <strong>de</strong>portistas y<br />

a sus co<strong>la</strong>boradores será contro<strong>la</strong>da por <strong>la</strong> WADA, que será supervisada por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

canadienses <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, siendo estas últimas únicamente mencionadas <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

genérica, sin especificar <strong>de</strong> qué autorida<strong>de</strong>s se trata.<br />

Como ya he mencionado anteriormente, <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA es una fundación in<strong>de</strong>pendiente<br />

sujeta al <strong>de</strong>recho suizo, con lo cual queda fuera <strong>de</strong>l ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> PIPEDA.<br />

Como ha <strong>de</strong>stacado el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 299 , no existe información respecto a<br />

posibles transferencias <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA a otras entida<strong>de</strong>s que posiblemente sí<br />

estuvieran <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> ese ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación. El ya mencionado Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo hace referencia<br />

en su documento a una carta con fecha 10.11.2008 enviada por el Canadian Privacy<br />

Commissioner en el que se les informa <strong>de</strong> que <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con el análisis <strong>de</strong> esta última entidad,<br />

los criterios <strong>de</strong> PIPEDA no son aplicables a <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA, ya que sus activida<strong>de</strong>s no<br />

son <strong>de</strong> tipo económico. En esa misma carta se informa <strong>de</strong> que PIPEDA es aplicable a CGI,<br />

una empresa con <strong>la</strong> que <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA ha llegado a un acuerdo <strong>para</strong> el mantenimiento <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> base ADAMS. De todas formas, no creo que <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> este acuerdo sea suficiente<br />

<strong>para</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rar el nivel <strong>de</strong> protección como a<strong>de</strong>cuado, con el agravante que supone el que<br />

los términos <strong>de</strong> ese posible acuerdo no son conocidos. En resumen, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> información<br />

obtenida <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s canadienses <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, no es posible<br />

afirmar si los criterios <strong>de</strong> PIPEDA son aplicables a <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA y a <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS y,<br />

en consecuencia, no es posible afirmar si el nivel <strong>de</strong> protección ofrecido es a<strong>de</strong>cuado o no.<br />

El Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 realiza algunas reflexiones sobre el hecho <strong>de</strong> que el<br />

uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS no es obligatorio, pero sí lo es el intercambio <strong>de</strong> datos entre <strong>la</strong>s diversas<br />

entida<strong>de</strong>s implicadas en <strong>la</strong> lucha antidopaje y <strong>la</strong> disponibilidad <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>para</strong> todas <strong>la</strong>s<br />

mencionadas entida<strong>de</strong>s implicadas en un <strong>de</strong>terminado caso. Eso supondría <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong><br />

problemas adicionales, si recordamos los principios mencionados anteriormente aplicables<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos, supondría convertir <strong>la</strong>s excepciones en <strong>la</strong> reg<strong>la</strong><br />

habitual, o cual no pue<strong>de</strong> ser nunca un criterio a<strong>de</strong>cuado en un tema tan <strong>de</strong>licado.<br />

8 https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/legis<strong>la</strong>cion/union_europea/<strong>de</strong>cisiones/common/pdfs/B.13-cp--Decisi-oo-n--sobre-<strong>la</strong>-a<strong>de</strong>cuaci-oo-n-<strong>de</strong>-<strong>la</strong>-ley-canadiense.pdf<br />

04.04.2011.<br />

localizable el<br />

9 https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/docu_grupo_trabajo/wp29/2009/common/<br />

wp162_en.pdf localizable el 11.05.2011.


368 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4. conclusiones<br />

1. El problema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones. La regu<strong>la</strong>ción actual me parece absolutamente <strong>de</strong>sproporcionada<br />

en varios aspectos:<br />

• El tener que estar localizable todos los días <strong>de</strong>l año y en una franja horaria equivalente, o<br />

al menos cercana, a una jornada <strong>de</strong> trabajo es totalmente <strong>de</strong>sproporcionado y <strong>de</strong> hecho<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> que incluso contraproducente <strong>para</strong> el fin perseguido. Po<strong>de</strong>mos estar seguros que<br />

<strong>la</strong> mayor parte <strong>de</strong>l trabajo en los <strong>la</strong>boratorios que producen sustancias dopantes se está<br />

orientando a <strong>la</strong> producción <strong>de</strong> sustancias in<strong>de</strong>tectables que enmascaren otras sustancias<br />

dopantes. La franja horaria libre, entre <strong>la</strong>s 23 y <strong>la</strong>s 6h es ina<strong>de</strong>cuada, especialmente si<br />

se tiene como objetivo proteger <strong>la</strong> salud <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>portistas, como ya he mencionado <strong>la</strong><br />

regeneración es esencia. Este aspecto se ve agravado en <strong>de</strong>portes como el tenis, don<strong>de</strong><br />

los <strong>de</strong>portistas <strong>de</strong> élite llegan a competir 35 semanas al año. Algunos <strong>de</strong>portistas como<br />

<strong>la</strong> heptatleta Carolina Kluft10 han consi<strong>de</strong>rado <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> llevar un chip <strong>de</strong> localización<br />

como el <strong>de</strong> los perros <strong>para</strong> estar seguros <strong>de</strong> estar siempre localizables, pue<strong>de</strong> ser<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rado una exageración o una provocación, pero refleja <strong>la</strong> situación actual.<br />

• Combinado con el punto anterior, hay que recordar que el no estar localizable tres<br />

veces en un p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong> 18 meses cuenta como un positivo. A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> exageración<br />

que supone y <strong>la</strong> tensión que origina (recuerdo <strong>de</strong> nuevo lo <strong>de</strong>l chip), comprensible<br />

ya que el período <strong>de</strong> 18 meses no es especialmente <strong>la</strong>rgo si se recuerda que hay que<br />

estar localizable cada día, vulnera <strong>la</strong> presunción <strong>de</strong> inocencia. Cabe mencionar que el<br />

19 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 un tribunal <strong>de</strong> primera instancia <strong>de</strong> Bruse<strong>la</strong>s11 suspendió <strong>la</strong>s<br />

sanciones impuestas a Xavier Malisse y a Yanina Wickmayer por no haber cumplido <strong>la</strong><br />

normativa <strong>de</strong> localizaciones.<br />

• El actual sistema no sólo atenta contra el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos,<br />

sino <strong>de</strong> forma c<strong>la</strong>ra contra el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad. A este respecto se pronunció <strong>la</strong><br />

Audiencia Nacional en Sentencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sa<strong>la</strong> 4ª, <strong>de</strong> 8 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2007, referente al<br />

Código UCI, consi<strong>de</strong>rando como <strong>la</strong> ilegitimidad más grave <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a <strong>la</strong> intimidad <strong>de</strong> los cor<strong>red</strong>ores, aplicando una razonamiento que es c<strong>la</strong>ramente aplicable<br />

al Código Mundial Antidopaje: “ejercer una vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia absoluta, total, casi obsesiva,<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> práctica totalidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s vertientes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida <strong>de</strong> los ciclistas, tanto en su aspecto<br />

espacial (dón<strong>de</strong> están), cuanto en el temporal (cuándo están), cómo en el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actividad<br />

(qué hacen y con quien)”. Si bien hay que reconocer que el actual Código <strong>de</strong>ja una franja<br />

horaria indisponible, aunque también es un cambio que se realizó en su momento <strong>para</strong><br />

mostrar un mínimo <strong>de</strong> compresión a <strong>la</strong>s quejas <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>portistas..<br />

10 http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo<strong>de</strong>porte/2008/01/03/mas<strong>de</strong>porte/1199352171.html<br />

disponible el 20.05.2011.<br />

11 Sentencia mencionada en este documento http://jurispru<strong>de</strong>nce.tas-cas.org/sites/Case-<br />

Law/Sha<strong>red</strong>%20Documents/2014.pdf disponible el 20.05.2011.


<strong>la</strong> base ADAms <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia mundial Antidopaje. Problemas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

369<br />

2. En cuanto a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos, me parece evi<strong>de</strong>nte que <strong>la</strong> situación<br />

actual es insostenible. Se realizan esas transferencias a una base <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que<br />

no se conoce el verda<strong>de</strong>ro nivel <strong>de</strong> a<strong>de</strong>cuación en cuanto a criterios <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos, el único fundamento <strong>para</strong> esas transferencias es un consentimiento insuficiente<br />

y otorgado bajo presión <strong>de</strong> no po<strong>de</strong>r ejercer <strong>la</strong> profesión habitual en caso <strong>de</strong> no aceptar<br />

<strong>la</strong>s condiciones. Sería imprescindible concretar el nivel <strong>de</strong> a<strong>de</strong>cuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> base<br />

ADAMS, o mejor dicho <strong>de</strong> Canadá, y dotar <strong>de</strong> fundamento legal a <strong>la</strong>s transferencias<br />

internacionales <strong>de</strong> datos por medio <strong>de</strong> un acuerdo contractual, como ha recomendado<br />

el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29.<br />

3. La base ADAMS p<strong>la</strong>ntea diferentes problemas, aparte <strong>de</strong> los ya mencionados, los principales<br />

son:<br />

• Pese a <strong>la</strong>s afirmaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA referentes a los períodos <strong>de</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong><br />

los datos, éstos se conservan por tiempo in<strong>de</strong>finido o, mejor dicho, mientras <strong>la</strong> mencionada<br />

entidad los consi<strong>de</strong>re útiles. Me parece necesario recordar que, en lo que afecta<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones, esa práctica es ilegal en base a <strong>la</strong> normativa europea <strong>de</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos. Una localización nunca <strong>de</strong>bería ser almacenada, ya que con cada minuto<br />

que pasa va perdiendo vali<strong>de</strong>z. La explicación que aporta <strong>la</strong> WADA-AMA es que si se<br />

producen tres localizaciones erróneas en 18 meses, eso supone un positivo. No creo<br />

que sea necesario profundizar <strong>de</strong>masiado en el tema, en mi opinión es evi<strong>de</strong>nte que ese<br />

razonamiento sería una explicación válida <strong>para</strong> guardar los datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones<br />

erróneas, pero no <strong>para</strong> hacerlo con todas <strong>la</strong>s localizaciones aportadas en ese período<br />

• Se conservan todos los datos, controles positivos y negativos, localizaciones y todo tipo<br />

<strong>de</strong> análisis.<br />

• Las entida<strong>de</strong>s antidopaje que tienen un interés puntual en <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>portista,<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n acce<strong>de</strong>r a todos los datos <strong>de</strong>l mismo y no sólo a los que les serían <strong>de</strong> utilidad,<br />

como <strong>de</strong>bería ser.<br />

• Cualquier persona con acceso a <strong>la</strong> base ADAMS tiene acceso a toda <strong>la</strong> información allí<br />

registrada.<br />

• No se mencionan, y en consecuencia tampoco se respetan, los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> acceso, cance<strong>la</strong>ción,<br />

rectificación y oposición.<br />

• No existe constancia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s medidas <strong>de</strong> seguridad aplicadas a esta base <strong>de</strong> datos. Cabe<br />

recordar que <strong>de</strong>berían ser <strong>de</strong>l máximo nivel, por tratar datos <strong>de</strong> salud.<br />

5. bibliografÍa<br />

Cazor<strong>la</strong> Prieto, L. M., & Palomar olmeda, A. (. (2007). Comentarios a <strong>la</strong> Ley Antidopaje<br />

en el Deporte. Editorial Aranzadi, S.A.<br />

Esta<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> Yuste, o. (1995). La protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad frente a <strong>la</strong> transmisión<br />

internacional <strong>de</strong> datos personales. Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, S.A.


370 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Martínez Martínez, R. (2004). Una aproximación crítica a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa.<br />

Madrid: Civitas Ediciones, S.L.<br />

Molina Navarrete, C. (2009). Nadal lleva razón, <strong>la</strong> “AMA” se extralimita en su control antidopaje:<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>porte profesional autónomo. Revista Aranzadi<br />

<strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong>l Deporte y el Entretenimiento , 43-64.<br />

Murillo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cueva, P. L., & Piñar Mañas, J. L. (2009). El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación<br />

informativa. Madrid: Fundación Coloquio Jurídico Europeo.<br />

Palomar olmeda, A., & González-Espejo, P. (. (2008). Comentario al Reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley Orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal(aprobado por RD 1720/2007, <strong>de</strong> 21 <strong>de</strong> diciembre). Aranzadi, S.A.


20<br />

el DereCHO Al OlVIDO eN INterNet<br />

Ramón M. orza Linares<br />

Profesor Contratado Doctor <strong>de</strong> Derecho constitucional. Universidad <strong>de</strong> Granada<br />

Susana Ruiz Tarrías<br />

Profesora Contratada Doctora <strong>de</strong> Derecho constitucional. Universidad <strong>de</strong> Almería<br />

AbstrAct: El acelerado <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> creciente complejidad técnica<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías asociadas a su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo p<strong>la</strong>ntean nuevos <strong>retos</strong> en nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mocráticas.<br />

Estos nuevos <strong>retos</strong> aparecen en dos líneas re<strong>la</strong>tivamente convergentes: por un <strong>la</strong>do, es necesario <strong>la</strong><br />

re<strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos tradicionalmente construidos entre nos<strong>otros</strong>, sobre todo en lo que se refiere<br />

a los <strong>de</strong>rechos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión o el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> información y su posibles<br />

conflictos con el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal o a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen; y, por otro, como<br />

respuesta a nuevos peligros que amenacen <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos, es necesario <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong><br />

nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos que <strong>la</strong> sigan garantizando, como el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido.<br />

Este problema, ligado a <strong>la</strong> expansión <strong>de</strong> internet y, en especial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, por lo tanto, afecta,<br />

como mínimo, a <strong>la</strong>s personas individuales citadas, a <strong>la</strong>s empresas (por ejemplos, editoras <strong>de</strong> periódicos),<br />

instituciones o personas individuales que han generado <strong>la</strong> información y a los buscadores <strong>de</strong><br />

internet que rastrean <strong>la</strong>s páginas web y almacenan su contenido in<strong>de</strong>xado, guardándolos en ocasiones<br />

durante un di<strong>la</strong>tado periodo <strong>de</strong> tiempo. Problema que existe incluso cuándo es el propio interesado el<br />

que suministra o publica información personal.<br />

Finalmente, se reseñan los intentos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>para</strong> dar contenido<br />

a este <strong>de</strong>recho y <strong>la</strong>s respuestas que se p<strong>la</strong>ntean en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: Internet, <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, datos personales, <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a <strong>la</strong> información, buscadores, Directiva 95/46/CE, Unión Europea, Constitución, nuevas tecnologías,<br />

privacidad, TIC’s.<br />

1. introducción<br />

Cuando hab<strong>la</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>l “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” es inevitable no recordar el siniestro Ministerio<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Verdad en el que trabajaba Winston Smith en <strong>la</strong> conocida nove<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> George orwell1 .<br />

Ante <strong>la</strong> persistencia <strong>de</strong>l pasado, en el Departamento <strong>de</strong>l Registro en el que trabajaba<br />

el protagonista, se buscaba minuciosamente toda huel<strong>la</strong> documental anterior <strong>para</strong> que, al<br />

reescribir<strong>la</strong>, a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>licadas tareas <strong>de</strong> falsificación, quedara <strong>de</strong>bidamente alterado el<br />

presente.<br />

1 oRWELL, G. (1949) 1984. 1ª edición 1952, Barcelona: Ed. P<strong>la</strong>neta.


372 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

En <strong>la</strong> era <strong>de</strong> Internet también nos preocupa <strong>la</strong> persistencia <strong>de</strong>l pasado. Pero creemos<br />

que <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una perspectiva radicalmente diferente. Así, si en <strong>la</strong> nove<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> orwell toda esa<br />

ingente tarea se ponía al servicio <strong>de</strong>l Gran Hermano y <strong>de</strong> su po<strong>de</strong>r, nuestra intención es precisamente<br />

establecer y consolidar mecanismos jurídicos que permitan seguir garantizando <strong>la</strong><br />

libertad <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos en una sociedad <strong>de</strong>mocrática.<br />

De hecho, cuando una <strong>de</strong>terminada información, que afecta a una persona concreta, es<br />

recogida en una página web, <strong>la</strong> información allí incluida pue<strong>de</strong> ser replicada en otras páginas<br />

webs, en los índices <strong>de</strong> los buscadores e, incluso, en páginas web <strong>de</strong> repositorios que tienen<br />

como finalidad guardar lo que alguna vez se ha publicado en internet, aunque haya <strong>de</strong>saparecido<br />

<strong>la</strong> página web original 2 .<br />

Este es un problema que no sólo afecta a <strong>la</strong>s personas individuales citadas, sino también<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s empresas (por ejemplo, editoras <strong>de</strong> periódicos), instituciones o personas individuales<br />

que han generado <strong>la</strong> información y a los buscadores que rastrean <strong>la</strong>s páginas web y almacenan<br />

su contenido in<strong>de</strong>xado, guardándolo –y poniéndolo a disposición <strong>de</strong> todos– en ocasiones<br />

durante un di<strong>la</strong>tado periodo <strong>de</strong> tiempo.<br />

Por poner un único ejemplo, muchos <strong>de</strong> los periódicos tradicionalmente editados en<br />

papel, y que ahora también están presentes en internet, han volcado sus hemerotecas históricas<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, por lo que en este momento es perfectamente posible, con <strong>la</strong> ayuda <strong>de</strong> los<br />

buscadores, encontrar noticias que afectan a personas concretas, incluso <strong>de</strong> muchos años<br />

atrás. Con el inconveniente <strong>de</strong> que al ser estas noticias antiguas, no suelen estar actualizadas,<br />

por lo que pue<strong>de</strong>n contener <strong>de</strong>talles o aspectos que se han quedado obsoletos o que,<br />

simplemente, eran erróneos e inexactos ya cuando se publicaron 3 . Pero, sin embargo, al ser<br />

recuperados por los buscadores, aparecen registrados <strong>de</strong> manera inmediata, poniéndolos <strong>de</strong><br />

nuevo <strong>de</strong> actualidad.<br />

Como en tantas otras ocasiones, este no es un problema que no haya sido abordado<br />

por <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones con anterioridad. De hecho, en todos los países existen normas sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

prescripción <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>litos, sobre <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> antece<strong>de</strong>ntes penales que constan en los<br />

Registros Públicos o sobre <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> informaciones sobre aspectos económicos que<br />

pudieran afectar a <strong>la</strong>s personas (quiebras, insolvencias, etc.). De hecho, es posible encontrar<br />

resoluciones jurisdiccionales en diversos países sobre el «<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido», sobre todo en lo<br />

atinente a cuestiones penales 4 .<br />

2 Es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página http://www.archive.org/in<strong>de</strong>x.php que ha llegado a archivar billones <strong>de</strong> páginas<br />

webs que ya han <strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> estar operativas o http://groups.google.com/ que almacena millones <strong>de</strong><br />

mensajes expuestos en los grupos <strong>de</strong> noticias/discusión <strong>de</strong> Usenet [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

3 Piénsese por ejemplo, en <strong>la</strong> cantidad <strong>de</strong> informaciones que suelen recoger los diarios sobre <strong>de</strong>tenciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> presuntos <strong>de</strong>lincuentes que, años más tar<strong>de</strong>, tras los correspondientes procesos judiciales,<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n quedar exentos <strong>de</strong> toda responsabilidad penal. La noticia suele recoger el momento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>tención policial, pero es raro que se actualice años más tar<strong>de</strong> con el resultado <strong>de</strong> los procedimientos<br />

jurisdiccionales.<br />

4 Cfr. PACE, A. (1998) «El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> los mass media» Revista Españo<strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional, núm. 52, pags. 33-52. En especial, <strong>la</strong> pág. 48 y <strong>la</strong> nota núm. 50. No


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

373<br />

De hecho, en el contexto europeo ha sido creciente <strong>la</strong> preocupación por <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en re<strong>la</strong>ción con los ficheros automatizados y <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong><br />

estos datos a través <strong>de</strong> Internet. Y, aunque no ha existido hasta ahora una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica<br />

<strong>para</strong> garantizar que <strong>la</strong>s informaciones publicadas en internet puedan suponer perjuicios<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, es cierto que, en parte, se pue<strong>de</strong>n aplicar a estas informaciones<br />

<strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción garantista presente en <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales.<br />

La base actual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> casi todas <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones europeas <strong>la</strong> proporciona<br />

el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong><br />

octubre <strong>de</strong> 1995, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al<br />

tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos 5 .<br />

No obstante, el marco jurídico europeo ha resultado profundamente transformado más<br />

recientemente en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales con <strong>la</strong> entrada<br />

en vigor <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa 6 y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Carta <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Fundamentales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea 7 . Esta última, en su artículo 8 reconoce como <strong>de</strong>recho autónomo el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, afirmando que “toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal que le conciernan” (apartado 1); que estos datos<br />

“se tratarán <strong>de</strong> modo leal, <strong>para</strong> fines conc<strong>retos</strong> y sobre <strong>la</strong> base <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona<br />

afectada o en virtud <strong>de</strong> otro fundamento legítimo previsto por <strong>la</strong> ley”, y que toda persona<br />

tiene <strong>de</strong>recho “a acce<strong>de</strong>r a los datos recogidos que le conciernan y a obtener su rectificación”<br />

(apartado 2).<br />

Pero este reconocimiento expreso en el or<strong>de</strong>namiento originario europeo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos como <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental no toma en cuenta <strong>la</strong> rapi<strong>de</strong>z en <strong>la</strong><br />

obstante el autor se muestra bastante pesimista sobre <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> que un afectado pueda impedir que<br />

los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación vuelvan a publicar noticias o informaciones <strong>de</strong> su vida pasada, si vuelve a ser<br />

relevante.<br />

5 Diario Oficial (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte, DO L)n° L 281 <strong>de</strong> 23/11/1995 p. 0031 - 0050. El texto completo se pue<strong>de</strong> consultar<br />

en http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31995L0046:ES:HTML<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

6 Diario Oficial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte, DOUE) C 306, <strong>de</strong> 17 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2007. El texto<br />

completo <strong>de</strong>l Tratado se pue<strong>de</strong> consultar en http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JoHtml.do?uri=oJ:C:2007:306<br />

:SoM:es:HTML [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]. Concretamente, el artículo 16 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong><br />

Funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea dispone que<br />

“1. Toda persona tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal que le conciernan.<br />

2. El Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y el Consejo establecerán, con arreglo al procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo ordinario,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s normas sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal por <strong>la</strong>s instituciones, órganos y organismos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Unión, así como por los Estados miembros en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s comprendidas en el ámbito <strong>de</strong><br />

aplicación <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión, y sobre <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos. El respeto <strong>de</strong> dichas normas<br />

estará sometido al control <strong>de</strong> autorida<strong>de</strong>s in<strong>de</strong>pendientes.<br />

Las normas que se adopten en virtud <strong>de</strong>l presente artículo se enten<strong>de</strong>rán sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas específicas<br />

previstas en el artículo 39 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”.<br />

7 DOUE C 303, <strong>de</strong> 14 <strong>de</strong> Diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2007. El texto completo se pue<strong>de</strong> consultar en http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=oJ:C:2007:303:0001:0016:Es:PDF<br />

[consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong><br />

2011]


374 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

evolución tecnológica y <strong>la</strong> globalización en <strong>la</strong> difusión y tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal, lo que ha llevado a <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea a proponer <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> hacer frente,<br />

en términos más específicos, a <strong>la</strong> resolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>retos</strong> no contemp<strong>la</strong>dos inicialmente en <strong>la</strong><br />

Directiva 95/46/CE, p<strong>la</strong>nteando <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> una reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma.<br />

En este contexto, <strong>la</strong>s siguientes páginas se <strong>de</strong>dicarán a analizar el estado actual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción general <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, y<br />

<strong>la</strong>s posibles líneas <strong>de</strong> evolución en esta materia.<br />

2. el <strong>de</strong>recHo al olVido en internet<br />

2.1. antece<strong>de</strong>ntes<br />

Como antece<strong>de</strong>nte más remoto, po<strong>de</strong>mos encontrar que, ya en 1931, en <strong>la</strong> Corte <strong>de</strong><br />

California se resolvió el caso <strong>de</strong>nominado Melvin v. Reid. Se trataba <strong>de</strong> un asunto en el que<br />

<strong>la</strong> víctima, tras un pasado como prostituta y haber sido acusada <strong>de</strong> homicidio, había conseguido<br />

rehacer su vida, hasta que una pelícu<strong>la</strong>, realizada y exhibida por el <strong>de</strong>mandado bajo el<br />

título «The Red Kimono» <strong>de</strong>sveló su pasado, con su nombre real y le arruinó <strong>la</strong> vida. La Corte<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ró que se había producido una lesión en su privacidad al traer <strong>de</strong> nuevo a <strong>la</strong> actualidad<br />

aspectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandante que ya habían quedado olvidados 8 .<br />

Más recientemente, una primera respuesta legal a esta persistencia <strong>de</strong> los datos, con <strong>la</strong><br />

aparición <strong>de</strong> los primeros or<strong>de</strong>nadores, fue <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> acceso, rectificación<br />

y cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los datos personales que pudieran constar en <strong>la</strong>s bases <strong>de</strong> datos públicas<br />

o privadas 9 .<br />

De este modo el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido podía hacerse coincidir simplemente con el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

<strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los datos 10 , no sin dificulta<strong>de</strong>s, especialmente en lo que se refería a<br />

<strong>de</strong>terminadas bases <strong>de</strong> datos que recogían datos <strong>de</strong> solvencia <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos. Y siempre<br />

teniendo en cuenta que <strong>la</strong>s bases <strong>de</strong> datos oficiales (policía, hacienda, etc.) normalmente<br />

son excluidas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción general y suelen presentar numerosas dificulta<strong>de</strong>s a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong><br />

cance<strong>la</strong>r o, simplemente, <strong>de</strong> rectificar los datos recogidos 11 .<br />

8 Cfr. CoRRAL TALCIANI, H. (2000) «Configuración jurídica <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> privacidad II: Concepto<br />

y <strong>de</strong>limitación». Revista Chilena <strong>de</strong> Derecho, vol. 27 núm. 2, págs. 331-355, en especial, <strong>la</strong> pág.<br />

337.<br />

9 Especialmente en lo que se refiere a <strong>la</strong>s bases <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> solvencia patrimonial, <strong>la</strong>s primeras que fueron<br />

objeto <strong>de</strong> una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica. Cfr., entre <strong>otros</strong>, FERRANDo VILLALBA, Mª L. ( 2.000),<br />

La información <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Entida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Crédito. Estudio especial <strong>de</strong> los informes comerciales bancarios Valencia<br />

,Ed. Tirant lo B<strong>la</strong>nch; DUBIÉ, P. (2003) «Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido», Derecho <strong>de</strong> los negocios,<br />

Año nº 14, Nº 154-155, págs. 1-16<br />

10 GARRIGA DoMÍNGUEZ, A. (2004) Tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. Madrid,<br />

Dykinson, pág. 40<br />

11 De hecho estas bases <strong>de</strong> datos están especialmente excluidas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción general. Vid. el artículo<br />

2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley Orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, que excluye <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

375<br />

Pero, a<strong>de</strong>más, con el vertiginoso <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación, estas garantías pue<strong>de</strong>n que ya no sean ya plenamente eficaces. Por un<br />

<strong>la</strong>do nos encontramos con el problema <strong>de</strong> que los datos difundidos o publicados pudieran<br />

ser correctos, aunque antiguos, lo que impediría, en ocasiones, el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong><br />

corrección o cance<strong>la</strong>ción: es el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s noticias publicadas por los diarios. Por<br />

otro, también nos po<strong>de</strong>mos encontrar con que <strong>la</strong>s empresas o servidores <strong>de</strong> internet en los que<br />

están alojados estos datos no se encuentren en el país <strong>de</strong>l afectado o cuyas leyes queramos aplicar,<br />

dificultando <strong>de</strong> manera extrema <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> hacer efectivos esos <strong>de</strong>rechos.<br />

2.2. <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> agencia españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> datos en re<strong>la</strong>ción al <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al olvido<br />

Así, en España, <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos, en sus primeras Resoluciones<br />

sobre estas materias, <strong>de</strong> fecha 9 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2007 –reafirmada tras el recurso <strong>de</strong> reposición<br />

<strong>de</strong>l recurrente, el día 10 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2007 12 – y <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2009 13 , ha abordado<br />

<strong>de</strong> esta ley a los ficheros sometidos a <strong>la</strong> normativa sobre protección <strong>de</strong> materias c<strong>la</strong>sificadas, a los ficheros<br />

establecidos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> investigación <strong>de</strong>l terrorismo y <strong>de</strong> formas graves <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>lincuencia organizada y, entre <strong>otros</strong>,<br />

a los proce<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> imágenes y sonidos obtenidos mediante <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>ocámaras por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas<br />

y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad. Y aunque el artículo 22.2 <strong>de</strong>l mismo texto legal seña<strong>la</strong> que: “2. La recogida y<br />

tratamiento <strong>para</strong> fines policiales <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal por <strong>la</strong>s Fuerzas y Cuerpos <strong>de</strong> Seguridad sin<br />

consentimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas afectadas están limitados a aquellos supuestos y categorías <strong>de</strong> datos que<br />

resulten necesarios <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> prevención <strong>de</strong> un peligro real <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública o <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> represión <strong>de</strong><br />

infracciones penales, <strong>de</strong>biendo ser almacenados en ficheros específicos establecidos al efecto, que <strong>de</strong>berán c<strong>la</strong>sificarse<br />

por categorías en función <strong>de</strong> su grado <strong>de</strong> fiabilidad”, lo cierto es que <strong>para</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> ficheros, según<br />

el artículo 23: “Los responsables <strong>de</strong> los ficheros que contengan los datos a que se refieren los apartados 2, 3<br />

y 4 <strong>de</strong>l artículo anterior podrán <strong>de</strong>negar el acceso, <strong>la</strong> rectificación o cance<strong>la</strong>ción en función <strong>de</strong> los peligros<br />

que pudieran <strong>de</strong>rivarse <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong>l Estado o <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública, <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos y<br />

liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> terceros o <strong>la</strong>s necesida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s investigaciones que se estén realizando”.<br />

Y por lo que se refiere a los datos recogidos en los ficheros <strong>de</strong> hacienda, el artículo 23.3 <strong>de</strong>termina que “Los<br />

responsables <strong>de</strong> los ficheros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Hacienda Pública podrán, igualmente, <strong>de</strong>negar el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

a que se refiere el apartado anterior cuando el mismo obstaculice <strong>la</strong>s actuaciones administrativas ten<strong>de</strong>ntes<br />

a asegurar el cumplimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s obligaciones tributarias y, en todo caso, cuando el afectado esté siendo<br />

objeto <strong>de</strong> actuaciones inspectoras”.<br />

12 El texto <strong>de</strong> estas Resoluciones, se pue<strong>de</strong>n consulta en <strong>la</strong>s siguientes direcciones electrónicas: https://<br />

www.agpd.es/portalweb/resoluciones/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos_2007/common/pdfs/TD-<br />

00299-2007_Resolucion-<strong>de</strong>-fecha-09-07-2007_Art-ii-culo-16-LoPD.pdf , y <strong>la</strong> reposición en:<br />

https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/resoluciones/recursos_reposicion/rr_sobre_tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos/<br />

common/pdfs/REPoSICIoN-TD-00299-2007_Resolucion-<strong>de</strong>-fecha-10-09-2007_Art-ii-culo-16-<br />

LoPD.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

13 Los hechos <strong>de</strong>nunciados en esta ocasión se referían a <strong>la</strong> publicación en <strong>la</strong> página web <strong>de</strong>l periódico<br />

El País, <strong>de</strong> una noticia ya publicada el 25 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 1987. El texto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> resolución pue<strong>de</strong> verse en:<br />

https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/resoluciones/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos_2009/common/pdfs/<br />

TD-01164-2008_Resolucion-<strong>de</strong>-fecha-26-01-2009_Art-ii-culo-17-LoPD_Recurrida.pdf [Consulta:<br />

10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]


376 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>la</strong> cuestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s noticias antiguas publicadas en <strong>la</strong>s páginas web <strong>de</strong> los diarios, con <strong>la</strong>s siguientes<br />

características:<br />

En el<strong>la</strong>s, con un razonamiento sustancialmente simi<strong>la</strong>r, por un <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> Agencia consi<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

que <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> informaciones relevantes y veraces entra <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l ejercicio<br />

legítimo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> información y, por lo tanto, su publicación es correcta, quedando<br />

a<strong>de</strong>más el análisis <strong>de</strong> los posibles conflictos con <strong>otros</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos constitucionales (honor, intimidad<br />

o protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia imagen), fuera <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s competencias <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia, remitiendo<br />

<strong>para</strong> su enjuiciamiento a los Tribunales ordinarios.<br />

Y, por otro, por lo que se refiere a <strong>la</strong> publicación en internet <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s noticias, a través <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> puesta a disposición <strong>de</strong> los internautas el archivo o hemeroteca <strong>de</strong>l periódico, <strong>la</strong> Agencia<br />

también consi<strong>de</strong>ra que no constituye <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> dato personal alguno, ya que <strong>la</strong> hemeroteca<br />

no es una base <strong>de</strong> datos susceptible <strong>de</strong> tratamiento y, por lo tanto, su cance<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

o modificación queda fuera <strong>de</strong>l ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, por último, y en lo que respecta a <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad concreta <strong>de</strong>l buscador<br />

Google (directamente <strong>de</strong>nunciado también), como servicio <strong>de</strong> intermediación, <strong>la</strong> Agencia,<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s Resoluciones <strong>de</strong>l año 2007, consi<strong>de</strong>ra que tampoco tienen responsabilidad por <strong>la</strong><br />

publicación <strong>de</strong> esos datos ya que «los buscadores tipo «Google», «Yahoo», «MSN Search»,<br />

«AoL Search», etc., realizan <strong>la</strong> localización <strong>de</strong> información en Internet, con base en unos<br />

criterios que le son seña<strong>la</strong>dos por el usuario, buscando ocurrencias en textos o documentos<br />

publicados en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y ofreciendo en<strong>la</strong>ces a los mismos». Así, «<strong>la</strong> información no se encuentra<br />

ubicada en los servidores o máquinas <strong>de</strong> los prestadores <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, sino en<br />

<strong>la</strong>s máquinas hacia <strong>la</strong>s cuales apuntan los en<strong>la</strong>ces que ofrecen los buscadores, por lo que, <strong>la</strong><br />

cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los datos, si proce<strong>de</strong>, <strong>de</strong>berá ejercitarse ante los responsables <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s máquinas<br />

que contienen <strong>la</strong> información». De tal modo que los prestadores <strong>de</strong> estos servicios, en tanto<br />

facilitan los <strong>de</strong>nominados «servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información»,<br />

no son responsables por <strong>la</strong> información a <strong>la</strong> que dirijan a los <strong>de</strong>stinatarios <strong>de</strong> sus servicios 14 .<br />

Sin embargo, en lo que respecta a este último aspecto, el criterio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia en re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

a <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los buscadores, cambia radicalmente. un par <strong>de</strong> años más tar<strong>de</strong>.<br />

Así, ahora consi<strong>de</strong>ra a éstos como responsables <strong>de</strong> los datos que tratan. Concretamente seña<strong>la</strong><br />

que «<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> información no impone que los datos personales <strong>de</strong>l rec<strong>la</strong>mante figuren<br />

en los índices que utiliza Google <strong>para</strong> facilitar al usuario el acceso a <strong>de</strong>terminadas páginas,<br />

ni tampoco preceptúa que figuren en <strong>la</strong>s páginas que Google conserva temporalmente en<br />

memoria “caché”», al no ser <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> buscar contenidos en internet «una actividad am<strong>para</strong>da por<br />

<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> información, sin que exista, una disposición legal o constitucional en contra<br />

<strong>de</strong>l ejercicio <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición frente a Google». Concluyendo por tanto que Google,<br />

es responsable y, por lo tanto <strong>de</strong>be evitar que los datos personales <strong>de</strong>l recurrente puedan<br />

recuperarse cuando se utilice el mencionado buscador 15 .<br />

14 Resolución <strong>de</strong> fecha 10 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong> 2009, ya citada.<br />

15 Resolución <strong>de</strong> fecha 26 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2009, ya citada. No obstante, como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nuncia solo se p<strong>la</strong>ntea<br />

contra Google, se pue<strong>de</strong> dar el <strong>para</strong>dójico resultado <strong>de</strong> que, al no modificarse <strong>la</strong> página origen <strong>de</strong>


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

377<br />

En <strong>la</strong> Resolución <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2009, <strong>la</strong> Agencia también realiza una serie <strong>de</strong> reflexiones<br />

sobre el hecho <strong>de</strong> que los periódicos vuelquen en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> su hemeroteca. Consi<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

que «los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>berían valorar <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> que su actuación se dirija<br />

a conciliar en mayor medida, el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> información con <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong><br />

los principios <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales». De tal forma que <strong>de</strong>bieran pon<strong>de</strong>rar «escrupulosamente»<br />

<strong>la</strong> relevancia pública <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas afectadas por el hecho<br />

noticiable, «<strong>para</strong>, en el caso <strong>de</strong> que no aporte información adicional, evitar <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación<br />

mediante <strong>la</strong> supresión <strong>de</strong>l nombre e incluso, si fuera necesario, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s iniciales o cualquier<br />

referencia suplementaria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que pueda <strong>de</strong>ducirse <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación, en el caso <strong>de</strong> que el<br />

entorno sea limitado». Y, a<strong>de</strong>más, teniendo en cuenta que el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> Internet y <strong>la</strong> imp<strong>la</strong>ntación<br />

generalizada <strong>de</strong> motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda «suponen una actualización y divulgación<br />

exponencial y permanente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en prensa así como <strong>de</strong> los datos personales incluidos<br />

en <strong>la</strong> misma como <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas», los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>bería<br />

reflexionar «sobre <strong>la</strong> trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia que tiene mantener <strong>de</strong> manera permanente una absoluta<br />

accesibilidad <strong>de</strong> los datos contenidos en noticias cuya relevancia informativa probablemente<br />

es inexistente en <strong>la</strong> actualidad», así como «tener en cuenta <strong>la</strong> trascen<strong>de</strong>ncia sobre <strong>la</strong> privacidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas que pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rivar <strong>de</strong> ello» 16 .<br />

Esta última línea <strong>de</strong> actuación, que pasa por obligar a los buscadores, o al menos a los<br />

buscadores que son <strong>de</strong>nunciados, a evitar <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> datos personales <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos,<br />

ha sido confirmada en numerosas Resoluciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia 17 , incluso cuando esos<br />

datos provienen <strong>de</strong> fuentes oficiales 18 .<br />

Esta línea <strong>de</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos le ha llevado<br />

hasta el momento a abrir cerca <strong>de</strong> un centenar <strong>de</strong> procedimientos contra el buscador “Go-<br />

<strong>la</strong> información (<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>l periódico), éste buscador no refleje ese resultado en sus búsquedas, pero sí lo<br />

continúen haciendo <strong>otros</strong> como Yahoo, Msn, Ask o cualquier otro que no haya sido afectado por <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>cisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia.<br />

16 Y continúa seña<strong>la</strong>ndo que «En este sentido los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>bieran usar medidas informáticas<br />

<strong>para</strong> que, en el caso <strong>de</strong> que concurra interés legítimo <strong>de</strong> un particu<strong>la</strong>r y <strong>la</strong> relevancia <strong>de</strong>l hecho haya<br />

<strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> existir, se evite <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> su webmaster <strong>la</strong> in<strong>de</strong>xación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> noticia por los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda en<br />

Internet. De esta forma, aún manteniéndo<strong>la</strong> inalterable en su soporte –no se borraría <strong>de</strong> sus archivos ni <strong>de</strong><br />

sus históricos- se evitará su divulgación indiscriminada, permanente y, en su caso, lesiva» (Fundamento <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho Décimo). Resolución <strong>de</strong> fecha 26 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2009, ya citada.<br />

17 Entre otras, <strong>la</strong>s Resoluciones <strong>de</strong> fecha 17 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2008, 31 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2008, 3 <strong>de</strong> septiembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2008, 4 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2008, 29 <strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2008. Asimismo también existen otras muchas<br />

resoluciones en <strong>la</strong>s que obliga a páginas webs privadas que eliminen datos personales obtenidos<br />

sin consentimiento. Todas <strong>la</strong>s resoluciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

consultarse en https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/resoluciones/in<strong>de</strong>x-i<strong>de</strong>s-idphp.php [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

18 Resolución <strong>de</strong> 30 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010, que se refería a datos que aparecían publicados en <strong>la</strong> página<br />

web <strong>de</strong>l Boletín oficial <strong>de</strong>l Estado: http://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/resoluciones/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos_2010/common/pdfs/TD-00754-2010_Resolucion-<strong>de</strong>-fecha-30-11-2010_<br />

Art-ii-culo-16-LoPD.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


378 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

ogle” en el que le insta a eliminar <strong>de</strong> sus resultados <strong>de</strong> búsquedas los datos correspondientes<br />

a los rec<strong>la</strong>mantes 19 .<br />

Sin embargo, “Google Spain S.L.” ha recurrido estas resoluciones ante <strong>la</strong> Audiencia<br />

Nacional por cuanto consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> mantener esos datos accesibles al<br />

público es <strong>de</strong> terceros ajenos. Así, en el curso <strong>de</strong>l procedimiento ordinario 211/2009 que<br />

se sigue a su instancia contra <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos, se ha dictado<br />

una Provi<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> fecha 22 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011 en el que <strong>la</strong> Sa<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> lo Contencioso Administrativo<br />

(Secc. 1) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Nacional acuerda el p<strong>la</strong>nteamiento <strong>de</strong> una cuestión<br />

prejudicial <strong>de</strong> interpretación ante el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea <strong>para</strong> que este<br />

Tribunal <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>re, entre otras cuestiones “Si <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> GooGLE, como buscador <strong>de</strong><br />

contenidos <strong>de</strong> terceras personas, pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse un tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos” y, por lo tanto,<br />

<strong>de</strong>be garantizar los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción y oposición, “Si <strong>la</strong> AEPD … pue<strong>de</strong> requerir a<br />

GooGLE <strong>para</strong> que cancele o bloquee <strong>la</strong> información, aun cuando su mantenimiento en<br />

<strong>la</strong> página <strong>de</strong> origen sea lícita, pero el solicitante consi<strong>de</strong>re que su aparición en los resultados<br />

<strong>de</strong> búsqueda atenta a su privacidad, dignidad o al <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido “ y, en <strong>de</strong>finitiva, “si <strong>la</strong><br />

AEPD … pue<strong>de</strong> requerir directamente al buscador, sin dirigirse previa o simultáneamente<br />

al webmaster <strong>para</strong> exigir <strong>la</strong> retirada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”. En <strong>la</strong> actualidad este procedimiento<br />

todavía no ha concluido.<br />

Pero también existen nuevas aplicaciones como «Street View», también <strong>de</strong> Google, que<br />

permite acce<strong>de</strong>r a imágenes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s calles <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s principales ciuda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l mundo o «Google<br />

Health» que preten<strong>de</strong> e<strong>la</strong>borar un banco <strong>de</strong> datos sanitarios, que han alertado a los responsables<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Agencias <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos 20 . De hecho, <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> Datos ha publicado en su página web que «ha obtenido garantías por parte <strong>de</strong> Google<br />

<strong>de</strong> que “Street View”... contaría con un sistema que anonimizará los rostros y matrícu<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong><br />

vehículos <strong>para</strong> evitar que los ciudadanos puedan ser i<strong>de</strong>ntificados» 21 .<br />

2.3. <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido y re<strong>de</strong>s sociales<br />

otra perspectiva <strong>de</strong>l problema <strong>de</strong>l anonimato en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> lo presenta <strong>la</strong> participación en<br />

<strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, tipo Facebook o Tuenti. En este último caso <strong>la</strong> diferencia más significativa<br />

consiste en que en estas re<strong>de</strong>s sociales los que ponen a disposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> sus datos<br />

personales son los propios internautas. De este modo nos encontramos con un principio <strong>de</strong><br />

19 La última Resolución es <strong>de</strong> fecha 7 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011. Cfr. http://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/<br />

resoluciones/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos/tute<strong>la</strong>_<strong>de</strong>rechos_2011/common/pdfs/TD-01239-2010_Resolucion<strong>de</strong>-fecha-07-04-2011_Art-ii-culo-16-LoPD.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

20 En un grado más incipiente <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo parece encontrarse <strong>otros</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> geolocalización como<br />

los vincu<strong>la</strong>dos a <strong>de</strong>terminados dispositivos móviles (Iphone, entre <strong>otros</strong>.<br />

21 Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos, Nota informativa. 21 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2008. Localización:<br />

https://www.agpd.es/portalweb/revista_prensa/revista_prensa/2008/notas_prensa/common/<br />

abril/210408_np_edpnp_google.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

379<br />

consentimiento otorgado expresa o tácitamente por <strong>la</strong> misma persona a <strong>la</strong> que se refieren sus<br />

datos personales.<br />

No obstante, se ha podido observar una utilización <strong>de</strong> esos datos mucho más intensa<br />

que <strong>la</strong> prevista inicialmente, que era <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> re<strong>la</strong>cionarse con otras personas en un ámbito más<br />

o menos cerrado. De tal modo que datos e información suministrada directa y personalmente<br />

por <strong>la</strong>s personas interesadas en sus propias cuentas personales <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> estas re<strong>de</strong>s sociales,<br />

con una finalidad <strong>de</strong> que sólo fueran accesibles a un círculo <strong>red</strong>ucido <strong>de</strong> sus conocidos, han<br />

sido finalmente accesibles a todo el mundo sin restricciones, con consecuencias diversas <strong>para</strong><br />

sus propietarios, bien por propia torpeza <strong>de</strong>l usuario a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> configurar <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong><br />

sus datos, o bien por dificulta<strong>de</strong>s inherente a <strong>la</strong> dinámica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia página <strong>de</strong> internet utilizada.<br />

Así, se han referido casos <strong>de</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> estos datos <strong>para</strong> seleccionar <strong>de</strong>mandantes<br />

<strong>de</strong> empleo, <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> fotografías personales <strong>de</strong> personajes conocidos 22 , o incluso,<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> comisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados <strong>de</strong>litos.<br />

Ello ha llevado a que los responsables <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s agencias <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos hayan hecho<br />

diversas recomendaciones a los propietarios <strong>de</strong> esas re<strong>de</strong>s sociales <strong>para</strong> limitar el daño que pudiera<br />

causarse a los ciudadanos por <strong>la</strong> proliferación <strong>de</strong> sus datos personales en este tipo <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

Así, por ejemplo, se ha recomendado que los responsables <strong>de</strong> estas páginas extremen el cuidado<br />

sobre el diseño <strong>de</strong> esas páginas, <strong>para</strong> garantizar al máximo <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los datos publicados,<br />

facilitar y divulgar entre los usuarios cuáles son los permisos <strong>de</strong> acceso a los mismos<br />

y su capacidad <strong>para</strong> modificarlos, sobre <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> que los usuarios puedan borrar con<br />

facilidad los datos o imágenes publicadas o, incluso, cance<strong>la</strong>r todo su perfil o su cuenta, que los<br />

motores <strong>de</strong> búsquedas no puedan acce<strong>de</strong>r a los datos personales publicados, etc.<br />

L<strong>la</strong>ma <strong>la</strong> atención, a<strong>de</strong>más, algunas recomendaciones, como <strong>la</strong> efectuada por <strong>la</strong> Agencia<br />

Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos en or<strong>de</strong>n a «limitar <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> etiquetado <strong>de</strong> los<br />

usuarios <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>de</strong> tal forma que cualquier persona etiquetada con su nombre,<br />

reciba automáticamente una solicitud <strong>de</strong> aceptación o rechazo, impidiendo en este caso <strong>la</strong><br />

publicación y tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos no autorizados» 23 . Tal etiquetado se realiza con gran asiduidad<br />

en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong>s fotografías subidas a <strong>la</strong>s cuentas <strong>de</strong> los usuarios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s distintas re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

sociales, <strong>de</strong> tal modo que, con gran facilidad, no sólo se pue<strong>de</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a los datos <strong>de</strong> personas<br />

concretas, sino también a su imagen, incluso sin su conocimiento o consentimiento 24 .<br />

22 Incluso con relevancia política, como fue el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> los datos y fotografías <strong>de</strong>l<br />

futuro responsable <strong>de</strong>l servicio secreto inglés. Más información en <strong>la</strong> página <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> BBC (en línea):<br />

http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ciencia_tecnologia/2009/07/090706_1328_mi6_facebook_sao.shtml<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

23 AGENCIA ESPAñoLA DE PRoTECCIÓN DE DAToS (2009) Estudio sobre <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos personales y <strong>la</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales on line. Madrid, Instituto Nacional <strong>de</strong><br />

Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación y <strong>la</strong> AEPD, pág. 149. Pue<strong>de</strong> consultarse en <strong>la</strong> siguiente dirección: https://<br />

www.agpd.es/portalweb/canaldocumentacion/publicaciones/common/Estudios/est_inteco_re<strong>de</strong>sso_022009.<br />

pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

24 Hay que seña<strong>la</strong>r que, aunque hay algunos intentos en este ámbito, los buscadores <strong>de</strong> internet todavía<br />

no pue<strong>de</strong>n buscar directamente en <strong>la</strong>s imágenes, sino que lo hacen en el texto asociado a <strong>la</strong>s mismas.


380 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Estas nuevas exigencias <strong>de</strong>rivadas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías asociadas a <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, ha llevado necesariamente a <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> reformar <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

básica <strong>de</strong> estas materias que se contemp<strong>la</strong>ba en <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong>l año 1995.<br />

3. <strong>la</strong> Posible reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> directiVa 95/46/ce <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> octubre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 1995 y su rePercusión en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el “<strong>de</strong>recHo al<br />

olVido”<br />

Como hemos seña<strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, supuso un importante paso a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte en<br />

cuanto a <strong>la</strong> normalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción europea en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos 25 ,<br />

aun cuando mantuvo sustanciales diferencias respecto <strong>de</strong>l Convenio 108 <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong><br />

Europa 26 . El objeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma, según disponía su artículo 1 consistía en reconocer <strong>la</strong><br />

obligación <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong> “garantizar”, en primer término, <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

liberta<strong>de</strong>s y <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, el <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

<strong>la</strong> intimidad en lo que respecta a los datos personales y, en segundo lugar, <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos personales entre los Estados miembros.<br />

El contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE se ha complementado con <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción establecida<br />

en el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (CE) nº 45/2001 <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 18<br />

<strong>de</strong> diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2000, re<strong>la</strong>tivo a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al<br />

tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales por <strong>la</strong>s instituciones y los organismos comunitarios y a <strong>la</strong><br />

Así el etiquetado, que pue<strong>de</strong> incluso estar hecho por terceros, es un elemento imprescindible <strong>para</strong><br />

localizar imágenes re<strong>la</strong>cionadas o en <strong>la</strong>s que aparecen personas concretas.<br />

25 Entre los estudios re<strong>la</strong>tivos a esta Directiva, pue<strong>de</strong>n citarse, sin pretensión <strong>de</strong> exhaustividad: ALoN-<br />

So BLAS, D. (1996): “El futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos a nivel europeo”, en DAVARA RoDRI-<br />

GUEZ, M.A. (Coord.) “Encuentros sobre Informática y Derecho (1995-1996). Pamplona: Aranzadi;<br />

BELLO JANEIRO, D. (2001): “La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal en el Derecho comunitario”,<br />

Anuario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Coruña, nº 5; BRU CUADRADA, E. (2007):<br />

“La protección <strong>de</strong> datos en España y en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea. Especial referencia a los mecanismos jurídicos <strong>de</strong><br />

reacción frente a <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad”, Revista <strong>de</strong> Internet, Derecho y Política, nº 5;<br />

GUERRERO PICÓ, Mª C. (2006): “El impacto <strong>de</strong> internet en el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal”. Thomson-Civitas; HEREDERO HIGUERAS, M. (1997): “La Directiva comunitaria<br />

<strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal (Comentario a <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo<br />

y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo 95/46/CE, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al tratamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos)”. Pamplona: Aranzadi; HERRÁN ORTIZ, A.I.<br />

(2001): “La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”, en REDI, nº 39,<br />

PRIETO GUTIÉRREZ, J.Mª. (1997): “La Directiva 95/46/CE como criterio unificador”, Po<strong>de</strong>r Judicial,<br />

nº 48; SÁNCHEZ BRAVO, A. (1998): “La protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad informática en <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea”. Sevil<strong>la</strong>: Universidad <strong>de</strong> Sevil<strong>la</strong>; VIGURI PEREA, A. (1999): “Intimidad versus informática<br />

(La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal: perspectiva <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el <strong>de</strong>recho com<strong>para</strong>do)”, La Ley, Tomo <strong>de</strong><br />

Jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia 2/<br />

26 Vid., al respecto <strong>la</strong> Memoria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> 1995.


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

381<br />

libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos27 , con lo dispuesto en <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 12 <strong>de</strong> julio, re<strong>la</strong>tiva al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales<br />

y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas28 , y con<br />

<strong>la</strong> Decisión <strong>de</strong>l Consejo Europeo nº 2008/977/JHA <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2008, sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos personales en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cooperación policial y judicial en<br />

materias penales29 .<br />

Quince años <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aprobación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea,<br />

a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y<br />

Social y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones, titu<strong>la</strong>da “Un enfoque global <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos<br />

personales en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea” 30 , reconoce que si bien el objetivo al que respondía “sigue<br />

teniendo vigencia”, y los principios que consagra “siguen siendo válidos”, lo cierto es que<br />

<strong>la</strong> rápida evolución tecnológica y <strong>la</strong> globalización “han modificado profundamente nuestro<br />

medio y han <strong>la</strong>nzado nuevos <strong>retos</strong>” en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales.<br />

Al mismo tiempo, “los métodos <strong>de</strong> recogida” <strong>de</strong> los datos personales son cada vez más<br />

complejos y se <strong>de</strong>tectan con mayor dificultad, siendo utilizados tanto por organizaciones y/o<br />

empresas privadas como públicas.<br />

Tales consi<strong>de</strong>raciones p<strong>la</strong>ntean, a juicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión, <strong>la</strong> cuestión acerca <strong>de</strong> si <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

actual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales permite<br />

hacer frente “plena y eficazmente” a estos nuevos <strong>retos</strong>.<br />

Con objeto <strong>de</strong> respon<strong>de</strong>r a esta cuestión, <strong>la</strong> Comisión inició un estudio <strong>de</strong>l marco<br />

jurídico actual a través <strong>de</strong> una Conferencia <strong>de</strong> alto nivel en mayo <strong>de</strong> 2009, seguida <strong>de</strong> una<br />

consulta pública hasta finales <strong>de</strong> ese mismo año. Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> 2010 tuvieron<br />

lugar consultas más específicas y <strong>la</strong> Vicepresi<strong>de</strong>nta Viviane Reding presidió una reunión <strong>de</strong><br />

alto nivel con <strong>la</strong>s partes interesadas, celebrada en Bruse<strong>la</strong>s el 5 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2010, a<strong>de</strong>más<br />

<strong>de</strong> consultar al Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 2931 , tomando en consi<strong>de</strong>ración, así mismo,<br />

27 Do L 8/1 <strong>de</strong> 12.1.2001.<br />

28 Do L 201 <strong>de</strong> 31.7.2002, p. 37. Modificada por <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2009/136/CE (Do L 201 <strong>de</strong> 18.12.2009,<br />

p.11).<br />

29 Do L 350/60 <strong>de</strong> 30.12.2008.<br />

30 CoM (2010) 609 final.<br />

31 Dicha consulta concluyó con <strong>la</strong> e<strong>la</strong>boración <strong>de</strong>l Documento sobre “El futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad” (WP<br />

168) y el Dictamen 3/2010, sobre el principio <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> julio (00062/10/ES) GT<br />

173.<br />

En dicho Dictamen se p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> “progresar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> teoría a <strong>la</strong> práctica” en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales, sugiriendo a <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>la</strong> introducción <strong>de</strong>l “principio <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad”<br />

en <strong>la</strong> posible revisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, lo que, a juicio <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong><br />

Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29, contribuiría a reforzar “el papel <strong>de</strong>l responsable <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos”,<br />

aumentando sus competencias (vid., pg. 3). El texto pue<strong>de</strong> consultarse en:<br />

http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2010/wp173_es.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


382 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

el Study on the economic benefits of privacy enhancing technologies 32 y el Com<strong>para</strong>tive study on<br />

different approaches to new privacy challenges, in particu<strong>la</strong>r in the light of technological <strong>de</strong>velopments<br />

33 .<br />

Entre <strong>otros</strong> aspectos, <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión “Un enfoque global <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos personales en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”, p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> c<strong>la</strong>rificar el<br />

<strong>de</strong>nominado “<strong>de</strong>recho a ser olvidado”, que <strong>de</strong>fine como “el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas a que<br />

sus datos no se traten y se supriman cuando <strong>de</strong>jan <strong>de</strong> ser necesarios con fines legítimos”, es<br />

<strong>de</strong>cir, en el caso en que <strong>la</strong> persona “retira su consentimiento al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos” o <strong>de</strong><br />

que “haya expirado el p<strong>la</strong>zo” <strong>de</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong> los mismos34 .<br />

De entre los numerosos documentos dirigidos a <strong>la</strong> Comisión por parte <strong>de</strong> particu<strong>la</strong>res,<br />

entida<strong>de</strong>s y organizaciones privadas e instituciones públicas <strong>de</strong> los Estados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea35<br />

, <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> aquellos que entran a valorar este aspecto coinci<strong>de</strong>n en reconocer <strong>la</strong> necesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> c<strong>la</strong>rificar jurídicamente el <strong>de</strong>nominado “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido”, aunque con algunas<br />

matizaciones respecto a <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> que dicho esc<strong>la</strong>recimiento requiera, necesariamente,<br />

<strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE.<br />

A este respecto, y sin pretensión <strong>de</strong> exhaustividad, pue<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>stacarse <strong>la</strong> Contribución <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos (AEPD), encargada <strong>de</strong> ejercer <strong>la</strong>s funciones que<br />

le encomienda el artículo 37.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, <strong>de</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal. En su opinión, <strong>la</strong> aplicación conjunta <strong>de</strong>l principio según<br />

el cual todo consentimiento “pue<strong>de</strong> ser revocado” y el contenido <strong>de</strong> los artículos 6.1.c) 36 ,<br />

12.b) 37 y 1438 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, constituyen mecanismos que, “a<strong>de</strong>cuadamente<br />

32 London Economics, julio <strong>de</strong> 2010. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/studies/final_report_pets_16_07_10_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

33 Enero <strong>de</strong> 2010. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/studies/new_privacy_challenges/<br />

final_report_en.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

34 Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y Social<br />

Europeo y al Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones “Un enfoque global <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos personales en<br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”. op. cit., pg. 8.<br />

35 El texto <strong>de</strong> todas <strong>la</strong>s contribuciones remitidas a <strong>la</strong> Comisión en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> consulta, incluidas <strong>la</strong>s<br />

citadas en <strong>la</strong>s páginas que siguen, pue<strong>de</strong>n encontrarse en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/news_consulting_0006_en.htm<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

36 El artículo 6.1. c) dispone que los Estados miembros “dispondrán” que los datos personales sean: “c)<br />

A<strong>de</strong>cuados, pertinentes y no excesivos con re<strong>la</strong>ción a los fines <strong>para</strong> los que se recaben y <strong>para</strong> los que se traten<br />

posteriormente”.<br />

37 Por su parte, el artículo 12. b) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva citada establece que los Estados miembros “garantizarán”<br />

a todos los interesados el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> obtener <strong>de</strong>l responsable <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento: “b) En su caso, <strong>la</strong> rectificación,<br />

<strong>la</strong> supresión o el bloqueo efectuado <strong>de</strong> conformidad con <strong>la</strong> letra b), si no resulta imposible o supone un<br />

esfuerzo <strong>de</strong>sproporcionado”.<br />

38 Según el artículo 14 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva, los Estados miembros “reconocerán al interesado el <strong>de</strong>recho” a:<br />

a) “oponerse”, al menos en los casos contemp<strong>la</strong>dos en <strong>la</strong>s letras e) y f) <strong>de</strong>l artículo 7, en cualquier momento<br />

y por razones legítimas propias <strong>de</strong> su situación particu<strong>la</strong>r, “a que los datos que le conciernan sean


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

383<br />

combinados”, <strong>de</strong>berían “permitir un ejercicio efectivo” <strong>de</strong>l l<strong>la</strong>mado “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido”. No<br />

obstante, entien<strong>de</strong> que el marco jurídico comunitario “<strong>de</strong>be c<strong>la</strong>rificar <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l<br />

ejercicio <strong>de</strong> dicho <strong>de</strong>recho a través <strong>de</strong> medidas <strong>de</strong> obligado cumplimiento <strong>para</strong> los responsables<br />

<strong>de</strong>l tratamiento” que ofrezcan garantías sobre <strong>la</strong> sencillez en su ejercicio, <strong>la</strong> adopción<br />

<strong>de</strong> tecnologías “que impidan <strong>la</strong> in<strong>de</strong>xación” <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal por motores <strong>de</strong><br />

búsqueda y “su aplicación efectiva” en p<strong>la</strong>zos perentorios39 .<br />

Un criterio que contrasta con el expresado por el Consejo <strong>de</strong> Inspección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong><br />

Suecia40 que, sin hacer referencia en concreto al “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido”, subraya <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong><br />

que el or<strong>de</strong>namiento comunitario proceda a una adaptación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos personales <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos particu<strong>la</strong>res que tome en consi<strong>de</strong>ración lo dispuesto<br />

en el artículo 3.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE que, como es conocido, establece una excepción<br />

a <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma respecto <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales “efectuado por una<br />

persona física en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s exclusivamente personales o domésticas” 41 , dado<br />

que esta excepción ha sido interpretada por el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea en<br />

el sentido <strong>de</strong> que “contemp<strong>la</strong> únicamente <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s que se inscriben en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

vida privada o familiar <strong>de</strong> los particu<strong>la</strong>res” y, por lo tanto, no alcanza al “tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

personales consistente en <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> dichos datos por Internet <strong>de</strong> modo que resulten<br />

accesibles a un grupo in<strong>de</strong>terminado <strong>de</strong> personas” 42 .<br />

objeto <strong>de</strong> tratamiento”, salvo cuando <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción nacional disponga otra cosa. En caso <strong>de</strong> oposición<br />

justificada, el tratamiento que efectúe el responsable no podrá referirse ya a esos datos;<br />

b) “oponerse”, previa petición y sin gastos, “al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal que le conciernan<br />

respecto <strong>de</strong> los cuales el responsable prevea un tratamiento <strong>de</strong>stinado a <strong>la</strong> prospección”; o “ser informado”<br />

antes <strong>de</strong> que los datos se comuniquen por primera vez a terceros o se usen en nombre <strong>de</strong> éstos a<br />

efectos <strong>de</strong> prospección, y a que se le ofrezca expresamente, el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oponerse, sin gastos, a dicha<br />

comunicación o utilización.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, los Estados miembros “adoptarán todas <strong>la</strong>s medidas necesarias <strong>para</strong> garantizar que los interesados<br />

conozcan <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a que se refiere el párrafo primero <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> letra b)”.<br />

39 Vid. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/<br />

aepd_dpa_es.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

40 Vid. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/<br />

41<br />

data_inspection_board_en.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

El artículo 3.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE establece: “Las disposiciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> presente Directiva no se<br />

aplicarán al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales:<br />

- efectuado en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s no comprendidas en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong>l Derecho comunitario,<br />

como <strong>la</strong>s previstas por <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones <strong>de</strong> los títulos V y VI <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea y, en<br />

cualquier caso, al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos que tenga por objeto <strong>la</strong> seguridad pública, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa, <strong>la</strong> seguridad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Estado (incluido el bienestar económico <strong>de</strong>l Estado cuando dicho tratamiento esté re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong><br />

seguridad <strong>de</strong>l Estado) y <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l Estado en materia penal;<br />

- efectuado por una persona física en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s exclusivamente personales o domésticas”.<br />

42 Sentencia <strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2003. Asunto C-101/01, Lindqvist, apartado 47. Vid. http://curia.<br />

europa.eu/jurisp/cgi-bin/form.pl?<strong>la</strong>ng=es [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011.


384 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Por su parte, el Comisionado Informativo <strong>de</strong> Gran Bretaña (ICUK), responsable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

promoción y aplicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> 1998 y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Libertad<br />

<strong>de</strong> Información <strong>de</strong> 2000, consi<strong>de</strong>ra <strong>de</strong> “especial relevancia” el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” en re<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

a los conceptos <strong>de</strong> consentimiento y transparencia respecto a los datos personales. En opinión<br />

<strong>de</strong> dicho Comisionado, resulta importante que <strong>la</strong> Comisión c<strong>la</strong>rifique <strong>la</strong> extensión <strong>de</strong>l<br />

“<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” en <strong>la</strong> práctica, en tanto que, según afirma, existen situaciones en <strong>la</strong>s que<br />

éste pue<strong>de</strong> estar sujeto a limitaciones, como es el caso <strong>de</strong> los datos personales utilizados por<br />

los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos. Unas circunstancias limitadoras que, en su opinión, no concurren en<br />

re<strong>la</strong>ción con el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos con fines <strong>de</strong> marketing. A su juicio, es conveniente que<br />

<strong>la</strong> futura reforma no imponga <strong>la</strong> “cance<strong>la</strong>ción” en aquellos ámbitos en los que <strong>la</strong> “ocultación”<br />

actualmente ya permite garantizar <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos individuales.<br />

En efecto, el ICUK estima que en ciertas situaciones el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” podría<br />

aplicarse correctamente en <strong>la</strong> práctica, como aquel<strong>la</strong>s en <strong>la</strong> que un individuo <strong>de</strong>sea borrar<br />

sus registros <strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong> social en internet, pero estas situaciones, estima, “son limitadas”. Lo<br />

esencial, afirma, es que los individuos “conozcan <strong>la</strong> naturaleza y <strong>la</strong> extensión <strong>de</strong> sus <strong>de</strong>rechos”<br />

y que esos <strong>de</strong>rechos sean “recopi<strong>la</strong>dos <strong>de</strong> un modo no engañoso” <strong>para</strong> el individuo. En este<br />

sentido, el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” admite posibilida<strong>de</strong>s que quizás no son fácilmente accesibles<br />

<strong>para</strong> el individuo, o que, en <strong>de</strong>terminados casos, “pue<strong>de</strong>n ir contra sus <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

fundamentales”. No obstante, reconoce que podrían existir, en <strong>la</strong> práctica, “dificulta<strong>de</strong>s tecnológicas”<br />

<strong>para</strong> ejercer este <strong>de</strong>recho en ciertas circunstancias, como cuando <strong>la</strong> información<br />

es accesible públicamente a través <strong>de</strong> internet 43 .<br />

Más concretamente, el representante <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Privacidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> Bélgica pone <strong>de</strong> manifiesto <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> realizar una “pon<strong>de</strong>ración” entre el “<strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al olvido” y <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> almacenar información <strong>de</strong> carácter esencialmente histórico<br />

y cultural. En este sentido, afirma que <strong>la</strong> recopi<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> datos en archivos <strong>de</strong>dicados a <strong>la</strong> investigación<br />

histórica <strong>de</strong>be ser fomentada y tratada como instrumento válido <strong>de</strong> conservación<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos dada <strong>la</strong> utilidad operativa <strong>de</strong> los mismos, <strong>de</strong> ahí que no se encuentre “justificada”,<br />

en su opinión, <strong>la</strong> divergencia a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> aplicar “cance<strong>la</strong>ciones” entre <strong>la</strong>s operaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos realizadas con fines periodísticos y con fines históricos, dado que<br />

ambos objetivos protegen el mismo valor jurídico: “<strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> información” 44 .<br />

En opinión <strong>de</strong>l Gobierno Fe<strong>de</strong>ral alemán se <strong>de</strong>be proce<strong>de</strong>r a una c<strong>la</strong>ra distinción entre<br />

los términos “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” y “<strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción”. En re<strong>la</strong>ción con el primero,<br />

los requisitos relevantes <strong>de</strong>berían ser c<strong>la</strong>ramente <strong>de</strong>finidos, <strong>de</strong>l mismo modo que <strong>de</strong>bería<br />

especificarse “contra quién” pue<strong>de</strong> alegarse este <strong>de</strong>recho. Del mismo modo, afirma, también<br />

<strong>de</strong>berían ser especificadas <strong>la</strong>s excepciones al mismo, al tiempo que <strong>de</strong>bería examinarse <strong>la</strong><br />

proce<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> consagrar este <strong>de</strong>recho en una norma jurídica que –como <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong><br />

43 Vid. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/<br />

ico_infocommoffice_en.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]<br />

44 Vid. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/<br />

cpvp_en.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011]


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

385<br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos- podría excluir <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s personales y familiares <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos.<br />

En última instancia, estima que <strong>de</strong>be ser tomada en consi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>la</strong> aplicación técnica <strong>de</strong><br />

tales medidas. En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, el Gobierno Fe<strong>de</strong>ral alemán manifiesta un gran interés en <strong>la</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> una “fecha <strong>de</strong> expiración <strong>de</strong> los datos” (“expiry date for data”), aunque consi<strong>de</strong>ra que<br />

<strong>la</strong> aplicación técnica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma constituye un gran cambio 45 .<br />

En última instancia, en opinión <strong>de</strong>l Supervisor Europeo <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos<br />

(EDPS), el concepto <strong>de</strong>l “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” está conectado con el “<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> portabilidad”<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos, según se <strong>de</strong>spren<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión -“Un enfoque<br />

global <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos personales en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”-, dirigida a reforzar los<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. En su opinión, resultan conceptos “complementarios”<br />

a los principios ya mencionados por <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, que protegen el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y establecen <strong>la</strong> obligación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l responsable <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> “cance<strong>la</strong>r información” tan pronto como y no más allá<br />

<strong>de</strong>l tiempo necesario en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el propósito <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales 46 .<br />

Estas dos “nuevos conceptos”, estima, tienen un “valor añadido” en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, don<strong>de</strong> cada vez se recopi<strong>la</strong> una mayor cantidad <strong>de</strong> datos y se<br />

retienen por periodos in<strong>de</strong>finidos <strong>de</strong> tiempo. La práctica muestra que, aunque los datos sean<br />

proporcionados por el propio titu<strong>la</strong>r, el “grado <strong>de</strong> control” efectivo <strong>de</strong> éste sobre sus datos<br />

personales es “muy limitado”. Esta es <strong>la</strong> realidad en lo que respecta, actualmente, a Internet.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, “<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una perspectiva económica”, resulta más costoso <strong>para</strong> el responsable <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos su cance<strong>la</strong>ción que su almacenaje, <strong>de</strong> tal modo que los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los individuos a<br />

este respecto chocan contra <strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia natural <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> economía 47 .<br />

En cualquier caso, ambos <strong>de</strong>rechos (el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” y el “<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> portabilidad”)<br />

podrían contribuir a “<strong>de</strong>cantar <strong>la</strong> ba<strong>la</strong>nza” a favor <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los datos. El objetivo<br />

<strong>de</strong>l “<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> portabilidad” <strong>de</strong> los datos podría ser el <strong>de</strong> proporcionar un mayor control<br />

a los individuos acerca <strong>de</strong> su información, mientras que el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” podría garantizar<br />

que <strong>la</strong> información <strong>de</strong>saparezca automáticamente transcurrido un periodo <strong>de</strong> tiempo,<br />

aun cuando el titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los datos no haya actuado o no sea todavía consciente <strong>de</strong> que los<br />

datos han sido almacenados 48 .<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> esta perspectiva, una “nueva codificación” <strong>de</strong>l “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” podría asegurar<br />

<strong>la</strong> “cance<strong>la</strong>ción” <strong>de</strong> los datos personales o <strong>la</strong> “prohibición <strong>de</strong> utilizarlos”, sin necesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> una actuación <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los datos, pero con <strong>la</strong> condición <strong>de</strong> que los datos hayan sido<br />

45 Vid. http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/<br />

46<br />

bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung_en.pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

Vid. Apartado 83, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

47 Vid. Apartado 84, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

48 Vid. Apartado 85, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


386 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

objeto <strong>de</strong> almacenamiento durante un cierto periodo <strong>de</strong> tiempo. En otras pa<strong>la</strong>bras, podría<br />

atribuirse a los datos una especie <strong>de</strong> “fecha <strong>de</strong> expiración”.<br />

Este “principio”, afirma el Supervisor Europeo, se encuentra ya reconocido en sentencias<br />

judiciales nacionales o aplicado a sectores específicos, como por ejemplo, expedientes<br />

policiales, antece<strong>de</strong>ntes criminales o expedientes disciplinarios 49 .<br />

Es en este sentido en el que un “nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” podría conectarse con <strong>la</strong><br />

“portabilidad <strong>de</strong> los datos”. El “valor añadido” que ello proporcionaría consiste en que no<br />

requeriría solicitud o requerimiento por parte <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>para</strong> que éstos fueran<br />

“cance<strong>la</strong>dos”, en tanto que <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción se produciría <strong>de</strong> un modo “automático”. Sólo en<br />

circunstancias específicas en <strong>la</strong>s que estuviera establecida <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> prolongar <strong>la</strong> conservación<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos, el responsable <strong>de</strong> los datos podría tener <strong>de</strong>recho a retenerlos. El “<strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al olvido” podría entonces “invertir <strong>la</strong> carga <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> prueba” <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el individuo al responsable<br />

<strong>de</strong> los datos, y construir una “privacidad por <strong>de</strong>fecto” en el ámbito <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos personales50 .<br />

En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, el Supervisor Europeo <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos consi<strong>de</strong>ra que el “<strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al olvido” podría resultar especialmente útil en el contexto <strong>de</strong> los servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información. La existencia o no <strong>de</strong> una “obligación <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>r” <strong>la</strong> información tras un<br />

periodo <strong>de</strong> tiempo <strong>de</strong>terminado tiene sentido especialmente en re<strong>la</strong>ción con los medios <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicación y con Internet, y notablemente en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales.<br />

Del mismo modo, afirma, podría ser útil en <strong>la</strong> medida en que sean accesibles los<br />

terminales <strong>de</strong> los equipos, <strong>de</strong> manera que los datos almacenados en dispositivos u or<strong>de</strong>nadores<br />

móviles podrían ser “automáticamente cance<strong>la</strong>dos” o “bloqueados” tras un<br />

periodo <strong>de</strong>terminado <strong>de</strong> tiempo cuando ya no estén en posesión <strong>de</strong>l individuo. En este<br />

sentido, el “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” pue<strong>de</strong> traducirse en una “privacidad <strong>de</strong>liberadamente”<br />

obligada 51 .<br />

Por su parte, el Consejo Europeo, en <strong>la</strong> reunión 3071st Justicia y Política Interior (24 y<br />

25 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011), ha adoptado un conjunto <strong>de</strong> conclusiones acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> mencionada<br />

Comunicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión, don<strong>de</strong> reconoce que, dada <strong>la</strong> diferente transposición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Directiva <strong>de</strong> 1995 re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales por los Estados miembros,<br />

una armonización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos al más alto nivel “sería beneficiosa tanto <strong>para</strong> los<br />

titu<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong> los datos como <strong>para</strong> los responsables <strong>de</strong> los mismos” 52 .<br />

49 Vid. Apartado 88, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

50 Vid. Apartado 89, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

51 Vid. Apartado 90, en http://ec.europa.eu/justice/news/consulting_public/0006/contributions/public_authorities/edps_en.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

52 Vid. Punto 11 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/jha/119461.<br />

pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

387<br />

En este sentido, afirma, <strong>la</strong> revisión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos, tomando<br />

como base lo establecido en el artículo 16 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> Funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea ofrece, entre <strong>otros</strong> aspectos, “una oportunidad <strong>para</strong> mejorar los procedimientos <strong>de</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> los datos” 53 , por lo que, “anima” a <strong>la</strong> Comisión a “explorar <strong>la</strong> introducción<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, como un instrumento legal innovador, en <strong>la</strong> medida en que <strong>la</strong>s nuevas<br />

tecnologías posibiliten el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> dicho <strong>de</strong>recho” 54 .<br />

4. conclusiones<br />

En <strong>de</strong>finitiva, po<strong>de</strong>mos concluir que el acelerado <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y <strong>la</strong> creciente complejidad técnica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tecnologías asociadas a su <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ntean nuevos <strong>retos</strong> en nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>mocráticas. Estos nuevos <strong>retos</strong> aparecen<br />

en dos líneas re<strong>la</strong>tivamente convergentes: por un <strong>la</strong>do, es necesario <strong>la</strong> re<strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos tradicionalmente construidos entre nos<strong>otros</strong>, sobre todo en lo que se refiere<br />

a los <strong>de</strong>rechos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> expresión o el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> información<br />

y su posibles conflictos con el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal o a <strong>la</strong> propia<br />

imagen; y, por otro, como respuesta a nuevos peligros que amenacen <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

ciudadanos, es necesario <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos que <strong>la</strong> sigan garantizando, entre<br />

ellos po<strong>de</strong>mos citar el <strong>de</strong>recho al anonimato en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> o, en el caso que aquí nos ocupa,<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido.<br />

Concretamente, en re<strong>la</strong>ción a este último <strong>de</strong>recho, hemos reflejado en <strong>la</strong>s páginas<br />

anteriores <strong>la</strong>s repuestas que se han ofrecido <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong><br />

Datos que, aunque suponen un primer intento <strong>de</strong> am<strong>para</strong>r a los ciudadano en este <strong>de</strong>recho,<br />

no <strong>de</strong>jan <strong>de</strong> ser re<strong>la</strong>tivamente insatisfactorias, ya que se han centrado en hacer<br />

responsable especialmente al buscador “Google”, <strong>de</strong>jando un poco al margen <strong>de</strong> sus resoluciones<br />

a los responsables originarios <strong>de</strong> volcar esa información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> (probablemente<br />

porque en numerosas ocasiones el responsable es una institución pública). Esta respuesta<br />

aparece, como poco, parcial, ya que no afronta el principal problema –que es como hemos<br />

seña<strong>la</strong>do- el <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s fuentes originales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y, por otra<br />

parte, porque al centrar en un único buscador <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> ocultar los resultados<br />

<strong>de</strong> sus búsquedas, <strong>de</strong>ja <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>do a <strong>otros</strong> buscadores que, en este mismo momento, también<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n in<strong>de</strong>xar y exponer en sus resultados <strong>la</strong> información conflictiva o buscadores que<br />

puedan surgir en el futuro.<br />

La insatisfacción que conlleva esta solución ha obligado a <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea a afrontar<br />

iniciativas <strong>para</strong> lograr un nuevo avance en esta materia. Aunque hemos recogido <strong>la</strong>s posibles<br />

líneas <strong>de</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> estas nuevas regu<strong>la</strong>ciones, no po<strong>de</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>jar <strong>de</strong> poner <strong>de</strong> manifiesto<br />

53 Vid. Punto 3 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/jha/119461.pdf<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

54 Vid. Punto 22 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/jha/119461.<br />

pdf [Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


388 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>la</strong> multiplicidad <strong>de</strong> soluciones aportadas y <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s técnicas indudables que presentan<br />

algunas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s aportadas.<br />

5. bibliografÍa<br />

Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos (2009) Estudio sobre <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> los datos<br />

personales y <strong>la</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales on line. Madrid, Instituto<br />

Nacional <strong>de</strong> Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicación y <strong>la</strong> AEPD.<br />

Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos, Memoria, diversos años. Accesibles en: https://<br />

www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/canaldocumentacion/memorias/in<strong>de</strong>x-i<strong>de</strong>s-idphp.php<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo, 2011]<br />

Alonso B<strong>la</strong>s, D. (1996): “El futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos a nivel europeo”, en DAVARA<br />

RoDRIGUEZ, M.A. (Coord.) “Encuentros sobre Informática y Derecho (1995-1996).<br />

Pamplona: Aranzadi.<br />

Bello Janeiro, D. (2001): “La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal en el Derecho<br />

comunitario”, Anuario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Facultad <strong>de</strong> Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Coruña, nº 5.<br />

Bru Cuadrada, E. (2007): “La protección <strong>de</strong> datos en España y en <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea.<br />

Especial referencia a los mecanismos jurídicos <strong>de</strong> reacción frente a <strong>la</strong> vulneración <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad”, Revista <strong>de</strong> Internet, Derecho y Política, nº 5.<br />

Corral Talciani, H. (2000) «Configuración jurídica <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> privacidad II: Concepto<br />

y <strong>de</strong>limitación». Revista Chilena <strong>de</strong> Derecho, vol. 27 núm. 2, págs. 331-355<br />

Dubié, P. (2003) «Protección <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido», Derecho <strong>de</strong> los negocios, Año nº<br />

14, Nº 154-155, págs. 1-16<br />

Ferrando Vil<strong>la</strong>lba, Mª L. ( 2.000), La información <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Entida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> Crédito. Estudio<br />

especial <strong>de</strong> los informes comerciales bancarios Valencia ,Ed. Tirant lo B<strong>la</strong>nch.<br />

Garriga Domínguez, A. (2004) Tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales.<br />

Madrid, Dykinson<br />

Guerrero Picó, Mª C. (2006): “El impacto <strong>de</strong> internet en el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal”. Thomson-Civitas.<br />

Here<strong>de</strong>ro Higueras, M. (1997): “La Directiva comunitaria <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong><br />

carácter personal (Comentario a <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo 95/46/<br />

CE, re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos)”. Pamplona: Aranzadi.<br />

Herrán ortiz, A.I. (2001): “La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Unión Europea”, en REDI, nº 39.<br />

Mayer-Schönberger, V. (2010): Delete. Il diritto all’oblio nell’era digitale. Mi<strong>la</strong>n: Egea.<br />

orwell, G. (1949) 1984. 1ª edición 1952, Barcelona: Ed. P<strong>la</strong>neta<br />

orza Linares, R. M. (2009) “¿Es posible <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales<br />

asociados a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación?”. Ponencia


el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

389<br />

presentada al IV Congreso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cibersociedad: Crisis analógica, futuro digital. Accesible<br />

en: http://www.cibersociedad.net/congres2009/es/coms/es-posible-<strong>la</strong>-creacion-<strong>de</strong>nuevos-<strong>de</strong>rechos-fundamentales-asociados-a-<strong>la</strong>s-nuevas-tecnologias-<strong>de</strong>-<strong>la</strong>-informacion-y-<strong>de</strong>-<strong>la</strong>-comunicacion/991/.<br />

[Consulta: 10 <strong>de</strong> mayo, 2011].<br />

Pace, A. (1998) «El <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen en <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> los mass media» Revista<br />

Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional, núm. 52, pags. 33-52<br />

Prieto Gutiérrez, J.Mª. (1997): “La Directiva 95/46/CE como criterio unificador”, Po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

Judicial, nº 48.<br />

Sánchez Bravo, A. (1998): “La protección <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> libertad informática en <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea”. Sevil<strong>la</strong>: Universidad <strong>de</strong> Sevil<strong>la</strong>.<br />

Viguri Perea, A. (1999): “Intimidad versus informática (La protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal: perspectiva <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el <strong>de</strong>recho com<strong>para</strong>do)”, La Ley, Tomo <strong>de</strong> Jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia 2.


21<br />

el régImeN CONstItUCIONAl Del DereCHO<br />

Al OlVIDO eN INterNet<br />

Pere Simón Castel<strong>la</strong>no<br />

Becario <strong>de</strong> investigación (BR) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universitat <strong>de</strong> Girona<br />

AbstrAct: El avance tecnológico acaecido durante <strong>la</strong>s últimas décadas ha transformado a los seres<br />

humanos en seres <strong>de</strong> cristal, transparentes, cada vez más expuestos a ojos extraños en su vida cotidiana.<br />

Internet y <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales son el <strong>para</strong>digma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> exposición pública <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s vidas privadas. A<strong>de</strong>más,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías han alterado por completo el proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación pública; hoy, cualquier<br />

persona pue<strong>de</strong> difundir información <strong>de</strong> manera ilimitada, con un alcance potencial superior al <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

prensa, <strong>la</strong> radio o <strong>la</strong> televisión, y con <strong>la</strong> c<strong>red</strong>ibilidad que pue<strong>de</strong> suponerse, ingenuamente, a <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

interpersonales. En ese marco <strong>de</strong> difusión e intercambio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, los riesgos <strong>para</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> intimidad y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal se han visto multiplicados. Uno <strong>de</strong> los<br />

gran<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>safíos que nos p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> está directamente re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> borrar<br />

<strong>la</strong> información que allí se publica y comparte, en concreto, aquel<strong>la</strong> que pue<strong>de</strong> afectar a <strong>la</strong> reputación<br />

e hipotecar el futuro <strong>de</strong> los ciberusuarios. Especialmente peligrosos son los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda<br />

que operan en Internet, que acumu<strong>la</strong>n gran<strong>de</strong>s cantida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> combinan con una<br />

tecnología que permite, con una búsqueda re<strong>la</strong>tivamente sencil<strong>la</strong>, observar todo aquello que <strong>la</strong> web<br />

contiene sobre <strong>de</strong>terminadas personas. En este trabajo p<strong>la</strong>ntearemos los términos <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate sobre el<br />

encaje constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet, observando en que medida este se inspira en<br />

los principios y <strong>de</strong>rechos que emanan <strong>de</strong> nuestra carta magna.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: Internet, nuevas tecnologías, web 2.0, protección <strong>de</strong> datos, <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital.<br />

1. introducción y terminologÍa<br />

En <strong>la</strong>s últimas décadas, <strong>la</strong>s potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>la</strong><br />

Comunicación (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte, TIC) han supuesto un notorio cambio <strong>de</strong> <strong>para</strong>digma en el<br />

proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación pública. Hoy en día, Internet permite una comunicación global,<br />

multidireccional y horizontal; ha eliminado en gran medida <strong>la</strong>s barreras espacio temporales<br />

en <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s trabas <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r compartir y publicar información.<br />

Las nuevas tecnologías conllevan así profundas transformaciones sociales que significan, <strong>de</strong><br />

un <strong>la</strong>do, nuevas oportunida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> dotar <strong>de</strong> mayor efectividad a <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas<br />

y al i<strong>de</strong>al <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia <strong>de</strong>liberativa; <strong>de</strong>l otro, ingentes <strong>de</strong>safíos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal,<br />

más aún si tenemos en cuenta <strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia sociológica <strong>de</strong> procesar públicamente <strong>la</strong> vida<br />

privada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas 1 .<br />

1 “Los <strong>de</strong>bates en <strong>la</strong> televisión son más importantes que los <strong>de</strong>bates en el par<strong>la</strong>mento. El mundo político,<br />

los partidos, par<strong>la</strong>mentos, sindicatos, siguen siendo los agentes centrales <strong>de</strong>l procesamiento público<br />

<strong>de</strong> los problemas públicos. Los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong> masa se <strong>de</strong>dican al proceso público <strong>de</strong> los


392 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Precisamente, uno <strong>de</strong> los riesgos más peligrosos tanto <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad como <strong>para</strong> el<br />

honor y <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas es <strong>la</strong> perpetuidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que se comparte<br />

y publica en Internet. La <strong>red</strong> es capaz <strong>de</strong> almacenar toda <strong>la</strong> información –texto, imagen,<br />

sonido, etc.– que en el<strong>la</strong> se comparte y procesar<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> tal manera que sea realmente sencillo<br />

acce<strong>de</strong>r universalmente a <strong>la</strong> misma. Pensamos, por ejemplo, en el efecto multiplicador <strong>de</strong><br />

los buscadores web o en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, don<strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos exponen libremente datos<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tivos a su vida privada y opiniones que en un futuro pue<strong>de</strong>n ser realmente embarazosas.<br />

En <strong>otros</strong> términos, Internet podría suponer el fin <strong>de</strong>l olvido y el recuerdo constante <strong>de</strong><br />

hechos y informaciones <strong>de</strong>l pasado, que eventualmente pue<strong>de</strong>n llegar a afectar <strong>la</strong> intimidad<br />

y <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas.<br />

Con todo, a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> este trabajo trataremos <strong>de</strong> establecer los términos <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

acerca <strong>de</strong>l encaje constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet. Esto es, primeramente,<br />

presentar el problema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en Internet y <strong>de</strong>scribir <strong>la</strong> complejidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l l<strong>la</strong>mado “universo 2.0”; en segundo lugar, observar si <strong>de</strong> nuestro or<strong>de</strong>namiento<br />

jurídico vigente, en concreto, <strong>de</strong> los principios y <strong>de</strong>rechos constitucionales, podría <strong>de</strong>rivarse<br />

<strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital.<br />

Antes <strong>de</strong> empezar, pero, resulta fundamental c<strong>la</strong>rificar una serie <strong>de</strong> cuestiones acerca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

terminología que se utilizará a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> este trabajo. En primer lugar, cuando utilizamos <strong>la</strong>s<br />

sig<strong>la</strong>s TIC hacemos referencia a un concepto que engloba todos aquellos elementos y técnicas<br />

utilizadas en el tratamiento y transmisión <strong>de</strong> información re<strong>la</strong>cionadas con <strong>la</strong> informática, <strong>la</strong>s<br />

telecomunicaciones e Internet. En segundo lugar, por “<strong>red</strong> social” enten<strong>de</strong>remos aquellos servicios<br />

web que permiten a los individuos construir un perfil público, articu<strong>la</strong>r una lista <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong><br />

usuarios <strong>de</strong>l sistema con los que compartir información y visualizar <strong>la</strong>s listas <strong>de</strong> <strong>otros</strong> usuarios<br />

<strong>de</strong>l sistema 2 . Finalmente, utilizaremos el neologismo web 2.0 <strong>para</strong> hacer referencia a una serie<br />

<strong>de</strong> aplicaciones <strong>de</strong> Internet que, a través <strong>de</strong> sistemas <strong>de</strong> inteligencia colectiva, proporcionan<br />

servicios interactivos en <strong>red</strong>. Así, cuando hab<strong>la</strong>mos <strong>de</strong> web 2.0 estamos haciendo referencia a<br />

bitácoras o Weblogs; espacios web <strong>para</strong> compartir imágenes o ví<strong>de</strong>os como Flickr y YouTube;<br />

p<strong>la</strong>taformas educativas como Moodle; re<strong>de</strong>s sociales como Twitter, Facebook y Tuenti; etc.<br />

2. web 2.0 y transformaciones sociales<br />

Una vez concretadas <strong>la</strong>s cuestiones terminológicas, nos disponemos a analizar <strong>la</strong>s características<br />

<strong>de</strong>l universo 2.0 a fin <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r enten<strong>de</strong>r correctamente <strong>la</strong> magnitud <strong>de</strong>l cambio<br />

problemas privados, y por eso lo que nos impresiona más en <strong>la</strong> televisión es siempre <strong>la</strong> visión <strong>de</strong> un<br />

individuo, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>stino. Es <strong>la</strong> nove<strong>la</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>rna”. ToURAINE, A. (1996). Los mass media: ¿Nuevo foro<br />

político o <strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> opinión pública?. Barcelona: Centre d’Investigació <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comunicació, pp. 23.<br />

2 Seguimos, a gran<strong>de</strong>s rasgos, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición propuesta por <strong>otros</strong> autores. Véase BoYD, D. y ELLISoN,<br />

N. (2007). «Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scho<strong>la</strong>rship». Journal of computer-Mediated<br />

Communication. Vol. 1, nº 13. Disponible en Internet: http://bit.ly/e5MlA [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 28<br />

<strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

393<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>para</strong>digma ocasionado por <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías en el proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación publica.<br />

A gran<strong>de</strong>s rasgos, <strong>la</strong> perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> está interconectada con <strong>otros</strong><br />

elementos que aquí apuntaremos fugazmente, puesto que el estudio <strong>de</strong> los mismos exce<strong>de</strong>ría<br />

<strong>de</strong>l objeto <strong>de</strong> este trabajo. Así, en primer lugar, observarmos <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s<br />

prácticas –espacio-temporales– <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> información; en gran medida, porque<br />

el acceso universal a Internet facilita que <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía comparta y publique opiniones<br />

a tiempo real. Tal publicidad automática que <strong>la</strong>s TIC permiten no tiene <strong>para</strong>ngón en <strong>la</strong> historia<br />

<strong>de</strong>l proceso <strong>de</strong> comunicación pública. En segundo lugar, y conectado con lo primero,<br />

los ciudadanos han empezado a ocupar progresivamente un papel activo en <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información. Muchas veces, incluso, el ciudadano se ha avanzado temporalmente a los mass<br />

media en <strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> información <strong>de</strong> interés general 3 . Todo ello ha puesto en jaque <strong>la</strong>s<br />

posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> censura previa y control <strong>de</strong>l acceso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía a <strong>la</strong> información que, si<br />

bien continúa existiendo, se ha visto notablemente <strong>red</strong>ucida.<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, aparece el riesgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>scontextualización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información compartida<br />

en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. El hecho <strong>de</strong> tener “amista<strong>de</strong>s” virtuales pue<strong>de</strong> crear confusión a <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía hasta<br />

el punto <strong>de</strong> dar <strong>la</strong> sensación que, cuando uno publica información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, está hab<strong>la</strong>ndo<br />

con los amigos. Y no <strong>de</strong>bería ser así, especialmente cuando esa información también se<br />

comparte con <strong>otros</strong> usuarios no “amigos” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> social e incluso, a veces, es accesible <strong>para</strong><br />

todos los ciberusuarios. Los problemas <strong>de</strong>rivados <strong>de</strong> no saber <strong>la</strong> voluntad real <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano<br />

que publica, <strong>de</strong> compartir información privada con <strong>la</strong> sensación <strong>de</strong> estar entre “amigos”, y <strong>de</strong><br />

los riesgos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>scontextualización en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, en<strong>la</strong>zan con el olvido en el sentido que forzar<br />

éste último será más necesario en una sociedad don<strong>de</strong> lo dicho e informado –comentarios,<br />

fotos, ví<strong>de</strong>os, etc.– en el pasado no sólo envenena el presente, sino que pue<strong>de</strong> hipotecar el<br />

futuro.<br />

2.1. <strong>la</strong> perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en internet<br />

La preservación <strong>de</strong>l pasado y <strong>la</strong> perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información introducida en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

p<strong>la</strong>ntea importantes <strong>retos</strong>. El procesamiento informático y <strong>la</strong> digitalización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

contrasta con <strong>la</strong> fragilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> memoria humana. En concreto, Internet registra<br />

gran<strong>de</strong>s cantida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> información –fotos en línea, actualizaciones <strong>de</strong> estados, entradas <strong>de</strong><br />

bitácoras, participaciones en foros, reve<strong>la</strong>ciones personales, comentarios, ví<strong>de</strong>os, etc.–, esto<br />

es, información re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, a veces vergonzosa; y no olvida<br />

nada. Es más, <strong>la</strong> web no sólo conserva, sino que contiene mecanismos, como los motores<br />

<strong>de</strong> búsqueda, que ayudan, con gran facilidad –introducción <strong>de</strong>l nombre y apellidos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

persona–, a encontrar toda <strong>la</strong> información re<strong>la</strong>cionada con <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas<br />

que <strong>la</strong> web alberga y que incluye, por en<strong>de</strong>, datos personales. Por ello hab<strong>la</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>l efecto<br />

3 Por ejemplo, en <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> reciente operación que acabó con <strong>la</strong> vida <strong>de</strong>l terrorista Bin La<strong>de</strong>n.<br />

Vid. noticia titu<strong>la</strong>da «Bin La<strong>de</strong>n raid was revealed on Twitter», publicada en <strong>la</strong> BBC, con fecha <strong>de</strong> 2<br />

<strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011, disponible en Internet: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-13257940 [Fecha<br />

<strong>de</strong> consulta: 3 <strong>de</strong> mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].


394 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

multiplicador <strong>de</strong> los buscadores en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> constancia y visibilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

publicada antaño, que observada actualmente, pue<strong>de</strong> ser embarazosa o afectar nuestra reputación<br />

y intimidad.<br />

Hoy en día, <strong>la</strong> preocupación ciudadana en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong> conservación <strong>de</strong> datos personales<br />

e información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y a <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> borrar <strong>la</strong> misma, es creciente. Así se muestra<br />

en <strong>la</strong> memoria <strong>de</strong>l año 2009 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte,<br />

AEPD):<br />

“(...) en 2009 ha emergido una nueva preocupación <strong>para</strong> los ciudadanos, que se traduce<br />

en más solicitu<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> tute<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos ante <strong>la</strong> AEPD, en re<strong>la</strong>ción al <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en<br />

Internet. En concreto, <strong>la</strong>s solicitu<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos pidiendo que se cancelen sus datos en páginas<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>de</strong> diversa índole, u oponiéndose a que éstos sean recopi<strong>la</strong>dos y difundidos<br />

por buscadores <strong>de</strong> Internet se han incrementado un 200% en 2009, pasando <strong>de</strong> 18 en 2008<br />

a 57 en 2009 (en 2007 se registraron tan sólo 3). Este dato reve<strong>la</strong> que crece el interés <strong>de</strong> los<br />

ciudadanos por evitar que sus datos aparezcan en los resultados <strong>de</strong> buscadores <strong>de</strong> Internet a<br />

partir <strong>de</strong> los datos i<strong>de</strong>ntificativos <strong>de</strong> una persona” 4 .<br />

Esta nueva preocupación se centra esencialmente en borrar aquel<strong>la</strong> información irrelevante<br />

sobre uno mismo que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> contiene, y así preservar <strong>la</strong> privacidad. Muchas veces, fue<br />

el propio afectado quién publicó <strong>la</strong> información en Internet, pero pasado un tiempo, prefiere<br />

que esta se elimine y así, que nadie pueda saber qué opinaba –comentarios, entradas, etc.–,<br />

cómo bai<strong>la</strong>ba (por poner un ejemplo) o en qué estado lo hacía –ví<strong>de</strong>os y fotos– cuando era<br />

joven. La prensa ya se ha hecho eco <strong>de</strong> tal problemática, contemp<strong>la</strong>ndo <strong>la</strong> tarea titánica, y<br />

a veces frustrante, <strong>de</strong> exigir el completo borrado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información personal que, aunque<br />

no respon<strong>de</strong> a un interés público actual y pue<strong>de</strong> afectar a <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, está<br />

disponible abiertamente en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> 5 . La persecución <strong>de</strong>l pasado, el recuerdo constante y <strong>la</strong><br />

permanencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información pue<strong>de</strong>, más allá <strong>de</strong> suponer el fin <strong>de</strong>l olvido, envenenar el<br />

presente y bloquear el futuro 6 . Es fácil que en el pasado se hayan dicho o pensado cosas y<br />

más tar<strong>de</strong> uno se arrepienta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas. Las personas cambian, evolucionan, maduran e<br />

incluso se contradicen a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> su trayectoria vital. Por eso, frente a <strong>la</strong>s ingentes posibi-<br />

4 Memoria <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD correspondiente al año 2009, disponible en Internet: https://www.agpd.es/portalwebAGPD/.../100602_NP_MEMoRIA_2009.pdf<br />

[Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 17 <strong>de</strong> novembre <strong>de</strong> 2010].<br />

5 Véase el Reportaje titu<strong>la</strong>do «Quiero que Internet se olvi<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> mí», publicado en el diario El País con<br />

fecha <strong>de</strong> 7 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2011, disponible en Internet: http://bit.ly/eXgJit [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 8 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

6 “Examples are proliferating daily: there was the 16-year-old British girl who was fi<strong>red</strong> from her office job<br />

for comp<strong>la</strong>ining on Facebook, “I’m so totally bo<strong>red</strong>!!”; there was the 66-year-old Canadian psychotherapist<br />

who tried to enter the United States but was turned away at the bor<strong>de</strong>r –and bar<strong>red</strong> permanently from visiting<br />

the country– after a bor<strong>de</strong>r guard’s Internet search found that the therapist had written an article in<br />

a philosophy journal <strong>de</strong>scribing his experiments 30 years ago with L.S.D.”. RoSEN, J. (2010). «The web<br />

means the end of forgetting». Articulo publicado en el diario The New York Times, con fecha <strong>de</strong> 21 <strong>de</strong><br />

julio <strong>de</strong> 2010, disponible en Internet: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/25/magazine/25privacy-t2.<br />

html [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 29 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2011]. J. RoSEN es profesor <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho en George Washington<br />

University.


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

395<br />

lida<strong>de</strong>s que ofrece <strong>la</strong> informática, el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido preten<strong>de</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> privacidad, el<br />

libre <strong>de</strong>sarrollo y <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, evitando <strong>la</strong> persecución constante <strong>de</strong>l pasado.<br />

Así, cuando hab<strong>la</strong>mos <strong>de</strong> “<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido” hacemos referencia a posibilitar que los datos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas <strong>de</strong>jen <strong>de</strong> ser accesibles en <strong>la</strong> web, por petición <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas y cuando estas<br />

lo <strong>de</strong>cidan; el <strong>de</strong>recho a retirarse <strong>de</strong>l sistema y eliminar <strong>la</strong> información personal que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

contiene.<br />

Sin duda, tal situación se verá agravada en un futuro próximo, cuando <strong>la</strong> generación<br />

que hoy procesa públicamente en Internet su vidas privadas quiera rectificar, cambiar u olvidar<br />

algunos <strong>de</strong> los comportamientos <strong>de</strong>l pasado. A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> ésta, otra hipótesis es <strong>la</strong> conservación<br />

en <strong>la</strong> web <strong>de</strong> información que afecta a <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas y que, difundida<br />

en su día, gozaba <strong>de</strong> interés público y era noticiable, pero que con el paso <strong>de</strong>l tiempo se ha<br />

convertido en irrelevante.<br />

Con todo, <strong>la</strong>s propias características <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web 2.0 dificultan hacer efectivo el olvido<br />

en un espacio, <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, don<strong>de</strong> el protagonista es el ciudadano, quién se expone a una tribuna<br />

pública y narra aquello que observa sin un control previo a <strong>la</strong> publicación. En <strong>otros</strong> términos,<br />

asistimos a una nueva realidad que permite una comunicación horizontal, sin jerarquía y<br />

con menos posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> censura; que contiene, a <strong>la</strong> vez, oportunida<strong>de</strong>s y riesgos a los que<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho tiene que dar respuesta 7 . En ese ámbito aparece el <strong>de</strong>safío <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> permanencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, que p<strong>la</strong>ntea numerosos problemas <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas<br />

dadas <strong>la</strong>s enormes facilida<strong>de</strong>s -por ejemplo, los buscadores- <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> información.<br />

3. el encaje constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recHo al olVido digital<br />

Hasta el momento hemos analizado nuevos <strong>retos</strong> que nos p<strong>la</strong>ntean <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías,<br />

que han hecho permanentes y universalmente accesibles informaciones perjudiciales<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas. Como reacción se ha empezado a p<strong>la</strong>ntear en el<br />

<strong>de</strong>bate público <strong>la</strong> conveniencia <strong>de</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>r el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido. El or<strong>de</strong>namiento jurídico intervendría<br />

<strong>para</strong> forzar lo que antes se producía <strong>de</strong> manera natural gracias al paso <strong>de</strong>l tiempo<br />

y a <strong>la</strong>s dificulta<strong>de</strong>s prácticas <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r y dar difusión a <strong>la</strong> información. En esta línea se<br />

manifestaba A. RALLo 8 , director <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD, al asegurar que uno <strong>de</strong> los principales <strong>retos</strong><br />

actuales es el <strong>de</strong> dotar a los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> mecanismos reales y efectivos <strong>para</strong> garantizar el<br />

7 En esta línea A. RALLo afirma que: “Pue<strong>de</strong> afirmarse sin temor al error que ha nacido una sociedad<br />

que se <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong> íntegramente en el mundo virtual. En el<strong>la</strong>, los individuos interactúan siguiendo en<br />

muchas ocasiones normas y pautas <strong>de</strong> conducta perfectamente homologables con <strong>la</strong>s que se producen<br />

en el mundo físico. Sin embargo, en muchas otras se perfi<strong>la</strong>n nuevos escenarios sociales. Ello obliga a<br />

reflexionar profundamente sobre hasta qué punto el Derecho que or<strong>de</strong>na nuestras socieda<strong>de</strong>s va a ser<br />

eficaz en el universo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales”. RALLo LoMBARTE, A. y MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R.<br />

(coords.). (2010). Derecho y re<strong>de</strong>s sociales. Colección: Estudios y Comentarios. Navarra: Civitas, pp. 19.<br />

8 RALLo LoMBARTE, A. (2010). «El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido y su protección. A partir <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos». Telos: Cua<strong>de</strong>rnos <strong>de</strong> comunicación e innovación. Nº 85, pp. 104-108.


396 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

olvido, entendiendo que ningún ciudadano que no sea objeto <strong>de</strong> un hecho noticiable <strong>de</strong><br />

relevancia pública tiene que resignarse a que sus datos se difundan en Internet sin po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

reaccionar ni corregir su inclusión. La configuración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido conlleva entonces<br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> los preceptos constitucionales a los que pueda vincu<strong>la</strong>rse, pero también<br />

una dimensión negativa, <strong>de</strong> restricción <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos que facilitan el acceso y <strong>la</strong> circu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información <strong>para</strong> dar garantía al <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido. Así, <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía tendría <strong>la</strong><br />

posibilidad <strong>de</strong> exigir <strong>la</strong> supresión, ocultación y cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información personal que<br />

contiene <strong>la</strong> web, con indiferencia si ha sido publicada por el propio afectado o por terceros,<br />

siempre y cuando <strong>la</strong> misma no responda a un interés público vigente. En <strong>otros</strong> términos, el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido también incluiría aquel<strong>la</strong>s noticias publicadas antiguamente –en prensa,<br />

boletines y diarios oficiales, resoluciones judiciales, etc.–, que contienen datos personales y<br />

información que pue<strong>de</strong> dañar <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal y <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, y que no<br />

respon<strong>de</strong>n a <strong>la</strong> finalidad por <strong>la</strong> que fueron publicadas, el interés público.<br />

3.1. el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales<br />

El encaje constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital se produciría en el marco <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales que se establece en el artículo 18.4<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> norma normarum. En realidad, tal articulo sólo establece un mandato legis<strong>la</strong>tivo que<br />

<strong>la</strong> doctrina jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial se ha encargado <strong>de</strong> convertir en <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental, con el<br />

siguiente objeto:<br />

“(...) <strong>la</strong> singu<strong>la</strong>ridad <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, pues, por un <strong>la</strong>do, su objeto es más<br />

amplio que el <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad, ya que el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos extien<strong>de</strong> su garantía no sólo a <strong>la</strong> intimidad en su dimensión constitucionalmente protegida<br />

por el art. 18.1 CE, sino a lo que en ocasiones este Tribunal ha <strong>de</strong>finido en términos<br />

más amplios como esfera <strong>de</strong> los bienes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad que pertenecen al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

vida privada, inextricablemente unidos al respeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal (...) El <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos amplía <strong>la</strong> garantía constitucional a aquellos <strong>de</strong> esos<br />

datos que sean relevantes <strong>para</strong> o tengan inci<strong>de</strong>ncia en el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> cualesquiera <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, sean o no <strong>de</strong>rechos constitucionales y sean o no re<strong>la</strong>tivos al honor, <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ología,<br />

<strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar a cualquier otro bien constitucionalmente am<strong>para</strong>do” 9 .<br />

Así, el <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos se configura como un <strong>de</strong>recho que<br />

garantiza a <strong>la</strong>s personas un po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> control respecto el uso y el <strong>de</strong>stino <strong>de</strong> sus datos personales,<br />

utilizando un concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> “dato personal”, que va más allá <strong>de</strong> datos re<strong>la</strong>tivos<br />

a <strong>la</strong> intimidad y que se extien<strong>de</strong> a cualquier dato que permita i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a <strong>la</strong>s personas. En<br />

concreto, por “dato personal” se entien<strong>de</strong> cualquier información referente a personas físicas<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntificadas o i<strong>de</strong>ntificables (art. 3.a) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD). Esta <strong>de</strong>finición tan amplia <strong>de</strong> dato<br />

personal engloba toda aquel<strong>la</strong> información que permite i<strong>de</strong>ntificar a una persona: nombres<br />

y apellidos, número <strong>de</strong>l Documento Nacional <strong>de</strong> I<strong>de</strong>ntidad, <strong>la</strong> dirección física, <strong>la</strong> dirección<br />

9 STC 292/2000, <strong>de</strong> 30 <strong>de</strong> novembre, FJ 6.


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

397<br />

<strong>de</strong> correo electrónico, <strong>la</strong> dirección IP, fotografías, ví<strong>de</strong>os, etc. o dicho en <strong>otros</strong> términos,<br />

toda información numérica, alfabética, gráfica, fotográfica, acústica o <strong>de</strong> cualquier otro tipo<br />

susceptible <strong>de</strong> ser recogida, registrada, tratada o transmitida, y que permita <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación<br />

<strong>de</strong> una persona física (art. 5.1.f) RLoPD). Precisamente, por este motivo, <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción en<br />

materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos será <strong>de</strong> aplicación a toda <strong>la</strong> información que permite i<strong>de</strong>ntificar<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s personas y que está disponible en Internet.<br />

En una línea muy simi<strong>la</strong>r a <strong>la</strong> apuntada fugazmente hasta aquí, <strong>la</strong> AEPD ha recordado<br />

que los individuos no <strong>de</strong>ben resignarse ni <strong>de</strong>ben verse expuestos eternamente al tratamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> sus datos personales, muchas veces contenidos en noticias <strong>de</strong>l pasado que se perpetúan<br />

en <strong>la</strong> web, cuando <strong>la</strong>s noticias o los hechos no tengan relevancia pública o no versen sobre<br />

un personaje público. En este marco, <strong>la</strong> AEPD ha entendido, por ejemplo, que los ciudadanos<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n ejercer un <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición frente al tratamiento que los buscadores webs<br />

realizan <strong>de</strong> los datos personales, esto es, aparte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción -<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>sin<strong>de</strong>xación por parte<br />

<strong>de</strong> los buscadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información pasada-, se exige que el buscador encuentre medios<br />

<strong>para</strong> que esta información no vuelva a aparecer en el futuro10 . La protección <strong>de</strong>l olvido en<br />

Internet ha sido enmarcada por <strong>la</strong> AEPD <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos.<br />

En<strong>la</strong>zar el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido con el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales no <strong>de</strong>bería<br />

extrañar ya que en perspectiva com<strong>para</strong>da, se ha empezado a reconocer el primero con<br />

fundamento en el segundo. En los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> América, aunque sólo <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto<br />

<strong>de</strong> vista doctrinal, ya se ha p<strong>la</strong>nteado <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r cance<strong>la</strong>r los datos personales que<br />

los ciudadanos han introducido voluntariamente en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y que pasado un tiempo pue<strong>de</strong>n<br />

afectar esencialmente <strong>la</strong> privacidad11 y <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas. Por su parte, en Francia,<br />

un proyecto <strong>de</strong> Ley, que ya ha sido aprobado por el Senado pero que (todavía) no ha recibido<br />

<strong>la</strong> aprobación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Asamblea, reconoce explícitamente <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> un <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido<br />

digital. Más concretamente, establece que:<br />

“Au total, il convient <strong>de</strong> noter que plusieurs mesures <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> présente proposition <strong>de</strong> loi permettent<br />

<strong>de</strong> donner une plus gran<strong>de</strong> effectivité au droit à l’oubli numérique [...]: l’information<br />

spécifique, c<strong>la</strong>ire et accessible donnée aux personnes, avant tout traitement, mais également<br />

<strong>de</strong> manière permanente, sur le site Internet du responsable du traitement, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> durée <strong>de</strong><br />

conservation <strong>de</strong>s données; <strong>la</strong> possibilité <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r à <strong>la</strong> CNIL [hace referencia a <strong>la</strong> Commission<br />

Nationale <strong>de</strong> l’Informatique et <strong>de</strong>s Libertés], pour les traitements déc<strong>la</strong>rés auprès<br />

d’elle [...]; l’exercice plus facile du droit d’opposition, renommé, pour plus <strong>de</strong> c<strong>la</strong>rté, droit<br />

à <strong>la</strong> suppression <strong>de</strong>s données [...]; <strong>la</strong> possibilité <strong>de</strong> saisir plus facilement et plus efficacement<br />

10 Vid. Resolución TD/00463/2007 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD.<br />

11 Vid. MAYER-SCHÖNBERGER, V. (2009). Delete. The Virtue of Forgetting in the Digital Age. New<br />

Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 135-144. Versus <strong>la</strong> memoria digital, V. MAYER-SCHÖNBER-<br />

GER propone <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tecnología <strong>para</strong> dotar <strong>de</strong> temporalidad <strong>la</strong>s informaciones publicadas<br />

y compartidas en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>.


398 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

qu’aujourd’hui les juridictions civiles en cas d’impossibilité pour les personnes d’exercer leur<br />

droit à <strong>la</strong> suppression <strong>de</strong>s données” 12 .<br />

Lo que se preten<strong>de</strong>, en Francia, teniendo en cuenta que <strong>la</strong> doctrina13 , <strong>la</strong> CNIL14 y <strong>la</strong><br />

jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncia15 francesa ya han reconocido <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, es dotar <strong>de</strong><br />

una mayor efectividad a este <strong>de</strong>recho, sobre todo ante <strong>la</strong>s ingentes faculta<strong>de</strong>s que Internet<br />

otorga a los individuos. Tal protección se enmarcaría <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos personales, que exige que los datos no puedan ser tratadas sin consentimiento previo<br />

<strong>de</strong> su titu<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

Dejando <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>do el análisis en perspectiva com<strong>para</strong>da, lo cierto es que el reconocimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales<br />

es una hipótesis factible si aten<strong>de</strong>mos a los principios que lo rigen y inspiran, en cuyo<br />

caso el olvido alcanzaría <strong>la</strong> máxima protección constitucional -<strong>de</strong>recho fundamental-. Más<br />

concretamente, dos son los principios en los que se funda tal premisa: el principio <strong>de</strong> consentimiento<br />

y el principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad.<br />

12 Proposition <strong>de</strong> Loi visant à mieux garantir le droit à <strong>la</strong> vie privée à l’heure du numérique, presentada<br />

por Y. DÉTRAIGNE y A. M. ESCoFFIER, en <strong>la</strong> sesión ordinaria <strong>de</strong> 2009-2010 número 93, pp. 8,<br />

<strong>de</strong> 6 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009, disponible a Internet: http://www.senat.fr/leg/ppl09-093.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong><br />

consulta: 4 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

13 Vid. LETTERoN, R. (1996). «Le droit à l’oubli». Revue du Droit Public et <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Science Politique en<br />

France et à L’Étranger. Nº 2, pp. 385-424.<br />

14 El posicionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CNIL es especialmente interesante porque fue pionero en <strong>de</strong>ducir <strong>la</strong> consagración<br />

<strong>de</strong> un verda<strong>de</strong>ro <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido atendiendo al principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad en <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos personales: “Jamais sans doute les principes établis par <strong>la</strong> loi du 6 janvier 1978 n’ont eu<br />

une telle actualité. A l’heure <strong>de</strong>s réseaux et du «tout numérique», ces principes sont autant <strong>de</strong> sauvegar<strong>de</strong>s:<br />

principe <strong>de</strong> finalité, contrôle <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pertinence <strong>de</strong>s données collectées, confi<strong>de</strong>ntialité <strong>de</strong>s<br />

informations nominatives, droit d’accès et <strong>de</strong> rectification, droit d’opposition, droit à l’oubli enfin”.<br />

CNIL. (1999). 20ème rapport d’activité. Paris: La Documentation Française, pp. 6. Más a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte,<br />

<strong>la</strong> CNIL tras<strong>la</strong>dó sin problemas esta doctrina en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> Internet: “Il est inacceptable et dangereux<br />

que l’information mise en ligne sur une personne ait vocation à <strong>de</strong>meurer fixe et intangible,<br />

alors que <strong>la</strong> nature humaine implique, précisément, que les individus changent, se cont<strong>red</strong>isent,<br />

bref, évoluent tout naturellement. Il en va, pour tous, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protection <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> liberté d’expression<br />

et <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> liberté <strong>de</strong> pensée, mais aussi du droit <strong>de</strong> changer d’avis, <strong>de</strong> religion, d’opinions politiques,<br />

<strong>la</strong> possibilité <strong>de</strong> commettre <strong>de</strong>s erreurs <strong>de</strong> jeunesse, puis <strong>de</strong> changer <strong>de</strong> vie. C’est pourquoi notre<br />

Commission se félicite du débat qui s’ouvre actuellement en France sur ce sujet, qui souligne avec<br />

force le caractère fondamental du «droit à l’oubli»”. CNIL (2009). 30ème rapport d’activité. Paris:<br />

La Documentation Française, pp. 29.<br />

15 Véase Auto <strong>de</strong> medidas provisionales <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Instancia Superior <strong>de</strong> Montpellier, <strong>de</strong> 20 <strong>de</strong><br />

octubre <strong>de</strong> 2010, caso Marie C. c. Francia y Google Inc. El caso versa sobre una profesora francesa, que<br />

cuando tenia 18 años participó en un ví<strong>de</strong>o pornográfico que estaba disponible en Internet y que<br />

Google in<strong>de</strong>xaba en sus resultados <strong>de</strong> búsqueda con el nombre <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> profesora o école <strong>de</strong> Lætitia. El<br />

Tribunal consi<strong>de</strong>ra que “en tant que personne morale qui détermine les finalités et les moyens du traitement<br />

<strong>de</strong>s données à caractère personnel en in<strong>de</strong>xant les pages web et en les mettant à <strong>la</strong> disposition<br />

<strong>de</strong>s internautes, [Google] est responsable <strong>de</strong> ce traitement”.


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

3.1.1. El principio <strong>de</strong> consentimiento <strong>de</strong> los datos<br />

399<br />

El principio <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l afectado, como el propio nombre indica, exige que,<br />

salvo <strong>la</strong>s excepciones previstas legalmente, todo tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales sea realizado<br />

previo consentimiento inequívoco <strong>de</strong>l afectado. En concreto, <strong>la</strong> LoPD, en los apartados primero<br />

y tercero respectivamente <strong>de</strong>l artículo 6, establece que “el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal requerirá el consentimiento inequívoco <strong>de</strong>l afectado, salvo que <strong>la</strong> ley disponga otra cosa” y<br />

que “el consentimiento a que se refiere el artículo podrá ser revocado cuando exista causa justificada<br />

<strong>para</strong> ello y no se le atribuyan efectos retroactivos”. Por consentimiento <strong>de</strong>be enten<strong>de</strong>rse aquel<strong>la</strong><br />

manifestación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> voluntad libre, inequívoca, específica e informada <strong>de</strong>l titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> los datos<br />

personales, conforme consiente un <strong>de</strong>terminado tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los mismos.<br />

El principio <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l afectado, a efectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido, es aplicable<br />

en un supuesto doble. En primer lugar, cuando alguien presta el consentimiento o es el mismo<br />

quién publica información que contiene datos personales en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. En esa hipótesis, el ciudadano<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> revocar su consentimiento y exigir que aquello que antes permitió -<strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> fotos,<br />

ví<strong>de</strong>os, comentarios, etc. en Internet- <strong>de</strong>saparezca. Esta observación es especialmente útil en el<br />

ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> simple revocación <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento <strong>de</strong>bería ocasionar el<br />

borrado automático <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información personal. En segundo lugar, el ciudadano pue<strong>de</strong> oponerse<br />

a <strong>la</strong> información -comentarios, imágenes, ví<strong>de</strong>os, etc.- que contenga datos personales que hayan<br />

sido publicados por terceros sin su consentimiento, eso sí, con <strong>la</strong> excepción que tal divulgación<br />

<strong>de</strong> información se incardine <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l ejercicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas. El <strong>de</strong>bate que se<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ntea es simi<strong>la</strong>r al clásico conflicto entre <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas y los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad,<br />

y <strong>de</strong>be resolverse utilizando <strong>la</strong>s normas que permiten realizar una correcta pon<strong>de</strong>ración 16 .<br />

Así, si <strong>la</strong> difusión <strong>de</strong> datos personales se enmarca <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> un hecho noticiable que goza <strong>de</strong><br />

interés público, <strong>de</strong> manera general, se haría prevalecer <strong>la</strong> libertad informativa sobre el <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

<strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, si bien cabria estar atento a <strong>la</strong>s circunstancias especiales <strong>de</strong>l caso concreto.<br />

Existe también una tercera hipótesis don<strong>de</strong> lo cierto es que el consentimiento es irrelevante<br />

o innecesario: cuando se trata <strong>de</strong> datos personales contenidos en fuentes <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

público, como son los diarios y boletines oficiales (art.11.2.b) LoPD). El principio <strong>de</strong> consentimiento,<br />

por sí solo, no fundamenta un <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital en sentido amplio, es<br />

<strong>de</strong>cir, no a<strong>la</strong>rgaría el ámbito <strong>de</strong>l olvido hasta impedir a los buscadores in<strong>de</strong>xar información<br />

re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> vida <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas; <strong>para</strong> llegar a tal premisa, antes, <strong>de</strong>bemos analizar como el<br />

principio <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento se complementa con el principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad.<br />

3.1.2. El principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad<br />

Precisamente, el principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad podría constituir una base sólida <strong>para</strong> el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al olvido digital, al establecer que los datos personales serán eliminados o borrados una vez<br />

16 De hecho, <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Nacional ya ha aplicado estas reg<strong>la</strong>s en un caso en el que acabó dando prevalencia<br />

a <strong>la</strong> libertad <strong>de</strong> informar sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. SAN (Sa<strong>la</strong> Contenciosa) nº 62/2001, <strong>de</strong><br />

12 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2001, FJ 4.


400 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

estos hayan <strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> ser útiles a <strong>la</strong> finalidad con <strong>la</strong> que se registraron. Más concretamente,<br />

el artículo 4.5 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD establece que:<br />

“Los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal serán cance<strong>la</strong>dos cuando hayan <strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> ser necesarios o<br />

pertinentes <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> cual hubieran sido recabados o registrados. No serán<br />

conservados en forma que permita <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong>l interesado durante un período superior<br />

al necesario <strong>para</strong> los fines en base a los cuales hubieran sido recabados o registrados”.<br />

Este principio se recogió por primera vez en el Convenio nº 108 <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> Europa,<br />

que España ratificó el 27 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 1984 17 ; según el cual los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal<br />

que sean objeto <strong>de</strong> tratamiento “se conservan bajo una forma que permita <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas concernidas durante un período <strong>de</strong> tiempo que no exceda <strong>de</strong>l necesario <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

finalida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cuales se hayan registrado” (artículo 5.e).<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital actuaría como un instrumento que persigue el efectivo<br />

cumplimiento <strong>de</strong>l principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad, que exige que los datos personales sólo puedan<br />

utilizarse <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> finalidad concreta <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> que fueron registrados, y una vez ya no son<br />

necesarios a tal efecto se produciría su cance<strong>la</strong>ción. Pero no en todos los casos, por ejemplo<br />

cuando los datos son contenidos en fuentes accesibles al público, <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción es posible.<br />

La AEPD ha interpretado, en tal contexto, que el principio <strong>de</strong> finalidad permite que ante<br />

<strong>la</strong> divulgación <strong>de</strong> informaciones pasadas que contienen datos personales y están sometidas<br />

a tratamiento -por ejemplo, en un buscador web-, los ciudadanos pue<strong>de</strong>n oponerse <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong><br />

el momento en que los datos han <strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> ser necesarios a <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> que fueron<br />

publicados. De este modo, <strong>la</strong> AEPD ha consi<strong>de</strong>rado que los afectados tienen razones legítimas<br />

<strong>para</strong> oponerse al tratamiento -in<strong>de</strong>xación- <strong>de</strong> los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, siempre que<br />

sean noticias que no tengan una relevancia pública actual, si bien ha consi<strong>de</strong>rado que el<br />

tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales, a diferencia <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los buscadores, está<br />

enmarcado <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas 18 .<br />

4. diferentes Ámbitos <strong>de</strong> aPlicación <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recHo al olVido<br />

frente a <strong>la</strong> memoria digital<br />

4.1. el olvido en <strong>la</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s sociales<br />

El fenómeno más peligroso en re<strong>la</strong>ción al <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido está directamente re<strong>la</strong>cionado<br />

con <strong>la</strong> ten<strong>de</strong>ncia sociológica <strong>de</strong> procesar ante <strong>la</strong> tribuna pública informaciones que<br />

pertenecen a <strong>la</strong> vida privada. Ten<strong>de</strong>ncia que, en gran medida, se ve agravada en el marco <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales como Facebook, Twitter o Tuenti, don<strong>de</strong> miles <strong>de</strong> ciberusuarios comparten<br />

información libremente, sin dar importancia al hecho que, a veces, lo compartido forma parte<br />

o está directamente re<strong>la</strong>cionado con <strong>la</strong> vida privada <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos. Imágenes, ví<strong>de</strong>os<br />

y comentarios corren el riesgo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>scontextualizarse en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, y lo que es más grave, gozan<br />

17 BoE núm. 274, <strong>de</strong> 15 <strong>de</strong> novembre <strong>de</strong> 1985.<br />

18 Véanse <strong>la</strong>s Resoluciones TD/01164/2008 y TD/01540/2008 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD.


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

401<br />

<strong>de</strong> una perennidad que hace que, observados con posterioridad a <strong>la</strong> fecha <strong>de</strong> su publicación,<br />

estos puedan comprometer o condicionar el futuro <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos.<br />

En el ámbito <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos hay que recordar que<br />

los ciudadanos gozan <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a exigir <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> aquel<strong>la</strong> información que contenga<br />

datos personales cuando el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas se realice sin el consentimiento<br />

inequívoco <strong>de</strong>l afectado (art. 6.1 LoPD). Por lo tanto, po<strong>de</strong>mos afirmar que el afectado<br />

<strong>de</strong>be po<strong>de</strong>r rec<strong>la</strong>mar <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción y rectificación <strong>de</strong> aquel<strong>la</strong> información que pueda afectar<br />

el bien jurídico protegido por el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en <strong>la</strong> hipótesis que terceros ciberusuarios<br />

hayan compartido información en una <strong>red</strong> social sin su consentimiento. En <strong>otros</strong> términos,<br />

ante <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> imágenes, ví<strong>de</strong>os y textos que contengan datos personales y puedan<br />

lesionar <strong>la</strong> privacidad y reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas, los afectados que no hayan prestado su<br />

consentimiento podrían, amparándose en <strong>la</strong> normativa españo<strong>la</strong> sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos,<br />

ejercer el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción y rectificación.<br />

Una hipótesis diferente, si bien nos lleva al mismo coro<strong>la</strong>rio que <strong>la</strong> primera, se daría<br />

cuando el afectado fuera quien hubiera publicado <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> o hubiera dado<br />

su consentimiento inequívoco <strong>para</strong> que lo hiciera un tercero. Esto ocurre <strong>de</strong> manera muy habitual<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, don<strong>de</strong> son los propios ciudadanos los que se exponen al público,<br />

compartiendo información que en un futuro les pue<strong>de</strong> perjudicar. En estos casos, aunque<br />

el consentimiento inicialmente existe, el art. 6.3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD prevé su revocación cuando<br />

existan causas justificadas, sin que se le atribuyan efectos retroactivos. Es por ello que en el<br />

marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong>berían po<strong>de</strong>r ejercitar el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

y rectificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información publicada aunque quien <strong>la</strong> publicó fuera el afectado o un<br />

tercero con su consentimiento.<br />

Ahora bien, hay que matizar que los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> oposición, rectificación y cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información publicada en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales no aportan una solución efectiva o<br />

real al problema que p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> perennidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. Esto es así porque en<br />

el p<strong>la</strong>zo que <strong>la</strong> información -que pue<strong>de</strong> condicionar el futuro <strong>de</strong>l afectado- fue pública, ésta<br />

no sólo fue expuesta en <strong>la</strong> tribuna pública, sino que también fue susceptible <strong>de</strong> ser copiada o<br />

<strong>de</strong>scargada por diferentes usuarios a nivel global, lo que pue<strong>de</strong> impedir una eliminación total<br />

y efectiva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información. No obstante, con <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción, oposición y rectificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información que <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales contienen, como mínimo, se podría garantizar el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> ciudadanía a contro<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> difusión y el acceso a sus datos personales, y en un sentido negativo,<br />

expulsar a terceros <strong>de</strong>l conocimiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas asegurando su olvido futuro.<br />

Estas preocupaciones son compartidas por <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, que ya se ha manifestado<br />

favorablemente <strong>para</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>r el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales: “Un<strong>de</strong>rlines, furthermore,<br />

the importance of improving means of exercising the rights of access, rectification, erasure<br />

and blocking of data, and of c<strong>la</strong>rifying the «right to be forgotten»” 19 . La iniciativa preten<strong>de</strong><br />

19 Draft report on a comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union<br />

(2011/2025(INI)), Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs, pp. 5, disponible en<br />

Internet: http://bit.ly/eNPRhn [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 9 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].


402 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

limitar <strong>la</strong>s potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web, regu<strong>la</strong>ndo un olvido que permita a los ciudadanos<br />

exigir el borrado <strong>de</strong> sus datos personales cuando estos <strong>de</strong>jen <strong>de</strong> ser necesarios a <strong>la</strong> finalidad<br />

con <strong>la</strong> que se publicaron 20 .<br />

Sin embargo, en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales lo más útil parece ser <strong>la</strong> prevención. En este sentido,<br />

hay que valorar positivamente todas <strong>la</strong>s iniciativas y políticas encaminadas a alertar a los usuarios<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales sobre los riesgos, peligros e inconvenientes <strong>de</strong> compartir imágenes,<br />

ví<strong>de</strong>os o textos comprometidos que pue<strong>de</strong>n condicionar su reputación futura. Destacan<br />

iniciativas como el “P<strong>la</strong>n Contigo”, a través <strong>de</strong>l cual <strong>la</strong> Policía Nacional y <strong>la</strong> Guardia Civil<br />

dan consejos y recomendaciones a jóvenes que utilizan Tuenti sobre cómo hacer una gestión<br />

correcta <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad y <strong>la</strong> reputación en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales 21 . También <strong>de</strong>stacan otras herramientas<br />

específicas que alertan al cibernauta sobre su reputación en el universo 2.0, como<br />

por ejemplo Reppler, que mi<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> reputación online <strong>de</strong> empresas y particu<strong>la</strong>res en base a <strong>la</strong><br />

información publicada en Facebook –comentarios, imágenes, hora <strong>de</strong> publicación, etc.– y<br />

<strong>la</strong> re<strong>la</strong>ciona con el ámbito <strong>de</strong> actuación y <strong>la</strong>s expectativas empresariales o <strong>la</strong>borales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

empresa o <strong>de</strong>l particu<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

4.2. el olvido en los resultados <strong>de</strong> los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda<br />

Como hemos analizado anteriormente, especialmente peligrosa es <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda que combinan una tecnología <strong>de</strong> búsqueda fácil con ingentes cantida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> información. Antes que nada, cabe matizar que respeto aquel<strong>la</strong> información privada o<br />

ilegítima que albergue datos personales y que circule en <strong>la</strong> web, los ciudadanos ya gozan <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a cance<strong>la</strong>r<strong>la</strong>, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con aquello observado en el apartado que hemos <strong>de</strong>dicado<br />

al olvido en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales. En tal hipótesis lo correcto seria dirigirse al responsable <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> web que contiene los datos personales ilícitamente, ya sea porque se tratan sin consentimiento<br />

o porque éste fuera revocado, y pedir <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los datos. En cambio, el ciudadano<br />

no tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a cance<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> información que contiene los datos personales cuando<br />

proviene <strong>de</strong> una fuente <strong>de</strong> acceso público. Y tienen tal consi<strong>de</strong>ración “aquellos ficheros cuya<br />

consulta pue<strong>de</strong> ser realizada, por cualquier persona, no impedida por una norma limitativa o sin<br />

más exigencia que, en su caso, el abono <strong>de</strong> una contraprestación [...] Asimismo, tienen el carácter<br />

<strong>de</strong> fuentes <strong>de</strong> acceso público los diarios y boletines oficiales y los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación” (artículo<br />

3.j) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD).<br />

20 “C<strong>la</strong>rifying the so-called ‘right to be forgotten’, i.e. the right of individuals to have their data no<br />

longer processed and <strong>de</strong>leted when they are no longer nee<strong>de</strong>d for legitimate purposes. This is the case,<br />

for example, when processing is based on the person’s consent and when he or she withdraws consent<br />

or when the storage period has expi<strong>red</strong>”. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,<br />

the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A comprehensive<br />

approach on personal data protection in the European Union, European Commission CoM(2010)<br />

609 final, Bruse<strong>la</strong>s, con fecha 4 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010, pp. 8, disponible en Internet: http://bit.ly/<br />

bXUXvi [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 6 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011].<br />

21 Vid. panfleto <strong>de</strong>l “P<strong>la</strong>n Contigo”, disponible en Internet: http://www.mir.es/EDSE/p<strong>la</strong>n_director/<br />

TUENTI.pdf [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 18 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2011].


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

403<br />

La problemática nace exclusivamente con <strong>la</strong> información pública 22 o legítima, no<br />

porque los datos personales no sean consultables, que lo son, por ejemplo, en <strong>la</strong> versión<br />

electrónica <strong>de</strong>l BoE, sino porque el buscador web hace un tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información<br />

pública que facilita enormemente encontrar<strong>la</strong>, hasta el punto <strong>de</strong> crear una situación nueva<br />

que pue<strong>de</strong> afectar <strong>de</strong>sproporcionalmente <strong>la</strong> reputación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas. Imagínense, por<br />

poner un ejemplo, cómo pue<strong>de</strong> afectarse <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal cuando en un buscador se<br />

introduce un nombre y apellidos, y el primer resultado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> búsqueda en<strong>la</strong>za a un indulto<br />

publicado en el BoE o a una sentencia 23 en <strong>la</strong> que se con<strong>de</strong>na al afectado por un <strong>de</strong>lito. Se<br />

trata <strong>de</strong>l efecto multiplicador <strong>de</strong> los buscadores 24 , <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s que los buscadores<br />

conce<strong>de</strong>n a los ciberusuarios <strong>para</strong> conocer <strong>la</strong> información y los datos personales que en los<br />

boletines se contienen y que pue<strong>de</strong>n llegar a resultar una auténtica hipoteca <strong>para</strong> el honor o<br />

<strong>la</strong> intimidad. Frente a eso, <strong>la</strong> AEPD ha entendido que el <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital también<br />

incluye el <strong>de</strong>recho a oponerse al tratamiento 25 <strong>de</strong> los datos personales que los buscadores<br />

realizan al in<strong>de</strong>xar fuentes <strong>de</strong> información pública. En concreto, <strong>la</strong> AEPD <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong><br />

actividad <strong>de</strong> in<strong>de</strong>xar pone al alcance <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos un sistema <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r, recoger, conservar<br />

y modificar información que eventualmente contiene datos personales, siendo esto<br />

equi<strong>para</strong>ble a un tratamiento no autorizado <strong>de</strong> datos personales 26 . En todo caso, sobre este<br />

tema, nada pacífico, <strong>la</strong> Audiencia Nacional ha <strong>de</strong>cidido tras<strong>la</strong>dar al Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Justicia <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Unión Europea una cuestión prejudicial <strong>de</strong> interpretación, <strong>para</strong> ac<strong>la</strong>rar, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> otras<br />

22 Entiéndase que por “información pública” se hace referencia a fuentes <strong>de</strong> acceso público.<br />

23 Cabe recordar que en el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s resoluciones judiciales en Internet, <strong>la</strong> doctrina<br />

jurispru<strong>de</strong>ncial (STS, Sa<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> lo contencioso-administrativo, nº 3164/2008, <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2008,<br />

FJ 9) exige <strong>la</strong> anonimización <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal antes <strong>de</strong> su difusión, entendiendo que<br />

<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>cisiones judiciales no son fuentes <strong>de</strong> carácter público <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición que se realiza<br />

en el artículo 3.j) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD.<br />

24 La Ley 34/2002, <strong>de</strong> 11 <strong>de</strong> julio, <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información y Comercio Electrónico<br />

(en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte, LSSCIE) también es aplicable a los buscadores, a los que incluye como “servicios <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”, en concreto, como “prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> intermediación”. La<br />

LSSCIE establece el régimen <strong>de</strong> responsabilidad <strong>de</strong> los buscadores, entendiendo que <strong>de</strong>berán respon<strong>de</strong>r<br />

si tienen un conocimiento efectivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ilicitud <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> actividad o <strong>la</strong> información que recomiendan<br />

y en<strong>la</strong>zan, o que <strong>la</strong> misma lesiona bienes o <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> un tercero (art. 17.1 LSSICE). A<strong>de</strong>más, el<br />

art. 8.1 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> citada LSSICE dispone: “En caso <strong>de</strong> que un <strong>de</strong>terminado servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información atente o pueda atentar contra los principios que se expresan a continuación, los órganos<br />

competentes [...] podrán adoptar <strong>la</strong>s medidas necesarias <strong>para</strong> que se interrumpa su prestación o <strong>para</strong><br />

retirar los datos que los vulneran. Los principios a que alu<strong>de</strong> este apartado son [...] c) El respeto a <strong>la</strong><br />

dignidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona [...]”. La LSSICE permite así, siempre que al in<strong>de</strong>xar el buscador haya lesionado<br />

<strong>la</strong> dignidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> persona, que los órganos competentes puedan adoptar medidas encaminadas<br />

a retirar los datos que permiten tal lesión.<br />

25 La AEPD interpreta ámpliamente <strong>la</strong> voz “tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales”, por <strong>la</strong> que se entien<strong>de</strong><br />

cualquier operación o procedimiento técnico <strong>de</strong> carácter automatizado o no, que permita <strong>la</strong> recogida,<br />

grabación, conservación, e<strong>la</strong>boración, modificación, bloqueo y cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> datos (art. 3. c) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

LoPD).<br />

26 Vid. <strong>la</strong> resolución TD/01589/2008 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD.


404 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cuestiones, si <strong>la</strong> actividad que llevan a cabo los buscadores pue<strong>de</strong> ser consi<strong>de</strong>rada como un<br />

“tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales” 27 .<br />

En cuanto a <strong>la</strong> cuestión re<strong>la</strong>tiva al ejercicio <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> acceso, rectificación,<br />

oposición y cance<strong>la</strong>ción frente <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> los buscadores, habría que distinguir supuestos.<br />

En esta dirección, L. CoTINo 28 diferencia el ejercicio <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición. Más concretamente, argumenta que el primero se ejercería cuando<br />

<strong>la</strong> información divulgada sea consi<strong>de</strong>rada ilegítima, esto es, cuando no se enmarca <strong>de</strong>ntro<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas ni tiene <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> fuente <strong>de</strong> carácter público. En<br />

cambio, el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición sería ejercitable cuando se consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>la</strong> información<br />

divulgada es legítima (lo que en este trabajo hemos l<strong>la</strong>mado información pública), pero aún<br />

así existan causas <strong>para</strong> evitar este tratamiento. En <strong>otros</strong> términos, el ciudadano <strong>de</strong>bería po<strong>de</strong>r<br />

oponerse al tratamiento que realiza un <strong>de</strong>terminado buscador respecto aquel<strong>la</strong> información<br />

que proviene <strong>de</strong> una fuente <strong>de</strong> carácter público -medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación, boletines y diarios<br />

oficiales, etc.- (art. 3.j) LoPD ), pero no pue<strong>de</strong> exigir <strong>la</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los datos contenidos<br />

en <strong>la</strong>s propias fuentes <strong>de</strong> carácter público. El ejercicio <strong>de</strong> oposición <strong>de</strong>l afectado, en estos<br />

casos, se realiza contra el buscador, pues es quien realiza el “tratamiento” que facilita el acceso<br />

a una información que daña <strong>la</strong> dignidad personal, en general. En cambio, si <strong>la</strong> información<br />

es ilegítima y no se enmarca <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los límites <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas, entonces<br />

el afectado también pue<strong>de</strong> ejercer los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> acceso, cance<strong>la</strong>ción y rectificación, eso sí,<br />

frente al responsable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web que publicó los datos; <strong>de</strong> manera simi<strong>la</strong>r a lo que pasa con <strong>la</strong><br />

información difundida en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales.<br />

4.3. el olvido en <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales<br />

Como hemos visto, <strong>la</strong> AEPD ha consi<strong>de</strong>rado que los afectados tienen razones legítimas<br />

<strong>para</strong> oponerse al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos que realizan los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, aunque sea<br />

información pública y legítima, y siempre que no tenga una relevancia pública actual. En<br />

cambio, ha <strong>de</strong>fendido que el tratamiento que se da en <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales está enmarcado<br />

<strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas 29 . Esta interpretación ha sido criticada en sentidos<br />

diferentes por <strong>la</strong> doctrina. Algunos autores han entendido que <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales no<br />

27 “B) Si <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong> GooGLE, como buscador <strong>de</strong> contenidos <strong>de</strong> terceras personas, pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse<br />

un tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos tal como lo <strong>de</strong>fine el artículo 2.b) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46. En caso<br />

afirmativo, si GooGLE <strong>de</strong>be garantizar los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción y oposición mencionados en los<br />

artículos 12.b y 14.a <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> citada Directiva. Asimismo, si <strong>la</strong> solicitud <strong>de</strong>l interesado pue<strong>de</strong> am<strong>para</strong>rse<br />

en el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición <strong>de</strong>l citado artículo 14.a en re<strong>la</strong>ción con el artículo 7 letras e) y f) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

citada Directiva”. Provi<strong>de</strong>ncia AN (Sa<strong>la</strong> Contencioso-Administrativo), sección 1a, nº procedimiento<br />

211/2009.<br />

28 CoTINo HUESo, L. (2010). «Datos personales y liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas. Medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

social como fuentes accesibles al público (Art. 3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD)». En A. TRoNCoSo REIGADA<br />

(dir.). Comentario a <strong>la</strong> Ley Orgánica <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos Personales, Cizur Menor: Civitas, pp. 289-<br />

315.<br />

29 Vid. Resolución TD/01887/2009 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> AEPD.


el régimen constitucional <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet<br />

405<br />

son un medio <strong>de</strong> comunicación en sentido estricto, esto es, no <strong>de</strong>berían tener <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong> fuentes <strong>de</strong> acceso público <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con el art. 3.j) LoPD, sino que son archivos<br />

que dan un tratamiento a fuentes accesibles al público que proce<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong> los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

30 . En esta línea, los afectados tendrían <strong>de</strong>recho a oponerse al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

personales que realizan los servicios <strong>de</strong> búsqueda <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales. <strong>otros</strong> autores,<br />

por el contrario, creen que sería <strong>para</strong>dójico que “una información <strong>de</strong> interés público y obtenida<br />

con escrupuloso respeto al canon <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> diligencia profesional se pueda consultar en <strong>la</strong> hemeroteca<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> edición escrita <strong>de</strong> un diario y, por el contrario, haya <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>saparecer <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> edición digital” 31 .<br />

A mi juicio, <strong>la</strong> primera interpretación es más p<strong>la</strong>usible en el sentido que distingue entre <strong>la</strong><br />

información que tenia interés público cuando se publicó y el tratamiento que el buscador<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> hemeroteca digital da a esa información. Como pasa con los motores <strong>de</strong> búsqueda, <strong>la</strong><br />

información no <strong>de</strong>bería <strong>de</strong>saparecer <strong>de</strong> Internet, al igual que <strong>de</strong>be po<strong>de</strong>r consultarse en <strong>la</strong><br />

hemeroteca <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> edición escrita, pero eso no impi<strong>de</strong> que se limiten –<strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición–<br />

<strong>la</strong>s facilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> encontrar<strong>la</strong> –búsqueda <strong>de</strong> nombre y apellido– en el buscador <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> hemeroteca<br />

digital.<br />

5. conclusiones<br />

El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido digital se erige como respuesta a un nuevo reto social -<strong>la</strong> perennidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información- que p<strong>la</strong>ntea Internet. Tal <strong>de</strong>recho se concreta en <strong>la</strong> pretensión<br />

legítima <strong>de</strong> oponerse, borrar o cance<strong>la</strong>r aquellos datos personales que circu<strong>la</strong>n en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, ya<br />

sean difundidos sin consentimiento previo o con el mismo revocado, o cuando los datos han<br />

<strong>de</strong>jado <strong>de</strong> ser útiles <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> finalidad con <strong>la</strong> que se recabaron y hicieron públicos en <strong>la</strong> web. La<br />

AEPD, tal y como también ha realizado <strong>la</strong> CNIL en Francia, ha vincu<strong>la</strong>do el nacimiento <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en el marco <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter<br />

personal, basándose esencialmente en los principios <strong>de</strong> consentimiento y finalidad <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos, que recoge <strong>la</strong> LoPD en los artículos 6 y 4.5 respectivamente. Hemos distinguido<br />

diferentes supuestos en los que se podría forzar el olvido en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>: en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

sociales, <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a revocar su consentimiento, si existió, y a cance<strong>la</strong>r los<br />

datos personales; en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> los buscadores, <strong>la</strong> cuestión es más compleja. En concreto,<br />

<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> esencialmente <strong>de</strong> si <strong>la</strong> información divulgada es ilegítima -afecta a los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> personalidad o contiene datos personales sin consentimiento, etc.- o si tiene <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong> legítima -se enmarca <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas o tiene <strong>la</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ración<br />

<strong>de</strong> fuente <strong>de</strong> acceso público-. Si es ilegítima, el afectado gozaría <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> cance<strong>la</strong>ción, a<br />

ejercer frente al titu<strong>la</strong>r o responsable <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web que lo publicó; si es legítima, según <strong>la</strong> AEPD,<br />

el afectado goza <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición frente al buscador. La incipiente doctrina tampoco<br />

30 CoTINo HUESo, L., ya citado, pp. 298-299.<br />

31 CARRILLo, M. (2010). «El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet». Artículo publicado en el diario El País,<br />

con fecha <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2009, disponible en Internet: http://bit.ly/2srRjo [Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta:<br />

6 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2010].


406 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

es pacífica en re<strong>la</strong>ción a <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales, si bien, a diferencia <strong>de</strong> lo que <strong>de</strong>fien<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

AEPD, parece más coherente una interpretación que entienda que <strong>la</strong>s hemerotecas digitales<br />

son ficheros, y no medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación social, que dan un tratamiento a fuentes <strong>de</strong><br />

acceso público ergo <strong>de</strong>be enten<strong>de</strong>rse que tal tratamiento es equi<strong>para</strong>ble a <strong>la</strong> practica que<br />

realizan los buscadores.<br />

6. bibliografÍa<br />

Boyd, D. y Ellison, N. (2007). «Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scho<strong>la</strong>rship».<br />

Journal of computer-Mediated Communication. Vol. 1, nº 13.<br />

Carrillo, M. (2009). «El <strong>de</strong>recho al olvido en Internet». El País. 23 <strong>de</strong> octubre <strong>de</strong> 2009.<br />

CNIL. (1999). 20ème rapport d’activité. Paris: La Documentation Française, pp. 6.<br />

CNIL (2009). 30ème rapport d’activité. Paris: La Documentation Française, pp. 29.<br />

Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. (2011). Draft report on a comprehensive<br />

approach on personal data protection in the European Union (2011/2025(INI)).<br />

Cotino Hueso, L. (2010). «Datos personales y liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas. Medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

social como fuentes accesibles al público (Art. 3 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> LoPD)». En A. TRoN-<br />

CoSo REIGADA (dir.). Comentario a <strong>la</strong> Ley Orgánica <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos Personales,<br />

Cizur Menor: Civitas, pp. 289-315.<br />

Letteron, R. (1996). «Le droit à l’oubli». Revue du Droit Public et <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Science Politique en<br />

France et à L’Étranger. Nº 2, pp. 385-424.<br />

Mayer-Schönberger, V. (2009). Delete. The Virtue of Forgetting in the Digital Age. New<br />

Jersey: Princeton University Press.<br />

Rosen, J. (2010). «The web means the end of forgetting». The New York Times. 21 <strong>de</strong> julio<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2010.


22<br />

PrIVACIDAD y TRACkING COOkIES.<br />

UNA APrOxImACIóN CONstItUCIONAl<br />

María Concepción Torres Díaz<br />

Abogada y Profesora asociada <strong>de</strong> Derecho Constitucional<br />

en <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Alicante<br />

resumen: El 24 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2010 <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos hizo pública una<br />

nota informativa en don<strong>de</strong> informaba sobre los acuerdos adoptados por <strong>la</strong>s Autorida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas <strong>de</strong><br />

Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos que integran el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29 (GT 29) sobre <strong>la</strong> privacidad en<br />

<strong>la</strong> publicidad on-line basada en el comportamiento (behavioural advertising). En dicha nota se alerta<br />

sobre los riesgos que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad suscitan <strong>la</strong>s l<strong>la</strong>madas ‘tracking cookies’, esto es, <strong>la</strong>s cookies <strong>de</strong><br />

rastreo que se utilizan <strong>para</strong> recopi<strong>la</strong>r información sobre el comportamiento <strong>de</strong> navegación <strong>de</strong> los individuos<br />

y, <strong>de</strong> esta forma, ofrecer a los/as usuarios/as anuncios dirigidos y personalizados. Partiendo <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s anteriores consi<strong>de</strong>raciones <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación preten<strong>de</strong> analizar el contenido <strong>de</strong>l Dictamen<br />

2/2010 sobre publicidad comportamental on-line en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> nueva Directiva sobre privacidad<br />

en telecomunicaciones 136/2009/CE aprobada en diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 y que modifica <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y en don<strong>de</strong> se introduce <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> obtener el consentimiento<br />

informado <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as antes <strong>de</strong> insta<strong>la</strong>r dispositivos como cookies en los or<strong>de</strong>nadores. Y es<br />

que el análisis propuesto no resulta ba<strong>la</strong>dí <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una óptica constitucional sobre todo si tenemos en<br />

cuenta los riesgos a <strong>la</strong> privacidad que suponen <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad en internet. Evolución<br />

que pone en cuestión ese <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong><br />

información que reconoció, por primera vez, <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional Alemán <strong>de</strong> 27<br />

<strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: privacidad, <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales, publicidad comportamental, tracking cookies<br />

y <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

1. P<strong>la</strong>nteamiento general<br />

El 24 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2010 <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos hizo pública una<br />

nota informativa en don<strong>de</strong> seña<strong>la</strong>ba los acuerdos adoptados por <strong>la</strong>s Autorida<strong>de</strong>s Europeas<br />

<strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos que integran el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29 (GT 29) 1 sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

privacidad en <strong>la</strong> publicidad on-line basada en el comportamiento (behavioural advertising).<br />

En dicha nota se alerta sobre los riesgos que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad suscitan <strong>la</strong>s l<strong>la</strong>madas tracking<br />

1 Este grupo <strong>de</strong> trabajo se creó en virtud <strong>de</strong>l artículo 29 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE. Es un órgano consultivo<br />

europeo in<strong>de</strong>pendiente en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad. Sus tareas<br />

se <strong>de</strong>scriben en el artículo 30 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE y en el artículo 15 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/<br />

CE.


408 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cookies, esto es, <strong>la</strong>s cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo que se utilizan <strong>para</strong> recopi<strong>la</strong>r información sobre el<br />

comportamiento <strong>de</strong> navegación <strong>de</strong> los individuos y, <strong>de</strong> esta forma, ofrecer a los/as usuarios/<br />

as anuncios dirigidos y personalizados. Partiendo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s anteriores consi<strong>de</strong>raciones <strong>la</strong> presente<br />

comunicación preten<strong>de</strong> analizar el contenido <strong>de</strong>l Dictamen 2/2010 sobre publicidad<br />

comportamental en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong> nueva Directiva sobre privacidad en telecomunicaciones<br />

136/2009/CE aprobada en diciembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 y que modifica <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva<br />

al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas y en don<strong>de</strong> se introduce <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> obtener el consentimiento<br />

informado (y fundamentado) <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as antes <strong>de</strong> insta<strong>la</strong>r dispositivos como <strong>la</strong>s<br />

cookies en los or<strong>de</strong>nadores. Y es que el análisis propuesto no resulta ba<strong>la</strong>dí <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> una óptica<br />

constitucional sobre todo si tenemos en cuenta <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> aludir a un “nuevo” <strong>de</strong>recho,<br />

esto es, el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong> información<br />

que consagra <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional Alemán <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2008 fruto <strong>de</strong>l recurso interpuesto contra <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley <strong>de</strong> Servicios <strong>de</strong> Inteligencia<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Estado <strong>de</strong> Renania <strong>de</strong>l Norte <strong>de</strong> Westfalia, en virtud <strong>de</strong>l cual se permitía expresamente<br />

que tales servicios pudiesen utilizar <strong>de</strong> forma secreta spywares o troyanos <strong>para</strong> espiar los or<strong>de</strong>nadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> cualquier sospechoso. El Tribunal <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ró inconstitucional <strong>la</strong> reforma y configuró<br />

lo que se ha consi<strong>de</strong>rado como un nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e<br />

integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos <strong>de</strong> información en aras <strong>de</strong> proteger <strong>la</strong> personalidad<br />

on-line, digital o en <strong>red</strong> frente a los peligros que representa el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías.<br />

Extrapo<strong>la</strong>ndo estas i<strong>de</strong>as al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies no resulta aventurado alertar<br />

sobre sus peligros teniendo en cuenta <strong>la</strong> capacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s mismas <strong>para</strong> generar perfiles <strong>de</strong><br />

navegación <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as susceptibles <strong>de</strong> vulnerar ciertos <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales encuadrables<br />

<strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> ese concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> privacidad. Sentadas <strong>la</strong>s anteriores premisas <strong>la</strong><br />

presente comunicación preten<strong>de</strong> reflexionar sobre los <strong>retos</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies p<strong>la</strong>ntean<br />

al <strong>de</strong>recho constitucional en cuanto nos permite aludir, en su caso, a un “nuevo” <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

fundamental con los inconvenientes y <strong>la</strong>s posturas encontradas que siempre genera esta cuestión.<br />

En cualquier caso, lo que sí es cierto es que el catálogo <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s no es un<br />

catálogo cerrado, sino que <strong>la</strong> propia dinámica social <strong>de</strong>be mostrarse abierta al surgimiento <strong>de</strong><br />

nuevas necesida<strong>de</strong>s que fundamenten nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos. De ahí, <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong> reflexionar<br />

sobre esta cuestión en aras <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar si <strong>la</strong>s potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> los avances tecnológicos<br />

suponen una necesidad suficiente <strong>para</strong> apostar por “nuevos” <strong>de</strong>rechos que, en suma, <strong>de</strong>spliegan<br />

su ámbito <strong>de</strong> actuación en esa esfera personal e informacional (<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad) <strong>de</strong> los<br />

individuos y/o usuarios/as.<br />

2. objetiVos<br />

Al hilo <strong>de</strong> lo expuesto, consi<strong>de</strong>ro necesario p<strong>la</strong>smar y/o i<strong>de</strong>ntificar cuáles son los objetivos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación. Unos objetivos que parten <strong>de</strong> un p<strong>la</strong>nteamiento constitucional,<br />

lo que implica tener que <strong>de</strong>limitar cuáles son sus bases constitucionales. Bases<br />

constitucionales que, por un <strong>la</strong>do, resultan <strong>de</strong>terminantes a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> aludir a los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

encuadrables en ese concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> privacidad. Y que, por otra parte, nos obliga a


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

409<br />

reflexionar sobre <strong>la</strong> necesidad o no <strong>de</strong> hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos que surgen al hilo <strong>de</strong> los<br />

nuevos avances tecnológicos en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s TICs (<strong>de</strong>rechos encuadrables en <strong>la</strong> tercera o<br />

cuarta generación <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>rechos, según el caso, tomando como referencia esa sistematización<br />

generacional <strong>de</strong> los mismos). El tema no es pacífico, sobre todo, porque <strong>la</strong> doctrina no se<br />

pone <strong>de</strong> acuerdo a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> aludir a nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos y, en este sentido, se observan posturas<br />

encontradas. No obstante, con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> que se opte o no por aludir a un nuevo<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho fundamental, lo relevante <strong>de</strong> esta comunicación es sentar <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales<br />

sobre los riesgos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad que los <strong>de</strong>sarrollos como <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies son susceptibles<br />

<strong>de</strong> originar.<br />

3. concePtualizaciones y bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> PriVacidad<br />

El presente apartado lleva por título conceptualizaciones y bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> privacidad. Antes <strong>de</strong> a<strong>de</strong>ntrame en el análisis <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>ro importante <strong>de</strong>limitar conceptualmente algunos términos. Términos como el<br />

<strong>de</strong> privacidad, intimidad (personal y/o familiar), protección <strong>de</strong> datos, web 2.0, publicidad<br />

comportamental o tracking cookies. Y es que <strong>la</strong> conceptualización <strong>de</strong> estos términos resulta<br />

necesaria sobre todo si lo que se preten<strong>de</strong> es <strong>de</strong>terminar cuáles son esas bases constitucionales<br />

y los riegos que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> misma genera <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental y <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies.<br />

Comenzando por el primer término, esto es, por privacidad cabe seña<strong>la</strong>r que este término<br />

proviene <strong>de</strong>l inglés (privacy 2 ) y que en <strong>de</strong>terminados foros ha sido rechazado calificándolo<br />

<strong>de</strong> anglicismo y seña<strong>la</strong>ndo que <strong>la</strong> utilización correcta en nuestra lengua sería intimidad.<br />

No obstante, el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información 3 junto a <strong>la</strong> expansión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> infor-<br />

2 Como seña<strong>la</strong> SERRANo PÉREZ, M.M. (2003), El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. Derecho<br />

español y com<strong>para</strong>do, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas, pp. 20 y ss. “La primera referencia al <strong>de</strong>recho a<br />

protegerse contra <strong>la</strong> informática surge en Estados Unidos al amparo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> “pricacy”, terminología<br />

exportada que ha tenido eco incluso en nuestro país (…) El concepto <strong>de</strong> “privacy” aparece por primera vez<br />

en un artículo <strong>de</strong> Warren y Bran<strong>de</strong>rs, enunciándolo estos dos autores como el <strong>de</strong>recho a ser <strong>de</strong>jado solo, “the<br />

right to be alone”, y que se ha convertido en el referente obligado <strong>de</strong> cualquier estudio posterior sobre el<br />

tema”.<br />

3 Sobre el concepto <strong>de</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información véase CAMPUZANo ToMÉ, H. (2000), Vida privada<br />

y datos personales, Madrid: Tecnos, Derecho y realidad, citado por MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R.<br />

(2004), Una aproximación crítica a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas, pp.<br />

46. Campuzano Tomé <strong>de</strong>fine <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información como “un nuevo mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> organización<br />

industrial, cultural y social caracterizado por el acercamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas a <strong>la</strong> información a través <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación. Supone una informatización <strong>de</strong> los diversos sectores dirigida<br />

a abrir una vía <strong>de</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos en todas <strong>la</strong>s facetas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida económica y social, así<br />

como a obtener en último término, una mejora <strong>de</strong> su calidad <strong>de</strong> vida. Se trata <strong>de</strong> conseguir que <strong>la</strong>s nuevas<br />

tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comunicación se conviertan en herramientas <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> una sociedad <strong>de</strong> integración<br />

en <strong>la</strong> que todos los ciudadanos tengan cabida”. otra <strong>de</strong>finición interesante se contiene en el Real<br />

Decreto 1289/1999, <strong>de</strong> 23 <strong>de</strong> julio, por el que se crea <strong>la</strong> Comisión Interministerial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Información y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Nuevas Tecnologías. Seña<strong>la</strong> que “<strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información engloba


410 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

mática y <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías en comunicación han facilitado su utilización hasta el punto<br />

<strong>de</strong> que el Diccionario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lengua españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Real Aca<strong>de</strong>mia (DRAE 4 ) lo ha incluido<br />

<strong>de</strong>finiéndolo como ese “ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida privada que se tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a proteger <strong>de</strong> cualquier<br />

intromisión”. Una primera aproximación a este término (teniendo en cuenta <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición<br />

anterior) nos induce a pensar en <strong>la</strong> estrecha conexión entre privacidad e intimidad. No obstante,<br />

resulta importante precisar que por privacidad cabría enten<strong>de</strong>r un concepto bastante<br />

más amplio que el <strong>de</strong> intimidad 5 , puesto que se ha visto amenazado por el progresivo <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> técnicas <strong>de</strong> recolección y almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>de</strong> acceso a los mismos, lo que<br />

constituye una amenaza potencial antes <strong>de</strong>sconocida. Como seña<strong>la</strong> NAVALPoTRo 6 “(...)<br />

<strong>la</strong> privacidad constituye un conjunto más amplio, más global, <strong>de</strong> facetas <strong>de</strong> su personalidad [<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

personalidad <strong>de</strong> los individuos] que, ais<strong>la</strong>damente consi<strong>de</strong>radas, pue<strong>de</strong>n carecer <strong>de</strong> significación<br />

intrínsica pero que, coherentemente en<strong>la</strong>zadas entre sí, arrojan como precipitado un retrato <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

personalidad <strong>de</strong>l individuo que este tiene <strong>de</strong>recho a mantener reservado”.<br />

Siguiendo con <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>limitación conceptual <strong>de</strong> los términos seña<strong>la</strong>dos conviene precisar<br />

qué se entien<strong>de</strong> por intimidad 7 . El Diccionario <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lengua españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Real Aca<strong>de</strong>mia<br />

(DRAE) 8 lo <strong>de</strong>fine como esa “zona espiritual íntima y reservada <strong>de</strong> una persona o <strong>de</strong> un grupo,<br />

especialmente <strong>de</strong> una familia”. Por su parte, el Tribunal Constitucional ha precisado que el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad 9 reconoce el <strong>de</strong>recho a resguardar <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> acción y el conocimiento<br />

un conjunto <strong>de</strong> activida<strong>de</strong>s industriales y económicas, comportamientos sociales, actitu<strong>de</strong>s individuales y<br />

formas <strong>de</strong> organización política y administrativa, <strong>de</strong> importancia creciente en <strong>la</strong>s naciones situadas en <strong>la</strong><br />

vanguardia económica y cultural, a lo que no pue<strong>de</strong>n sustraerse los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos”. Véase también FER-<br />

NÁNDEZ ESTEBAN, M.L. (1998), Nuevas Tecnologías, Internet y Derechos Fundamentales, Madrid:<br />

McGraw-Hill Interamericana <strong>de</strong> España, p. 139. Esta autora aduce que “los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

interactivos modifican también <strong>la</strong> capacidad <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> datos, instituyendo una comunicación electrónica<br />

continua y directa entre los gestores <strong>de</strong> los servicios y los usuarios. Por tanto, no sólo es posible un<br />

control más directo <strong>de</strong> los comportamientos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios, sino también un conocimiento más estrecho <strong>de</strong><br />

sus costumbres, inclinaciones, intereses o gustos”.<br />

4 Véase <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>finición <strong>de</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> DRAE, pue<strong>de</strong> consultarse [fecha<br />

<strong>de</strong> consulta 20/03/2011].<br />

5 Sobre esta cuestión véase MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R., Una aproximación crítica a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación<br />

… op.cit., pp. 37 y ss. Seña<strong>la</strong> este autor que “existe una noción, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> vida privada o privacidad,<br />

que supera <strong>la</strong>s limitaciones <strong>de</strong>l término intimidad y que, a<strong>de</strong>más, encuentra perfecto encaje constitucional<br />

en el art. 18 CE. En este sentido, remontarse a un concepto estricto <strong>de</strong> intimidad supone limitar <strong>la</strong> virtualidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l artículo 18 y el bien jurídico protegido por el mismo”.<br />

6 Véase NAVALPoTRo, Y., “Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999 (LoPD)”, en ALMUZARA<br />

ALMAIDA, C. (2005), Estudio práctico sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, Val<strong>la</strong>dolid: Lex<br />

Nova, p. 40.<br />

7 Con respecto al concepto <strong>de</strong> intimidad véase también MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R., Una aproximación<br />

crítica a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación … op.cit., pp. 33 y ss. Este autor analiza el término intimidad <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong><br />

un punto <strong>de</strong> vista etimológico e histórico.<br />

8 Pue<strong>de</strong> consultarse en (fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 11/02/2011).<br />

9 Sobre este particu<strong>la</strong>r resultan especialmente <strong>de</strong> interés <strong>la</strong> STC 115/2000 así como <strong>la</strong> STC 231/1988.


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

411<br />

ajenos un ámbito propio y reservado <strong>de</strong> cada sujeto, ámbito que se consi<strong>de</strong>ra necesario<br />

<strong>para</strong> mantener una calidad mínima <strong>de</strong> vida humana, según <strong>la</strong>s pautas <strong>de</strong> nuestra conducta.<br />

Poniendo en re<strong>la</strong>ción ambos conceptos, privacidad/intimidad, podríamos seña<strong>la</strong>r que<br />

el término intimidad tiene un alcance menor pero es más gravoso. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong><br />

intimidad protege <strong>la</strong> parte más íntima <strong>de</strong> una persona, esto es, esa esfera personal que <strong>de</strong>fine<br />

qué es y qué no es privado. En cambio, privacidad es un término más amplio y se refiere a<br />

aquel<strong>la</strong> parte <strong>de</strong>l individuo que va más allá <strong>de</strong> lo íntimo, esto es, alu<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> información que<br />

tomada por sí misma pue<strong>de</strong> no ser relevante, pero que analizada en un momento o contexto<br />

concreto pue<strong>de</strong> llevarnos a <strong>la</strong> construcción <strong>de</strong> un perfil muy fiable <strong>de</strong>l individuo. En aras<br />

<strong>de</strong> lo anterior, se podría colegir que todos los asuntos íntimos son privados pero no todos<br />

los asuntos privados son íntimos. Sea como fuere y extrapo<strong>la</strong>ndo estas <strong>de</strong>limitaciones conceptuales<br />

al objeto <strong>de</strong> nuestro estudio ¿qué ámbitos son susceptibles <strong>de</strong> resultar afectados a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental o <strong>de</strong> cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo? ¿qué riesgos<br />

generan <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad?<br />

Antes <strong>de</strong> dar respuesta o reflexionar sobre estas cuestiones conviene no <strong>de</strong>jar <strong>de</strong> precisar<br />

otro término como es el dato <strong>de</strong> carácter personal 10 . Concepto que nos obliga a hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos o <strong>la</strong> autotute<strong>la</strong> informativa. Cabe enten<strong>de</strong>r por el mismo<br />

(sintéticamente hab<strong>la</strong>ndo) como ese po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> disposición 11 y/o control sobre los propios<br />

datos por parte <strong>de</strong> los individuos. Ese po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> disposición y <strong>de</strong> control otorga a los individuos<br />

un <strong>de</strong>recho a saber y a ser informados sobre el <strong>de</strong>stino y uso <strong>de</strong> los datos personales, el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a que se requiera el previo consentimiento <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> recogida y uso <strong>de</strong> los datos personales,<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho a acce<strong>de</strong>r, rectificar y cance<strong>la</strong>r los datos personales, el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> oposición,<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho a no verse sometido a una <strong>de</strong>cisión con efectos jurídicos que se base únicamente<br />

en un tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong>stinado a evaluar <strong>de</strong>terminados aspectos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad,<br />

entre <strong>otros</strong>. Por tanto, hab<strong>la</strong>mos <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos como un <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

autónomo 12 y con sustantividad propia con in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> que se ubique en ese ámbito<br />

más extenso <strong>de</strong> privacidad.<br />

En líneas anteriores se hacía referencia a <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> precisar <strong>otros</strong> conceptos tales<br />

como web 2.0. Sobre el concepto <strong>de</strong> web 2.0 se podría <strong>de</strong>cir que es un concepto asociado<br />

a un fenómeno social que está basado en <strong>la</strong> interacción que se logra a través <strong>de</strong> diferentes<br />

aplicaciones web. Aplicaciones que permiten o facilitan el compartir información, <strong>la</strong> intero-<br />

10 El art. 3.a) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Lo 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong> diciembre, <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal <strong>de</strong>termina<br />

qué se entien<strong>de</strong> por dato <strong>de</strong> carácter personal. Seña<strong>la</strong> que compren<strong>de</strong> “cualquier información<br />

concerniente a personas físicas i<strong>de</strong>ntificadas o in<strong>de</strong>ntificables”. Por su parte <strong>la</strong> Directiva europea 95/46/<br />

CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo seña<strong>la</strong> en su art. 2.b) algunas notas sobre lo que es una<br />

persona i<strong>de</strong>ntificable, “toda persona cuya i<strong>de</strong>ntidad pueda <strong>de</strong>terminarse, directa o indirectamente, en<br />

particu<strong>la</strong>r mediante un número <strong>de</strong> in<strong>de</strong>ntificación o uno o varios elementos específicos, característicos <strong>de</strong> su<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntidad física, fisiológica, psíquica, económica, cultural o social”.<br />

11 Sobre el po<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> disposición y control sobre los propios datos resulta <strong>de</strong> interés <strong>la</strong> STC 254/1993.<br />

12 Sobre <strong>la</strong> configuración <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos como <strong>de</strong>recho autónomo véase <strong>la</strong> STC<br />

290/2000, <strong>de</strong> 30 <strong>de</strong> noviembre.


412 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

perabilidad, el diseño centrado en usuarios/as y <strong>la</strong> co<strong>la</strong>boración en <strong>la</strong> World Wi<strong>de</strong> Web. Por<br />

tanto, se podría <strong>de</strong>cir que <strong>la</strong> web 2.0 es <strong>la</strong> “transición que se ha dado <strong>de</strong> aplicaciones tradicionales<br />

hacia aplicaciones que funcionan a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web enfocadas al usuario/a final” 13 . Des<strong>de</strong><br />

el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> esta comunicación y <strong>de</strong> los objetivos p<strong>la</strong>nteados en <strong>la</strong> misma resulta<br />

importante tener en cuenta conceptos como el ahora <strong>de</strong>finido sobre todo cuando hab<strong>la</strong>mos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental en espacios propios <strong>de</strong> web 2.0 o webs<br />

co<strong>la</strong>borativas como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales 14 . Espacios en el que los/as usuarios/as interactúan<br />

bajo una aparente “gratuidad”, ahora bien ¿es eso así? ¿cuál es <strong>la</strong> contraprestación<br />

por <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> estos servicios?<br />

otro concepto sobre el que bascu<strong>la</strong> esta comunicación es el concepto <strong>de</strong> publicidad<br />

comportamental. Un concepto re<strong>la</strong>tivamente nuevo y que como se seña<strong>la</strong> en el Dictamen<br />

2/2010, sobre publicidad comportamental on line <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Art. 29 (GT29),<br />

se trata <strong>de</strong> una publicidad basada en <strong>la</strong> observación continuada <strong>de</strong>l comportamiento <strong>de</strong> los<br />

individuos. En este sentido, se pue<strong>de</strong> seña<strong>la</strong>r que <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental busca estudiar<br />

<strong>la</strong>s características <strong>de</strong> dicho comportamiento a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s acciones <strong>de</strong> los individuos,<br />

esto es, a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s visitas repetidas a un <strong>de</strong>terminado sitio, a través <strong>de</strong> interacciones, <strong>de</strong><br />

pa<strong>la</strong>bras c<strong>la</strong>ves, <strong>de</strong> producción <strong>de</strong> contenidos en línea, etc. De esta forma se pue<strong>de</strong> e<strong>la</strong>borar<br />

un perfil específico <strong>de</strong>stinado a proporcionar a los/as usuarios/as anuncios a medida partiendo<br />

<strong>de</strong> los intereses inferidos <strong>de</strong> su comportamiento en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. El Dictamen precisa que<br />

“mientras <strong>la</strong> publicidad contextual y <strong>la</strong> publicidad segmentada utilizan ‘instantáneas’ <strong>de</strong> lo que<br />

ven o hacen los [as] usuarios [as] en un sitio concreto (…) <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental pue<strong>de</strong><br />

dar a los anunciantes un cuadro <strong>de</strong>tal<strong>la</strong>do <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> vida en línea <strong>de</strong>l usuario[a]”.<br />

Con respecto al concepto <strong>de</strong> tracking cookies o cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo cabe seña<strong>la</strong>r que es<br />

<strong>la</strong> principal tecnología <strong>de</strong> rastreo que utiliza <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental, ya que permite<br />

rastrear <strong>la</strong>s búsquedas <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a a lo <strong>la</strong>rgo <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>pso extenso <strong>de</strong> tiempo. Como recoge el<br />

Dictamen 2/2010 (antes citado) el funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo es el siguiente:<br />

“el proveedor <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s y publicidad coloca una cookie <strong>de</strong> rastreo en el terminal <strong>de</strong>l usuario [a] <strong>la</strong><br />

13 Sobre <strong>la</strong> web 2.0 véase , [fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta<br />

12/09/2010]. Véase también RoDRÍGUEZ DE SEPÚLVEDA MAILLo, D., y RoDRÍGUEZ DE<br />

SEPÚLVEDA MAILLo, S. (2009), Cómo sobrevivir en <strong>la</strong> Red, Madrid: Ra-Ma, pp. 20-21. Seña<strong>la</strong>n<br />

estos autores que <strong>la</strong> web 2.0 está formada por “páginas cuyo contenido se actualiza con una gran frecuencia<br />

y en <strong>la</strong> que el diseño y los estilos pasan a un segundo p<strong>la</strong>no, se da una mayor importancia a los<br />

contenidos y por supuesto automatizando ell proceso <strong>de</strong> inserción <strong>de</strong> dichos contenidos, <strong>para</strong> que cualquier<br />

persona pueda tener su propio espacio en Internet sin necesidad <strong>de</strong> tener conocimientos en el campo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

programación Web o Html”.<br />

14 Sobre <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales véase oRTIZ LÓPEZ, P., “Re<strong>de</strong>s sociales: funcionamiento y tratamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> información personal”, en RALLo LoMBARTE, A., y MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R. (coord.)<br />

(2010), Derecho y re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, Pamplona: Civitas, pp. 24. Seña<strong>la</strong> esta autora que <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales<br />

online se podrían <strong>de</strong>finir como “aquellos servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que ofrecen a los<br />

usuarios[as] una p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> comunicación a través <strong>de</strong> Internet <strong>para</strong> que estos generen un perfil con sus<br />

datos personales, facilitando <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s en base a criterios comunes y permitiendo <strong>la</strong> conexión con<br />

<strong>otros</strong> usuarios[as] y su interconexión”.


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

413<br />

primera vez que este visita un sitio <strong>de</strong> internet que exhibe un anuncio <strong>de</strong> su <strong>red</strong>. La cookie es un<br />

texto breve alfanumérico almacenado (y recuperado posteriormente) en el terminal <strong>de</strong>l usuario [a]<br />

por el proveedor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>. En <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental, <strong>la</strong> cookie permitirá al proveedor <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> publicidad reconocer a un antiguo visitante que vuelve a dicho sitio o visita cualquier<br />

otro sitio asociado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> publicitaria. La repetición <strong>de</strong> visitas permitirá al proveedor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

publicitaria construir un perfil <strong>de</strong>l visitante que se utilizará <strong>para</strong> producir publicidad personalizada”.<br />

Sin duda <strong>de</strong>l funcionamiento (brevemente expuesto) <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies son muchas<br />

<strong>la</strong>s cuestiones que se suscitan sobre todo teniendo en cuenta ese concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> privacidad<br />

que expan<strong>de</strong> su ámbito <strong>de</strong> protección no sólo al ámbito íntimo <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as<br />

(como se ha comentado) sino también a otras parce<strong>la</strong>s como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser el secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones<br />

y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal. Y es que <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies podrían<br />

catalogarse como dispositivos espías 15 (o chivatos) que junto a los spyware, web bugs<br />

o simi<strong>la</strong>res recaban información <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as (datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico, IP, tipo <strong>de</strong> conexión,<br />

tiempo <strong>de</strong> navegación, preferencias <strong>de</strong> contenidos, etc.). Ante esta realidad conviene precisar<br />

cuáles son <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>para</strong>, a partir <strong>de</strong> ahí, po<strong>de</strong>r significar<br />

los aspectos más relevantes tanto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE como <strong>de</strong>l Dictamen 2/2010<br />

sobre publicidad comportamental.<br />

Con respecto a <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad conviene seña<strong>la</strong>r cuál es su<br />

ubicación sistemática. Una ubicación que nos sitúa en el art. 18 CE. Precepto que constitucionaliza<br />

varios <strong>de</strong>rechos como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, intimidad personal y<br />

familiar y propia imagen (apartado 1 <strong>de</strong>l art. 18 CE), el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> invio<strong>la</strong>bilidad <strong>de</strong>l domicilio<br />

(apartado 2), el <strong>de</strong>recho al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones (apartado 3) y, por último,<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal (apartado 4 <strong>de</strong>l mismo precepto).<br />

Teniendo en cuenta <strong>la</strong> ubicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad en nuestro texto constitucional es importante<br />

precisar que se encuentra en <strong>la</strong> parte dogmática 16 , más concretamente, en <strong>la</strong> sección I<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Capítulo II <strong>de</strong>l Título I <strong>de</strong> nuestra Carta Magna. Una ubicación que no es ba<strong>la</strong>dí puesto<br />

que resulta <strong>de</strong>terminante <strong>para</strong> gozar tanto <strong>de</strong> una serie <strong>de</strong> garantías genéricas o normativas 17<br />

15 Sobre los dispositivos espías véase GUERRERo PICÓ, M.C. (2006), El impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en el Derecho<br />

Fundamental a <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas, pp. 473 y<br />

ss.<br />

16 Sobre <strong>la</strong> distinción entre parte orgánica y parte dogmática, conviene seña<strong>la</strong>r que es una distinción<br />

puramente doctrinal <strong>de</strong> los textos constitucionales. La parte dogmática suele contener los valores<br />

propios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad en que se promulga <strong>la</strong> Constitución, <strong>la</strong> configuración esencial <strong>de</strong>l Estado, sus<br />

señas <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad y los <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s fundamentales <strong>de</strong> los individuos que integran <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

en que se promulga <strong>la</strong> Constitución. Por su parte, <strong>la</strong> parte orgánica suele <strong>de</strong>finir <strong>la</strong> composición,<br />

organización y funciones <strong>de</strong> los órganos <strong>de</strong>l po<strong>de</strong>r público que articu<strong>la</strong>n los po<strong>de</strong>res <strong>de</strong>l Estado.<br />

17 Como garanías genéricas o normativas cabe citar el art. 53.1 CE y el art. 54 CE. El artículo 53.1 CE<br />

dispone textualmente “Los <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s reconocidos en el Capítulo II <strong>de</strong>l presente Título vincu<strong>la</strong>n<br />

a todos los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos. Sólo por Ley, que en todo caso <strong>de</strong>berá respetar su contenido esencial, podrá<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>rse el ejercicio <strong>de</strong> tales <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s (...)”. De <strong>la</strong> lectura <strong>de</strong> este precepto po<strong>de</strong>mos extrapo<strong>la</strong>r<br />

tres garantías genéricas o normativas como son <strong>la</strong> aplicación directa o vincu<strong>la</strong>ción directa <strong>de</strong> los


414 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

como otra serie <strong>de</strong> garantías jurisdiccionales 18 , sin olvidar (por supuesto) <strong>la</strong>s garantías específicas<br />

<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ndiendo <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho en concreto susceptible <strong>de</strong> ser afectado. Así cuando<br />

el <strong>de</strong>recho susceptible <strong>de</strong> verse afectado sea el <strong>de</strong>recho al honor <strong>la</strong>s garantías específicas se<br />

concretarán en el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> rectificación (Ley orgánica <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> Rectificación 19 ), <strong>la</strong><br />

protección civil (Ley orgánica <strong>de</strong>l Derecho al Honor, Intimidad Personal y Propia imagen 20 )<br />

y <strong>la</strong> protección penal cuando los hechos sean constitutivos <strong>de</strong> infracción penal. Las mismas<br />

garantías específicas se darán cuando el <strong>de</strong>recho susceptible <strong>de</strong> verse afectado sea el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

a <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen, añadiendo en este caso <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

específica prevista en el or<strong>de</strong>n <strong>la</strong>boral. En el caso <strong>de</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>recho vulnerado sea el <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

al secreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones <strong>la</strong> protección específica vendrá <strong>de</strong>terminada por el Capítulo<br />

I <strong>de</strong>l Título X <strong>de</strong>l Código Penal en don<strong>de</strong> se tipifican los <strong>de</strong>litos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>scubrimiento y reve<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> sec<strong>retos</strong> y <strong>la</strong> Sección II <strong>de</strong>l Capítulo V <strong>de</strong>l Título XXI <strong>de</strong>l Código Penal que tipifica<br />

los <strong>de</strong>litos cometidos por personal funcionario contra <strong>la</strong> invio<strong>la</strong>bilidad domiciliaria y <strong>de</strong>más<br />

garantías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad. Por su parte, <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> este concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> privacidad otro<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho susceptible <strong>de</strong> ser vulnerado es el <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. En este caso su<br />

protección específica se concreta en una serie <strong>de</strong> procedimientos ante <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos en el marco <strong>de</strong> lo previsto en <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999, <strong>de</strong> 13 <strong>de</strong><br />

diciembre, <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal, sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> que como <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

fundamental también goce <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s garantías genéricas o normativas y jurisdiccionales apuntadas<br />

en líneas anteriores (art. 53 CE).<br />

po<strong>de</strong>res públicos a los <strong>de</strong>rechos recogidos en el Capítulo II <strong>de</strong>l Título I <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CE, así como <strong>la</strong> reserva<br />

<strong>de</strong> ley que será ley orgánica en el caso <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Sección I <strong>de</strong>l Capítulo II y el contenido<br />

esencial. Junto a <strong>la</strong>s garantías <strong>de</strong>l párrafo 1 <strong>de</strong>l art. 53 CE po<strong>de</strong>mos citar otra garantía, en este caso<br />

<strong>institucional</strong>, que es <strong>la</strong> recogida en el art. 54 CE. Dicho precepto dispone “Una Ley orgánica regu<strong>la</strong>rá<br />

<strong>la</strong> institución <strong>de</strong>l Defensor <strong>de</strong>l Pueblo, como alto comisionado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Cortes Generales, <strong>de</strong>signado por éstas<br />

<strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos comprendidos en este Título, a cuyo efecto podrá supervisar <strong>la</strong> actividad <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Administración, dando cuenta a <strong>la</strong>s Cortes Generales”.<br />

18 En cuanto a <strong>la</strong>s garantías jurisdiccionales cabe aludir al párrafo 2 <strong>de</strong>l artículo 53 CE. Dicho precepto<br />

dispone que “Cualquier ciudadano podrá recabar <strong>la</strong> tute<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s y <strong>de</strong>rechos reconocidos en<br />

el artículo 14 y <strong>la</strong> Sección primera <strong>de</strong>l Capítulo II ante los Tribunales ordinarios por un procedimiento<br />

basado en los principios <strong>de</strong> preferencia y sumariedad y, en su caso, a través <strong>de</strong>l recurso <strong>de</strong> amparo ante el<br />

Tribunal Constitucional. Este último recurso será aplicable a <strong>la</strong> objeción <strong>de</strong> conciencia reconocida en el artículo<br />

30”. De <strong>la</strong> lectura <strong>de</strong> este precepto cabe extrapo<strong>la</strong>r una primera protección jurisdiccional a través<br />

<strong>de</strong>l amparo ordinario (ante los tribunales ordinarios) caracterizado por los principios <strong>de</strong> preferencia<br />

y sumariedad y una segunda protección jurisdiccional ante el Tribunal Constitucional (amparo constitucional).<br />

Con respecto al amparo constitucional resulta interesante citar el art. 161.1.a) CE que<br />

dispone que “El Tribunal Constitucional tiene jurisdicción en todo el territorio español y es competente<br />

<strong>para</strong> conocer (…) b) Del recurso <strong>de</strong> amparo por vio<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos y liberta<strong>de</strong>s referidos en el artículo<br />

53.2 <strong>de</strong> esta Constitución, en los casos y formas que <strong>la</strong> Ley establezca”.<br />

19 Véase <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 2/1984, <strong>de</strong> 26 <strong>de</strong> marzo, regu<strong>la</strong>dora <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> rectificación.<br />

20 Véase <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 1/1982, <strong>de</strong> 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo, <strong>de</strong> protección civil <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho al honor, a <strong>la</strong> intimidad<br />

personal y familiar y a <strong>la</strong> propia imagen.


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

415<br />

A tenor <strong>de</strong> lo expuesto, <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación sienta <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> privacidad en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> los distintos <strong>de</strong>rechos reconocidos en el art. 18 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> CE.<br />

Derechos que se enmarcan en <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad y cuyo reconocimiento internacional<br />

se encuentra en el art. 12 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración universal <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos humanos<br />

cuando dispone que “nadie será objeto <strong>de</strong> injerencias arbitrarias en su vida privada, su familia,<br />

su domicilio o su correspon<strong>de</strong>ncia, ni <strong>de</strong> ataques a su honra o a su reputación”. Ámbito internacional<br />

que también nos permite citar el art. 17 <strong>de</strong>l Pacto internacional <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos civiles<br />

y políticos y, en el ámbito europeo, el art. 8 <strong>de</strong>l Convenio europeo <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos humanos.<br />

Sentadas <strong>la</strong>s anteriores consi<strong>de</strong>raciones resulta pertinente abordar <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad<br />

en los ámbitos tecnológicos y como <strong>la</strong> misma pue<strong>de</strong> incluso requerir <strong>la</strong> conceptualización<br />

<strong>de</strong> nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos que podrían encuadrarse <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong>l elenco <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong>l<br />

art. 18 CE. En este supuesto nos encontraríamos cuando tratamos <strong>de</strong> abordar los riesgos <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental (con <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies) <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad,<br />

<strong>de</strong> ahí <strong>la</strong> insistencia por <strong>de</strong>terminados sectores <strong>de</strong> hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e<br />

integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

4. PriVacidad en <strong>la</strong> directiVa 136/2009/ce<br />

El estudio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo <strong>de</strong> 25<br />

<strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 por <strong>la</strong> que se modifican <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/22/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al servicio<br />

universal y los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong> los usuarios en re<strong>la</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y los servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones<br />

electrónicas, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE re<strong>la</strong>tiva al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales<br />

y a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> intimidad en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas y el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

(CE) nº 2006/2004 sobre <strong>la</strong> cooperación en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> los consumidores,<br />

resulta interesante por cuanto modifica <strong>de</strong>terminados aspectos re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong><br />

privacidad, en general, y con los riesgos a <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental,<br />

esto es, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad que se vale <strong>de</strong> tecnologías <strong>de</strong> rastreo como <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies.<br />

A los objetos <strong>de</strong> esta comunicación es <strong>de</strong> especial interés centrar el objeto <strong>de</strong> nuestro<br />

análisis a partir <strong>de</strong>l consi<strong>de</strong>rando 51 en don<strong>de</strong> se alu<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE (Directiva<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> privacidad y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones electrónicas) que armoniza <strong>la</strong>s disposiciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros necesarias <strong>para</strong> garantizar un nivel equivalente <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

los <strong>de</strong>rechos y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s fundamentales y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> intimidad y a <strong>la</strong><br />

confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad, en lo que respecta al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales en el sector <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones electrónicas, así como a <strong>la</strong> libre circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> tales datos y <strong>de</strong> los equipos y<br />

servicios <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas en <strong>la</strong> Comunidad. La Directiva en el consi<strong>de</strong>rando<br />

52 presta especial atención a <strong>la</strong> evolución <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s direcciones IP en el marco <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas en lo que respecta al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos personales y a <strong>la</strong> libre<br />

circu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> estos datos. Alu<strong>de</strong> también al tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> tráfico en <strong>la</strong> medida<br />

estrictamente necesaria <strong>para</strong> asegurar <strong>la</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, esto es, <strong>la</strong><br />

capacidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s o <strong>de</strong> los sistemas <strong>de</strong> información <strong>de</strong> resistir, con un <strong>de</strong>terminado nivel<br />

<strong>de</strong> confianza, los acci<strong>de</strong>ntes o acciones ilícitas o malintencionadas que comprometan <strong>la</strong> disponibilidad,<br />

autenticidad, integridad y confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los datos almacenados o transmi-


416 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

tidos y <strong>la</strong> seguridad <strong>de</strong> los servicios conexos que dichas re<strong>de</strong>s y sistemas ofrecen o hacen accesibles,<br />

por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> tecnologías y servicios <strong>de</strong> seguridad cuando actúen<br />

como responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos. La Directiva en su consi<strong>de</strong>rando 56 se hace<br />

eco <strong>de</strong> los riesgos <strong>de</strong> nuevos dispositivos <strong>de</strong> recopi<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> datos e i<strong>de</strong>ntificación como son<br />

los dispositivos <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación por radiofrecuencia (RFID) que emplean radiofrecuencias<br />

<strong>para</strong> capturar datos proce<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> etiquetas dotadas <strong>de</strong> una i<strong>de</strong>ntificación única, pudiendo<br />

luego transferir estos datos a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones existentes. También hace<br />

alusión a los programas informáticos que contro<strong>la</strong>n subrepticiamente <strong>la</strong>s acciones <strong>de</strong> los<br />

usuarios/as o que subvierten el funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> sus equipos terminales en beneficio <strong>de</strong> un<br />

tercero (spyware o “programas espías”) que suponen una grave amenaza <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as, como pue<strong>de</strong>n ser los virus. Sobre este particu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>la</strong> Directiva insta a los<br />

Estados miembros a que <strong>de</strong>ben fomentar el suministro <strong>de</strong> información a los/as usuarios/as<br />

finales sobre <strong>la</strong>s precauciones disponibles y alentarlos a adoptar <strong>la</strong>s medidas necesarias <strong>para</strong><br />

proteger sus equipos terminales contra virus y programas espías.<br />

Junto a todo lo anterior, <strong>la</strong> Directiva alu<strong>de</strong> en el consi<strong>de</strong>rando 66 a otro tipo <strong>de</strong> amenazas<br />

a <strong>la</strong> privacidad. Seña<strong>la</strong> que pue<strong>de</strong> que haya terceros que <strong>de</strong>seen almacenar información<br />

sobre el equipo <strong>de</strong> un usuario o acce<strong>de</strong>r a información ya almacenada, con distintos<br />

fines, que van <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> los fines legítimos (como algunos tipos <strong>de</strong> cookies) hasta aquellos que<br />

suponen una intrusión injustificada en <strong>la</strong> esfera privada. En este sentido, <strong>la</strong> Directiva pone<br />

<strong>de</strong> manifiesto <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> que los/as usuarios/as reciban información c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa<br />

cuando realicen una acción que pueda dar lugar a dicho almacenamiento u obtención <strong>de</strong><br />

acceso. A<strong>de</strong>más, se aña<strong>de</strong> que cuando sea técnicamente posible y eficaz será necesario contar<br />

con el consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a <strong>para</strong> aceptar el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos. Partiendo <strong>de</strong> estos<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>randos re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong> privacidad <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE en su artículo 2 modifica<br />

diversos apartados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE. A los objetos <strong>de</strong> esta comunicación conviene<br />

centrar el objeto <strong>de</strong> nuestro análisis en <strong>la</strong>s modificaciones que <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong>l año<br />

2009 introduce sobre el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cookies con respecto a <strong>la</strong> Directiva <strong>de</strong>l 2002.<br />

En concreto, se modifica el apartado 3 <strong>de</strong>l artículo 5 estableciendo expresamente que “Los<br />

Estados miembros ve<strong>la</strong>rán por que únicamente se permita el almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> información, o<br />

<strong>la</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong> información ya almacenada, en el equipo terminal <strong>de</strong> un abonado [a]<br />

o usuario [a], a condición <strong>de</strong> que dicho abonado [a] o usuario [a] haya dado su consentimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> que se le haya facilitado información c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa, en particu<strong>la</strong>r sobre los fines <strong>de</strong>l<br />

tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos, con arreglo a lo dispuesto en <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE”.<br />

Continúa seña<strong>la</strong>ndo el precepto que lo anterior no impedirá el posible almacenamiento<br />

o acceso <strong>de</strong> índole técnica al solo fin <strong>de</strong> efectuar <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> una comunicación a través<br />

<strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas, o en <strong>la</strong> medida <strong>de</strong> lo estrictamente necesario<br />

a fin <strong>de</strong> que el proveedor <strong>de</strong> un servicio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información preste un servicio<br />

expresamente solicitado por el abonado/a o el usuario/a.<br />

Si com<strong>para</strong>mos el <strong>red</strong>actado actual <strong>de</strong>l apartado 3 <strong>de</strong>l artículo 5 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/<br />

CE observamos noveda<strong>de</strong>s significativas puesto que con <strong>la</strong>s modificaciones introducidas el<br />

almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> información o <strong>la</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong> información ya almacenada<br />

en el equipo terminal <strong>de</strong> un abonado/a o usurio/a sólo se pue<strong>de</strong> realizar si se ha prestado el


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

417<br />

consentimiento una vez que se haya facilitado información c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa sobre los fines<br />

<strong>de</strong>l tratamiento. En el <strong>red</strong>actado anterior (Directiva <strong>de</strong>l 2002) se instaba a los Estados <strong>para</strong><br />

que ve<strong>la</strong>ran porque los/as usuarios/as o abonados/as recibieran información c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa<br />

sobre los fines <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos en el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> comunicaciones electrónicas<br />

con fines <strong>de</strong> almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> información o <strong>de</strong> obtención <strong>de</strong> acceso a <strong>la</strong> información almacenada<br />

en el equipo terminal <strong>de</strong>l abonado/a o usuario/a, pero no se exigía esa prestación<br />

expresa <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento. Como seña<strong>la</strong> BERMELL 21 “pasamos <strong>de</strong>l conocido sistema opt-out<br />

(información y procedimiento posterior <strong>de</strong> baja u oposición) al sistema opt-in (información previa<br />

y consentimiento)”.<br />

observamos, por tanto, una modificación importante en cuanto al tratamiento jurídico<br />

<strong>de</strong> los servicios que empleen dispositivos <strong>de</strong> almacenamiento y recuperación <strong>de</strong> datos en<br />

equipos terminales, como ocurre con <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo. A<strong>de</strong>más, conviene precisar que <strong>la</strong> Directiva fija un p<strong>la</strong>zo <strong>de</strong> adaptación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s legis<strong>la</strong>ciones <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros estableciéndose como fecha límite el 25 <strong>de</strong><br />

mayo <strong>de</strong> 2011, circunstancia que no es ba<strong>la</strong>dí sobre todo porque en nuestro or<strong>de</strong>namiento<br />

jurídico, a día <strong>de</strong> hoy, no se ha procedido a modificar el art. 22.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 34/2002 22 , <strong>de</strong> 11<br />

<strong>de</strong> julio, <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong>l comercio electrónico.<br />

5. aPuntes sobre el dictamen 2/2010, sobre Publicidad<br />

comPortamental on-line<br />

Como se ha comentando en puntos anteriores el Dictamen 2/2010, sobre publicidad<br />

comportamental advierte <strong>de</strong> los riesgos que dicha publicidad genera en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad. No obstante, se reconoce <strong>la</strong> importancia económica que este tipo<br />

<strong>de</strong> publicidad genera y, en este sentido, trata <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>limitar cuál es el marco jurídico aplicable.<br />

Marco jurídico que nos obliga a observar <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE, <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE y<br />

<strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE. Con respecto a <strong>la</strong> Directiva sobre privacidad en puntos anteriores<br />

se hacía referencia al art. 5 apartado 3 en don<strong>de</strong> se introduce como novedad <strong>la</strong> exigencia<br />

<strong>de</strong>l consentimiento autorizado <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a <strong>para</strong> almacenar información legalmente o <strong>para</strong><br />

obtener acceso a información almacenada en su equipo terminal. Extrapo<strong>la</strong>ndo estas consi<strong>de</strong>raciones<br />

a <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental y a <strong>la</strong> utilización por parte <strong>de</strong> esta publicidad <strong>de</strong><br />

cookies <strong>de</strong> rastreo es importante recordar como este tipo <strong>de</strong> dispositivos son “información”<br />

almacenada en el equipo terminal <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a y que los proveedores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> publicidad<br />

21 Véase BERMELL, S., “La directiva <strong>de</strong> CooKIES”, artículo en línea en ,<br />

[fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 20/04/2011].<br />

22 Art. 22.2 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley 34/2002, <strong>de</strong> 11 <strong>de</strong> julio, <strong>de</strong> servicios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>de</strong>l comercio<br />

electrónico dispone “Cuando los prestadores <strong>de</strong> servicios empleen dispositivos <strong>de</strong> almacenamiento<br />

y recuperación <strong>de</strong> datos en equipos terminales, informarán a los <strong>de</strong>stinatarios <strong>de</strong> manera c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa<br />

sobre su utilización y finalidad, ofreciéndoles <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> rechazar el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos mediante<br />

un procedimiento sencillo y gratuito”.


418 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

(editores o anunciantes) acce<strong>de</strong>n a ellos cuando los/as usuarios/as visitan un sitio <strong>de</strong> internet.<br />

Por tanto, no resulta aventurado seña<strong>la</strong>r que en estos casos los proveedores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> publicidad<br />

están obligados a observar lo dispuesto en el párrafo 3 <strong>de</strong>l art. 5, ya que el ámbito <strong>de</strong><br />

aplicación <strong>de</strong> este precepto abarca a toda “información” que se almacena o a <strong>la</strong> que se acce<strong>de</strong><br />

sin <strong>de</strong>terminar si esta “información” afecta al ámbito íntimo o privado <strong>de</strong> una persona (en<br />

este caso <strong>de</strong> un usuario/a). En este sentido, resulta importante traer a co<strong>la</strong>ción lo dispuesto<br />

en el consi<strong>de</strong>rando 24 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 2002/58/CE cuando seña<strong>la</strong> que “los equipos terminales<br />

<strong>de</strong> los usuarios [as] (…) así como toda información almacenada en dichos equipos, forman parte<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> esfera privada <strong>de</strong> los usuarios [as], que <strong>de</strong>be ser protegida <strong>de</strong> conformidad con el Convenio<br />

Europeo <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> los Derechos Humanos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Liberta<strong>de</strong>s Fundamentales”. A<strong>de</strong>más,<br />

continúa seña<strong>la</strong>ndo este consi<strong>de</strong>rando como “los <strong>de</strong>nominados programas espías (spyware),<br />

web bugs, i<strong>de</strong>ntificadores ocultos y <strong>otros</strong> dispositivos simi<strong>la</strong>res pue<strong>de</strong>n introducirse en el terminal<br />

<strong>de</strong>l usuario [a] sin su consentimiento <strong>para</strong> acce<strong>de</strong>r a información, archivar información oculta o<br />

rastrear <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>l usuario [a], lo que pue<strong>de</strong> suponer una grave intrusión en <strong>la</strong> intimidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> dichos usuarios [as](...)”. Partiendo <strong>de</strong> lo anterior se podría colegir que el <strong>de</strong>senca<strong>de</strong>nante<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s obligaciones introducidas en el párrafo 3 <strong>de</strong>l art. 5 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE no<br />

es otro que <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> un campo (podría <strong>de</strong>cirse que tecnológico) que se consi<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

esfera privada (privacidad) <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a y no el hecho <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información sean o no datos<br />

personales. No obstante, esto no implica que no se tenga que observar <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/<br />

CE cuando esa información afecta a datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal como pue<strong>de</strong> ocurrir cuando<br />

<strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental implica <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> direcciones IP.<br />

Sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> lo anterior, lo relevante <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

136/2009/CE es <strong>la</strong> obligación <strong>de</strong> obtener el consentimiento previo <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a antes <strong>de</strong><br />

practicar <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental. Esto exige que los proveedores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> publicidad<br />

que <strong>de</strong>seen almacenar información o tener acceso a <strong>la</strong> información almacenada en el<br />

equipo terminal <strong>de</strong>l usuario/a <strong>de</strong>ben contar con autorización <strong>para</strong> ello. Autorización que se<br />

consi<strong>de</strong>rará que tienen si se ha proporcionado al usuario/a una información c<strong>la</strong>ra y completa<br />

con arreglo a lo dispuesto en <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE y si, a<strong>de</strong>más, el consentimiento <strong>de</strong>l<br />

usuario/a se ha obtenido tras haberle proporcionado <strong>la</strong> información exigida, siempre antes<br />

<strong>de</strong> practicar <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental.<br />

Al hilo <strong>de</strong> lo comentado conviene prestar especial atención a dos cuestiones que a buen<br />

seguro generarán problemas en cuanto a su aplicación. Por un <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> exigencia <strong>de</strong> recabar<br />

el consentimiento fundamentado por parte <strong>de</strong> los proveedores <strong>de</strong> re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> publicidad y, por<br />

otro, el contenido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información que <strong>de</strong>ben recibir los/as usuarios/as antes <strong>de</strong> prestar ese<br />

consentimiento fundamentado. En cuanto al consentimiento, el Dictamen 2/2010 distingue<br />

varios supuestos según sean los sujetos obligados. Así alu<strong>de</strong> a los requisitos que <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

observarse en el consentimiento mediante <strong>la</strong> configuración <strong>de</strong>l buscador señalándose que<br />

éste será válido y eficaz si el usuario/a realiza una acción expresa <strong>para</strong> aceptar <strong>la</strong> configuración<br />

<strong>de</strong> una transmisión continuada <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información contenida en <strong>la</strong>s cookies por sitios web<br />

específicos. A<strong>de</strong>más, se aña<strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> información que <strong>de</strong>ben ofrecer al usuario/a <strong>de</strong>be ser c<strong>la</strong>ra,<br />

completa y perfectamente visible <strong>para</strong> garantizar que el consentimiento esté plenamente<br />

fundado. La información <strong>de</strong>be abarcar el nombre <strong>de</strong>l proveedor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> publicidad, el


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

419<br />

objeto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cookies y el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos ulterior. En este sentido, el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Art. 29 en el Dictamen objeto <strong>de</strong> comentario seña<strong>la</strong> que los mecanismos <strong>de</strong> aceptación<br />

previa <strong>de</strong> cookies son más a<strong>de</strong>cuados <strong>para</strong> explicitar el consentimiento previo fundamentado.<br />

No obstante, son conscientes <strong>de</strong> los inconvenientes <strong>de</strong> tener que aceptar el consentimiento<br />

previo cada vez que se acce<strong>de</strong> a un <strong>de</strong>terminado espacio web, en este sentido se propone<br />

limitar el alcance <strong>de</strong>l consentimiento en el tiempo, pasado el cual los proveedores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong> publicidad necesitarán obtener un nuevo consentimiento. A<strong>de</strong>más, se especifica que <strong>de</strong>be<br />

existir <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> revocar ese consentimiento dado libremente por el usuario/a en<br />

cualquier momento.<br />

En cuanto a <strong>la</strong> información que <strong>de</strong>be recibir el usuario/a (art. 10 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46)<br />

es importante resaltar que esta información <strong>de</strong>be contener <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong>l proveedor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>red</strong> <strong>de</strong> publicidad y el objetivo <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> sus datos. En este sentido, resulta importante<br />

que el usuario/a conozca que mediante su consentimiento el proveedor <strong>de</strong> publicidad<br />

recogerá información sobre sus visitas a <strong>otros</strong> sitios web, los anuncios que estos muestran, los<br />

anuncios en los que ha clicado, el tiempo <strong>de</strong> duración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s visitas, etc., <strong>de</strong>biendo explicitar<br />

que <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cookies permitirá crear perfiles <strong>de</strong> navegación cuya finalidad será<br />

enviar publicidad a medida.<br />

6. <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies y el <strong>de</strong>recHo a <strong>la</strong> integridad y<br />

confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong><br />

información<br />

En puntos anteriores se han abordado <strong>de</strong>terminadas cuestiones como <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad extrapo<strong>la</strong>ndo estas consi<strong>de</strong>raciones al ámbito informático/tecnológico,<br />

esto es, al ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información, en general y, por en<strong>de</strong>, al ámbito<br />

específico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados instrumentos (programas) que monitorizan el<br />

comportamiento <strong>de</strong> los/as usuarios/as en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>, <strong>de</strong>jando al <strong>de</strong>scubierto miles <strong>de</strong> perfiles digitales<br />

que utilizarán ciertas aplicaciones camuf<strong>la</strong>das en los equipos terminales <strong>para</strong> fines, en<br />

principio lícitos (como el <strong>de</strong> ofrecer publicidad personalizada) pero no exentos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminados<br />

riesgos <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el punto <strong>de</strong> vista <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> tute<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. Riesgos que<br />

se circunscriben en ese ámbito constitucional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad y que como se ha precisado<br />

compren<strong>de</strong> varios <strong>de</strong>rechos, tales como el honor, <strong>la</strong> intimidad personal y familiar, el secreto<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones y <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos.<br />

Al hilo <strong>de</strong> lo comentado sobre <strong>la</strong> publicidad comportamental y sobre <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación se p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> aludir a un nuevo<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho. Se trata <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> integridad y confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y<br />

<strong>de</strong> información. Un <strong>de</strong>recho que reconoce <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional alemán <strong>de</strong><br />

27 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008 y que trae su causa <strong>de</strong>l recurso interpuesto contra <strong>la</strong> reforma <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley<br />

<strong>de</strong> los Servicios <strong>de</strong> Inteligencia <strong>de</strong>l Estado <strong>de</strong> Renania <strong>de</strong>l Norte <strong>de</strong> Westfalia, en virtud <strong>de</strong>l<br />

cual se permitía expresamente que tales servicios pudiesen utilizar <strong>de</strong> forma secreta spywares o<br />

troyanos <strong>para</strong> espiar los or<strong>de</strong>nadores <strong>de</strong> cualquier sospechoso. Para ello los spywares o troyanos<br />

se introducían en los or<strong>de</strong>nadores sin que <strong>la</strong>s personas afectadas fueran conscientes <strong>de</strong> ello con


420 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

el fin <strong>de</strong> captar todo tipo <strong>de</strong> información susceptible <strong>de</strong> ser analizada en un momento posterior.<br />

El Tribunal <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ró inconstitucional <strong>la</strong> reforma y configuró este nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho. Como seña<strong>la</strong><br />

PIñAR 23 se observa como el Tribunal <strong>de</strong> Karlsruhe da un paso más en el reconocimiento <strong>de</strong>l<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa (véase <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Fe<strong>de</strong>ral sobre <strong>la</strong><br />

Ley <strong>de</strong>l censo 24 ) cuyo ámbito <strong>de</strong> actuación se amplia a partir <strong>de</strong> esta sentencia a <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

absoluta <strong>de</strong> una zona nuclear <strong>de</strong>l comportamiento privado que, en este caso, se extien<strong>de</strong> a los<br />

dispositivos informáticos terminales. Resulta interesante aludir al epígrafe 181 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> citada<br />

sentencia en don<strong>de</strong> el Tribunal seña<strong>la</strong> que “(...) De <strong>la</strong> lectura <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos<br />

<strong>de</strong> información <strong>para</strong> expresar <strong>la</strong> personalidad y <strong>de</strong> los peligros que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> personalidad representa<br />

tal uso, <strong>de</strong>riva una necesidad <strong>de</strong> protección que es significativa <strong>para</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales. El<br />

individuo <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> que el Estado respete <strong>la</strong>s expectativas justificables <strong>de</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad<br />

<strong>de</strong> tales sistemas <strong>de</strong> cara a <strong>la</strong> irrestricta expresión <strong>de</strong> su personalidad” 25 .<br />

A tenor <strong>de</strong> lo anterior, se pue<strong>de</strong> colegir que existen una serie <strong>de</strong> sistemas <strong>de</strong> información<br />

que están (o <strong>de</strong>berían estar) protegidos por este nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho, tales como los or<strong>de</strong>nadores<br />

personales, <strong>la</strong>s agendas electrónicas, los teléfonos móviles, <strong>la</strong>s tabletas, etc. y, en <strong>de</strong>finitiva,<br />

todos aquellos dispositivos que sólos o interconectados puedan contener datos personales <strong>de</strong><br />

modo que el acceso al sistema permita perfi<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>terminados comportamientos vitales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

persona o incluso obtener una imagen representativa <strong>de</strong> su personalidad.<br />

En cualquier caso, aludir a nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos no es una cuestión pacífica <strong>para</strong> parte <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> doctrina que a buen seguro aboga por incardinar los riesgos tecnológicos <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> los<br />

<strong>de</strong>rechos ya existentes. No obstante, lo cierto y verdad es que siguiendo a PÉREZ LUño 26<br />

“el catálogo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s nunca será una obra cerrada y acabada”. Esto implica que “una<br />

sociedad libre y <strong>de</strong>mocrática <strong>de</strong>berá mostrarse siempre sensible y abierta a <strong>la</strong> aparición <strong>de</strong> nuevas<br />

necesida<strong>de</strong>s, que fundamenten nuevos <strong>de</strong>rechos”. En este sentido ¿no surgen nuevas necesida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

cuando se constatan <strong>la</strong>s amenazas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s tracking cookies en <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> publicidad<br />

comportamental? ¿No resultaría legítimo en estos casos reivindicar el <strong>de</strong>recho <strong>de</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos <strong>de</strong> información como <strong>de</strong>recho<br />

autónomo aunque incardinado <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> ese concepto amplio <strong>de</strong> privacidad?<br />

23 Véase PIñAR MAñAS, J.L., “Seguridad, transparencia y protección <strong>de</strong> datos: el futuro <strong>de</strong> un necesario<br />

e incierto equilibrio”, en Documento <strong>de</strong> trabajo 147/2009, Fundación Alternativas, pp. 11 y ss.<br />

24 Véase SERRANo PÉREZ, M., El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos … op.cit., pp. 60 y ss.<br />

Seña<strong>la</strong> esta autora que el Tribunal Constitucional alemán e<strong>la</strong>bora, a partir <strong>de</strong> esta sentencia, el concepto<br />

<strong>de</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa.<br />

25 Sobre <strong>la</strong> Sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional alemán <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008 véase LoRENZ,<br />

D., “El registro oculto <strong>de</strong> or<strong>de</strong>nadores como <strong>de</strong>safío en <strong>la</strong> dogmática <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales<br />

y <strong>la</strong> reciente respuesta por <strong>la</strong> Constitución alemana”, en Revista españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, nº 5,<br />

2008, pp. 9-24. Véase también LÓPEZ LoMA, L., “El registro oculto “on line” y su conflicto con<br />

los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales según <strong>la</strong> doctrina alemana tras <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional<br />

Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> 27 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008”, en Revista españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, nº 5, 2008, pp. 223-230.<br />

26 PÉREZ LUño, A. (2006), La Tercera Generación <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos, Navarra: The Global Law<br />

Collection, Aranzadi, pp. 75 y ss.


Privacidad y tracking cookies. Una aproximación constitucional<br />

7. consi<strong>de</strong>raciones finales<br />

421<br />

Comenzaba <strong>la</strong> presente comunicación aludiendo a <strong>la</strong> nota informativa hecha pública<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos sobre los acuerdos adoptados por <strong>la</strong>s Autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Europeas <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos que integran el Grupo <strong>de</strong> Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29<br />

(GT 29) re<strong>la</strong>tiva a <strong>la</strong> privacidad en <strong>la</strong> publicidad on-line basada en el comportamiento. En<br />

dicha nota se alertaba sobre los riesgos que <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad suscitan <strong>la</strong>s l<strong>la</strong>madas tracking<br />

cookies que se utilizan <strong>para</strong> recopi<strong>la</strong>r información sobre el comportamiento <strong>de</strong> navegación<br />

<strong>de</strong> los individuos y, <strong>de</strong> esta forma, ofrecer a los/as usuarios/as anuncios dirigidos y personalizados.<br />

Del análisis realizado se constata, efectivamente, <strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> esos riesgos y <strong>la</strong> necesidad<br />

<strong>de</strong> que los Estados miembros adapten sus legis<strong>la</strong>ciones a <strong>la</strong> Directiva 136/2009/CE<br />

sobre privacidad tomando como punto <strong>de</strong> referencia el Dictamen 2/2010 <strong>de</strong>l Grupo <strong>de</strong><br />

Trabajo <strong>de</strong>l Artículo 29.<br />

La presente comunicación también aborda <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> sentar <strong>la</strong>s bases constitucionales<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> privacidad ubicándose <strong>la</strong> misma en el art. 18 CE. Precepto que, como ya se ha<br />

comentado, compren<strong>de</strong> varios <strong>de</strong>rechos y sobre el que se p<strong>la</strong>ntea <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> aludir a<br />

una cuestión que no es pacífica por cuanto supone hab<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> un nuevo <strong>de</strong>recho como es el<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a <strong>la</strong> confi<strong>de</strong>ncialidad e integridad <strong>de</strong> los sistemas tecnológicos y <strong>de</strong> información.<br />

8. bibliografÍa<br />

Bermell, S., “La directiva <strong>de</strong> CooKIES”, artículo en línea en ,<br />

[fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta 20/04/2011]<br />

Campuzano Tomé, H. (2000), Vida privada y datos personales, Madrid: Tecnos, Derecho y<br />

realidad, citado por MARTÍNEZ MARTÍNEZ, R. (2004), Una aproximación crítica a<br />

<strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas.<br />

Guerrero Picó, M.C. (2006), El impacto <strong>de</strong> Internet en el Derecho Fundamental a <strong>la</strong> Protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> Datos <strong>de</strong> Carácter Personal, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas.<br />

Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Esteban, M.L. (1998), Nuevas Tecnologías, Internet y Derechos Fundamentales,<br />

Madrid: McGraw-Hill Interamericana <strong>de</strong> España.<br />

López Loma, L., “El registro oculto “on line” y su conflicto con los <strong>de</strong>rechos fundamentales<br />

según <strong>la</strong> doctrina alemana tras <strong>la</strong> sentencia <strong>de</strong>l Tribunal Constitucional Fe<strong>de</strong>ral <strong>de</strong> 27<br />

<strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2008”, en Revista españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, nº 5, 2008.<br />

Lorenz, D., “El registro oculto <strong>de</strong> or<strong>de</strong>nadores como <strong>de</strong>safío en <strong>la</strong> dogmática <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales y <strong>la</strong> reciente respuesta por <strong>la</strong> Constitución alemana”, en Revista<br />

españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos, nº 5, 2008.<br />

Martínez Martínez, R. (2004), Una aproximación crítica a <strong>la</strong> auto<strong>de</strong>terminación informativa,<br />

Navarra: Thomson-Civitas.


422 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Navalpotro, Y., “Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 15/1999 (LoPD)”, en Almuzara Almaida,<br />

C. (2005), Estudio práctico sobre <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> carácter personal, Val<strong>la</strong>dolid:<br />

Lex Nova.<br />

ortiz López, P., “Re<strong>de</strong>s sociales: funcionamiento y tractamento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información personal”,<br />

en Rallo Lombarte, A. y Martínez Martínez, E. (coord.) (2010), Derecho y<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, Pamplona: Civitas.<br />

Pérez Luño, A.(2006), La Tercera Generación <strong>de</strong> Derechos Humanos, Navarra: The Global<br />

Law Collection, Aranzadi.<br />

Piñar Mañas, J.L., “Seguridad, transparencia y protección <strong>de</strong> datos: el futuro <strong>de</strong> un necesario<br />

e incierto equilibrio”, en Documento <strong>de</strong> trabajo 147/2009, Fundación Alternativas.<br />

Rallo Lombarte, A., y Martínez Martínez, R. (coord.) (2010), Derecho y re<strong>de</strong>s sociales,<br />

Pamplona: Civitas.<br />

Rodríguez <strong>de</strong> Sepúlveda Maillo, D., y Rodríguez <strong>de</strong> Sepúlveda Maillo, S. (2009),<br />

Cómo sobrevivir en <strong>la</strong> Red, Madrid: Ra-Ma.<br />

Serrano Pérez, M.M. (2003), El <strong>de</strong>recho fundamental a <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. Derecho español<br />

y com<strong>para</strong>do, Navarra: Thomson-Civitas.


legAl feAsIBIlIty fOr stAtIstICAl metHODs ON INterNet<br />

As A sOUrCe Of DAtA gAtHerINg IN tHe eU<br />

23<br />

Dr. Faye Fangfei Wang<br />

Senior Lecturer in Law; Bournemouth University, UK<br />

AbstrAct: Internet-based measurement is using Internet as source of data gathering and it is a<br />

method of automated data collection. The three most common Internet-based measurement approaches<br />

are user-centric, network-centric and site-centric measurements. User-centric relies on in<strong>de</strong>pth<br />

analysis of behaviour of users by installing software and application; network-centric measures<br />

traffic flows between users and content throughout the network; and site-centric collects data from<br />

one to more websites. Internet as a source of data gathering could lower the costs and increase the<br />

speed of data collection for statistical purposes compa<strong>red</strong> with traditional manual methods. Statistics<br />

analysis is important as it may contribute to value ad<strong>de</strong>d service. on the other hand, data privacy<br />

rights may be at risk un<strong>de</strong>r such measurement approaches if technical measures for data security are<br />

not appropriate or users did not give prior consent to the use of such data. This paper discusses the<br />

current EU data privacy protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion and analyses the overall legal feasibility of the <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

of Internet-based measurements with regard to automated data collection for statistical purposes<br />

by looking into the <strong>de</strong>tail of the reform of the new EC e-Privacy Directive and the current review of<br />

the EC Data Protection Directive.<br />

Keywords: Data Privacy Protection, Automated Data Collection, Statistical Research.<br />

1. introduction: current eu legal framework for data<br />

PriVacy Protection<br />

“Internet-based measurement is a set of methods that have been applied to quantitatively<br />

<strong>de</strong>scribe the structure, workload and use of the Internet. They provi<strong>de</strong> a practical means of<br />

doing a kind of virtual ‘fieldwork’ on the Internet using online tools and network monitoring<br />

techniques to gather fine scale primary data, as opposed to relying on aggregate secondary data<br />

sources (such as government statistics). 1 ” In other words, Internet-based measurement is using<br />

Internet as source of data gathering and it is a method of automated data collection. The three<br />

most common Internet-based measurement approaches are user-centric, network-centric and<br />

site-centric measurements. User-centric relies on in-<strong>de</strong>pth analysis of behaviour of users by<br />

installing software and application; network-centric measures traffic flows between users and<br />

content throughout the network; and site-centric collects data from one to more websites 2 .<br />

1 International Encyclopaedia of Human Geography, MS number: 457.<br />

2 Go with the Dataflow, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.umic.pt/images/stories/publicacoes1/annexes.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st<br />

visited on 18 May 2011).


424 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Internet as a source of data gathering could lower the costs and increase the speed of data collection<br />

for statistical purposes compa<strong>red</strong> with traditional manual methods. Statistics analysis<br />

is important as it may contribute to value ad<strong>de</strong>d service, which may, for example, “consist of<br />

advice on least expensive tariff packages, route guidance, traffic information, weather forecasts<br />

and tourist information” 3<br />

. on the other hand, data privacy rights may be infringed un<strong>de</strong>r such<br />

measurement approaches if technical measures for data security are not appropriate or users<br />

did not give prior consent to the use of such data.<br />

Due to the ever fast-growing technology, legis<strong>la</strong>tion is always one step behind the <strong>la</strong>test<br />

invention of computing network services. This leads to a situation where computer scientists<br />

and entrepreneurs try to adjust or improve the application of products in or<strong>de</strong>r to comply with<br />

the existing <strong>la</strong>w, or legis<strong>la</strong>tors try to amend the existing <strong>la</strong>w in response to the new technology<br />

in or<strong>de</strong>r to protect the users’ rights and enhance the public safety without jeopardising technological<br />

innovation and market <strong>de</strong>velopment. Currently, there are two main pieces of legis<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

concerning data and privacy protection in the European Union (EU): one is the EC Data<br />

Protection Directive and the other is the EC e-Privacy Directive. The EC e-Privacy Directive<br />

was newly updated in 2009, which shall be enforced by 26 May 2011. The European Commission<br />

also started to review the EC Data Protection Directive in 2009 and a new general<br />

legal framework for the protection of personal data in the EU is expected to come out this year.<br />

It is <strong>de</strong>batable whether automated data collection for statistical purposes is allowed<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r the current EU data privacy legis<strong>la</strong>tive framework. “For statistical purposes” refers<br />

to “any operation of collection and processing of personal data necessary for statistical surveys<br />

or for the production of statistical results” 4 . The possibility of the implementation of<br />

automated data collection for statistical purposes in business organisations and statistical<br />

institutions <strong>de</strong>pends on the feasibility of legal compliance. This paper intends to provi<strong>de</strong> an<br />

overview of the EU data privacy protection legis<strong>la</strong>tion and discuss the overall legal feasibility<br />

of the <strong>de</strong>velopment of Internet-based measurements with regard to automated data collection<br />

for statistical purposes by looking into the <strong>de</strong>tail of the reform of the new EC e-Privacy<br />

Directive and the review of the EC Data Protection Directive.<br />

2. legis<strong>la</strong>tiVe measures for automated data collection<br />

2.1. un<strong>de</strong>rlying general steps on data Privacy Protection<br />

According the current EU data privacy protection legal framework, there are four un<strong>de</strong>rlying<br />

steps in the EC directives that intend to ensure that privacy rights are put into<br />

action:<br />

3 Recital 18 of the EC e-Privacy Directive.<br />

4 Recommendation No. R(97)18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States Concerning the<br />

Protection of Personal Data Collected and Processed for Statistical Purposes, Council of Europe, 30<br />

September 1997.


legal feasibility for statistical methods on Internet as a source of Data gathering in the eU<br />

1) Member states should take appropriate technological and legis<strong>la</strong>tive measures to safeguard<br />

security and ensure the protection of personal data and privacy.<br />

2) Service provi<strong>de</strong>rs have a legal duty to inform users prior to obtaining their consent.<br />

3) Service provi<strong>de</strong>rs shall allow users to give and withdraw their consent freely as users<br />

have “the right to be forgotten”. It is <strong>de</strong>batable what constitutes a meaningful consent<br />

and whether “privacy by <strong>de</strong>fault” is sufficient.<br />

4) Member States shall enhance enforcement of data privacy protection because any legis<strong>la</strong>tive<br />

and technological measures to protect users’ privacy can only be effective if<br />

they are properly implemented and enforced. EU citizens’ data privacy rights should<br />

be protected equally no matter where the service provi<strong>de</strong>r and data are situated. The<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>r shall duly notify data breach and take appropriate measures to avoid<br />

esca<strong>la</strong>tion of the problem.<br />

Among the above steps, the rightful implementation of consent <strong>de</strong>termines the <strong>la</strong>wful<br />

processing of data. Un<strong>de</strong>r the new EC e-Privacy Directive, the use of cookies must requires<br />

users’ prior consent which changes the previous rule of allowing the use of privacy policies to<br />

tell the use of cookies and provi<strong>de</strong> the possibility of “opting out” by altering <strong>de</strong>fault settings.<br />

Article 29 Working Group on Data Protection addressed that “currently three out of the<br />

four most wi<strong>de</strong>ly used browsers have a <strong>de</strong>fault setting to accept all cookies. Not changing a<br />

<strong>de</strong>fault setting cannot be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as a meaningful consent. 5<br />

” It is expected that there are<br />

various interpretations by member states when the new EC e-Privacy comes into force in<br />

May 2011. That is, Member states may un<strong>de</strong>rstand the valid form of consent differently, for<br />

example, the UK <strong>la</strong>w interprets consent as ‘reasonable grounds for believing’ that consent<br />

to do, which do not comply with EU rules <strong>de</strong>fining consent as “freely given specific and<br />

informed indication of a person’s wishes” 6 . The UK Information Commissioner’s office<br />

published the first version of the Advice on the New Cookies Regu<strong>la</strong>tions - Changes to the<br />

rules on using cookies and simi<strong>la</strong>r technologies for storing information (hereafter “the UK<br />

ICo Advice”) on 9 May 20117 . The UK ICo Advice indicates that users’ consent could be<br />

given via browser settings if browser settings are sophisticated enough to adopt such measures.<br />

Websites may also need to consi<strong>de</strong>r other technical solutions to obtain users’ consent<br />

for example, via “pop ups and simi<strong>la</strong>r techniques”, “terms and conditions”, “settings-led<br />

consent” and “feature-led consent” 8 . It is suggested that getting consent to the use of “third<br />

party cookies” is one of the most challenging tasks.<br />

425<br />

5 “opt-out is not sufficient”, European Commission Press Release, 24 June 2010, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://<br />

ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/news/docs/pr_26_06_10_en.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st visited on 15 April 2011).<br />

6 Recital 17 of the EC e-Privacy Directive.<br />

7 “Changes to the rules on using cookies and simi<strong>la</strong>r technologies for storing information”, Information<br />

Commissioner’s office, Version 1, 09/05/11, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.ico.gov.uk/for_organisations/privacy_and_electronic_communications/~/media/documents/library/Privacy_and_electronic/Practical_application/advice_on_the_new_cookies_regu<strong>la</strong>tions.pdf<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st visited on 19 May 2011)<br />

8 Ibid.


426 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

As to the <strong>la</strong>st but not least important issue – enforcement of data privacy protection,<br />

service provi<strong>de</strong>rs shall duly notify data breach to the competent national authorities and<br />

take appropriate measures to protect data privacy. In the author’s opinion, the interpretation<br />

of “without undue <strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>y” for data breach notification un<strong>de</strong>r Article 4 of the EC<br />

e-Privacy Directive is vital as the timing affects the certainty of data-privacy protection.<br />

The <strong>de</strong>termination of the appropriation of time limit on notification and remedial action<br />

shall be taken into account of the speed, scope and capabilities of spreading personal<br />

data un<strong>de</strong>r the current and future <strong>de</strong>velopment of technologies in particu<strong>la</strong>r automated<br />

information systems. In addition, the consi<strong>de</strong>ration of the time-limit issue for notification<br />

and remedial action can be learned from the interpretation of the time-limit requirement<br />

on the exercise of the right to access in Article 12(a) of the EC Data Protection Directive<br />

regarding information storage and disclosure in the case of College van burgemeester en<br />

wethou<strong>de</strong>rs van Rotterdam v M.E.E. Rijkeboer Nether<strong>la</strong>nds (judgement of 7 May 2009).<br />

The judgement provi<strong>de</strong>s that:<br />

“Article 12(a) of Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council<br />

of 24 october 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal<br />

data and on the free movement of such data requires Member States to ensure a right<br />

of access to information on the recipients or categories of recipient of personal data and on<br />

the content of the data disclosed not only in respect of the present but also in respect of the<br />

past. It is for Member States to fix a time-limit for storage of that information and to provi<strong>de</strong><br />

for access to that information which constitutes a fair ba<strong>la</strong>nce between, on the one hand,<br />

the interest of the data subject in protecting his privacy, in particu<strong>la</strong>r by way of his rights to<br />

object and to bring legal proceedings and, on the other, the bur<strong>de</strong>n which the obligation to<br />

store that information represents for the controller.<br />

Rules limiting the storage of information on the recipients or categories of recipient<br />

of personal data and on the content of the data disclosed to a period of one year and correspondingly<br />

limiting access to that information, while basic data is sto<strong>red</strong> for a much longer<br />

period, do not constitute a fair ba<strong>la</strong>nce of the interest and obligation at issue, unless it can be<br />

shown that longer storage of that information would constitute an excessive bur<strong>de</strong>n on the<br />

controller. It is, however, for national courts to make the <strong>de</strong>terminations necessary.”<br />

Accordingly, it shall be for Member States to fix a time-limit for notification of the<br />

personal data breach and remedial action. Where the length of time for which a personal<br />

data breach is to be informed to the competent national authority or remedial action is to<br />

be taken is very long, the adverse effects of the breach of the personal data or privacy of a<br />

subscriber or individual may be higher as the implementation of appropriate technological<br />

protection measures may be <strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>yed. The issue of a fixed time limit for notification and<br />

remedial action shall be further assessed when the Commission examines the modalities<br />

for the introduction in the general legal framework of a general personal data breach notification,<br />

including the addressees of such notifications and the criteria for triggering the<br />

obligation to notify according to the EU Comprehensive Approach 2010. The obligation of<br />

a time-limit for notification of data breach shall also be contained in the future EU standard<br />

forms of “privacy information notices”.


legal feasibility for statistical methods on Internet as a source of Data gathering in the eU<br />

2.2. exemption c<strong>la</strong>uses for automated data collection for statistical Purposes<br />

427<br />

In principle, service provi<strong>de</strong>rs should comply with the un<strong>de</strong>rlying general steps on data<br />

privacy protection for automated data collection un<strong>de</strong>r the EU framework. Strict compliance<br />

with the regu<strong>la</strong>tions of data security, users’ prior consent, data breach notification duties<br />

are requi<strong>red</strong> in particu<strong>la</strong>r when service provi<strong>de</strong>rs collect primary personal data directly from<br />

users for commercial purposes. Service provi<strong>de</strong>rs shall also comply with those rules to data<br />

collection that is for statistical purposes, although there is an exemption rule of “prior consent”<br />

for statistical purposes either by domestic <strong>la</strong>w or provi<strong>de</strong>d that informing collection<br />

and getting consent is manifestly unreasonable or impracticable 9 .<br />

There are four different <strong>la</strong>yers of data collected that could possibly be used for statistical<br />

purposes: firstly, general personal data directly collected from the end users; secondly,<br />

further processing of personal data previously collected; thirdly, data that are not obtained<br />

from the end users directly; and fourthly, sensitive personal data. The first and fourth <strong>la</strong>yers<br />

of personal data collected and processed for statistical purposes must be allowed only when<br />

the users’ have given their prior consent. With regard to the second and third <strong>la</strong>yers of personal<br />

data that are so called secondary collection, users shall be ma<strong>de</strong> aware that data may<br />

be used by the service provi<strong>de</strong>r to conduct statistical market research and such data may also<br />

be transfer<strong>red</strong> as aggregated data to authorised third parties for statistical purposes without<br />

disclosing personal <strong>de</strong>tails or taking <strong>de</strong>cisions/measures concerning a particu<strong>la</strong>r individual.<br />

The exemption c<strong>la</strong>use of prior consent for data collection for statistical purposes remains<br />

unchanged in the new EC e-Privacy Directive although the general rule of users’ prior<br />

consent that has changed would directly affect the process of automated data collection for<br />

statistical purposes. In general, data can be processed solely for the purpose of scientific research<br />

or kept in personal form for a period which does not exceed the period necessary for<br />

the sole purpose of creating statistics 10 subject to the implementation of conditions:<br />

1) a<strong>de</strong>quate legal safeguards – the data are not used for taking measures or <strong>de</strong>cisions regarding<br />

any particu<strong>la</strong>r individual;<br />

2) clearly no risk of breaching the privacy of the data subject;<br />

3) data kept only for necessary period and employ other appropriate safeguards provi<strong>de</strong>d<br />

by member states.<br />

That is, automated data collection from the Internet for statistical purposes could be<br />

legitimately processed, provi<strong>de</strong>d that they fulfil the above three basic conditions except for<br />

the category of processing sensitive personal data that needs to meet the additional condition<br />

of public interest 11 . Service provi<strong>de</strong>rs must ensure that “personal data collected and<br />

processed for statistical purposes shall be ma<strong>de</strong> anonymous as soon as they are no longer<br />

9 Article 5.2 of Recommendation No. R(97)18.<br />

10 Recital 29, 39 & 40 and Article 11(2) & Article 13 of the EC Data Protection Directive.<br />

11 Recital 34 and Article 8 of the EC Data Protection Directive.


428 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

necessary in an i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable form 12 ” and comply with the un<strong>de</strong>rlying general rules on data<br />

privacy protection un<strong>de</strong>r the EU legal framework.<br />

3. recommendation and conclusion<br />

It is important to strike the ba<strong>la</strong>nce between data privacy rights protection and the free<br />

movement of data within member states in or<strong>de</strong>r to build users’ trust on the Internet without<br />

jeopardizing technological innovation and market <strong>de</strong>velopment. The recent European<br />

Commission review on the EC Data Protection Directive has paid attention to that 13 . Statistical<br />

methods on Internet as a source of data gathering could provi<strong>de</strong> statistical outcomes<br />

faster than the traditional paper-based questionnaire methods. Using Internet as a source<br />

of data gathering could also collect data that is difficult or even impossible to be gathe<strong>red</strong><br />

in the offline world. The implementation of Internet-based measurements could bring us<br />

great ad<strong>de</strong>d value to improve products and services and allow us to promptly respond to the<br />

market <strong>de</strong>velopment. From a legal perspective, the successful implementation of statistical<br />

methods on Internet as a source of data gathering <strong>de</strong>pends on the appropriate use of the<br />

exemption c<strong>la</strong>use, the correct operation of informing users and requesting consent where<br />

necessary and the strict compliance of <strong>la</strong>wful data storage and data breach notification system.<br />

The building of automated data collection systems for statistical purposes is requi<strong>red</strong><br />

to comply with appropriate legis<strong>la</strong>tive and technological measures. Nonetheless, consumers’<br />

awareness of and education about data privacy protection are necessities for the <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

of a well-ba<strong>la</strong>nced information society.<br />

4. references<br />

A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union – Communication<br />

from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic<br />

and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, European Commission, Brussels,<br />

04.11.2010 CoM(2010) 609/3 (known as “the EU Comprehensive Approach 2010).<br />

Case C-444/02, Fixtures Marketing Ltd v. Organismos prognostikon agonon podosfairou<br />

AE - “OPAP”, n. 20, 25.<br />

Case C-553/07, College van burgemeester en wethou<strong>de</strong>rs van Rotterdam v M.E.E. Rijkeboer,<br />

European Court of Justice (Judgment of 7 May 2009).<br />

12 Article 3.3 of the Recommendation No. R(97)18.<br />

13 “A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union” (known as “the<br />

EU Comprehensive Approach 2010”) – Communication from the Commission to the European<br />

Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,<br />

European Commission, Brussels, 04.11.2010 CoM(2010) 609/3.


legal feasibility for statistical methods on Internet as a source of Data gathering in the eU<br />

429<br />

“Changes to the rules on using cookies and simi<strong>la</strong>r technologies for storing information”,<br />

Information Commissioner’s office, Version 1, 09/05/11, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.ico.<br />

gov.uk/for_organisations/privacy_and_electronic_communications/~/media/documents/<br />

library/Privacy_and_electronic/Practical_application/advice_on_the_new_cookies_regu<strong>la</strong>tions.pdf<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st visited on 19 May 2011).<br />

Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 october<br />

1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on<br />

the free movement of such data, official Journal of the European Union, L 281, 23 November<br />

1995, P. 0031–0050 (known as “EC Data Protection Directive”).<br />

Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996<br />

on the legal protection of databases, official Journal L 077, 27/03/1996 P. 0020 – 0028<br />

(known as “EC Database Directive”).<br />

Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2002<br />

concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic<br />

communications sector (Directive on privacy and electronic communications), official<br />

Journal of the European Union, L 201, 31 July 2002, P. 0037–0047 (known as “EC e-<br />

Privacy Directive”).<br />

Directive 2009/136/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November<br />

2009 amending Directive 2002/22/EC on universal service and users’ rights re<strong>la</strong>ting to<br />

electronic communications networks and services, Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the<br />

processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications<br />

sector and Regu<strong>la</strong>tion (EC) No 2006/2004 on cooperation between national authorities responsible<br />

for the enforcement of consumer protection <strong>la</strong>ws, official Journal of the European<br />

Union, L 337/11, 18 December 2009, P.0011 – 0036.<br />

Go with the Dataflow, avai<strong>la</strong>ble at http://www.umic.pt/images/stories/publicacoes1/<br />

annexes.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st visited on 18 April 2011).<br />

International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, MS number: 457.<br />

“opt-out is not sufficient”, European Commission Press Release, 24 June 2010, avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/news/docs/pr_26_06_10_en.pdf (<strong>la</strong>st<br />

visited on 15 April 2011).<br />

Recommendation No. R(97) 18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States<br />

Concerning the Protection of Personal Data Collected and Processed for Statistical Purposes,<br />

Council of Europe, 30 September 1997.<br />

Wang, F. & Griffiths, N. (July 2010), Protecting Privacy in Automated Transaction<br />

Systems: A Legal and Technological Perspective in the EU, Vol. 24, No. 2 International<br />

Review of Law, Computers and Technology, p.153-162.


COMUNICACIONES SOBRE GOBIERNO<br />

Y DEMOCRACIA ELECTRÓNICA


24<br />

yOU HAVe NO sOVereIgNty wHere we gAtHer.<br />

wIkIleAks AND freeDOm, AUtONOmy<br />

AND sOVereIgNty IN tHe ClOUD<br />

Bodó Balázs<br />

Economist, assistant professor, researcher at the Budapest<br />

University of Technology and Economics, Department of Sociology and Communications,<br />

Center for Media Research and Education<br />

AbstrAct: Wikileaks represents a new type of (h)activism, which shifts the source of potential<br />

threat from a few, dangerous hackers and a <strong>la</strong>rger group of mostly harmless activists –both outsi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

to an organization– to those who are on the insi<strong>de</strong>. For insi<strong>de</strong>rs trying to smuggle information out,<br />

anonymity is a necessary condition for participation. Wikileaks has <strong>de</strong>monstrated that the access to<br />

anonymity can be <strong>de</strong>mocratized, ma<strong>de</strong> simple and user friendly.<br />

Being Anonymous in the context of Wikileaks has a double promise: it promises to liberate the subject<br />

from the existing power structures, and in the same time it allows the exposure of these structures by<br />

opening up a space to confront them. The Wikileaks coerced transparency, however, is nothing more<br />

than the extension of the Foucauldian disciplinary power to the very body of state and government.<br />

While anonymity removes the individual from existing power re<strong>la</strong>tions, the act of surveil<strong>la</strong>nce puts<br />

her right back to the middle.<br />

The ability to p<strong>la</strong>ce the state un<strong>de</strong>r surveil<strong>la</strong>nce limits and ultimately ren<strong>de</strong>rs present day sovereignty<br />

obsolete. It can also be argued that it fosters the emergence of a new sovereign in itself. I<br />

believe that Wikileaks (or rather, the logic of it) is a new sovereign in the global political / economic<br />

sphere. But as it stands now, Wikileakistan shares too much with the powers it wishes to counter.<br />

The hid<strong>de</strong>n power structures and the inner workings of these states within the state are exposed by<br />

another imperium in imperio, a secretive organization, whose agenda is far from transparent, whose<br />

members, resources are unknown, holding back an in<strong>de</strong>finite amount of information both on itself<br />

and on its opponents.<br />

I argue that it is not more secretive, one si<strong>de</strong>d transparency which will subvert and negate the control<br />

and discipline of secretive, one si<strong>de</strong>d transparency, it is anonymity. The subject’s position of being “a<br />

multiplicity that can be numbe<strong>red</strong> and supervised”, its state of living in a “sequeste<strong>red</strong> and observed solitu<strong>de</strong>”<br />

(Foucault 1979) can only be subverted if there is a p<strong>la</strong>ce to hi<strong>de</strong> from surveil<strong>la</strong>nce. I argue that<br />

maybe less, and not more transparency is the path that leads to the aims of Wikileaks.<br />

Keywords: Wikileaks, Sovereignty, Activism, Foucault, Panopticon, Anonymity.<br />

“We have to be very attentive and united at a state level to fight against what is<br />

a threat to <strong>de</strong>mocratic authority and sovereignty,” - French government spokesman<br />

Francois Baroin speaking out against wikileaks releasing US diplomatic cables.<br />

„Governments of the Industrial World, you weary giants of flesh and steel, I come<br />

from Cyberspace, the new home of Mind. on behalf of the future, I ask you of the past<br />

to leave us alone. You are not welcome among us. You have no sovereignty where we<br />

gather.”- A Dec<strong>la</strong>ration of the In<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce of Cyberspace, John Perry Barlow


434 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

1. introduction<br />

In 2010, an organization called Wikileaks started to publish hund<strong>red</strong>s of thousands<br />

of secret US diplomatic cables and military documents, acqui<strong>red</strong> from anonymous whistleblowers.<br />

The publication of these documents marks the beginning of a new era. While all<br />

the critical information within these organizations is already digital, never has the firewall<br />

between a secret and a public knowledge been thinner. Sharing secrets and in the same time<br />

preserving anonymity seems to be easier than ever. And as the continuous accessibility of<br />

Wikileaks so far has proved, even the most powerful sovereign in the world can do little to<br />

contain a leak after it has happened. State sovereignty and corporate autonomy needs to be<br />

rethought.<br />

But not only their self-<strong>de</strong>termination is in question. Wikileaks itself has also come<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r attack: their access to the global payment system was cut, their hosting provi<strong>de</strong>r stopped<br />

serving them and their access to the global Domain Name System was also curtailed,<br />

<strong>de</strong>spite the fact that no official charges were ma<strong>de</strong> against the organization. These steps have<br />

so far been ina<strong>de</strong>quate to make Wikileaks disappear or to stop the dissemination of the<br />

confi<strong>de</strong>ntial materials. But the questions still linger: what are the critical infrastructures that<br />

are absolutely necessary for any digital, networked organization to survive? Are there any<br />

real gatekeepers on the web, and if there are, who are they, and how powerful they are? How<br />

effective is their control over the critical infostructures? To what extent can any organization<br />

expect to be sovereign in the cloud?<br />

„You have no sovereignty where we gather.” John Perry Barlow’s words (Barlow 1996)<br />

that <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong><strong>red</strong> the in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce of cyberspace now mark a full-blown cyber-war between<br />

states, corporations and ad-hoc, informal, hacktivist networks over the issues of sovereignty,<br />

autonomy, self-<strong>de</strong>termination on both si<strong>de</strong>s of what has been the cyber/real divi<strong>de</strong>. But that<br />

distinction does not have any meaning anymore. Cyberspace is not another, distant, seclu<strong>de</strong>d<br />

space which Barlow envisioned. The <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ration of the cyberspace is not the foundation<br />

of a sovereign in a far away <strong>la</strong>nd. Cyberspace is in the very heart of traditional institutions:<br />

the state, economic enterprises, society. And the question now is whether cyberspace can be<br />

inserted into the societal or<strong>de</strong>r, which - at least in principle - rests on mutual checks and<br />

ba<strong>la</strong>nces, on an equilibrium that ensures that no power is left unchecked. Is it true that states<br />

have no sovereignty in cyberspace? And what happens when the citizens of the cyberspace<br />

start to gather insi<strong>de</strong> the state, insi<strong>de</strong> the corporations, easily crossing that never-existent<br />

bor<strong>de</strong>r between cyberspace and the “real world”? What is left of the sovereignty of the state,<br />

the autonomy of our traditional institutions when they start to gather and put these institutions<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r constant surveil<strong>la</strong>nce?<br />

The outcome of this conflict greatly <strong>de</strong>pends on the role everyday citizens will p<strong>la</strong>y<br />

in this power universe. The digital traces of our online being serve as the most important<br />

raw material in the digital economy. Also, (digital) transparency is the key concept in the<br />

Foucauldian un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of power, as it serves to maintain and reproduce power-re<strong>la</strong>tions<br />

within society. on the other hand, these individually impotent and powerless users can<br />

quickly team up into informal, anonymous, ad-hoc action networks that from time-to-time


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 435<br />

make a powerful impact. Wikileaks is the most recent and most potent tool in the hands<br />

of these crowds as it enables resistance to power both by the anonymity it offers and by the<br />

leaks which force transparency upon the state. The real question is whether Wikileaks can be<br />

a true emancipatory force, which will lead anonymous crowds to a self-aware use of these powers<br />

and to fulfill their actual potential?<br />

Does Wikileaks mark the rise of a new sovereign in our world? A new world power<br />

which <strong>la</strong>cks standing armies, natural resources, the strategic geopolitical location, and the<br />

financial might that characterized world powers before? A new sovereign, which draws its<br />

power from both the ability to disrupt the information flows, and the ability to provi<strong>de</strong><br />

anonymity to its users? A new power which is sovereign because in the fragmented infrastructure<br />

<strong>la</strong>ndscape of the internet, it can always find refuge from where it can safely operate?<br />

A power which is organized unlike any other power so far, because it exists beyond the formal<br />

structures of <strong>la</strong>w, economy and society?<br />

Soon we will find out.<br />

2. a new era of HacktiVism<br />

Wikileaks-enabled activism is quite different from the types of cyber activism and hacktivism<br />

that were prominent in the <strong>la</strong>st <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>. The <strong>la</strong>tter, let’s call it hacktivism 1.0, “breaks<br />

down into two broad streams of actions: 1. Mass virtual direct actions, which use cyberspatial<br />

technologies of limited potential in or<strong>de</strong>r to re-embody virtual actions, [and 2.] digitally correct<br />

actions, which <strong>de</strong>fend and extend the peculiar powers cyberspace creates. […]Whereas mass action<br />

hacktivists look to networks to do things for them, to be a p<strong>la</strong>ce in which protest can occur just as<br />

roads are p<strong>la</strong>ces in which <strong>de</strong>monstrations can occur, digitally correct hacktivists attempt to form<br />

the nature of the roads and passages of cyberspace. In doing this they generate actions directly<br />

focused on the co<strong>de</strong>s that make cyberspace the p<strong>la</strong>ce it is” (Jordan and Taylor 2004). Hacktivism<br />

1.0 offers few opportunities for political action. They can be complex technological stunts,<br />

committed by highly skilled computer programmers. The results of this type of activism<br />

are either the disruption of the infostructure of the target organization or some specialized<br />

software tool to aid activists. Such actions are costly and time consuming, therefore re<strong>la</strong>tively<br />

rare. on the other hand, hacktivism offers individuals the chance to participate in electronic<br />

civil disobedience, like virtual sit-ins, where, along with thousands of others one can try to<br />

overload the public web services of the target organizations. In this sense electronic disobedience<br />

is closely re<strong>la</strong>ted to the earlier, non-electronic civil disobedience movements. These<br />

attacks – Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks as they are called now – require no<br />

technical skills, and beyond making a website inaccessible for the time of the attack, they<br />

yield little more than the attention generated by the news of the attack. Hacktivism 1.0 is<br />

torn between highly effective but rare instances of hacking, and re<strong>la</strong>tively frequent cyberprotests<br />

with little more than symbolical value.


436 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Wikileaks marks the beginning of hacktivism 2.0 1 . Wikileaks is first and foremost an<br />

infostructure provi<strong>de</strong>r, with the immense potential to empower mass-scale cyber-activism.<br />

Wikileaks offers three crucial factors through which the effectiveness of hacker attack can<br />

be merged with the ease and openness of mass actions. First, it offers a highly resistant,<br />

autonomous content distribution network, which so far has been able to survive even<br />

the most aggressive attacks against its infrastructure 2 . Second, it has all the attention of<br />

the world, including key media organizations which participate in the verification 3 and<br />

publication of the disclosed information 4 . And what is the most important: it promises<br />

anonymity.<br />

Hacktivism 1.0 was the activism of outsi<strong>de</strong>rs. Its organizing principle was to get outsi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

into the territory of the other. Wikileaks, on the other hand, is an infostructure <strong>de</strong>veloped<br />

to be used by insi<strong>de</strong>rs. Its sole purpose is to help people get information out from an<br />

organization. Wikileaks shifts the source of potential threat from a few, dangerous hackers<br />

and a <strong>la</strong>rger group of mostly harmless activists -- both outsi<strong>de</strong>rs to an organization -- to<br />

those who are on the insi<strong>de</strong>. For mass protesters and cyber activists anonymity is a nice, but<br />

certainly not an essential feature. For insi<strong>de</strong>rs trying to smuggle information out, anonymity<br />

is a necessary condition for participation. Wikileaks has <strong>de</strong>monstrated that the access<br />

to such features can be <strong>de</strong>mocratized, ma<strong>de</strong> simple and user friendly. Easy anonymity also<br />

radically transforms who the activist may be. It turns a monolithic, crystal clear i<strong>de</strong>ntity <strong>de</strong>fined<br />

solely through opposition, into something more complex, multi<strong>la</strong>ye<strong>red</strong>, and hybrid by<br />

allowing the cultivation of multiple i<strong>de</strong>ntities, multiple loyalties. It allows those to enter the<br />

activist scene who do not want to <strong>de</strong>fine themselves –at least not publicly– as activist, radical<br />

or oppositional. The promise –or rather, the condition– of Wikileaks is that one can be on<br />

the insi<strong>de</strong> and on the outsi<strong>de</strong> at the same time. Through anonymity the mutually exclusive<br />

categories of insi<strong>de</strong>/outsi<strong>de</strong>, cooption/resistance, activism/passivity, power/subjection can<br />

be overrid<strong>de</strong>n and col<strong>la</strong>psed.<br />

1 I share Malcolm Galdwell’s opinion on Facebook and Twitter as an ineffective tool for resistance and<br />

achieving social change. (G<strong>la</strong>dwell 2010) These tools are still for outsi<strong>de</strong>rs, and unlike Wikileaks they<br />

se<strong>para</strong>te the p<strong>la</strong>ce of impact from the p<strong>la</strong>ce of resistance. „[I]t is simply a form of organizing which<br />

favors the weak-tie connections that give us access to information over the strong-tie connections that<br />

help us persevere in the face of danger. It shifts our energies from organizations that promote strategic<br />

and disciplined activity and toward those which promote resilience and adaptability. It makes it easier<br />

for activists to express themselves, and har<strong>de</strong>r for that expression to have any impact. The instruments<br />

of social media are well suited to making the existing social or<strong>de</strong>r more efficient. They are not a natural<br />

enemy of the status quo.”<br />

2 It would be interesting to learn how the internal organization and governance of Wikileaks helps<br />

them to survive the attacks from the outsi<strong>de</strong>. However, at the time of writing this, little is known<br />

about how Wikileaks manages its <strong>de</strong>fense and ensures its survival.<br />

3 The verification of leaked information is crucial in the success of Wikileaks. No won<strong>de</strong>r that one of<br />

the tactics proposed by intelligence agencies to counter Wikileaks was to flood them with false information.<br />

4 See a critique of the re<strong>la</strong>tionship of Wikileaks on the mainstream media at (Chossudovsky 2010).


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 437<br />

3. anonymous<br />

Anonymous is a name frequently appearing in articles about Wikileaks. It refers to a<br />

group of hacktivists (from the 1.0 type), who organized mass cyber-attacks against companies<br />

that seve<strong>red</strong> their ties with Wikileaks in the tumultuous <strong>la</strong>st weeks of 2010. According<br />

to their self-<strong>de</strong>scription: “Anonymous is not a person, nor is it a group, movement or cause:<br />

Anonymous is a collective of people with too much time on their hands, a commune of human<br />

thought and useless imagery. A gathering of sheep and fools, assholes and trolls, and normal<br />

everyday netizens. An anonymous collective, left to its own <strong>de</strong>vices, quickly builds its own society<br />

out of rage and hate. […]They have no lea<strong>de</strong>r, no pretentious douchebag presi<strong>de</strong>nt or group thereof<br />

to set in stone what Anonymous is and is not about. This makes them impossible to control<br />

or organize. Not really a collective at all - more like a stampe<strong>de</strong> of coked-up lemmings. […]<br />

Anonymous is not a single person, but rather, represents the collective whole of the internet. As<br />

individuals, they can be intelligent, rational, emotional and empathetic. As a mass, a group, they<br />

are <strong>de</strong>void of humanity and mercy.” (Encyclopedia Dramatica 2011).<br />

This type of Anonymous (let’s call it Anonymous 1.0) is the fuel of (h)acktivism 1.0.<br />

They are a group of outsi<strong>de</strong>rs who are rallied against something. They are on the outsi<strong>de</strong>,<br />

trying to get in, but if they get in, they have little more in their minds than to wreak havoc.<br />

In the <strong>la</strong>st months of 2010 Anonymous was c<strong>red</strong>ited for <strong>la</strong>unching DDoS attacks against<br />

those companies that seve<strong>red</strong> their business re<strong>la</strong>tionship with Wikileaks, including Paypal,<br />

Mastercard, Visa, as well as openDns and Amazon. These attacks gained little more than<br />

some press attention. Their effectiveness in terms of disrupting the everyday operations of<br />

these companies, or inducing a shift in their policies was nil.<br />

There is, however, another, much more important Anonymous (Anonymous 2.0) in<br />

the Wikileaks story that needs to be discussed: those powerful individuals in privileged<br />

positions within the existing power structures, who now can safely subvert the very power<br />

structures that they <strong>de</strong>fine (and that <strong>de</strong>fine them). If Anonymous is to be fea<strong>red</strong>, it is not<br />

because some rascals with short attention span download a cru<strong>de</strong>ly written software tool to<br />

attack websites, but because of those, for whom such anonymity lowers the costs of exposing<br />

and confronting power from within. Lowering the cost of safe opposition is exactly what<br />

Wikileaks is for.<br />

Being Anonymous in the context of Wikileaks has a double function: it liberates the<br />

subject from the existing power structures, and in the same time it allows the exposure of<br />

these structures by opening up a space to confront them.<br />

Anonymity offers the chance for the individual to –at least partially– remove herself<br />

from the pre-existing discursive <strong>de</strong>terminations and power re<strong>la</strong>tions and consi<strong>de</strong>r alternatives.<br />

“If governmental rationalities operate through the nomination and specification of a positive<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntity through a series of constitutive exclusions, rarefactions and restrictions, then the practices<br />

of freedom are enabled by withholding the knowledge of oneself, resisting the injunction to a ‘confessional’<br />

self-expression, <strong>de</strong>clining the incitement to active participation in the governmentally<br />

sanctioned discourse. Anonymity may then serve ‘to encourage freedom by increasing the scope of


438 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

actions not susceptible to official observation, records and interpretation’” (Prozorov 2007, citations<br />

ommitted). Anonymity is important because it liberates insi<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

Being Anonymous is an i<strong>de</strong>ntity p<strong>la</strong>y, and as an i<strong>de</strong>ntity p<strong>la</strong>y, it is a loyalty p<strong>la</strong>y. As<br />

an i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable member of the society, the individual is bound by formal and informal attachments<br />

and hierarchies, the breaches of which are severely and instantly punished. Being<br />

Anonymous means that one’s i<strong>de</strong>ntity and loyalty is up for grabs, it is fluid, it is in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt,<br />

it is freed from it social base. Wikileaks, being the key anonymity-providing infostructure,<br />

supports new loyalties that are <strong>de</strong>tached from the corrupted and failing national i<strong>de</strong>ntities,<br />

the <strong>de</strong>bilitating chorus of corporate anthems, historical <strong>de</strong>termination and the normalizing<br />

judgment of Facebook peers. “People are asked to i<strong>de</strong>ntify personally with organisations who<br />

can either no longer carry historical projects worthy of major sacrifices or expressly regard their<br />

employees as nothing but expendable, short−term resources. This […] creates the cognitive dissonance<br />

that justifies, perhaps even <strong>de</strong>mands, the leaker to vio<strong>la</strong>te procedure and actively damage<br />

the organisation of which he, or she, has been at some point a well−acculturated member (this is<br />

the difference to the spy). This dissonance creates the motivational energy to move from the potential<br />

to the actual.” (Stal<strong>de</strong>r 2010) When this happens, one’s ‘proper’ i<strong>de</strong>ntity, one’s real name<br />

turns into a mere pseudonym that serves to hi<strong>de</strong> one’s ‘real’ i<strong>de</strong>ntity, one’s true loyalties.<br />

Wikileaks, the same space which allows the individual to liberate himself promises him<br />

the chance to liberate others. It is in fact <strong>de</strong>signed in a way that it only liberates those who are<br />

willing to ‘liberate’ others. The big Wikileaks promise is that the exposure of how power is<br />

structu<strong>red</strong>, organized, the exposure of how “the great systems of exclusion which forge discourse<br />

- forbid<strong>de</strong>n speech, the division of madness and the will to truth” (Foucault 1981) operate will<br />

break these systems down and force them to change for the better.<br />

This c<strong>la</strong>im is, however, unfoun<strong>de</strong>d. The Wikileaks coerced transparency is nothing<br />

more than the extension of the Foucauldian disciplinary power to the very body of state and<br />

government. While anonymity removes the individual from existing power re<strong>la</strong>tions, the act<br />

of surveil<strong>la</strong>nce puts her right back to the middle.<br />

4. transParency<br />

Eben Moglen, in his „Freedom in the cloud” talk (Moglen 2010) outlined a grim vision<br />

of individual freedoms in the cloud age. He argued that individual freedoms are severely<br />

limited when Facebook-, and Google-like central entities hold all the information about<br />

us and users have no access to, or chance to control that information and limit the access<br />

of others to it. He argued that by trusting commercial third parties to provi<strong>de</strong> us with free<br />

services in exchange for our personal data, we surren<strong>de</strong>r all the information about who we<br />

are and how we behave in the digital universe. We are disempowe<strong>red</strong> by being spied upon,<br />

we are disempowe<strong>red</strong> by our <strong>la</strong>ck of information-autonomy, we are disempowe<strong>red</strong> by voluntarily<br />

surren<strong>de</strong>ring ourselves to the invisible observer in this digital Panopticon.<br />

By putting Moglen’s arguments <strong>para</strong>llel to the Wikileaks story we need to ask ourselves:<br />

in what way are the two transparencies different? Are we expecting the Wikileaks-induced


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 439<br />

transparency to do to corporations and governments what we are afraid of being done to us?<br />

Does transparency on the state, corporate and on the individual level serve the same goal:<br />

pure, internalized control?<br />

Assange’s quest for a better government suggests that in some sense the answer is yes. A<br />

well manne<strong>red</strong> and well-behaving, ethical, productive and accountable government created<br />

by the Wikileaks transparency 5 is very simi<strong>la</strong>r to the benefits Bentham assigned to his Panopticon<br />

<strong>de</strong>sign, as cited by Foucault: “Morals reformed –health preserved– industry invigorated<br />

–instruction diffused– public burthens lightened –Economy seated, as it were, upon a rock– the<br />

gordian knot of the Poor-Laws not cut, but untied –all by a simple i<strong>de</strong>a in architecture!”<br />

But it would be a misun<strong>de</strong>rstanding to equate the state with power, the secrets with<br />

how control operates. Also, it is a misun<strong>de</strong>rstanding to expect better governance from transparency.<br />

Nowhere is it said, that the discipline of the Panopticon would in any way result<br />

in any of those i<strong>de</strong>als that Assange is longing for. It is true that the Panopticon produces<br />

more efficient, more productive, more obedient, and more controlled subjects, but this has<br />

nothing to do with the state, the society, or power turning more just, enlightened, ethical<br />

or truthful. Even if the chain of events would stop at Wikileaks, there would be little reason<br />

to believe that “[t]he public scrutiny of otherwise unaccountable and secretive institutions forces<br />

them to consi<strong>de</strong>r the ethical implications of their actions” (wikileaks.org 2008). The only apparent<br />

and possible outcome of panopticism is more panopticism. The consi<strong>de</strong>ration of the<br />

ethical implications of one’s actions is nowhere guaranteed.<br />

The way the US state ap<strong>para</strong>tus has reacted to Wikileaks clearly illustrates this point.<br />

In a memorandum on January 3 rd , 2011, the National Counterintelligence Executive and<br />

the Director of the Information Security oversight office <strong>de</strong>tailed the procedures by which<br />

they hope to prevent any further leaks. The document is a 14-page long checklist covering<br />

all aspects of keeping secrets: “the measures in p<strong>la</strong>ce to <strong>de</strong>termine appropriate access for<br />

employees to c<strong>la</strong>ssified information”; the existence of counterintelligence programs; the use<br />

of back-up media; “a trend analysis of indicators and activities of the employee popu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

which may indicate risky habits or cultural and societal differences other than those expected<br />

for current employees for security clearances” and the “use [of] psychiatrist and sociologist<br />

to measure [the r]e<strong>la</strong>tive happiness as a means to gauge trustworthiness [, and the d]espon<strong>de</strong>nce<br />

and grumpiness as a means to gauge waning trustworthiness” (Lew 2011).<br />

This document is the blueprint of an internal total transparency program that is <strong>de</strong>signed<br />

to maximize the control over the state ap<strong>para</strong>tus in or<strong>de</strong>r to <strong>de</strong>tect potential leakers<br />

and prevent information breaches. The state reacted to the transparency of Wikileaks by<br />

creating a transparency of its own. This is the c<strong>la</strong>ssic example of internalization: the state,<br />

5 The Wikileaks mission statement clearly <strong>de</strong>fines its aims: “Publishing improves transparency, and<br />

this transparency creates a better society for all people. Better scrutiny leads to <strong>red</strong>uced corruption<br />

and stronger <strong>de</strong>mocracies in all society’s institutions, including government, corporations and other<br />

organisations. A healthy, vibrant and inquisitive journalistic media p<strong>la</strong>ys a vital role in achieving these<br />

goals. We are part of that media” (wikileaks.ch 2010).


440 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

un<strong>de</strong>r surveil<strong>la</strong>nce has internalized the expectations and now is busy learning how to<br />

make sure that what is not to be shown stays truly hid<strong>de</strong>n. Secrets to outsi<strong>de</strong>rs can only be<br />

protected through total transparency on the insi<strong>de</strong>. This is the problem with total control:<br />

it does not annihi<strong>la</strong>te un<strong>de</strong>si<strong>red</strong> behavior, it does not mute and reform inappropriate and<br />

prohibited <strong>de</strong>sires, it only suppresses them, and fosters secrecy and <strong>de</strong>ceit. Transparency<br />

will not break the logic of power based on panopticism: “The panoptic schema, without<br />

disappearing as such or losing any of its properties, was <strong>de</strong>stined to spread throughout the<br />

social body; its vocation was to become a generalized function. […] While, on the one hand,<br />

the disciplinary establishments increase, their mechanisms have a certain ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to become<br />

‘<strong>de</strong>-institutionalized’, to emerge from the closed fortresses in which they once functioned and to<br />

circu<strong>la</strong>te in a ‘free’ state; the massive, compact disciplines are broken down into flexible methods<br />

of control, which may be transfer<strong>red</strong> and adapted. […]‘Discipline’ may be i<strong>de</strong>ntified neither<br />

with an institution nor with an ap<strong>para</strong>tus; it is a type of power, a modality for its exercise,<br />

comprising a whole set of instruments, techniques, procedures, levels of application, targets; it<br />

is a ‘physics’ or an ‘anatomy’ of power, a technology.[…] On the whole, therefore, one can speak<br />

of the formation of a disciplinary society in this movement that stretches from the enclosed<br />

disciplines, a sort of social ‘quarantine’, to an in<strong>de</strong>finitely generalizable mechanism of ‘panopticism’”<br />

(Foucault 1979). The transparency of Wikileaks does not counter this process, it<br />

reinforces it. By putting the locus of sovereign power un<strong>de</strong>r surveil<strong>la</strong>nce it simply draws<br />

the state un<strong>de</strong>r this form of control, putting the <strong>la</strong>st missing piece of the puzzle to its p<strong>la</strong>ce.<br />

Wikileaks in same sense only propagates the control it wishes to subvert. It only helps the<br />

logic of panopticism to fold and close upon itself.<br />

5. soVereignty<br />

Sovereignty, in its strictest <strong>de</strong>finition is the supreme authority within a territory. The<br />

three components of sovereignty: being supreme, having authority and territoriality have<br />

all been transformed by the rapid rise of supranational, supra-governmental political, economic,<br />

legal institutions, the formation and the consolidation of global networks of information,<br />

telecommunications, finance, logistics, extraterritorial corporations, and (private)<br />

justice systems. Since such external authorities limit or <strong>de</strong>termine state actions in the fields<br />

of finance, economics, social policy, foreign and internal politics, military, or human rights,<br />

globalization was seen as a threat to the traditional concept of post-Westphalian sovereignty.<br />

Such external authorities ma<strong>de</strong> state sovereignty to be less and less absolute. But as Saskia<br />

Sassen argues, the interp<strong>la</strong>y between sovereignty and globalization is more complex than<br />

that. “The strategic spaces where many global processes take p<strong>la</strong>ce are often national; the mechanisms<br />

through which the new legal forms necessary for globalization are implemented are often<br />

part of state institutions; the infrastructure that makes possible the hyper-mobility of financial<br />

capital at the global scale is situated in various national territories. Sovereignty remains a feature<br />

of the system, but it is now located in a multiplicity of institutional arenas: the new emergent<br />

transnational private legal regimes, new supranational organizations (such as the WTO and the<br />

institutions of the European Union), and the various international human rights co<strong>de</strong>s”(Sassen


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 441<br />

1996). The institutions that overri<strong>de</strong> sovereignty build upon the <strong>la</strong>nd and the institutions<br />

of nation-states. But Sassen’s observations about the transformation, rather than the diminishment<br />

of national sovereignty only hold true because the supranational frameworks are<br />

always legitimized and authorized in one way or another by the sovereign states 6 , and some<br />

key elements of sovereignty are kept intact.<br />

Wikileaks poses a new, so far unprece<strong>de</strong>nted threat to sovereignty. Its power rests on<br />

three pil<strong>la</strong>rs: on the immunity to intervention, on the authority its supporters vest in it, and<br />

on its ability to interfere with the internal affairs of others.<br />

As the ineffective actions against its infrastructures have shown, Wikileaks is immune<br />

from technological, financial, infrastructural, and legal interventions. There have been<br />

several attempts to cut Wikileaks of the financial network, weaken its physical infrastructure<br />

or curtail its accessibility. None of these efforts could ren<strong>de</strong>r Wikileaks inaccessible,<br />

and there is no sign of a more effective method to erase a service from the web other than<br />

those already used. States and governments, just like corporations, are as <strong>de</strong>fenseless and<br />

exposed to Wikileakistan as much the entertainment industry is exposed to Kazaastan and<br />

Torrentia 7 . I do not wish to un<strong>de</strong>restimate the intellectual power behind the Wikileaks<br />

infrastructure, but from a government perspective one of the most frightening aspects of<br />

the whole Wikileaks affair is that it is so easy to set up a network that is so difficult to take<br />

down or to engage with. At the moment it seems Wikileaks cannot be woven into the complex<br />

web of institutional inter-<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncies. „In light of this <strong>red</strong>istribution of power, what<br />

would the solution for conventional/”atomic” power’s reassertion of hegemony? This would be to<br />

contain the rise of informatic power by containing its means of distribution. This would be by<br />

the means of national firewalling, and trunk-line disconnection or limited Internet disabling,<br />

disrupting infopower, but also crippling the flow of digitized material capital as well. This is<br />

problematic at best, as conventional power and informatic power are in symbiotic, the <strong>la</strong>tter<br />

being more nimble and a step ahead of the former, and to attack a symbiote always means to<br />

cripple its partner as well. The logical result of such actions would be the elimination of net<br />

6 This is of course an oversimplified, naive interpretation: the Wikileaks cables reveal some of the coercive<br />

tactics used in international diplomacy. But even if such tactics could amount to b<strong>la</strong>ckmail and<br />

p<strong>la</strong>in coercion, the actual supranational institutional framework is always there to mask these actions<br />

and legitimize the outcome.<br />

7 The <strong>para</strong>llels with the p2p technology and the music industry are more than apparent. Despite the<br />

tens of thousands of legal actions against individual downloa<strong>de</strong>rs, technology <strong>de</strong>velopers, service<br />

operators, <strong>de</strong>spite co-opting some ISPs, <strong>de</strong>spite the immense lobbying efforts and the continuous<br />

push for more stringent regu<strong>la</strong>tion, the music industry could not suppress unauthorized file sharing,<br />

and eventually had to come to terms with the loss of tight market control. only now, more than<br />

ten years after the first conflict, the industry starts to realize that file-sharing can be regar<strong>de</strong>d as an<br />

asset. It can be used for market research, it is an effective distribution channel, it can be used to serve<br />

certain target groups, it can be marketed and its users can be converted to paying customers. The<br />

industry will probably never control file-sharing, but if it changes its practices, it can harness some of<br />

its resources. (Bodó 2011) I see no reason to think that the re<strong>la</strong>tionship of Wikileaks to states would<br />

be any different.


442 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

neutrality (the free and open flow of data across the Internet) or even the severance of typologies<br />

and flows of information across the networks. The symbiotic effect is that conventional power/<br />

capital is also hobbled, as the physical is <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on the same flows of information across the<br />

distributed nets, disabling itself in the process. It is for this reason that it cannot engage in this<br />

means of retaliation, as it would be the digital suici<strong>de</strong> of the First World nation-state.” (Lichty<br />

2010) As long as Wikileaks exists on thousands of mirrors and in thousands of copies circu<strong>la</strong>ting<br />

on p2p networks, the <strong>de</strong>bate on whether Wikileaks is a terrorist organization 8 or<br />

a group of freedom fighters, and whether such a quest for total transparency is misgui<strong>de</strong>d 9<br />

or a necessary step in the <strong>de</strong>velopment of information society remains aca<strong>de</strong>mic. Until<br />

the point where it can be proved that Wikileaks can be controlled –and if that happens, it<br />

ceases to exist altogether– Wikileaks is free to follow its own agenda and as a consequence<br />

is the utmost authority of the information era.<br />

The second source of Wikileaks’ power is the authority its supporters vest in it. States<br />

do not enjoy the supreme and ultimate authority over their territory anymore, because their<br />

citizens as the source of that authority now enjoy multiple citizenships –one being that of<br />

Wikileakistan–, and have the potential to act upon multiple loyalties 10 . If citizens and corporate<br />

employees <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> to break the <strong>la</strong>ws of the <strong>la</strong>nd and follow the <strong>la</strong>ws of their conscience<br />

and leak the secrets entrusted upon them to Wikileaks, it means that in the given situation<br />

they <strong>de</strong>ny the supreme authority from the state and subscribe to the abstract i<strong>de</strong>als of Wikileakistan<br />

in or<strong>de</strong>r to preserve what loyalty they feel towards the ‘nation’, the ‘country’, the<br />

‘constitution’, the ‘<strong>de</strong>mocratic i<strong>de</strong>als’ or any other notion which they think Wikileaks represents<br />

and which they hope to regain by turning to it. If Wikileaks would be Wikileakistan,<br />

another territory-bound sovereign, there would not be any problems: it could be bombar-<br />

8 The US Department of Defense <strong>de</strong>fines terrorism as “The calcu<strong>la</strong>ted use of un<strong>la</strong>wful violence or<br />

threat of un<strong>la</strong>wful violence to inculcate fear; inten<strong>de</strong>d to coerce or to intimidate governments or<br />

societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or i<strong>de</strong>ological” (http://www.dtic.<br />

mil/doctrine/dod_dictionary/data/t/7591.html)<br />

9 We heard arguments that secrecy is a necessary component in conducting state affairs as well as<br />

international diplomacy. The state cannot and should not bear the bur<strong>de</strong>n of total transparency,<br />

because without some level of privacy, the state cannot fulfill its functions. Lawrence Lessig argued<br />

in the pages of The New Republic that some facts <strong>de</strong>serve privacy, because the public has a short<br />

attention span and is, in some sense ignorant, and therefore is doomed to oversimplify, misun<strong>de</strong>rstand,<br />

and/or misinterpret complex phenomena, if they are simply <strong>la</strong>id bare in front of it. (Lessig<br />

2010)<br />

10 It is believed that a low level US military analyst, Private Bradley Manning leaked c<strong>la</strong>ssified information<br />

to Wikileaks. The source of this information is the log of unknown authenticity, of an online<br />

discussion, recor<strong>de</strong>d and released by another whistleblower Adrian Lamo. Manning summed up his<br />

motivations in the discussion: “Manning: its sad […]i mean what if i were someone more malicious<br />

i could’ve sold to russia or china, and ma<strong>de</strong> bank?/Q: why didn’t you?/Manning: because it’s public<br />

data. […] it belongs in the public domain. information should be free. it belongs in the public domain.<br />

because another state would just take advantage of the information… try and get some edge.<br />

[…]im not sure whether i’d be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> a type of “hacker”, “cracker”, “hacktivist”, “leaker” or what<br />

… im just me… really.” (The Guardian 2010).


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 443<br />

<strong>de</strong>d or sanctioned into submission. But that <strong>la</strong>wless fringe, that barbaric kingdom, that pirate<br />

utopia is not somewhere else. It is exactly where we are. Confrontational, non-conciliatory<br />

action against such i<strong>de</strong>alists hardly yields anything else but more disenchantment, alienation<br />

and ultimately disloyalty. By turning against such double citizens the state turns against, and<br />

ultimately eliminates itself.<br />

Third, immunity and authority is now coupled with an un<strong>para</strong>lleled might to interfere<br />

with the internal affairs of states and corporations alike. External sovereignty is<br />

exercised “with respect to outsi<strong>de</strong>rs, who may not interfere with the sovereign’s governance.”<br />

(Philpott 2010) Wikileaks poses a different kind of threat to the external sovereignty<br />

than the internet, in general. (Boyle 1997) It seems possible to exercise authority with<br />

an aterritorial entity like the internet in p<strong>la</strong>ce, but it does not seem possible to exercise<br />

any authority if the sovereign cannot control its internal processes, data and communication.<br />

Within the core of any sovereignty there is the ultimate capability to control<br />

the internal communications, information collection and interpretation processes. Assange<br />

<strong>de</strong>scribes the effects of exposing internal communications in his essay dating<br />

back to 2006: “The more secretive or unjust an organization is, the more leaks induce fear<br />

and <strong>para</strong>noia in its lea<strong>de</strong>rship and p<strong>la</strong>nning coterie. This must result in minimization of<br />

efficient internal communications mechanisms (an increase in cognitive “secrecy tax”) and<br />

consequent system-wi<strong>de</strong> cognitive <strong>de</strong>cline resulting in <strong>de</strong>creased ability to hold onto power<br />

as the environment <strong>de</strong>mands adaption. Hence in a world where leaking is easy, secretive<br />

or unjust systems are nonlinearly hit re<strong>la</strong>tive to open, just systems. Since unjust systems, by<br />

their nature induce opponents, and in many p<strong>la</strong>ces barely have the upper hand, mass leaking<br />

leaves them exquisitely vulnerable to those who seek to rep<strong>la</strong>ce them with more open forms of<br />

governance.”(Assange 2006).<br />

The ability to p<strong>la</strong>ce the state un<strong>de</strong>r surveil<strong>la</strong>nce limits and ultimately ren<strong>de</strong>rs present<br />

day sovereignty obsolete.<br />

It can also be argued that it fosters the emergence of a new sovereign in itself. I believe<br />

that Wikileaks (or rather, the logic of it) is a new sovereign in the global political / economic<br />

sphere. If everyday citizens have an autonomous zone (Bey 1991), a safe haven, hiding in the<br />

discontinuities of cyberspace, from where they can oversee and control the state ap<strong>para</strong>tus;<br />

if such an organization is safe from interventions and can continuously enjoy the ethical<br />

and i<strong>de</strong>ological support if its “citizens”; if the information it distributes cannot be filte<strong>red</strong> by<br />

any country, then such an organization is a new sovereign, not in cyberspace but in the real<br />

world, even though it <strong>la</strong>cks the territorial dimension.<br />

But as it stands now, Wikileakistan shares too much with the powers it wishes to<br />

counter. As The Economist’s commentator put it: „To get at the value of WikiLeaks, I think<br />

it’s important to distinguish between the government—the temporary, elected authors of national<br />

policy—and the state—the permanent bureaucratic and military ap<strong>para</strong>tus superficially<br />

but not fully controlled by the reigning government. The careerists scatte<strong>red</strong> about the world<br />

in America’s intelligence agencies, military, and consu<strong>la</strong>r offices <strong>la</strong>rgely operate behind a veil<br />

of secrecy executing policy which is itself <strong>la</strong>rgely secret. American citizens mostly have no i<strong>de</strong>a<br />

what they are doing, or whether what they are doing is working out well. The actually-existing


444 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

structure and strategy of the American empire remains a near-total mystery to those who foot<br />

the bill and whose children fight its wars. And that is the way the elite of America’s unelected<br />

permanent state, perhaps the most powerful c<strong>la</strong>ss of people on Earth, like it.”(W. 2010) This is<br />

against what Wikileaks has risen. But the hid<strong>de</strong>n power structures and the inner workings<br />

of these states within the state are exposed by another imperium in imperio, a secretive organization,<br />

whose agenda is far from transparent, whose members, resources are unknown,<br />

holding back an in<strong>de</strong>finite amount of information both on itself and on its opponents.<br />

The mantra of Wikileaks supporters and the mantra of state and corporate executives are<br />

shockingly i<strong>de</strong>ntical: “We share no information on ourselves; we gather information on<br />

everyone else. only our secrets are valid secrets.” The Eye of Provi<strong>de</strong>nce on the reverse<br />

si<strong>de</strong> of the Great Seal of the United States, surroun<strong>de</strong>d by the words Annuit Cœptis (He<br />

approves our un<strong>de</strong>rtakings), and Novus ordo Seclorum, (New or<strong>de</strong>r of the Ages) could<br />

very well be the seal of Wikileaks as well.<br />

This leads to the question of who the parties in this conflict are. Is it the state against<br />

Wikileaks? or maybe what we are seeing now is a battle between different secretive organizations<br />

for the control of the state and through it, the body politic? With Wikileaks the<br />

state has finally ente<strong>red</strong> the Panopticon. But within, the freedom of those who are un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

surveil<strong>la</strong>nce is lost, whether they be individuals or states.<br />

It is not more secretive, one si<strong>de</strong>d transparency which will subvert and negate the<br />

control and discipline of secretive, one si<strong>de</strong>d transparency, it is anonymity. The subject’s<br />

position of being “a multiplicity that can be numbe<strong>red</strong> and supervised”, its state of living in a<br />

“sequeste<strong>red</strong> and observed solitu<strong>de</strong>” (Foucault 1979) can only be subverted if there is a p<strong>la</strong>ce to<br />

hi<strong>de</strong> from surveil<strong>la</strong>nce. There are two types of Anonymity, that of the observer, and that of<br />

the subject, both immensely empowering. The true potential of the cyberspace is not that it<br />

enables anonymous observation of the state power, but that it offers its citizens the chance to<br />

hi<strong>de</strong> from observation. In other words the i<strong>de</strong>ntity-protecting si<strong>de</strong> of technology has more<br />

emancipatory power than its capability to obtain and expose secrets. Maybe less, and not<br />

more transparency is the path that leads to the aims of Wikileaks.<br />

We have also seen how Anonymous can turn into a “stampe<strong>de</strong> of coked-up lemmings”.<br />

But how to be truly free in the age of ubiquitous surveil<strong>la</strong>nce? Is it enough if we<br />

put the observers un<strong>de</strong>r surveil<strong>la</strong>nce? Maybe we need to leave the oppositional power re<strong>la</strong>tionships<br />

behind, and be what Anonymous really means: invisible. Invisible in its strictest<br />

sense: being beyond the <strong>de</strong>terminations that <strong>de</strong>fine the i<strong>de</strong>ntity and the discourse. Because,<br />

as Pozorov (2007) so aptly said: “freedom is not a guarantee for the fulfilment of any <strong>de</strong>sire<br />

but rather the condition of possibility of its pursuit.” Wikileaks, the <strong>la</strong>test manifestation of<br />

cyberspace offers this freedom for individuals, but its proposition on how to act upon it<br />

is disturbingly simi<strong>la</strong>r to what it <strong>de</strong>fined itself against in its Dec<strong>la</strong>ration of In<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce.<br />

I salute Wikileaks as the first – and potentially only - truly in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt sovereign of the<br />

information age. “May it be more humane and fair than the world […] governments have<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> before.” (Barlow 1996).


you have no sovereignty where we gather. wikileaks and freedom, Autonomy and sovereignty in the cloud 445<br />

6. references<br />

Assange, J. (2006). “The non linear effects of leaks on unjust systems of governance.” iq.org.<br />

Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://web.archive.org/web/20071020051936/<br />

http://iq.org/#Thenonlineareffectsofleaksonunjustsystemsofgovernance.<br />

Barlow, J. P. (1996). “A Dec<strong>la</strong>ration of the In<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce of Cyberspace.” eff.org. Retrieved<br />

January 18, 2011, from https://projects.eff.org/~barlow/Dec<strong>la</strong>ration-Final.html.<br />

Bey, H. (1991). T.A.Z. : the temporary autonomous zone, ontological anarchy, poetic terrorism.<br />

Brooklyn, NY, Autonomedia.<br />

Bodó, B. (2011). A szerzői jog kalózai. Budapest, Typotex.<br />

Boyle, J. (1997). “Foucault in Cyberspace: Surveil<strong>la</strong>nce, Sovereignty, and Hardwi<strong>red</strong> Censors.”<br />

University of Cincinnati Law Review 66: 177-1411.<br />

Chossudovsky, M. (2010). “Who is Behind Wikileaks?” Global Research. Retrieved January18,<br />

2011, from http://www.globalresearch.ca/in<strong>de</strong>x.php?context=va&aid=22389.<br />

Collins, N. (2010). “WikiLeaks: guilty parties ‘should face <strong>de</strong>ath penalty’.” The Telegraph.<br />

Retrieved January11, 2011, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8172916/WikiLeaks-guilty-parties-should-face-<strong>de</strong>ath-penalty.html.<br />

Curran, J. (1991). “Mass media and <strong>de</strong>mocracy: A reappraisal.” Mass media and society:<br />

82-117.<br />

Der Derian, J. (2009). Virtuous war: mapping the military-industrial-media-entertainment<br />

network, Routledge.<br />

Encyclopedia Dramatica (2011). “Anonymous.” Encyclopedia Dramatica. Retrieved<br />

January 11, 2011, from http://encyclopediadramatica.com/Anonymous.<br />

Fil<strong>de</strong>s, J. (2010). “What is Wikileaks?” BBC News. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from<br />

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-10757263.<br />

Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison. New York, Vintage<br />

Books.<br />

Foucault, M. (1981). The or<strong>de</strong>r of discourse. Untying the text: A post-structuralist rea<strong>de</strong>r.<br />

R. Young, Routledge.<br />

G<strong>la</strong>dwell, M. (2010). Small Change. The New Yorker. New York, NY, Condé Nast. october<br />

4, 2010.<br />

Harding, L. (2010). “Julian Assange should be awar<strong>de</strong>d Nobel peace prize, suggests Russia.”<br />

The Guardian. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/<strong>de</strong>c/09/julian-assange-nobel-peace-prize.<br />

Jordan, T. and P. Taylor (2004). Hactivism and Cyberwars - Rebels with a Cause? London,<br />

Routledge.<br />

Lessig, L. (2010). “Against Transparency.” The New Republic. Retrieved January 10, 2011,<br />

from http://www.tnr.com/article/books-and-arts/against-transparency.<br />

Lew, J. J. (2011). Initial Assessments of Safeguarding and Counterintelligence Postures for<br />

C<strong>la</strong>ssified National Security Information in Automated Systems EXECUTIVE oFFI-


446 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

CE oF THE PRESIDENT oFFICE oF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET. Washington,<br />

DC.<br />

Lichty, P. (2010). “Digital Anarchy and Wikileaks. (or, Skynet doesn’t look anything like<br />

we thought it did.).” Retrieved January 10, 2011, from http://patricklichty.wordpress.<br />

com/2010/12/11/digital-anarchy-and-wikileaks-or-skynet-doesn%E2%80%99tlook-anything-like-w<br />

Moglen, E. (2010). Freedom in the Cloud: Software Freedom, Privacy and Security for<br />

Web 2.0 and Cloud Computing. New York, NY, New York Greater Metropolitan Area<br />

chapter of the Internet Society.<br />

Philpott, D. (2010). Sovereignty. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. E. N. Zalta.<br />

Prozorov, S. (2007). Foucault, freedom and sovereignty. Hampshire, Ashgate.<br />

Rosen, J. (2010). “The Afghanistan War Logs Released by Wikileaks, the World’s First<br />

Stateless News organization.” pressthink. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://<br />

archive.pressthink.org/2010/07/26/wikileaks_afghan.html.<br />

Sassen, S. (1996). Losing control? : sovereignty in an age of globalization. New York, Columbia<br />

University Press.<br />

Stal<strong>de</strong>r, F. (2010). “Contain this! Leaks, whistle-blowers and the networked news ecology.”<br />

eurozine.com. Retrieved January 18, 2011, from http://www.eurozine.com/<br />

articles/2010-11-29-stal<strong>de</strong>r-en.html.<br />

The Guardian (2010). “Bradley Manning, in his own words: ‘This belongs in the public<br />

domain’.” The Guardian. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from http://www.guardian.<br />

co.uk/world/2010/<strong>de</strong>c/01/us-leaks-bradley-manning-logs.<br />

Virilio, P. (1995). The art of the motor, Univ of Minnesota Press.<br />

W., W. (2010). “In <strong>de</strong>fence of WikiLeaks.” The Economist. Retrieved January 11, 2011,<br />

from http://www.economist.com/blogs/<strong>de</strong>mocracyinamerica/2010/11/overseeing_<br />

state_secrecy.<br />

wikileaks.ch (2010). “About - 1.3 Why the media (and particu<strong>la</strong>rly Wiki leaks) is important.”<br />

Retrieved January 14, 2011, from http://wikileaks.ch/About.html.<br />

wikileaks.org (2008). “Wikileaks:About.” Retrieved January 10, 2011, from http://web.archive.org/web/20080504122032/wikileaks.org/wiki/Wikileaks:About.


25<br />

lA INICIAtIVA CIUDADANA eUrOPeA eleCtróNICA<br />

Lorenzo Cotino Hueso 1<br />

Profesor titu<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Derecho constitucional Universidad <strong>de</strong> Valencia.<br />

Coordinador <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red <strong>de</strong> especialistas en Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Tecnologías<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información Comunicación www.<strong>de</strong>rechotics.com<br />

AbstrAct: El muy novedoso Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (UE) nº 211/2011, sobre <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana europea<br />

(ICE) proyecta esta institución por primera vez al ámbito supranacional y también es revolucionaria por<br />

estar pensada esencialmente <strong>para</strong> internet. Se analiza especialmente el sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos<br />

ciudadanos a través <strong>de</strong> páginas web, que serán posibles gracias al software <strong>de</strong> código abierto que pondrá<br />

a disposición<strong>la</strong> Comisión. El autor seña<strong>la</strong> que los apoyos ciudadanos por vía electrónica podrán ser por<br />

sistemas más sencillos <strong>de</strong> firma elecrónica, asímismo se indica que podría haberse apostado por apoyos<br />

electrónicos <strong>de</strong> forma anónima o seudónima. Se a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nta <strong>la</strong> futura práctica <strong>de</strong> que se busque ac<strong>red</strong>itar <strong>la</strong>s<br />

p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas en los Estados miembros que menos exigencias impongan. Una inercia<br />

simi<strong>la</strong>r también a <strong>la</strong> hora <strong>de</strong> elegir el territorio <strong>de</strong> almacenamiento <strong>de</strong> los apoyos electrónicos, pues se<br />

buscará el Estado más flexible en materia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos. También se examina quién y cómo<br />

habrá <strong>de</strong> verificar y ac<strong>red</strong>itar los apoyos recibidos por una concreta ICE. La protección <strong>de</strong> datos ocupa<br />

<strong>la</strong> segunda parte <strong>de</strong>l estudio, es objeto fundamental <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento. Se consi<strong>de</strong>ran <strong>de</strong>sproporcionados<br />

los datos que tienen que dar los ciudadanos <strong>para</strong> apoyar una ICE. Se estudia tanto <strong>la</strong> finalidad posible <strong>de</strong><br />

los datos así como <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong> responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos a los organizadores y a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

autorida<strong>de</strong>s, así como el alcance <strong>de</strong> su responsabilidad. También se fija el régimen <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos<br />

aplicable y <strong>la</strong>s medidas <strong>de</strong> seguridad y <strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> ficheros aplicables.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: Iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva popu<strong>la</strong>r, Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea, Democracia electrónica,<br />

internet, protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales, Unión Europea. 1<br />

1. aProximación a una normatiVa muy innoVadora<br />

1.1. origen e interés <strong>de</strong> una normativa innovadora mundialmente<br />

El 11 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong> 2003 nació <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana europea (en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte ICE) al ser<br />

aceptada por <strong>la</strong> Presi<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Convención constitucional 2 . La ICE no se reconoció como<br />

1 www.cotino.es Coordinador <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Red www.<strong>de</strong>rechotics.com. El presente escrito se realiza en el marco<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Proyecto I+D+I <strong>de</strong>l MICNIN, “Las liberta<strong>de</strong>s informativas en el contexto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> web 2.0 y <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

sociales: re<strong>de</strong>finición, garantías y límites”, (DER2009-14519-C05-01/JURI) <strong>de</strong>l que es investigador<br />

principal. El presente estudio es una síntesis <strong>de</strong>l más amplio estudio Cotino Hueso, L. (2011), “El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea <strong>de</strong> 2011. Su especial regu<strong>la</strong>ción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos<br />

vía internet y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos”, en Revista <strong>de</strong> Derecho Político, nº 81, 2011.<br />

2 Se aceptó <strong>la</strong> enmienda <strong>de</strong> adición al –entonces- artículo 46 propuesta por Jürgen Meyer y <strong>otros</strong> setenta<br />

y siete miembros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Convención constitucional Así lo recuerda Auer, A. (2005), “European


448 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

un <strong>de</strong>recho subjetivo en el texto <strong>de</strong>l artículo 47. 4º <strong>de</strong>l malogrado texto <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Constitucion<br />

europea. El artículo 47. 4º pasó a los nuevos tratados. Su contenido material quedó<br />

en el artículo 11. 4º <strong>de</strong>l Tratado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea (TUE) 3 . Y el artículo 24 <strong>de</strong>l Tratado<br />

<strong>de</strong> Funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea (antiguo artículo 21 TCE) seña<strong>la</strong> que el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

normativo había <strong>de</strong> ser vía Reg<strong>la</strong>mento aprobado por el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y el Consejo.<br />

Estas disposiciones entraron en vigor <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> 2009 con el Tratado <strong>de</strong> Lisboa <strong>de</strong> 3 <strong>de</strong> diciembre<br />

<strong>de</strong> 2007. Tras <strong>la</strong> solicitud <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong> que se llevara a cabo <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción, <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea adoptó el Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> sobre una Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea, CoM(2009) 622, <strong>de</strong><br />

11 <strong>de</strong> noviembre <strong>de</strong> 2009 4 . A partir <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s opiniones recabadas en <strong>la</strong> consulta, <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

adoptó el 31 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2010 <strong>la</strong> Propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento en su Comunicación CoM(2010)<br />

119 final 5 . Tras diversos dictámenes 6 y un ágil proceso par<strong>la</strong>mentario 7 se aprobó el finalmente<br />

el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (UE) nº 211/2011 <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo, <strong>de</strong> 16 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong><br />

2011, sobre <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana europea, publicado el 11 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2011 8 , en a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>nte<br />

Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE. El mismo “se aplicará a partir <strong>de</strong>l 1 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> 2012” (art. 23). Para su aplicación<br />

efectiva se requiere un <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> normas y especificaciones técnicas, así como <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

puesta a disposición <strong>de</strong> un soporte tecnológico <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas por parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión,<br />

que <strong>de</strong>be realizarlo “A más tardar el 1 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2012” (Art. 6).<br />

Se trata, pues, <strong>de</strong> un texto aprobado con sorpren<strong>de</strong>nte rapi<strong>de</strong>z y consenso por los actores<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tivos, máxime teniendo en cuenta que se regu<strong>la</strong> una materia que toca el nervio<br />

político <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

Citizens’ Initiative”, en European Constitutional Law Review , n. 1, pp. 79-84. p. 85.acceso completo<br />

http://goo.gl/3uItx<br />

3 Re<strong>la</strong>tivo a <strong>la</strong>s “Disposiciones sobre los principios <strong>de</strong>mocráticos”:<br />

“4. Un grupo <strong>de</strong> al menos un millón <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión, que sean nacionales <strong>de</strong> un número<br />

significativo <strong>de</strong> Estados miembros, podrá tomar <strong>la</strong> iniciativa <strong>de</strong> invitar a <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea, en el<br />

marco <strong>de</strong> sus atribuciones, a que presente una propuesta a<strong>de</strong>cuada sobre cuestiones que estos ciudadanos<br />

estimen que requieren un acto jurídico <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión <strong>para</strong> los fines <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> aplicación <strong>de</strong> los Tratados.”<br />

4 Acceso (acortado) en http://goo.gl/SWql2<br />

5 Comisión Europea, Propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa<br />

ciudadana, Bruse<strong>la</strong>s, 31.3.2010 CoM(2010) 119 final. http://goo.gl/k6iCl en concreto, p. 2.<br />

6 Comité Económico y Social Europeo(2010). Dictamen <strong>de</strong>l Comité Económico y Social Europeo sobre<br />

<strong>la</strong> “Propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa<br />

ciudadana”COM(2010) 119 final - 2010/0074 (COD), abril, http://goo.gl/M6W8o<br />

Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones (2010). Dictamen <strong>de</strong>l Comité <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Regiones sobre <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana<br />

europea (Ponente general: Anne-Marie Sigmund), 1.10.2010 Diario oficial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea C<br />

267/57. http://goo.gl/LMhwn<br />

SEPD (2010), Dictamen <strong>de</strong>l Supervisor Europeo <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos sobre <strong>la</strong> propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo y <strong>de</strong>l Consejo regu<strong>la</strong>dor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana. Diario oficial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea 30.11.2010, 2010/C 323/01. http://goo.gl/SNSd7<br />

7 El iter par<strong>la</strong>mentario pue<strong>de</strong> seguirse en http://goo.gl/Lo0Yi<br />

8 Diario Oficial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea L 65/1. Acceso acortado http://goo.gl/akUYA


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

449<br />

Como recuerda <strong>la</strong> Comisión en su Propuesta inicial <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento, <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana<br />

es un procedimiento <strong>para</strong> introducir <strong>de</strong>terminadas cuestiones en el or<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>l día<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>bates públicos [… que] obligará […] a dar una respuesta meditada a <strong>la</strong>s peticiones<br />

formu<strong>la</strong>das” 9 . Asimismo, como seña<strong>la</strong> el Comité Económico y Social10 , “<strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana<br />

no sólo representa un elemento innovador y transnacional <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia directa, sino<br />

también un medio <strong>de</strong> comunicación esencial <strong>para</strong> vivificar el <strong>de</strong>bate político europeo. Es el<br />

único medio <strong>de</strong> integrar en el discurso europeo propuestas e i<strong>de</strong>as <strong>de</strong> lo más diverso que <strong>de</strong><br />

otro modo nunca llegarían a <strong>la</strong> fase <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas, lo cual constituye un valor en sí<br />

mismo.” A juicio <strong>de</strong> Allegri se trata <strong>de</strong> “una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s últimas oportunida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>para</strong> compartir y<br />

dar más c<strong>red</strong>ibilidad al proceso <strong>de</strong> integración continental” 11 .<br />

Coincido con Cuesta cuando afirma que “<strong>de</strong>bemos evitar <strong>la</strong>s altas expectativas sobre<br />

el potencial <strong>de</strong>mocrático” 12 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICE. Lo cierto es que el paso se ha dado y parece haberse<br />

hecho <strong>para</strong> tomarse en serio y ejercerse en <strong>la</strong> práctica. El potencial está ahí y serán ciudadanos<br />

y grupos y luego <strong>la</strong>s instituciones comunitarias quienes acaben perfi<strong>la</strong>ndo en qué<br />

queda.<br />

La ICE es singu<strong>la</strong>rmente innovadora, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>do, por cuanto se proyecta una institución<br />

complementaria a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia representativa <strong>para</strong> el ámbito supranacional <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Unión Europea, como recuerda Warleigh, algo sin prece<strong>de</strong>ntes en <strong>la</strong> historia <strong>de</strong>l Derecho<br />

internacional13 . Del otro <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>la</strong> ICE es novedosa por cuanto está concebida <strong>para</strong> internet.<br />

La ICE será electrónica o no será. Se ha regu<strong>la</strong>do esencial y estructuralmente pensando en <strong>la</strong><br />

suma <strong>de</strong> apoyos a través <strong>de</strong> nuevas tecnologías e internet. De igual modo, se han tenido en<br />

cuenta los principales riesgos que <strong>de</strong> ello <strong>de</strong>rivan, como lo es <strong>la</strong> seguridad y <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos.<br />

1.2. elementos básicos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción y fases <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana europea<br />

Respecto <strong>de</strong>l diseño <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICE y sus fases, telégráficamente cabe seña<strong>la</strong>r que <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

previa <strong>de</strong>be ac<strong>red</strong>itarse el sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía página web ante autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

nacionales. Asimismo, <strong>la</strong> ICE se ha p<strong>la</strong>nteado en cuatro etapas: (una) registro formal <strong>de</strong> una<br />

9 Comisión Europea, Propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento… cit., p. 2.<br />

10 Comité Económico y Social Europeo(2010). Dictamen …cit.apartado 3.1.1.<br />

11 Ibí<strong>de</strong>m, p. 12.<br />

12 Cuesta López, V. (2010). The Lisbon Treaty’s Provision on Democratic Principles: A Legal Framework for<br />

Partecipatory Democracy, in European Public Law, 16, n. 1, pp, 123-138, en concreto sobre <strong>la</strong> ICE, pp.<br />

136-138, cita <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p. 136. Acceso completo en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.gl/rPMXa<br />

13 Warleigh, A. (2007) .“on the Path to Legitimacy? A Critical Deliberativist Perspective on the<br />

Right to the Citizens’ Initiative”, en Governance and Civil Society in the European Union: Normative<br />

Perspectives (vol. 1), eds C. Ruzza y Del<strong>la</strong> Sa<strong>la</strong>, Manchester, Manchester University Press, pp. 55-72,<br />

p. 64.


450 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

iniciativa 14 ; (dos) fase <strong>de</strong> recepción <strong>de</strong> los apoyos ciudadanos exigidos 15 ; (tres) examen <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

suficiencia <strong>de</strong> los apoyos válidos por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales y su certificación a <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

Europea y (cuatro), finalmente, evaluación política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s iniciativas que prosperen 16 .<br />

Como consecuencia y en su caso, <strong>la</strong> iniciativa podrá articu<strong>la</strong>rse a través <strong>de</strong> una propuesta<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión y su ulterior tramitación legis<strong>la</strong>tiva.<br />

2. sistemas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> aPoyos VÍa web y su ac<strong>red</strong>itación Por<br />

los estados<br />

2.1. el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taformas a partir <strong>de</strong> normas y programas <strong>de</strong> código abierto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

comisión<br />

En España, <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas y apoyos por medios electrónicos<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> 2006 se regu<strong>la</strong> en el artículo 7. 4º Ley orgánica 3/1984 17 y en <strong>la</strong> Ley 1/2006 cata<strong>la</strong>na<br />

(Disp. Ad. 1) 18 . También en <strong>la</strong> (recurrida ante el Tribunal Constitucional) Ley cata<strong>la</strong>na<br />

4/2010, <strong>de</strong> 17 <strong>de</strong> marzo, <strong>de</strong> consultas popu<strong>la</strong>res por vía <strong>de</strong> referéndum 19 . Sin embargo y a<br />

14 También antes <strong>de</strong> cualquier recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos se crea el comité <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos promotor que se ha<br />

<strong>de</strong> registrar ante <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>la</strong> propuesta. El registro pue<strong>de</strong> ser rechazado por no contar con los requisitos<br />

formales; así como por ser “manifiestamente abusiva, frívo<strong>la</strong> o temeraria” o “manifiestamente<br />

contraria a los valores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión establecidos en el artículo 2 <strong>de</strong>l TUE” (art. 4. 2). Como pue<strong>de</strong><br />

apreciarse por su tenor, se trata <strong>de</strong> parámetros bastante discrecionales que posibilitan filtro <strong>de</strong> naturaleza<br />

casi política. Ello no obsta a que se trate <strong>de</strong> conceptos jurídicos fiscalizables. Así, si <strong>la</strong> Comisión<br />

rechaza un registro caben los “recursos judiciales y extrajudiciales” oportunos (art. 4), ante el Defensor<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Pueblo Europeo por ma<strong>la</strong> administración o ante los tribunales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

15 Una vez se ha practicado el registro, el comité <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos tiene doce meses <strong>para</strong> recoger apoyos<br />

que luego habrán <strong>de</strong> ser verificados y certificados por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales (art.5). El quórum<br />

exigido es <strong>de</strong> un millón <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos con capacidad <strong>para</strong> votar en elecciones al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo<br />

(art. 3. 4º) que procedan <strong>de</strong>, por lo menos, un cuarto <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros (arts. 1 y 7). Hay un<br />

número mínimo <strong>de</strong> firmas por Estado fijado en el Anexo I (en el caso <strong>de</strong> España, 37.500).<br />

16 Una vez verificado dicho quórum, los promotores presentan <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana a <strong>la</strong> Comisión,<br />

así como información sobre <strong>la</strong>s ayudas y <strong>la</strong> financiación que se hayan recibido a efectos <strong>de</strong> transparencia<br />

(art. 9). Tras <strong>la</strong> recepción, <strong>la</strong> Comisión recibe a los organizadores. A<strong>de</strong>más, se pue<strong>de</strong> organizar<br />

audiencia pública <strong>de</strong> los organizadores en el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo (Art. 11). Des<strong>de</strong> que se recibe <strong>la</strong> iniciativa,<br />

<strong>la</strong> Comisión tiene tres meses <strong>para</strong> adoptar una Comunicación con sus conclusiones jurídicas<br />

y políticas y medidas a adoptar (art. 10). Sobre estas bases y <strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rarse políticamente oportuno,<br />

continúa en su caso el procedimiento legis<strong>la</strong>tivo.<br />

17 Artículo 7. 4º: “Las firmas se podrán recoger también como firma electrónica conforme a lo que<br />

establezca <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción correspondiente.”<br />

18 Disp. Ad. 1ª “Firma electrónica en <strong>la</strong> presentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa”: “El Gobierno, <strong>para</strong> facilitar <strong>la</strong><br />

firma electrónica en <strong>la</strong> presentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva popu<strong>la</strong>r, <strong>de</strong>be dictar <strong>la</strong>s instrucciones<br />

pertinentes <strong>para</strong> garantizar <strong>la</strong> eficacia y seguridad <strong>de</strong> este medio teleinformático.”<br />

19 En el Título V, los artículos 56-59. Pese a una amplia regu<strong>la</strong>ción, ésta es muy vaga.


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

451<br />

diferencia <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE, estas regu<strong>la</strong>ciones ni dotan ni impulsan un marco jurídico<br />

y técnico <strong>para</strong> hacer realidad electrónica <strong>la</strong> iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva. Al menos hasta ahora, no<br />

hay convicción, conocimiento ni voluntad <strong>de</strong> hacerlo. En cualquier caso <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral<br />

Central, una vez visto el Informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> oficina <strong>de</strong>l Censo Electoral 20 , ha validado una p<strong>la</strong>taforma<br />

<strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas electrónicas a través <strong>de</strong>l DNI electrónico por Acuerdo <strong>de</strong> 28<br />

<strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2010 21 . No obstante, el interés político que motivó aquel<strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong>cayó y<br />

no ha llegado a emplearse.<br />

A diferencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s normas españo<strong>la</strong>s, <strong>la</strong> ICE ha regu<strong>la</strong>do <strong>la</strong>recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web<br />

como elemento estructural. Así, <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos a una ICE pue<strong>de</strong> realizarse por los<br />

medios clásicos “en papel” y electrónicamente (art. 5 Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE). Y el mo<strong>de</strong>lo que se<br />

preten<strong>de</strong> es que <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea “a más tardar el 1 <strong>de</strong> enero <strong>de</strong> 2012” (art. 6), “aprobará<br />

especificaciones técnicas” (art. 6. 5º) y “establecerá y mantendrá” (art. 6. 2º) programas <strong>de</strong><br />

código abierto y gratuitos que cump<strong>la</strong>n los requisitos técnicos y <strong>de</strong> seguridad fijados.<br />

No se trata <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong> Comisión ponga a disposición una p<strong>la</strong>taforma centralizada <strong>de</strong> recogida<br />

<strong>de</strong> firmas, sino que ha <strong>de</strong> poner a disposición gratuita <strong>la</strong> materia prima y e<strong>la</strong>borada <strong>para</strong> por<br />

medio <strong>de</strong> programas informáticos <strong>de</strong> código abierto, open source,software libre. A mi juicio, se<br />

justifica particu<strong>la</strong>rmente <strong>la</strong> exigencia <strong>de</strong> que se <strong>la</strong>ncen y mantengan soportes <strong>de</strong> código abierto,<br />

ya por <strong>la</strong> mayor transparencia en un asunto <strong>de</strong> esta naturaleza política, así como <strong>para</strong> fomentar<br />

el control 22 , <strong>la</strong> creación y ree<strong>la</strong>boración <strong>de</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos por <strong>la</strong> sociedad<br />

civil, los grupos y organizaciones, así como los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos que quieran implicarse. Cabe<br />

<strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> que a partir <strong>de</strong> estos programas puestos a disposición por <strong>la</strong> Comisión se <strong>de</strong>sarrollen<br />

p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firma por parte <strong>de</strong> iniciativas públicas a través <strong>de</strong> proyectos 23<br />

o por parte <strong>de</strong> iniciativas privadas. En todo caso, también es pensable que <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía 2.0,<br />

implicada en <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a co<strong>la</strong>borativa y participativa <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>rá y mejorará <strong>la</strong>s aplicaciones <strong>para</strong><br />

poner<strong>la</strong>s a disposición <strong>de</strong> promotores <strong>de</strong> ICE. Cabe pensar que estas p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> recogida<br />

<strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web serán genéricamente ac<strong>red</strong>itables por cumplir <strong>la</strong>s exigencias, si bien <strong>para</strong><br />

cada concreta ICE requerirán <strong>la</strong> certificación concreta que exige el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE.<br />

20 El informe <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> oficina <strong>de</strong>l Censo Electoral se libra a partir <strong>de</strong> los trabajos <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong><br />

Murcia. El contenido <strong>de</strong>l informe viene a reflejarse en <strong>la</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong>l Subdirector General <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

oficina, Viedma Lozano, J. L. (2010), “Experiencia <strong>de</strong> uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> firma electrónica en <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong><br />

firmas <strong>de</strong> Iniciativas legis<strong>la</strong>tivas popu<strong>la</strong>res”, comunicación al TecniMAP 2010, XI Jornadas sobre Tecnologías<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> Mo<strong>de</strong>rnización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Administraciones Públicas, acceso completo<br />

en http://goo.gl/jKQfG<br />

21 En<strong>la</strong>ce acortado en http://goo.gl/8N4D0<br />

22 En este sentido, cabe recordar el artículo 45. 2º <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> españo<strong>la</strong> Ley 11/2007 “podrán ser <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>radas<br />

fuentes abiertas, cuando <strong>de</strong> ello se <strong>de</strong>rive una mayor transparencia en el funcionamiento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Administración<br />

Pública o se fomente <strong>la</strong> incorporación <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos a <strong>la</strong> Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información”.<br />

23 Cabe recordar que en España el sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas validado por <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral parte<br />

<strong>de</strong> un proyecto en <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong> Murcia auspiciado por el Gobierno regional, con motivo <strong>de</strong> una<br />

iniciativa política.


452 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Aunque habrá que esperar acontecimientos, no es <strong>de</strong>scartable que una p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>da<br />

a partir <strong>de</strong>l software <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión, establezca sus propias condiciones <strong>de</strong> uso. Y<br />

tales requisitos quizá que<strong>de</strong>n vincu<strong>la</strong>dos al sentido o finalidad política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICE concreta <strong>de</strong><br />

que se trate o <strong>de</strong> quiénes sean sus promotores. Que tales tratos diferentes sean discriminatorios<br />

o no <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>rá <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> naturaleza pública o privada <strong>de</strong>l sujeto que los realice y el medio y<br />

modo empleados. Y <strong>para</strong> resolver algunos <strong>de</strong> estos posibles problemas <strong>la</strong> normativa “técnica”<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisión podría imponer en sus condiciones que los <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>dores <strong>de</strong> sistemas <strong>de</strong><br />

recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web no puedan imponer condiciones <strong>de</strong> naturaleza política a los<br />

promotores <strong>de</strong> ICE que quieran emplear <strong>la</strong>s p<strong>la</strong>taformas.<br />

2.2. requisitos <strong>de</strong> los apoyos y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> recogida<br />

Los firmantes <strong>de</strong> una ICE han <strong>de</strong> ser ciudadanos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea con capacidad<br />

<strong>para</strong> votar en elecciones al Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo (art. 3. 4º); habrá <strong>de</strong> verificarse <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l firmante y su capacidad. Asimismo, el ciudadano al momento <strong>de</strong> apoyar ha <strong>de</strong> afirmar<br />

que “solo ha apoyado una vez con su firma <strong>la</strong> presente iniciativa ciudadana propuesta. 24 ” Por<br />

cualquier vía que se <strong>de</strong>n los apoyos <strong>de</strong>ben seguirse los mo<strong>de</strong>los aprobados como anexo III.<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> los requisitos generales, los “sistemas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas a través <strong>de</strong> una página<br />

web habrán <strong>de</strong> garantizar (art. 6. 4º): que solo <strong>la</strong>s personas físicas puedan apoyar una IDP;<br />

<strong>la</strong> seguridad y garantía <strong>de</strong> los datos y a<strong>de</strong>cuación a <strong>la</strong> finalidad, no <strong>de</strong>strucción o ataques,<br />

pérdida o alteraciones y que se ajuste al formu<strong>la</strong>rio y datos que establece el Anexo III.<br />

Ya respecto <strong>de</strong>apoyos recogidos por sistemas web, el Anexo III erróneamente llega a afirmar<br />

que habrá apoyos recabados electrónicamente “sin firma electrónica” 25 . Debe enten<strong>de</strong>rse que serán<br />

sin firma electrónica avanzada, puesto que en cualquier caso algún tipo <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica<br />

es necesario <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r garantizar <strong>la</strong> autenticidad <strong>de</strong>l apoyo <strong>de</strong>l firmante vía web 26 . La cuestión<br />

resi<strong>de</strong>, pues, en qué tipo <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica será requerida <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> recepción <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web.<br />

2.3. el tipo <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica requerida, el posible uso <strong>de</strong> sistemas poco robusto y el<br />

anonimato o el seudónimo electrónico<br />

En España, pese haber más <strong>de</strong> 21 millones expedidos el nivel <strong>de</strong> usabilidad <strong>de</strong>l e-DNI y<br />

<strong>de</strong> utilización por <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía es muy mejorable 27 . Por ello, consi<strong>de</strong>ro que hay que estar abier-<br />

24 Así en virtud <strong>de</strong>l Anexo III <strong>de</strong> seguimiento obligatorio.<br />

25 Se afirma que “(4) Firma no obligatoria cuando el formu<strong>la</strong>rio se presente en formato electrónico sin<br />

firma electrónica.”<br />

26 Sin ser lugar <strong>de</strong> entrar a concreciones técnicas que aquí no competen, una firma electrónica pue<strong>de</strong> ser<br />

básica, avanzada, y avanzada con certificado <strong>de</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> firma reconocido.<br />

27 Se trata <strong>de</strong> una afirmación, <strong>de</strong> un <strong>la</strong>do, sobre <strong>la</strong> propia experiencia personal y como apoyo, pue<strong>de</strong><br />

seguirse el Estudio <strong>de</strong>l CIS nº 2.794, Barómetro <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong> 2009 sobre <strong>la</strong> e-administración, en<strong>la</strong>ce<br />

acortado http://goo.gl/IIAni. Del mismo se <strong>de</strong>riva que <strong>la</strong> complicación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> e-administración es<br />

una barrera (<strong>para</strong> un 10%- 14,5% <strong>de</strong> los encuestados ) así como <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> tener i<strong>de</strong>ntificación


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

453<br />

tos a sistemas <strong>de</strong> e-firma <strong>para</strong> los apoyos vía web más accesibles y usables por <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía, con<br />

los que están mucho más familiarizados. Podrían admitirse, por ejemplo, apoyos electrónicos<br />

a través sistema <strong>de</strong> c<strong>la</strong>ves concertadas que por seguridad podrían generarse al momento y tener<br />

sólo vali<strong>de</strong>z temporal. Los operadores <strong>de</strong> telecomunicaciones bien podrían co<strong>la</strong>borar como<br />

intermediarios en <strong>la</strong> autenticación sus usuarios. También pue<strong>de</strong>n utilizarse sistemas <strong>de</strong> token,<br />

dispositivos físicos o electrónicos que pue<strong>de</strong>n incluso remitirse al or<strong>de</strong>nador o teléfono móvil y<br />

que permiten una i<strong>de</strong>ntificación que pue<strong>de</strong> ser muy robusta. Jurídicamente no hay problemas<br />

<strong>para</strong> admitir firmas menos robustas, con apoyo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa europea y españo<strong>la</strong> 28 . Y en<br />

<strong>la</strong> pon<strong>de</strong>ración <strong>para</strong> admitir los distintos medios <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación, <strong>para</strong> una ICE el nivel <strong>de</strong><br />

seguridad necesario no <strong>de</strong>be consi<strong>de</strong>rarse ni alto ni medio 29 . Asimismo, estos sistemas menos<br />

exigentes técnicamente facilitarían que <strong>para</strong> una misma ICE se utilice una misma p<strong>la</strong>taformas<br />

<strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos, lo cual es una finalidad <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE 30 , un sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida<br />

<strong>de</strong> apoyos, homogéneo en su uso e interoperable en los distintos Estados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

Asimismo no hay que <strong>de</strong>scartar <strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> que el apoyo electrónico a una<br />

iniciativa ciudadana europea sea anónimo o seudónimo. Para una ICE que requiere esencialmente<br />

saber que <strong>la</strong> apoya un ciudadano con <strong>de</strong>recho a votar en el Par<strong>la</strong>mento europeo. Y<br />

tecnológicamente se pue<strong>de</strong> verificar plenamente que una persona con <strong>de</strong>recho a hacerlo ha<br />

apoyado una ICE con un medio <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación válido y vigente, pero sin que sea necesario<br />

conocer su i<strong>de</strong>ntidad. La normativa <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica lo permite 31 y habría que inclinarse<br />

hacia estos sistemas en razón <strong>de</strong>l principio <strong>de</strong> pertinencia <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>de</strong> minorar<br />

barreras y riesgos <strong>de</strong> una ICE en <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía. Esta opción daría mayor seguridad<br />

a los ciudadanos, puesto que su apoyo a una ICE no permitiría a los organizadores o a <strong>la</strong>s<br />

autorida<strong>de</strong>s conocer su nombre y apellidos, por ejemplo. Lamentablemente, los <strong>de</strong>spropor-<br />

electrónica (6%- 10%). Con unos 14 millones expedidos al momento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> encuesta, un 30% no lo<br />

conocen y un 70% sabe que sirve <strong>para</strong> interactuar con <strong>la</strong> Administración. De entre los que lo tienen,<br />

sólo lo han utilizado un 4,4% y <strong>de</strong> entre ellos, <strong>la</strong> mayoría no recuerda <strong>para</strong> qué (NS-NC 40%).<br />

28 <strong>la</strong> Directiva 1999/93/CE <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica (art. 5) y <strong>la</strong> Ley 59/2003 españo<strong>la</strong> (art. 3) no excluyen<br />

conferir valor jurídico a diversos sistemas <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica no reconocida. Y <strong>para</strong> concreto ámbito<br />

<strong>de</strong> los po<strong>de</strong>res públicos Ley 11/2007 da cobertura al uso <strong>de</strong> “<strong>otros</strong> medios <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica” (art.<br />

16) tras una evaluación <strong>de</strong> riesgos que exige el principio <strong>de</strong> proporcionalidad <strong>de</strong>l artículo 4 g)<br />

29 Así lo consi<strong>de</strong>ro puesto que: <strong>la</strong> ICE sólo influye en <strong>la</strong> apertura <strong>de</strong> un proceso <strong>de</strong>cisional; hasta <strong>la</strong> fecha, en muchos<br />

países como España han sido muy escasas <strong>la</strong>s exigencias en <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad <strong>de</strong> los firmantes; el mismo<br />

Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE no establece una rigurosa verificación <strong>de</strong> firmas excluyendo <strong>la</strong> necesidad <strong>de</strong> autenticación.<br />

30 El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento preten<strong>de</strong> “utilizar un único sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida a través <strong>de</strong> páginas web con el fin <strong>de</strong><br />

recoger <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> apoyo en varios o en todos los Estados miembros” (art. 6. 1º).<br />

31 En esta dirección cabe recordar que <strong>la</strong> Directiva 1999/93/CE <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica cuando regu<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos en su artículo 8, en su apartado 3º prevé que el certificado consigne “un seudónimo <strong>de</strong>l<br />

firmante en lugar <strong>de</strong> su verda<strong>de</strong>ro nombre”. De ahí que <strong>la</strong> Ley 59/2003, <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica , permite<br />

<strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación <strong>de</strong>l firmante a través <strong>de</strong> un seudónimo. En particu<strong>la</strong>r lo dispuesto en el artículo 11.<br />

2º respecto <strong>de</strong> requisitos <strong>de</strong> los certificados reconocidos. Tales certificados incluirán “La i<strong>de</strong>ntificación<br />

<strong>de</strong>l firmante, en el supuesto <strong>de</strong> personas físicas, por su nombre y apellidos y su número <strong>de</strong> documento<br />

nacional <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad o a través <strong>de</strong> un seudónimo que conste como tal <strong>de</strong> manera inequívoca”.


454 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

cionados datos requeridos por el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE aun en el caso <strong>de</strong> utilizarse documentos<br />

<strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad dificultan estas posibilida<strong>de</strong>s, pero no hay que <strong>de</strong>sconocer<strong>la</strong>s.<br />

2.4. <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación por autoridad competente <strong>de</strong> un estado <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos que<br />

aun sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos y el obligatorio reconocimiento por los <strong>de</strong>más<br />

estados<br />

Quienes organizan <strong>la</strong> ICE, y antes <strong>de</strong> recabar cualquier apoyo, tienen que conseguir<br />

<strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación <strong>de</strong>l sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos que se libra por <strong>la</strong> “autoridad competente”<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Estado miembro; y habrán <strong>de</strong> exhibir<strong>la</strong> en <strong>la</strong> web (art. 6. 2º Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE). En<br />

España habrá <strong>de</strong> ser <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral Central en razón <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción 32 , que a<strong>de</strong>más, es el<br />

órgano que ya ha validado una p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> firma electrónica, según se ha expuesto. Ahora<br />

bien, según el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE, <strong>la</strong> autoridad estatal también <strong>de</strong>be ac<strong>red</strong>itar que los datos<br />

<strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos que apoyan al ICE vía web son “recogidos y almacenados con seguridad”<br />

<strong>para</strong> evitar usos distintos, <strong>de</strong>strucciones, alteraciones, difusiones o accesos no autorizados<br />

(art. 6.4º b). Y <strong>para</strong> ello <strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos parece <strong>la</strong> institución<br />

natural. Por tanto, no sería <strong>de</strong>scartableque se <strong>de</strong>signase a <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral <strong>de</strong> cara a <strong>la</strong> Unión<br />

Europea, si bien se regu<strong>la</strong>se internamente un procedimiento que exija <strong>la</strong> coparticipación <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> Agencia Españo<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> Datos.<br />

Como se ha a<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>ntado, lo que se preten<strong>de</strong> es “utilizar un único sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> páginas web con el fin <strong>de</strong> recoger <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> apoyo en varios o en todos los<br />

Estados miembros” (art. 6. 1º). Y una vez obtenida <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación en un Estado, podrán<br />

recogerse apoyos con dicho sistema en los <strong>de</strong>más Estados miembros, puesto que <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación<br />

<strong>de</strong> un sistema <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web por un Estado ha <strong>de</strong> ser reconocida por <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> los <strong>otros</strong> Estados miembros (art. 6. 3º). A mi juicio, pue<strong>de</strong> adivinarse una futura ten<strong>de</strong>ncia<br />

a minorar <strong>la</strong>s exigencias técnicas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> apoyos, puesto que aprovechará<br />

que existan Estados más benévolos en otorgar <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación que luego ha <strong>de</strong> ser reconocida<br />

por los <strong>de</strong>más Estados.<br />

3. <strong>la</strong> Presentación y Verificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s concretas firmas y<br />

aPoyos recibidos Por una ice<br />

El artículo 8 <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE regu<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> “Verificación y certificación por parte <strong>de</strong><br />

los Estados miembros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> apoyo” recibidas por una ICE. Esto no hay<br />

que confundirlo con <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación <strong>de</strong>l sistema web <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas, que se acaba <strong>de</strong><br />

32 En razón <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> lógica <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción electoral y más en concreto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 3/1984, puesto<br />

en virtud <strong>de</strong>l artículo 7. 1º “<strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral Central […] garantizará <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ridad <strong>de</strong>l procedimiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas. Asímismo, en razón <strong>de</strong>l artículo 12 “1. Una vez remitidos los pliegos<br />

a <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral Central, esta proce<strong>de</strong>rá a su comprobación y recuento <strong>de</strong>finitivos.” Y 3º “… <strong>la</strong><br />

Junta Electoral Central elevará al Congreso <strong>de</strong> los Diputados certificación ac<strong>red</strong>itativa <strong>de</strong>l número <strong>de</strong><br />

firmas.”


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

455<br />

analizar. Des<strong>de</strong> el inicial Libro Ver<strong>de</strong> se tuvo en cuenta <strong>la</strong> grave disparidad <strong>de</strong> los Estados al<br />

exigir requisitos rigurosos o <strong>la</strong>xos en <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> electores y <strong>de</strong> su firma <strong>de</strong> iniciativas<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tivas. Y se consi<strong>de</strong>raba que lo “más racional” sería “fijar una serie <strong>de</strong> disposiciones básicas<br />

a esca<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea” con <strong>la</strong> finalidad <strong>de</strong> “facilitar el proceso <strong>de</strong> recogida y <strong>de</strong><br />

eliminar aquellos requisitos que sean in<strong>de</strong>bidamente restrictivos” 33 .<br />

Pues bien, según el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE, los organizadores, cuando consi<strong>de</strong>ren que han<br />

reunido los apoyos, han <strong>de</strong> presentarlos “al Estado miembro <strong>de</strong> resi<strong>de</strong>ncia o <strong>de</strong> nacionalidad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l firmante” o “al Estado miembro que haya expedido el número <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación personal<br />

o el documento <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación personal facilitado” (art. 8. 1 a) y b) Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE). Tal<br />

“presentación” <strong>de</strong> apoyos electrónicos bien podría ser por medio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entrega <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong> soportes<br />

físicos informáticos con los datos verificables a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s oportunas aplicaciones. Los<br />

organizadores también podrían hacer <strong>la</strong> “presentación” facilitando a <strong>la</strong> autoridad nacional el<br />

acceso electrónico a los sistemas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web empleados y <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el sistema<br />

<strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s realizaran <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> los apoyos recibidos.<br />

Cabe consi<strong>de</strong>rar que <strong>la</strong> autoridad nacional competente en España habrá <strong>de</strong> ser <strong>la</strong> Junta<br />

Electoral 34 . Respecto <strong>de</strong> qué tienen que hacer <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales <strong>para</strong> certificar los<br />

apoyos que ha recibido una ICE, el artículo 8. 2º <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE sólo indica que lo<br />

harán “mediante controles oportunos […] <strong>de</strong> conformidad con <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción y prácticas<br />

nacionales, según proceda” y en razón <strong>de</strong> una enmienda en el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo 35 , se<br />

añadió que “no se requerirá <strong>la</strong> autenticación <strong>de</strong> firmas” (art. 8. 2º). Por ello, no serán directamente<br />

aplicables en España los artículos 9 y 10 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 3/1984 re<strong>la</strong>tivos a <strong>la</strong><br />

autenticación. Todo sea dicho, estos preceptos tampoco exigen una seguridad muy elevada 36 .<br />

En cons<strong>de</strong>cuencia, será suficiente con una “comprobación” genérica por <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral a<br />

<strong>la</strong> que hace referencia el artículo 12 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 3/1984 37 . En el Consi<strong>de</strong>rando 18<br />

33 Comisión Europea (2009), Libro Ver<strong>de</strong>… cit. p. 8, apartado 5.<br />

34 Ello por <strong>la</strong>s competencias en materia <strong>de</strong> iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva popu<strong>la</strong>r antes seña<strong>la</strong>das; por sus competencias<br />

generales <strong>de</strong>l artículo 19 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley orgánica 5/1985, <strong>de</strong> 19 <strong>de</strong> junio, <strong>de</strong>l Régimen Electoral<br />

General, como por su facultad <strong>de</strong> dirigir y supervisar <strong>la</strong> actuación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> oficina <strong>de</strong>l Censo Electoral<br />

que es quien e<strong>la</strong>bora y revisa el censo electoral (art 29 <strong>de</strong> esta Ley) que incluye a los ciudadanos con<br />

<strong>de</strong>recho a presentar una ICE.<br />

35 Se trató <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Enmienda nº 50 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s presentadas por <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>de</strong> Asuntos Constitucionales.<br />

36 Todo sea dicho, el sistema <strong>de</strong> “autenticación” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Ley no es <strong>de</strong> una elevada seguridad. Así, en virtud<br />

<strong>de</strong>l artículo 9 “firma <strong>de</strong>berá ser autenticada por un Notario, por un Secretario Judicial o por el<br />

Secretario municipal”, si bien “podrá ser colectiva, pliego por pliego. En este caso, junto a <strong>la</strong> fecha<br />

<strong>de</strong>berá consignarse el número <strong>de</strong> firmas contenidas en el pliego.” Es más, el artículo 10 admite el<br />

sistema por el que “<strong>la</strong>s firmas podrán también ser autenticadas por fedatarios especiales <strong>de</strong>signados<br />

por <strong>la</strong> Comisión Promotora” que “juren o prometan ante <strong>la</strong>s Juntas Electorales provinciales dar fe <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> autenticidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s firmas <strong>de</strong> los signatarios <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> proposición <strong>de</strong> Ley”. Todo ello bajo penas por<br />

falsedad.<br />

37 Artículo 12. Presentación, comprobación y recuento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s firmas: “1. Una vez remitidos los pliegos<br />

a <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral Central, esta proce<strong>de</strong>rá a su comprobación y recuento <strong>de</strong>finitivos. 2. Las firmas<br />

que no reúnan los requisitos exigidos en esta Ley se <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rarán inválidas y no serán computadas. 3.


456 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento se explica que los controles “pue<strong>de</strong>n basarse en muestreos aleatorios”, algo<br />

que aparece ya en <strong>la</strong> propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Comisiónporque “es el sistema <strong>de</strong> verificación<br />

utilizado por <strong>la</strong> mayor parte <strong>de</strong> los Estados miembros en el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s iniciativas<br />

presentadas por sus ciudadanos” 38 .<br />

Será lógico que los “controles oportunos” a realizar sean diferentes según se trate <strong>de</strong><br />

verificar firmas en papel, firmas electrónicas con certificado reconocido y los apoyos vía web<br />

sin firma avanzada o reconocida en España. Y como punto <strong>de</strong> partida, los apoyos electrónicos<br />

a una ICE cuentan con más seguridad <strong>de</strong> ser auténticos, ciertos y no duplicados, a <strong>la</strong><br />

vez <strong>de</strong> que son susceptibles <strong>de</strong> mejor, mayor y más sencillo control que los apoyos en papel.<br />

Todo ello, c<strong>la</strong>ro está, a salvo <strong>de</strong> que se <strong>de</strong>tectaran riesgos informáticos ciertos a <strong>la</strong> luz <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

experiencia.<br />

En esta fase <strong>de</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> apoyos por <strong>la</strong> autoridad nacional quizá se emergan discrepancias<br />

y disfunciones respecto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web. Cabe recordar que el<br />

Estado que ha <strong>de</strong> verificar los apoyos recibidos pue<strong>de</strong> haberse visto obligado a admitir un sistema<br />

<strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos ac<strong>red</strong>itado en otro país <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea. Y en el momento<br />

<strong>de</strong> reconocer los conc<strong>retos</strong> apoyos ciudadanos se atenga a su legis<strong>la</strong>ción y práctica nacionales<br />

negar <strong>la</strong> vali<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> los apoyos vía web. A mi juicio <strong>la</strong> remisión a <strong>la</strong> legis<strong>la</strong>ción y práctica nacionales<br />

<strong>de</strong>l artículo 8. 2º no permite negar <strong>la</strong> vali<strong>de</strong>z a los apoyos recabados con un sistema<br />

web ac<strong>red</strong>itado en un Estado miembro.<br />

Una vez verificados los apoyos por <strong>la</strong> autoridad nacional, se expedirá antes <strong>de</strong> tres meses<br />

el certificado <strong>de</strong>l número <strong>de</strong> firmas recabadas. Dicho certificado será gratuito y conforme al<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong>l Anexo VI <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (art. 8. 2º y 3º). Los certificados <strong>de</strong> los diferentes países<br />

se remiten luego a <strong>la</strong> Comisión <strong>para</strong> comprobar que se cumplen los requisitos y quórum<br />

exigidos. Para el SEPD este sistema es el mejor por evitar que <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea concentre<br />

y disponga <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> los firmantes, pues sólo recibe los respectivos certificados<br />

nacionales <strong>de</strong> los apoyos recibidos. 39<br />

4. el rÉgimen <strong>de</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> los aPoyos ciudadanos<br />

Para que <strong>la</strong> ICE tenga éxito en el futuro uno <strong>de</strong> los elementos c<strong>la</strong>ve es <strong>la</strong> confianza<br />

<strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos europeos en el tratamiento <strong>de</strong> los datos personales que vayan a hacer los<br />

organizadores <strong>de</strong> una ICE y <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales, así como <strong>la</strong>s garantías <strong>de</strong> seguridad.<br />

Aunque cada vez parece importar menos a <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía retratarse políticamente en <strong>la</strong>s re-<br />

Comprobado el cumplimiento <strong>de</strong> los requisitos exigidos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> válida presentación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> proposición,<br />

<strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral Central elevará al Congreso <strong>de</strong> los Diputados certificación ac<strong>red</strong>itativa <strong>de</strong>l número<br />

<strong>de</strong> firmas válidas y proce<strong>de</strong>rá a <strong>de</strong>struir los pliegos <strong>de</strong> firmas que obren en su po<strong>de</strong>r.”<br />

38 Comisión Europea(2010), Propuesta <strong>de</strong> Reg<strong>la</strong>mento … cit. p. 7, apartado 3.8 en comentario al artículo<br />

9.<br />

39 SEPD (2010), Dictamen <strong>de</strong>l Supervisor… cit. nº 21.


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

457<br />

<strong>de</strong>s sociales, <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> confianza podría <strong>la</strong>strar el futuro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICE. De ahí que el temor a<br />

posibles manipu<strong>la</strong>ciones o frau<strong>de</strong>s políticos por cuanto al número y vali<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> los apoyos<br />

que recibe una ICE, no es tan importante como el miedo a <strong>la</strong> fuga o <strong>de</strong>svío <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> los<br />

ciudadanos. Y el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE da una respuesta estructural a esta cuestión. No en vano,<br />

pue<strong>de</strong> verse como una norma sobre protección <strong>de</strong> datos, al regu<strong>la</strong>rse el sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos, los datos que pue<strong>de</strong>n ser recogidos y por quién, <strong>la</strong> responsabilidad que asumen<br />

quienes tratan estos datos, el régimen general aplicable, el nivel <strong>de</strong> seguridad que proce<strong>de</strong>, así<br />

como <strong>la</strong>s exigencias <strong>de</strong> conservación y <strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> tales datos. A mi juicio <strong>la</strong> regu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

es positiva en general. Amén <strong>de</strong> diversas mejoras técnicas, <strong>la</strong> crítica fundamental es re<strong>la</strong>tiva a<br />

los <strong>de</strong>sproporcionados datos que los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong>ben facilitar <strong>para</strong> apoyar una iniciativa y<br />

<strong>la</strong> no previsión <strong>de</strong>l posible apoyo electrónico anónimo o seudónimo a una ICE.<br />

4.1. los <strong>de</strong>sproporcionados datos que los ciudadanos <strong>de</strong>ben facilitar <strong>para</strong> apoyar una iniciativa<br />

El artículo 5. 3º seña<strong>la</strong> que “únicamente” se podrán requerir los datos <strong>de</strong>l formu<strong>la</strong>rio<br />

<strong>de</strong>l Anexo III. Y cabe seña<strong>la</strong>r que hay nueve países que no exigen <strong>la</strong> facilitación <strong>de</strong> un<br />

número <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación o <strong>de</strong> documento personal 40 <strong>para</strong> apoyar una ICE y los restantes<br />

diecinueve Estados miembros –España incluida– que sí que exigen tal i<strong>de</strong>ntificación 41 . Para<br />

España se trata <strong>de</strong>l Documento Nacional <strong>de</strong> I<strong>de</strong>ntidad o <strong>de</strong>l Pasaporte.<br />

Pues bien, lo censurable es que en los países don<strong>de</strong> se exige el número <strong>de</strong> documento <strong>de</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntidad, se siguen requiriendo datos que sólo tienen sentido <strong>para</strong> los países que no exigen documento<br />

<strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntidad. Así, <strong>para</strong> todos los países se requieren datos <strong>de</strong> nombre y apellidos; “calle,<br />

número, código postal, ciudad y país” o “dirección”;fecha y lugar <strong>de</strong> nacimiento y nacionalidad.<br />

Asimismo, se requiere <strong>la</strong> firma, salvo “cuando el formu<strong>la</strong>rio se presente en formato electrónico sin<br />

firma electrónica.” Inicialmente <strong>la</strong> Comisión incluyó también el correo electrónico, pero luego<br />

fue consi<strong>de</strong>rado excesivo por el SEPD y no aparece en <strong>la</strong> versión final aprobada 42 .<br />

Para el caso <strong>de</strong> los países en los que se requiere el número <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación, como España,<br />

los datos requeridos son <strong>de</strong>sproporcionados y no tiene sentido solicitar domicilio, fecha<br />

y lugar <strong>de</strong> nacimiento. Se pi<strong>de</strong>n muchos más datos que <strong>para</strong> iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva popu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

en España 43 . “[S]e exigen <strong>de</strong> modo innecesario diversos datos personales, lo que sin duda<br />

dificulta <strong>la</strong> p<strong>red</strong>isposición a firmar” 44 .<br />

40 Países que no exigen i<strong>de</strong>ntificación –aunque con matices en cada caso–: Bélgica, Dinamarca, Alemania,<br />

Estonia, Ir<strong>la</strong>nda, Países Bajos, Eslovaquia, Fin<strong>la</strong>ndia y Reino Unido.<br />

41 Países que sí exigen i<strong>de</strong>ntificación: Bulgaria, República Checa, Grecia, España, Francia, Italia, Chipre,<br />

Letonia, Lituania, Luxemburgo, Hungría, Malta, Austria, Polonia, Portugal, Rumanía, Eslovenia, y<br />

Suecia<br />

42 SEPD (2010), Dictamen <strong>de</strong>l Supervisor… cit. nº 9.<br />

43 Sólo se exige firma, nombre y apellidos, número <strong>de</strong>l DNI y municipio en cuyas listas electorales se<br />

halle inscrito” (art. 9. 1º Ley orgánica 3/1984).<br />

44 Comité Económico y Social Europeo (2010). Dictamen … cit. Apartado “3.2.1 Números <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación”.


458 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4.2. <strong>la</strong> finalidad exclusiva <strong>de</strong> los datos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos<br />

Los datos <strong>de</strong> quienes apoyan una ICE única y exclusivamente son <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> “verificación<br />

y certificación <strong>de</strong>l número <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones válidas <strong>de</strong> apoyo recibidas <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> [concreta] iniciativa<br />

ciudadana propuesta” 45 . Ello se expresa en diversas ocasiones en el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento (arts.<br />

4. 2º b); 6. 4º b); 12. 3º y 4º; Anexo III y Consi<strong>de</strong>rando 13º), disposiciones que fueron<br />

especialmente reforzadas por el Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo. En consecuencia, los organizadores no<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n aprovechar los datos <strong>de</strong> quienes apoyan <strong>la</strong> ICE <strong>para</strong>informar posteriormente <strong>de</strong> iniciativas<br />

o activida<strong>de</strong>s políticas afines posteriores o <strong>para</strong> requerir un nuevo apoyo a otra IDP<br />

futura o hacer cualquier tipo <strong>de</strong> mailing, incluso en el caso <strong>de</strong> que <strong>la</strong>s direcciones postales<br />

hubieran sido se<strong>para</strong>das <strong>de</strong> los nombres <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos.<br />

Sin perjuicio <strong>de</strong> lo anterior, sí que consi<strong>de</strong>ro posible <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> los datos conveniente<br />

y proporcionalmente anonimizados 46 <strong>para</strong> fines estadísticos. Así siguiendo <strong>la</strong> Directiva<br />

95/46/CE <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos y su transposición españo<strong>la</strong> (art. 6. 1º b Directiva<br />

95/46/CE y artículo 4. 2º LoPD.<br />

4.3. <strong>la</strong> fijación <strong>de</strong> los responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento y el alcance <strong>de</strong> su responsabilidad<br />

El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE fija como responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos a “los organizadores<br />

<strong>de</strong> una iniciativa ciudadana y <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s competentes” <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> verificación y certificación<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> apoyo (art. 12. 2º) 47 . Con este precepto se “evita toda duda<br />

respecto a quién <strong>de</strong>be ser consi<strong>de</strong>rado responsable <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento” 48 . Asimismo, “Los organizadores<br />

serán responsables <strong>de</strong> los posibles daños que causen con motivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> organización<br />

<strong>de</strong> una iniciativa ciudadana <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con el Derecho nacional aplicable” (art. 13). Es más,<br />

se refuerza <strong>la</strong> i<strong>de</strong>a en el artículo 14 49 que dispone que “Los Estados miembros se asegurarán<br />

<strong>de</strong> que los organizadores sean sometidos a <strong>la</strong>s sanciones a<strong>de</strong>cuadas por toda infracción <strong>de</strong>l<br />

presente Reg<strong>la</strong>mento y, en particu<strong>la</strong>r, por […] <strong>la</strong> utilización fraudulenta <strong>de</strong> datos”, siendo<br />

que <strong>la</strong>s sanciones habrán <strong>de</strong> ser “efectivas, proporcionadas y disuasorias”. Y <strong>de</strong>be añadirse<br />

que los organizadores también asumen todas <strong>la</strong>s exigencias que implica ser “responsable <strong>de</strong><br />

tratamiento” en el ámbito <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa europea y nacional.<br />

De igual modo, <strong>la</strong>s responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s no sólo serán por “daños”, sino por cualquier ilícito ya<br />

sea <strong>de</strong>l or<strong>de</strong>n civil, administrativo, penal, etc. en razón <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s respectivas legis<strong>la</strong>ciones aplicables.<br />

Igualmente <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales habrán <strong>de</strong> hacer frente a <strong>la</strong>s correspondientes<br />

responsabilida<strong>de</strong>s civiles, administrativas, patrimoniales y penales que se fijen en su caso<br />

45 Se aprovecha el texto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Dec<strong>la</strong>ración <strong>de</strong> privacidad <strong>de</strong>l Anexo III.<br />

46 Así por ejemplo cabría eliminar el número <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificación si lo hay, nombre y apellidos, <strong>la</strong> calle y el<br />

número (no el código postal, ciudad o país).<br />

47 El artículo 12. 2º hab<strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s “<strong>de</strong>signadas con arreglo al artículo 15, apartado 2”, que son,<br />

en razón <strong>de</strong>l artículo 8, <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s responsables <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> verificación y certificación <strong>de</strong> firmas y apoyos.<br />

48 Í<strong>de</strong>m.<br />

49 En <strong>la</strong> misma resolución <strong>de</strong>l Par<strong>la</strong>mento Europeo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> nota previa.


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

como responsables <strong>de</strong> tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos. Y ello aunque en el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento sólo se haga<br />

referencia a los organizadores, posiblemente, <strong>para</strong> no herir sensibilida<strong>de</strong>s Estatales.<br />

4.4. el régimen <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos aplicable<br />

Como queda c<strong>la</strong>ro en el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE, <strong>la</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos <strong>para</strong> una ICE y su<br />

verificación y certificación son tratamientos <strong>de</strong> datos personales, por ello es “plenamente<br />

aplicable” 50 el régimen <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos personales tal y como expresa el artículo 12.<br />

1º <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento. El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE supone una regu<strong>la</strong>ción específica <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos que se superpone e integra con <strong>la</strong>s normas nacionales y europeas <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos aplicables.<br />

La <strong>de</strong>terminación <strong>de</strong>l Derecho <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos aplicable y qué autorida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos son <strong>la</strong>s competentes no es <strong>de</strong>l todo sencil<strong>la</strong>. El supuesto general51 será<br />

que los organizadores <strong>de</strong> una ICE sólo hayan <strong>de</strong> someterse a una legis<strong>la</strong>ción nacional <strong>de</strong><br />

protección <strong>de</strong> datos por utilizarse en los diversos Estados un único sistema <strong>de</strong> recogidas <strong>de</strong><br />

apoyos web <strong>para</strong> una ICE (art. 6. 1º). Y sólo será una normativa <strong>la</strong> aplicable puesto que “los<br />

datos obtenidos a través <strong>de</strong>l sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida a través <strong>de</strong> páginas web se almacenarán en el<br />

territorio <strong>de</strong> un Estado miembro” (art. 6. 1º Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE). En consecuencia el lugar <strong>de</strong><br />

almacenamiento se tomará <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>terminar <strong>la</strong> competencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> autoridad <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong><br />

datos y <strong>la</strong> ley aplicable. Y podría generarse <strong>de</strong> forma natural una ten<strong>de</strong>ncia a radicar <strong>la</strong> recogida<br />

<strong>de</strong> apoyos web <strong>de</strong> una ICE en Estados <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea don<strong>de</strong>, si bien se cumplen<br />

los mínimos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Directiva 95/46/CE, <strong>la</strong>s exigencias sean menores. Hay que enten<strong>de</strong>r que<br />

no será posible que los datos se alberguen fuera <strong>de</strong>l territorio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión.<br />

Los responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong> datos habrán <strong>de</strong> seguir <strong>la</strong>s exigencias <strong>de</strong> protección<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos. Y <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales competentes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> apoyo (en España <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral) se consi<strong>de</strong>rarán responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento<br />

<strong>de</strong> datos (art. 12. 2º <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE) y tendrán que seguir <strong>la</strong>s particu<strong>la</strong>res<br />

exigencias <strong>de</strong> los ficheros públicos previstas en <strong>la</strong> LoPD y normas <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo. En este<br />

sentido, antes <strong>de</strong> que se promuevan concretas ICE <strong>la</strong> Junta Electoral<strong>de</strong>bería crear, publicar<br />

y registrar un fichero <strong>de</strong>l sistema <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> verificación <strong>de</strong> apoyos recibidos <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

ICEs que se promuevan. Si lo hace <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> que se promueva una ICE y le presenten<br />

los apoyos, no le dará tiempo a crear, registrar y publicar el fichero. Cabe recordar que<br />

<strong>la</strong> notificación e inscripción registral <strong>de</strong> ficheros públicos en España, es diferente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

“ac<strong>red</strong>itación” <strong>de</strong>l concreto sistema <strong>de</strong> recogida datos a través <strong>de</strong> páginas web que exige el<br />

artículo 6 <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE.<br />

459<br />

50 Consi<strong>de</strong>rando nº 22 <strong>de</strong>l Reg<strong>la</strong>mento.<br />

51 No será así en los casos <strong>de</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> diversas p<strong>la</strong>taformas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos web en diversos<br />

Estados. Ahí don<strong>de</strong> se almacenen los datos, regirá <strong>la</strong> ley y autoridad correspondiente. Lo mismo suce<strong>de</strong><br />

don<strong>de</strong> se recojan apoyos y firmas en formato papel o a través <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> firmas electrónicas<br />

avanzadas que no sea a través <strong>de</strong> sistema web.


460 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4.5. <strong>la</strong>s exigencias <strong>de</strong> seguridad y <strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> ficheros según el reg<strong>la</strong>mento ice y el<br />

alto nivel <strong>de</strong> seguridad exigido por tratarse <strong>de</strong> datos i<strong>de</strong>ológicos<br />

El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE contiene disposiciones sobre requisitos <strong>de</strong> seguridad necesarios <strong>de</strong><br />

los ficheros. Así, en razón <strong>de</strong> los artículos 6. 4º b) y 12. 6º <strong>de</strong>ben garantizarse los datos frente<br />

a <strong>de</strong>strucciones, pérdidas, o alteraciones acci<strong>de</strong>ntales o ilícitas, <strong>la</strong> difusión o acceso sin autorización.<br />

Y como se seña<strong>la</strong> en concreto en el artículo 12. 6º <strong>de</strong>ben garantizarse los datos “en particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

cuando el tratamiento implique <strong>la</strong> transmisión <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong>ntro <strong>de</strong> una <strong>red</strong>”, como será<br />

el caso <strong>de</strong> los sistemas <strong>de</strong> recogida <strong>de</strong> apoyos vía web. En buena medida estos requisitos que<br />

exige el Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE van <strong>de</strong> suyo en <strong>la</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos <strong>de</strong> nivel alto exigida en España<br />

por <strong>la</strong> normativa. Y es los datos <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos que apoyan una ICE, así como los <strong>de</strong> sus<br />

organizadores, son “categorías especiales <strong>de</strong> datos por cuanto reve<strong>la</strong>n “<strong>la</strong>s opiniones políticas,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s convicciones religiosas o filosóficas” (art. 8 Directiva 95/46/CE). Y <strong>la</strong> consecuencia <strong>de</strong> ello<br />

más importante es que tanto los organizadores cuanto <strong>la</strong>s autorida<strong>de</strong>s nacionales que <strong>de</strong>ben<br />

verificar <strong>la</strong>s firmas como responsables <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento <strong>de</strong>ben proteger los tatos con medidas <strong>de</strong><br />

seguridad <strong>de</strong> nivel alto. Se trata <strong>de</strong> exigencias <strong>de</strong> protección muy importantes –y necesarias– 52 .<br />

De hecho, po<strong>de</strong>r cumplir estas exigencias y <strong>la</strong>s fuertes sanciones –incluso penas– por su incumplimiento<br />

pue<strong>de</strong>n suponer <strong>de</strong> facto una barrera material <strong>para</strong> organizar una ICE. En este<br />

punto, cabe insistir en el posible fenómeno <strong>de</strong> dumping <strong>de</strong> protección <strong>de</strong> datos y <strong>la</strong> búsqueda<br />

<strong>de</strong> Estados refugio don<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> normativa y controles sean menos exigentes.<br />

El Reg<strong>la</strong>mento ICE en su artículo 12. 3º sí que ha previsto <strong>la</strong> concreta garantía <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>strucción <strong>de</strong> “<strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>raciones <strong>de</strong> apoyo a esa iniciativa recibidas y todas sus copias” por los<br />

organizadores “como muy tar<strong>de</strong>” o un mes <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> que se haya logrado <strong>la</strong> ac<strong>red</strong>itación por<br />

<strong>la</strong> Autoridad estatal <strong>de</strong>l número <strong>de</strong> firmas recabadas en virtud <strong>de</strong>l artículo 9 y tal ac<strong>red</strong>itación<br />

haya sido remitida a <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea. o dieciocho meses <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong>l registro <strong>de</strong> una ICE<br />

ante <strong>la</strong> Comisión Europea 53 . Y en el caso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> autoridad nacional competente que verifica<br />

y certifica al organizador los apoyos que ha recibido <strong>la</strong> ICE también ha <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>struir apoyos y<br />

copias “como muy tar<strong>de</strong>” <strong>de</strong>spués <strong>de</strong> un mes <strong>de</strong> emitir el certificado <strong>de</strong> apoyos (art. 12. 4º).<br />

La <strong>de</strong>strucción se llevará a cabo salvo que “fuera necesario <strong>para</strong> los procedimientos<br />

judiciales o administrativos en re<strong>la</strong>ción con una iniciativa ciudadana propuesta” y en todo<br />

caso, tras <strong>la</strong> conclusión <strong>de</strong> los mismos (art. 12. 5º). En principio, sólo se tratará <strong>de</strong> conflictos<br />

porque un Estado nacional no consi<strong>de</strong>rase verificados el número necesario <strong>de</strong> apoyos y los<br />

organizadores discre<strong>para</strong>n <strong>de</strong> tal <strong>de</strong>cisión 54 .<br />

52 Al respecto cabe remitir a los artículos 79-114 <strong>de</strong>l RLoPD y <strong>la</strong> Guía <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> propia AEPD AEPD<br />

(2008). Guía <strong>de</strong> Seguridad <strong>de</strong> Datos, Madrid, disponible al completo en en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.gl/eK6n1<br />

53 Cabe recordar al respecto, que <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> el registro <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ICE por <strong>la</strong> Comisión hay doce meses como máximo<br />

<strong>para</strong> recabar apoyos (art. 5. 5º), por lo que, en su caso, habrá hasta seis meses más <strong>para</strong> <strong>de</strong>struir<br />

estos datos y apoyos.<br />

54 En principio, en España, no se daría el supuesto <strong>de</strong> que se impugnara <strong>la</strong> certificación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> autoridad<br />

<strong>de</strong> que sí que se reúnen los apoyos suficientes, puesto que muy dudosamente un tercero tendrá interés<br />

legítimo <strong>para</strong> recurrir tal <strong>de</strong>cisión.


<strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana europea electrónica<br />

5. bibliografÍa seleccionada<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva europea en españa y europa<br />

461<br />

Cuesta López, V. M. (2007). “Participación directa e iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano<br />

en <strong>de</strong>mocracia constitucional”, Tesis Doctoral Codirigida por López Agui<strong>la</strong>r, J. F.<br />

y Rodríguez-Drincourt, J. E., Las Palmas <strong>de</strong> Gran Canaria, acceso completo (en<strong>la</strong>ce<br />

acortado) http://goo.gl/oa8Vy / reserva en http://goo.gl/cVqqfLuego en (2008),<br />

Participación directa e iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>de</strong>l ciudadano en <strong>de</strong>mocracia constitucional,<br />

Aranzadi-Cívitas, Cizur Menor.<br />

Freixes Sanjuán, T. y Poptcheva, E. M. (2009). “Iniciativa legis<strong>la</strong>tiva popu<strong>la</strong>r: estudio<br />

com<strong>para</strong>tivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> situación legal en los estados miembros <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea y previsión<br />

<strong>de</strong> su futuro <strong>de</strong>sarrollo a nivel <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión Europea”. Pliegos <strong>de</strong> Yuste: Revista <strong>de</strong><br />

cultura y pensamiento europeos, nº 1, 9-10, 2009 (Ejemp<strong>la</strong>r <strong>de</strong>dicado a: La Europa <strong>de</strong><br />

los ciudadanos), pp. 37-46<br />

sobre <strong>la</strong> iniciativa ciudadana europea, en general, tras el proceso constitucional <strong>de</strong>stacan:<br />

Kohler-Koch B. y Rittberger B. (eds), (2007), Debating the Democratic Legitimacy of the<br />

European Union , Lanham, Rowman -Littlefield. acceso parcial en Google Books en<br />

http://goo.gl/BxpR1<br />

Kaufmann, B. y Dane, M. (2004). Direct Democracy in Europe, A Comprehensive Reference<br />

Gui<strong>de</strong> to the Initiative and Referendum Process in Europe, IRI (Initiative and Referendum<br />

Institut) Europe- Carolina Aca<strong>de</strong>mic Press. Ahí se hace un análisis <strong>de</strong> 32 países <strong>de</strong><br />

Europa, centrándose en el proceso constitucional y <strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Europea. Cabe acce<strong>de</strong>r<br />

al índice completo en http://www.cap-press.com/pdf/waters_fm.pdf<br />

Tibor Pállinger, Z., Kaufmann, B, Marxer, W. y Schiller, T (eds.). (2007). Direct<br />

<strong>de</strong>mocracy in Europe. Developments and Prospect, Ver<strong>la</strong>g fur Sozialwissenschtaten, Wiesba<strong>de</strong>n,<br />

acceso parcial en Google books, http://goo.gl/hlpqH<br />

Cuesta López, V. (2010). The Lisbon Treaty’s Provision on Democratic Principles: A Legal<br />

Framework for Partecipatory Democracy, in European Public Law, 16, n. 1, pp, 123-138,<br />

en concreto sobre <strong>la</strong> ICE, pp. 136-138. Acceso completo en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.<br />

gl/rPMXa .<br />

Auer, A. (2005), “European Citizens’ Initiative”, en European Constitutional Law Review , n.<br />

1, pp. 79-84. p. 85.acceso completo http://goo.gl/3uItx<br />

Warleigh, A. (2007) .“on the Path to Legitimacy? A Critical Deliberativist Perspective on<br />

the Right to the Citizens’ Initiative”, en Governance and Civil Society in the European<br />

Union: Normative Perspectives (vol. 1), eds C. Ruzza y Del<strong>la</strong> Sa<strong>la</strong>, Manchester, Manchester<br />

University Press, pp. 55-72.<br />

Zicchittu, P. (2010), “Il diritto di iniziativa <strong>de</strong>i cittadini: un nuovo strumento di partecipazione<br />

all’interno <strong>de</strong>ll’Unione europea”, in Qua<strong>de</strong>rni costituzionali, n. 3, pp. 621-625.<br />

Acceso completo al mismo en el en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.gl/JLCUw


462 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Bova, C. (2010), Il diritto di iniziativa <strong>de</strong>i cittadini europei e i confermati limiti <strong>de</strong>ll’iniziativa<br />

legis<strong>la</strong>tiva italiana, pubblicato in rete presso il Forum di Qua<strong>de</strong>rni Costituzionali, En<strong>la</strong>ce<br />

acortado acceso completo http://goo.gl/a2y5G<br />

Jimena Quesada, L. (2004) “Los instrumentos <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia directa y <strong>la</strong> Constitución<br />

Europea”, en Garrido Mayol y Alvarez Con<strong>de</strong>, E. Coord.s. (2004) Comentarios a <strong>la</strong><br />

Constitución Europea. Vol. 1º (La Unión Europea, el Derecho <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión, competencias<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unión, <strong>la</strong>s instituciones, pp. 643-667.<br />

sobre el reg<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>de</strong> 2011, aún son muy escasas <strong>la</strong> publicaciones:<br />

Allegri, G. (2011). “Il rego<strong>la</strong>mento UE riguardante ‘l’iniziativa <strong>de</strong>i cittadini’. Note introduttive”,<br />

en Fe<strong>de</strong>ralismi.it, Rivista di diritto pubblico italiano, comunitario e com<strong>para</strong>to<br />

n. 7/2011., acceso a texto completo (acortado) http://goo.gl/IcJsQ .<br />

Gewessler, L. y Barba<strong>la</strong>ta, M. (coords.) (2010). Manual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Iniciativa Ciudadana Europea.<br />

Guía sobre <strong>la</strong> primera herramienta mundial <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia directa transnacional,<br />

(trad. Martine Fernán<strong>de</strong>z), Green European Foundation- IRI (Initiative and Referendum<br />

Institut), Bélgica. Acceso completo en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.gl/43XC5<br />

sobre liberta<strong>de</strong>s, participación y <strong>de</strong>mocracia electrónicas, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> IDP. Revista <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet, Derecho y Política <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> universitat oberta <strong>de</strong> catalunya, me permito seña<strong>la</strong>r<br />

<strong>la</strong>s distintas obras colectivas que contienen buena parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> doctrina en españa.<br />

Barrat i Esteve, J. y Fernán<strong>de</strong>z Riveira, R. Mª. (coord.), (2011). Derecho <strong>de</strong> Sufragio y<br />

Participación ciudadana a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Nuevas Tecnologías, ARANZADI-Instituto <strong>de</strong><br />

Derecho Par<strong>la</strong>mentario Universidad Complutense, Cizur Menor, 2011.<br />

Revista Cata<strong>la</strong>na <strong>de</strong> Derecho Público (segunda etapa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Revista “Autonomías”), monográfico<br />

sobre “<strong>la</strong> inci<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s TIC en el Derecho público”, núm. 35, 2007<br />

Cotino Hueso, L., (coord.) (2006). Liberta<strong>de</strong>s, <strong>de</strong>mocracia y gobierno electrónicos, Comares<br />

(Colección Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Información, nº 9), Granada, 18 autores.<br />

Cotino Hueso, L., (coord.) (2007). Democracia, participación y voto a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas<br />

tecnologías (Colección Sociedad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Informaciónº 13), Comares, Granada, 28 autores.<br />

Cotino Hueso, L. (ed.), (2007). Libertad en internet. La <strong>red</strong> y <strong>la</strong>s liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> expresión e<br />

información, Tirant lo B<strong>la</strong>nch, Valencia.<br />

Cotino Hueso, L. (ed.), (2011). Liberta<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> expresión e información en Internet y <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s<br />

sociales: ejercicio, amenazas y garantías, PUV (Publicaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Universidad <strong>de</strong><br />

Valencia), Valencia, 2011, 34 autores, acceso completo en<strong>la</strong>ce acortado http://goo.gl/<br />

CCHC9 .


26<br />

INstItUtIONAl trUst AND e-gOVerNmeNt ADOPtION<br />

IN tHe eU: A CrOss-NAtIONAl ANAlysIs<br />

Georgia Foteinou<br />

Department of Politics and International Re<strong>la</strong>tions. University of Oxford<br />

AbstrAct: It has been argued that e-government adoption <strong>la</strong>gs behind compa<strong>red</strong> to e-commerce and<br />

empirical research points out that Europeans are often unwilling or reluctant to engage to e-government.<br />

This paper adopts a neo-institutional perspective and attempts to shed light on some of the un<strong>de</strong>rlying<br />

factors of this behaviour by examining the political nature of e-government. More specifically, this<br />

research examines the role of institutional trust in e-government adoption while mapping the patterns<br />

of e-government adoption in the EU. Methodologically, sequential triangu<strong>la</strong>tion is the adopted method<br />

of study, and both a cross-national and a longitudinal analysis of the e-government adoption levels are<br />

performed. E-government and e-commerce usage levels are analysed in <strong>para</strong>llel in or<strong>de</strong>r to highlight the<br />

factors that lead in the observed differences. The analysis shows that e-government in Europe often follows<br />

<strong>para</strong>doxical adoption patterns that cannot be exp<strong>la</strong>ined by the existing, individual-level, studies. In<br />

contrast, this paper adopts a national-level perspective and it analyses technology adoption through the<br />

lenses of a neo-institutional theoretical framework. The research findings show that confi<strong>de</strong>nce in government<br />

and public institutions have a significant impact on citizens’ attitu<strong>de</strong>s towards e-government.<br />

Accordingly, the observed differences in the EU are, to a <strong>la</strong>rge extent, exp<strong>la</strong>ined by the different levels of<br />

institutional trust.<br />

Keywords: e-government adoption, institutional trust, service avai<strong>la</strong>bility, com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis.<br />

1. introduction<br />

The Lisbon Strategy set the European vision of making the EU the most dynamic<br />

knowledge-based economy in the world. In this framework, e-government has been set as a<br />

central element of Europe’s Digital Agenda which will contribute to a more cohesive, competitive<br />

and dynamic Europe. The European Commission, in its i2010 e-government action<br />

p<strong>la</strong>n, states that “through e-government, public administrations can make a major contribution<br />

to the Lisbon Agenda” by reforming the way Europeans interact with their governments<br />

in various levels. This new, technology-oriented, mo<strong>de</strong>l in public administration is believed<br />

to have the potential to achieve the dual goal of greater responsiveness to citizens’ needs<br />

while making more efficient use of public resources. In short, the European e-government<br />

project is based on the i<strong>de</strong>a of using technology to create value-ad<strong>de</strong>d public services, to<br />

promote European cooperation, to support <strong>de</strong>mocratic processes, to save resources and to<br />

bring governments closer to citizens.<br />

However, <strong>de</strong>spite the high public spending in e-government (the governments are in<br />

most cases the greatest IT consumers in the world), e-government adoption has only mo<strong>de</strong>rate<br />

to low adoption rates in many EU countries. Therefore, although European gover-


464 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

nments offer electronic services to their citizens, it seems that citizens are somehow unable<br />

or unwilling to use them. For example, in the United Kingdom the public expenditure for<br />

e-government has been estimated to be about 13 billion pounds (more than 1% of Britain’s<br />

GDP) –one of the highest in Europe and around the globe– but the level of e-government<br />

usage by British citizens is only about half that of Denmark. Surprisingly, the usage rates<br />

of e-commerce services in Britain are about double of those of e-government and about<br />

the same as those of Denmark. This raises the question of why in some countries citizens<br />

adopt other technologies of simi<strong>la</strong>r nature (i.e. e-commerce) but not e-government. However,<br />

although there is a rich literature in e-government adoption, too little or no research has<br />

been <strong>de</strong>voted in exp<strong>la</strong>ining e-government adoption patterns in the EU. This paper presents<br />

the levels of e-government take up in the EU as well as the factors which contribute in successful<br />

adoption by the citizens.<br />

2. tHe ‘digitally reluctant’ euroPeans<br />

An obvious answer to the question “why citizens do not use e-government” could be<br />

that “because the offe<strong>red</strong> services are not of high standards”. Yet, this applies to e-commerce<br />

technologies and is not necessarily of equal importance in e-government. Democratic principles<br />

and institutional factors have also been i<strong>de</strong>ntified in the literature as having a role and<br />

there is a call for empirical investigation of the interaction between technology and institutions.<br />

E-government policies are intrinsically embed<strong>de</strong>d in organizational and political<br />

reform policies and they are <strong>de</strong>signed to enact and support a fundamental transformation in<br />

public administration (Cor<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> & Iannacci, 2010). This does not imply that system quality<br />

and <strong>de</strong>sign issues do not matter, but rather that some general political factors have also an<br />

impact on e-government. Thus, a question could be “why in a country, such the United<br />

Kingdom, with e-government spending more the 1% of the GDP e-commerce usage is<br />

about double than this of e-government?”. Are e-commerce services so superior? And if yes,<br />

then it is the case only in the UK? A comparison of e-government usage rates with those of<br />

e-commerce may shed light on this question.<br />

To achieve such goal, two com<strong>para</strong>tive analyses and one longitudinal are performed:<br />

comparing e-government to e-commerce across the EU, then comparing the growth rates<br />

diachronically and finally examining the cross-national variation. This may give us some<br />

insights on the possible factors that may account for the observed variation across the EU.<br />

Figure 1 shows a com<strong>para</strong>tive view of the levels of e-government and e-commerce usage in<br />

the EU in 2010.


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

Figure 1. E-government and e-commerce usage in the EU-27<br />

in the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion 16-74 (2010)<br />

Source: Eurostat 2011<br />

465<br />

At a first g<strong>la</strong>nce it is evi<strong>de</strong>nt that the upper (left) part of the graph is dominated by the<br />

Nordic countries along with Estonia, Luxembourg, Nether<strong>la</strong>nds and Slovenia. The middle<br />

part consists of mainly West European countries (Germany, UK, France, Spain, Austria),<br />

while the right (lower) part is popu<strong>la</strong>ted by East European and Mediterranean countries.<br />

Also, it unveils three very important ‘outliers’: UK, Germany and France. These three<br />

countries (along with Malta and Ire<strong>la</strong>nd) are the only ones where e-commerce has higher<br />

adoption rates than e-government. In any other EU country the image is inverted, with egovernment<br />

being higher. Another interesting characteristic of the three outliers is that they<br />

exhibit higher over time variation with fluctuating usage rates.<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to gain broa<strong>de</strong>r un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the processes of e-government adoption<br />

an over-time analysis is also performed. The longitudinal analysis of the usage levels of<br />

e-government and e-commerce usage levels in Europe (Figure 2) shows that the two technologies<br />

follow different trajectories with e-government exhibiting shifting adoption rates.<br />

In more <strong>de</strong>tail, e-government usage when measu<strong>red</strong> as a percentage of Internet use exhibits<br />

a downward ten<strong>de</strong>ncy over the years. More specifically, e-government exhibits a <strong>de</strong>cline of<br />

–4.3 percentage points in the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion of internet users in a six-year period, while<br />

e-commerce rises by +5.8 perc. points over the same period (2005-2010).


466 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Figure 2. e-government and e-commerce usage growth in the EU-27 (2005-2010)<br />

Source: Eurostat 2011<br />

The above summary of the adoption rates shows that e-government usage (among Internet<br />

users) in the EU-27 has a downward ten<strong>de</strong>ncy with e-government usage rates being<br />

lower in 2010 than in 2005. In more <strong>de</strong>tail, e-government users in 2010 are only a 49.2% of<br />

the total of Internet users, while in 2005 was 53.5%. The most significant drop was observed<br />

in 2008, where in Germany the usage levels of e-government dropped by 23% (from 43% in<br />

2007 to 33% in 2008) and the United Kingdom where a drop of 16% was observed (from<br />

38% in 2007 to 32% in 2008).<br />

What figure 2 <strong>de</strong>monstrates is that – among Internet users - e-commerce has an almost<br />

linear growth diachronically, while e-government usage rates exhibit greater fluctuation. To<br />

exp<strong>la</strong>in the observed <strong>de</strong>cline, it is unlikely that the quality of the services <strong>de</strong>clines or that<br />

there are fewer services offe<strong>red</strong> over time. Instead, a factor (or more) that may also fluctuate<br />

over time may account for the observed variation.<br />

3. tHe answers to tHe researcH Problem: wHat tHe literature<br />

suggests<br />

Regardless of the method, the theoretical approach and the data used, most studies<br />

tend to converge (in some aspects) in their answers to the problem. Most of them tend to<br />

agree that Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEoU) have a role on<br />

e-government adoption. However, Horst et al. (2007) examined empirically a number of


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

467<br />

approaches and found that in the Nether<strong>la</strong>nds the PU and the PEoU have no significant<br />

impact on the intention to adopt e-government. Thus, the empirical investigation of the<br />

usability issue produces mixed and sometimes even contradictory results. At the same time,<br />

other research approaches focus on the significance of citizens’ perceptions and beliefs about<br />

e-government (Titah & Barki, 2006; Codagnone & osimo 2009; Riedl 2004; Hung et al.,<br />

2006; Horst et al., 2005), while others connect e-government acceptance with the citizens’<br />

views of the government (Reddick, 2005; West D. (2004).<br />

The Trust literature is the most often cited response to the research problem where a<br />

number of studies confirm that trust on the agent providing the service have a role in technology<br />

adoption. Nonetheless, this is not always the case as –<strong>de</strong>pending on the approach–<br />

trust on the agent is not always a good p<strong>red</strong>ictor. Therefore, the empirical studies conducted<br />

in this research area tend not to confirm any of the theoretical p<strong>red</strong>ictions <strong>de</strong>scribed above.<br />

Instead, they seem to produce quite often contradictory results <strong>de</strong>pending on the method<br />

and the data they use. Subsequently, a <strong>la</strong>ck of generalizability of the results is frequently<br />

mentioned as one of the limitations of these studies (Fu et al. 2006; Horst et al., 2005).<br />

This paper adopts the view that com<strong>para</strong>tive, longitudinal analysis and the use of aggregate<br />

level data can shed light on the acceptance factors as it captures the general trends<br />

diachronically. The importance of the time perspective has been also i<strong>de</strong>ntified by Moon and<br />

Norris (2005) who suggest that longitudinal studies of more than two years could provi<strong>de</strong><br />

c<strong>la</strong>rity in the results (Moon & Norris, 2005). The European Union is an i<strong>de</strong>al area for com<strong>para</strong>tive<br />

analysis as there is a <strong>de</strong>gree of convergence in e-government policies resulting from<br />

the eEurope Action P<strong>la</strong>ns.<br />

4. trust literature<br />

The <strong>la</strong>st few years there is a growing body of literature which is concerned with the<br />

examination of the re<strong>la</strong>tionship between citizens’ adoption and trust and confi<strong>de</strong>nce in government.<br />

In examining this re<strong>la</strong>tionship, trust is sometimes treated as the exp<strong>la</strong>natory or<br />

the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable. Thus, due to the theoretical vagueness of this research area, trust<br />

is treated in both ways: either assuming that e-government builds trust in the government<br />

(because of better quality services, more efficient use of public resources etc.) or that trust<br />

is a prerequisite for e-government adoption (Tolbert & Mossberger, 2006; Norris, 2001; ).<br />

Nevertheless, this research supports the view that trust can only be treated as a <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

variable if the main theoretical argument is based on a micro-performance approach (better<br />

performance of public administration may lead in increasing confi<strong>de</strong>nce in government).<br />

However, no sound theoretical base for such argument has been employed, although it<br />

seems that there is some corre<strong>la</strong>tion between the two variables (Tolbert & Mossberger, 2006;<br />

Heeks & Bailur, 2007; Akkaya et al. 2010). In practice, the great majority of studies, including<br />

the present, consi<strong>de</strong>r trust as the exp<strong>la</strong>natory variable.<br />

Two authors that have extensively examined the role of trust in e-government and<br />

e-commerce acceptance are Be<strong>la</strong>nger and Carter. In their most recent study (2008), they


468 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

acknowledge the fact that trust is an essential element of a re<strong>la</strong>tionship where uncertainty,<br />

or risk, is present and they stress the importance of it in e-government transactions. They<br />

point out that researchers are just beginning to empirically explore the role of trust in egovernment<br />

adoption and they stress the need for empirical investigation of its basic assumptions.<br />

They state that studies that inclu<strong>de</strong> trust on broa<strong>de</strong>r adoption mo<strong>de</strong>ls, such as<br />

the Technology Acceptance Mo<strong>de</strong>l or the Diffusion of Innovation Theory, do not provi<strong>de</strong><br />

satisfactory results and more research is nee<strong>de</strong>d. They also call for research that will focus<br />

exclusively on the role of trust as too few, if any, of the existing focus solely on that (Be<strong>la</strong>nger<br />

& Carter, 2008).<br />

Be<strong>la</strong>nger and Carter adopt a <strong>de</strong>finition of trust drawn from social learning theory:<br />

“trust is an expectancy that the promise of an individual or group can be relied upon” (Rotter,<br />

1971). They i<strong>de</strong>ntify two major components of trust in e-government which are: trust of<br />

the Internet (ToI) and trust of the government (ToG). These two elements represent trust<br />

in the entity providing the service (party trust) and trust in the mechanism through which<br />

is provi<strong>de</strong>d (control trust) (Pavlou, 2003; Carter & Be<strong>la</strong>nger, 2005). They <strong>de</strong>fine ToG as<br />

“one’s perceptions regarding the integrity and ability of the agency providing the service” (Be<strong>la</strong>nger<br />

& Carter, 2008:3). The authors present a well-constructed mo<strong>de</strong>l of trust and they empirically<br />

test their mo<strong>de</strong>l. They conclu<strong>de</strong> that the perceptions of citizens about the c<strong>red</strong>ibility of<br />

e-government services affect their acceptance. They do not exp<strong>la</strong>in however how the citizens’<br />

perceptions about the c<strong>red</strong>ibility of e-government are formed.<br />

The paper adopts a neo-institutional approach and <strong>de</strong>fines trust not as trust in specific<br />

public services or organisations but as a form of institutional trust. Therefore, unlike the<br />

approach <strong>de</strong>veloped by Carter & Be<strong>la</strong>nger, this paper supports the view that trust is of<br />

general nature and citizens are collectively affected by various factors in their perceptions<br />

about the c<strong>red</strong>ibility of their government and/or public administration. Trust in one single<br />

public agent is rare; it either exists as trust in the government as a whole or it is, more or<br />

less, absent (Christensen & Laegreid, 2003; Hudson, 2006). Moreover, it seems that there<br />

is inter-corre<strong>la</strong>tion of trust, not only in different government institutions within the same<br />

country, but also between EU countries (Hendriks, 2009).<br />

5. tHeoretical lenses: a neo-institutional aPProacH<br />

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest on how technology can transform<br />

government or how technology may influence political regimes. on the other hand,<br />

there is the view that technology in the public sector is only the means to an end and not<br />

a driving force for change. However, the view of technology as an objective, external force,<br />

overlooks the role of human actors and implies that technology will inevitably improve the<br />

way a government operates (Heeks & Bailur, 2007; Homburg, 2008). At the same time,<br />

there is a <strong>la</strong>rge volume of recent studies emphasising the social characteristics of technology<br />

and how social structures shape technology through strategic choice and social action<br />

(orlikowski, 1992; King et al., 1994). Quite often, e-government literature seems divi<strong>de</strong>d


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

469<br />

between technological <strong>de</strong>terminism and social constructivism (Feenberg, 1992). Between<br />

the two extremes, however, there are many approaches which manage to reconcile these two<br />

different views of technology. This paper adopts the view that technology and institutional<br />

and political structures are not in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt and their interaction affects the technology<br />

adoption patterns. Therefore, in this study a neo-institutional perspective is adopted. Although<br />

there are no complete theories in e-government, Fountain’s Technology Enactment<br />

Framework and orlikowsky’s Structurational Mo<strong>de</strong>l of Technology can contribute much in<br />

our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of e-government adoption in specific institutional environments. Besi<strong>de</strong>s,<br />

from the proposed theoretical approaches in e-government literature, neo-institutionalism<br />

has been i<strong>de</strong>ntified as the most relevant and <strong>de</strong>scriptive (Heeks & Bailur, 2007; Yildiz, 2007;<br />

Norris, 2003; Yang, 2003).<br />

Both theoretical approaches put emphasis in the dual nature of technology while they<br />

stress the se<strong>para</strong>tion of embed<strong>de</strong>d and objective technology (Homburg, 2008; Fulk et al.,<br />

1987). Technology is physical and objective in the sense that is <strong>de</strong>signed to meet engineering<br />

requirements and to reflect assumptions on how technology should be applied in the everyday<br />

business of public administration. Synchronously, technology is social in the sense that<br />

has embed<strong>de</strong>d rules and structures which reflect norms of the institutional and social environment<br />

in which its use is nested (Bekkers & Homburg 2005; Williams & Edge, 1996).<br />

Thus, technology is not objective – although it has objective characteristics – and it can be<br />

viewed differently from different actors.<br />

orlikowsky (2000) in the Structurational Mo<strong>de</strong>l of Technology i<strong>de</strong>ntifies two stages<br />

in technology <strong>de</strong>velopment and adoption: the first is where politicians, <strong>de</strong>signers, civil servants<br />

etc. <strong>de</strong>sign and <strong>de</strong>velop technology according to their knowledge, interests and norms,<br />

while the second is where users enact technology if it is in accordance with their perceptions<br />

and interests. Technology has some objective characteristics (functionality, response times,<br />

capacity etc.) but each of these groups of actors perceive technology in subjective ways. If<br />

these actors repeatedly use technology in the way technology has been <strong>de</strong>signed to be used,<br />

then this technology is ‘routinised’ and becomes part of the everyday way of interacting. If<br />

this process <strong>la</strong>sts for long, then technology starts affecting social structures because it gradually<br />

becomes part of the structure and thus it is difficult not to comply with this technologymediated<br />

way of interacting; it is institutionalised. In this <strong>la</strong>st stage, if successful, a ‘soft’ type<br />

of technological <strong>de</strong>terminism may emerge; technology then ‘embodies’ structures which (re)<br />

present various social rules and political interests and starts affecting the social structure in<br />

which its use is embed<strong>de</strong>d (orlikowski, 2000; orlikowski & Barley 2001; King et al., 1994).<br />

However, things are not so evi<strong>de</strong>nt because of the flexibility of the perceptions about<br />

technology. The same system can be un<strong>de</strong>rstood and used by different actors in vastly different<br />

ways. This is the way of the ‘users’ to affect technology and to agree or disagree with<br />

the interests, purposes and institutional context which is embodied in technology. After<br />

a trial period, technology will be adopted, re-<strong>de</strong>signed, abandoned or rep<strong>la</strong>ced following<br />

a technology life-cycle. Depending on the level of acceptance, technology will gradually<br />

be legitimised and institutionalised. However, two e-government systems may have exactly<br />

the same functionality – for example, they may be <strong>de</strong>signed to facilitate an electronic tax


470 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>ration – but there is a plethora of ways to <strong>de</strong>sign such system (even if the final output<br />

is exactly the same). The <strong>de</strong>sign of an e-government system may take a number of different<br />

forms, not only because engineers have different views, but also because the legis<strong>la</strong>tion and<br />

norms which are embed<strong>de</strong>d in them differ substantially. When individuals use the system,<br />

then, they unconsciously and repeatedly enact a set of rules and norms that are embed<strong>de</strong>d in<br />

this specific system. From this point of view, the role of users is crucial as “structures are not<br />

located in organizations or in technology, but are enacted by users” (orlikowsky, 2000:423). 3<br />

shows how technology is adopted and institutionalised according to orlikowsky:<br />

Figure 3. The Structurational Mo<strong>de</strong>l of Technology<br />

But what are the <strong>de</strong>termining factors behind e-government acceptance? Fountain<br />

(2001) gives us some theoretical insights when she states that individuals are inclined to<br />

enact new technology: “to reproduce existing rules, routines, norms, and power re<strong>la</strong>tions if institutional<br />

rules are clear and no salient alternative uses are visible in the environment” (Fountain,<br />

2001: 89). Therefore, in addition to the ‘traditional’ technology adoption factors (i.e. usability<br />

issues, infrastructure), Fountain exp<strong>la</strong>ins that in e-government institutional variables<br />

have also a role and she focuses at the norms and rules which are embed<strong>de</strong>d in technology.<br />

This implies that when individuals do not trust the specific institutional context in which<br />

technology is embed<strong>de</strong>d then they do not ‘enact’ technology by not using it. They avoid<br />

in this way the institutionalization of technology, and thus the subsequent acceptance of<br />

the rules and control mechanisms which are embodied in it. This process, although not<br />

conscious most times, offers some un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of why trust in government may have a<br />

<strong>de</strong>cisive role in e-government adoption.<br />

Castells (1996), on the other hand, in his seminal work, argues that the impact of<br />

e-government stretches far beyond the limited scope of public administration and public<br />

policy as technological <strong>de</strong>velopments lead in new forms of political interaction (Homburg,


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

471<br />

2008; Castells, 1996). This technology-mediated form of social and political interaction is<br />

consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to be a main force behind the changes in the social fabric that take p<strong>la</strong>ce in the<br />

information age. These changes alter an existing ba<strong>la</strong>nce of power and move the ‘centre of<br />

gravity’ to the means and the dissemination of information (Castells, 1996). The European<br />

Union has set general policy gui<strong>de</strong>lines to address the issues which arise from the evolution<br />

of the information society. The goal is to address the challenges of <strong>de</strong>veloping sufficient<br />

ICT infrastructure, services and skills while stimu<strong>la</strong>ting the economy and preventing digital<br />

exclusion of citizens (Janssen& Rotthier, 2005). However, in some countries it is observed<br />

a <strong>para</strong>doxical phenomenon where intense focus on government service <strong>de</strong>livery wi<strong>de</strong>ns the<br />

gap between citizens and public administration (Fountain, 2001; Homburg, 2008). Fountain<br />

(2001) argues that this happens because governments are involved in complex political<br />

processes and cannot be seen by the citizens only as agents offering services. Defining the<br />

governments as production companies and treating citizens as consumers ignore the inherent<br />

political character of the public sector and eventually leads to greater scepticism by the<br />

citizens (Fountain, 2001). According to Fountain, by overlooking the notions of good governance<br />

and citizenship and focusing only on service <strong>de</strong>livery may lead in growing distrust.<br />

6. tHe outliers: britain, germany and estonia<br />

The overall picture of the EU, as it was presented in section 2, shows that, in general,<br />

e-government has higher usage rates than e-commerce (till the <strong>la</strong>st measurement of 2010).<br />

However, there are a few countries where the image is inverted with e-commerce being higher:<br />

UK, Germany and France (and in a lower <strong>de</strong>gree, Ire<strong>la</strong>nd and Malta). This fact creates<br />

the <strong>para</strong>dox of having three of the countries which are often <strong>de</strong>scribed as ‘e-Government<br />

lea<strong>de</strong>rs’ as outliers (Lee et al., 2005; Strejcek & Theil 2003). What is the factor that leads<br />

three technologically advanced countries, with innovative and consistent e-government strategies<br />

to be ranked as outliers?<br />

Margetts & Dunleavy (2002) exp<strong>la</strong>in that “Citizens’ existing re<strong>la</strong>tionship with government<br />

organisations will obviously affect their approach to e-government services offe<strong>red</strong> by that<br />

organisation. If they have a low expectancy of a government organisation then they will not look<br />

for that organisation on the Internet and they will continue to use traditional methods to <strong>de</strong>al<br />

with it. […] If citizens do not trust government organisations in general, they are less likely to<br />

want to transfer information to government electronically” (Margetts & Dunleavy, (2002).<br />

The authors recognise the role of trust in government organisations in e-government<br />

adoption and they i<strong>de</strong>ntify that in Germany, UK and France the low levels of trust in government<br />

have an impact in e-government acceptance by the citizens (Margetts & Dunleavy,<br />

2002:10):<br />

“In the UK trust in national government is low in comparison with other institutions: In<br />

1999, 41 per cent of respon<strong>de</strong>nts said that they trusted the national government […] This level of<br />

trust (com<strong>para</strong>ble to levels in France and Germany but 25 per cent lower than the Nether<strong>la</strong>nds)<br />

is going to shape the extent to which citizens trust an ‘e-government’.”


472 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

A simi<strong>la</strong>r exp<strong>la</strong>nation is provi<strong>de</strong>d by Akkaya et al. (2010) who argue that “citizens’ <strong>de</strong>cision<br />

to use online services is influenced by their trust in technology and the agent involved. Low levels<br />

of citizen trust towards e-government services in Germany create concerns in the government.”<br />

(Akkaya et al., 2010). Thus, it seems that the three ‘outliers’ could be possibly exp<strong>la</strong>ined by<br />

the low levels of trust in the national government.<br />

on the other extreme of the ranking, however, it is found Estonia with e-government<br />

adoption levels that almost triple this of e-commerce (see figure 9). A quick look at the standard<br />

Eurobarometer of 2010 unveils that Estonia has an impressive 55% of citizens trusting<br />

the national government (the second highest in the whole EU after Luxemburg), while in<br />

the UK only a 28% of citizens tend to trust the national government (one of the lowest in<br />

the EU). A simi<strong>la</strong>r level of trust in the national government appears in Germany (32%) and<br />

an even lower in France (22%). Therefore, there is evi<strong>de</strong>nce that the low levels of trust in the<br />

national government lead in low e-government adoption. The next chapter tests empirically<br />

this hypothesis.<br />

7. factors affecting e-goVernment adoPtion and tHe ‘trust’<br />

HyPotHesis<br />

The com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis of section 2 showed that: first, that e-government and ecommerce<br />

adoption levels are not influenced by the same factors since they follow different<br />

trajectories diachronically and, second, that EU member states exhibit substantially different<br />

adoption patterns. Thus, there are two main types of variation: one over-time and one<br />

cross-national. In or<strong>de</strong>r to further examine the factors which lead in the observed variation,<br />

a more analytical approach is adopted in this section. At this stage, some factors which may<br />

potentially affect technology adoption are tested. The focus is on the examination of the impact<br />

of Trust of the Government (ToG) in e-government adoption by citizens. Additionally,<br />

they are tested the impact of Internet connectivity, e-government service avai<strong>la</strong>bility and<br />

Trust of the Internet (ToI). The impact of these factors (with the only exception of service<br />

avai<strong>la</strong>bility) is tested both for e-government and e-commerce in or<strong>de</strong>r to preserve the same<br />

base of comparison.<br />

7.1. methodology<br />

All data used in this analysis are survey data collected by Eurostat and Eurobarometer<br />

surveys conducted yearly in about one thousand people per country. Thus, the data collection<br />

is based on samples that are used to p<strong>red</strong>ict the values in the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion of each<br />

EU member state. Therefore they are measu<strong>red</strong> as estimated percentages. This type of mo<strong>de</strong>ls<br />

are called Estimated Depen<strong>de</strong>nt Variable (EDV) mo<strong>de</strong>ls. It is a category of statistical mo<strong>de</strong>ls<br />

which inclu<strong>de</strong> all mo<strong>de</strong>ls where the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable is an estimated mean, a proportion<br />

or a regression coefficient (Lewis & Linzer, 2005). The most common methodological problem<br />

with EDV mo<strong>de</strong>ls is heteroscedasticity due to the variation in the sampling variance of<br />

the observations of the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable (Madda<strong>la</strong>, 1983). For this reason, the statistical


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

473<br />

analysis is performed using normalized data so as to ensure that the data distribution follows<br />

(or at least resembles) the normal distribution. For reasons of simplicity the original<br />

Eurostat data are transformed using a log10 transformation. This method has been chosen<br />

because in linear tests the use of proportional or percentage data (values between 0 and 1) is<br />

problematic since the distributions of these values are not strictly Gaussian (especially when<br />

the proportions are near 0 or 1). The log10 transformation is a common data transformation<br />

for this type of data which normalizes the data distribution and thus it allows a <strong>para</strong>metric<br />

test like linear regression to be used (osborne, 2002).<br />

7.2. data, variables and measurement<br />

The main comparison conducted in this paper is this between e-government and ecommerce<br />

usage levels in Europe. The utilisation of two <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variables which have<br />

most exp<strong>la</strong>natory factors in common –apart from the level of service avai<strong>la</strong>bility– offers a<br />

sound base for benchmarking and comparison. The way, however, the usage levels of these<br />

two technologies are measu<strong>red</strong> is different due to the differences in the nature of the offe<strong>red</strong><br />

services:<br />

• e-government usage: Percentage of individuals aged 16 to 74 using the Internet for<br />

interaction with public authorities in the <strong>la</strong>st 3 months before the survey.<br />

• e-commerce usage: Individuals who or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> goods or services, over the Internet, for<br />

private use, in the <strong>la</strong>st 3 months before the survey.<br />

The exp<strong>la</strong>natory variables used to p<strong>red</strong>ict e-government adoption cover both technical<br />

and non-technical factors (Connectivity, Service avai<strong>la</strong>bility, Trust of the Government, Trust<br />

of the Internet). The purpose is to cover the main exp<strong>la</strong>natory variables p<strong>red</strong>icted by the<br />

theoretical mo<strong>de</strong>l while controlling for general technology adoption factors. For reasons<br />

of ‘economy’ in the research mo<strong>de</strong>l, as the data-set is re<strong>la</strong>tively small (N=27 over a six year<br />

period give a total of 162 observations), and in or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve simplicity more inclusive<br />

variables have been chosen that cover a variety of factors. For example the variable Internet<br />

Connectivity measures digital infrastructure, Internet access, frequency, age group etc. The<br />

main exp<strong>la</strong>natory variable is Trust of the Government, the rest p<strong>red</strong>ictors are used as control<br />

variables.<br />

Table 1. List of variables<br />

Variable indicator <strong>de</strong>scription<br />

e-government<br />

adoption<br />

(Depen<strong>de</strong>nt)<br />

e-Commerce<br />

adoption<br />

(Depen<strong>de</strong>nt)<br />

e-government<br />

Usage<br />

e-Commerce<br />

Usage<br />

Percentage of individuals aged 16-74 using the Internet for<br />

interaction with public authorities<br />

Individuals who or<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> goods or services, over the Internet,<br />

for private use


474 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Variable indicator <strong>de</strong>scription<br />

Trust of the<br />

Government<br />

(Exp<strong>la</strong>natory)<br />

Connectivity<br />

(Exp<strong>la</strong>natory)<br />

Service supply<br />

(Exp<strong>la</strong>natory)<br />

Percentage of<br />

citizens who<br />

‘tend to trust the<br />

government’<br />

Internet Use<br />

Service<br />

avai<strong>la</strong>bility<br />

7.3. The role of trust in e-government adoption<br />

General p<strong>red</strong>isposition to trust the Government. Three<br />

possible answers: Tend to trust, tend not to trust, DK<br />

% of people who use the Internet at least once a week. All<br />

individuals aged 16 to 74 who access the Internet, within the<br />

<strong>la</strong>st 3 months before the survey. Use inclu<strong>de</strong>s all locations and<br />

methods of access<br />

Percentage of online avai<strong>la</strong>bility of 20 basic public services<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to analyse the effect of trust in e-government adoption linear regression techniques<br />

are applied. The mo<strong>de</strong>l takes into account the combined effect of all p<strong>red</strong>ictors on<br />

e-government adoption. For this purpose a multiple regression mo<strong>de</strong>l is fitted to the data.<br />

The mo<strong>de</strong>l specifies the magnitu<strong>de</strong> of the effect of each individual factor when the effect of<br />

the other p<strong>red</strong>ictors is taken into account. Also, it tests for multicolinearity between the<br />

exp<strong>la</strong>natory variables. The results are shown on table 2.<br />

Table 2. Multiple regression mo<strong>de</strong>l of the effect of<br />

individual factors on e-government adoption<br />

e-gov usage (log10) std. coef. (β) std. error t P>|t| collinearity stat. (Vif)<br />

constant 0.04 -1.66 0.11<br />

tog (log10) 0.18 0.08 2.31 0.03 1.6<br />

internet use (log10) 0.75 0.19 8.55 0.00 2.1<br />

service supply (log10) 0.18 0.19 2.40 0.03 1.5<br />

( R 2 = 0.92, Adjusted R 2 = 0.91)<br />

The mo<strong>de</strong>l shows that he effect of ToG on e-government adoption is statistically significant<br />

(p-value = 0.03 < 5%) and the magnitu<strong>de</strong> of its effect is the same as this of Service<br />

Supply ( = 0.18). This in simple words means that, one per cent increase in the number<br />

of citizens who tend to trust their government would lead in an average increase of 0.18%<br />

in the e-government usage. After estimating these effects, the regression equation takes the<br />

following form:<br />

Equation 1. Regression equation of the mo<strong>de</strong>l p<strong>red</strong>icting the e-government adoption levels<br />

The most important p<strong>red</strong>ictor remains the level of Internet use in the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

but this is something expected as Internet connectivity is a necessary factor. However,


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

475<br />

multicolinearity can be an issue of concern as ToG and Internet Use corre<strong>la</strong>te significantly<br />

(r=0.56, p-value = 0.02). In or<strong>de</strong>r to control for this factor and to enhance the p<strong>red</strong>icting<br />

power of the mo<strong>de</strong>l I control for Internet use while <strong>red</strong>ucing the number of variables used<br />

in the mo<strong>de</strong>l. In or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve this, another variable is created which is the fraction of<br />

e-government usage levels divi<strong>de</strong>d by the level of Internet Use in the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion.<br />

Equation 2. New <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable <strong>de</strong>finition: e-government<br />

usage as a proportion of Internet use<br />

Thus, the new variable is the proportion of Internet users who use e-government services.<br />

By doing so, e-government users are not measu<strong>red</strong> as a percentage of the general popu<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

but as a proportion of the Internet users (controlling this way for Internet use). This is<br />

the new <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable and a new regression mo<strong>de</strong>l is constructed. The variable Internet<br />

use is removed from the new mo<strong>de</strong>l as the information about the Internet use is contained<br />

in the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable. This method <strong>red</strong>uces the number of p<strong>red</strong>ictors, avoiding this way<br />

over-fitting of the data (the re<strong>la</strong>tively small data-set (N=27) offers more reliable results with<br />

fewer p<strong>red</strong>ictors). The tests results are shown on Table 3.<br />

Table 3. overall mo<strong>de</strong>l of the effect of individual factors<br />

on e-government adoption in the EU<br />

e-gov usage (log10) std. coef. (β) std. error t P>|t| collinearity stat. (Vif)<br />

constant -0.07 0.04 -1.57 0.13<br />

tog (log10) 0.57 0.08 4.71 0.00 1.00<br />

service supply (log10) 0.54 0.18 4.48 0.00 1.00<br />

( R 2 = 0.65, Adjusted R 2 = 0.62)<br />

A new regression equation is constructed to p<strong>red</strong>ict the levels of e-government usage<br />

when changes in Internet Use, level of Trust of the Government and service avai<strong>la</strong>bility supply<br />

occur. This equation has the following form:<br />

Equation 3. Final form of the egression equation<br />

p<strong>red</strong>icting the e-government adoption levels<br />

The new equation shows that, one per cent increase in the number of citizens who tend<br />

to trust their government would lead in an (average) increase of 0.57% in e-government usage<br />

by Internet users. The p<strong>red</strong>icting power of the new mo<strong>de</strong>l is quite strong as two variables


476 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

alone (ToG and Service Supply) exp<strong>la</strong>in 62% of the observed cross-national variation in<br />

the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt variable.<br />

8. conclusions<br />

The com<strong>para</strong>tive analysis conducted in this study shows that e-government and e-commerce<br />

follow different trajectories. Therefore, the wi<strong>de</strong>ly held practice to utilise e-commerce<br />

research mo<strong>de</strong>ls to analyse e-government is questioned. In contrast, this study makes an<br />

attempt to exp<strong>la</strong>in what produces the different growth rates of the two technologies by<br />

stressing the political nature of e-government. The view held in this study – and this is the<br />

main argument – is that e-government fluctuates because it is affected by more factors than<br />

is e-commerce. These factors are political in nature and that is why they are not exp<strong>la</strong>ined by<br />

the levels of Internet access or the levels of trust of the Internet (ToI) as a communication<br />

channel. To support this argument, this study builds on the trust literature and it extents<br />

one of its basics i<strong>de</strong>as on the role of trust. However, unlike the original mo<strong>de</strong>l that it is employed<br />

for individual level research, the modified mo<strong>de</strong>l used in this paper analyses nationallevel<br />

factors. The main modification is on the <strong>de</strong>finition and operationalisation of the trust<br />

variable. Trust of the Government (ToG) in this study is <strong>de</strong>fined as the institutional trust<br />

in the government as whole (while the original mo<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>veloped by Carter and Be<strong>la</strong>nger<br />

<strong>de</strong>fines trust as ‘trust of the agent offering the service’).<br />

Then, the paper proceeds with the statistical analysis and test of the main research<br />

hypothesis which is that institutional trust has an effect in e-government adoption. The<br />

<strong>de</strong>veloped linear regression mo<strong>de</strong>l shows that there is a statistically significant re<strong>la</strong>tionship<br />

between trust and e-government adoption. This re<strong>la</strong>tionship does seem weaker when different<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>ls are tested, although the magnitu<strong>de</strong> of its effect <strong>de</strong>pends on the number of the<br />

variables which are inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the mo<strong>de</strong>l. When the overall mo<strong>de</strong>l is tested, trust of the<br />

government has a significant effect on e-government usage. This offers strong evi<strong>de</strong>nce that<br />

the research hypothesis is correct.<br />

overall, this paper has challenged the wi<strong>de</strong>ly held practice to utilise e-commerce research<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>ls to analyse e-government. The argument is that e-government is influenced<br />

by institutional and political factors and it reflects a political reality. Therefore, a utilitarian<br />

approach cannot offer <strong>de</strong>finite answers as it overlooks these factors. In<strong>de</strong>ed, the literature<br />

review shows that, not only the existing research produces contradictory research outcomes,<br />

but it has also overlooked the actual adoption levels. Prominent authors in e-government<br />

research have long warned that the utilisation of individual-level research is inconclusive and<br />

it overlooks the political nature of e-government. They exp<strong>la</strong>in that neo-institutionalism is<br />

better in exp<strong>la</strong>ining the interactions between citizens and governments over the internet and<br />

they stress the role of institutional trust in e-government adoption. However, due to a <strong>la</strong>ck<br />

of well-<strong>de</strong>veloped theories that will lead in the formation of testable hypotheses, there is a<br />

pluralism of approaches in e-Government that they are often ungroun<strong>de</strong>d. This study makes


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

477<br />

a first attempt to test empirically the neo-institutional c<strong>la</strong>im that institutional factors have a<br />

role in e-government diffusion and adoption.<br />

The main i<strong>de</strong>a is that, when citizens tend to trust their government, they also trust the<br />

offe<strong>red</strong> e-government technology and the rules and norms which are embodied in it. This<br />

view is supported by the findings and thus it offers some un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of why e-government<br />

adoption exhibits the observed variation across the EU. The views of the citizens on<br />

the performance and c<strong>red</strong>ibility of their government are not static and instead they exhibit<br />

some fluctuation. Thus, trust is a factor that it may exp<strong>la</strong>in this fluctuation and the empirical<br />

analysis shows that this assumption is probably correct.<br />

While examining the role of trust in e-government adoption, some other factors have<br />

also been analysed in or<strong>de</strong>r to offer a complete view of the factors leading in successful adoption.<br />

In this framework, the impact of citizens’ trust of the Internet (ToI), the avai<strong>la</strong>bility of<br />

online services and levels of Internet use are inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the research mo<strong>de</strong>l. The analysis of<br />

these factors shows that the level of Internet use is a good p<strong>red</strong>ictor, while service avai<strong>la</strong>bility<br />

may also be a good p<strong>red</strong>ictor (although some methodological issues need to be resolved in<br />

the operationalisation of this variable).<br />

9. bibliograPHy<br />

Akkaya C. Wolf P. & Krcmar H. (2010), ‘The Role of Trust in e-Government Adoption: A<br />

Literature Review’, Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems,<br />

paper 297<br />

Bekkers M. & Homburg V. (2005), The Information Ecology of e-government, Amsterdam:<br />

IoS press<br />

Carter & Be<strong>la</strong>nger, 2008, ‘Trust and risk in e-government adoption’, The Journal of Strategic<br />

Information Systems, vol. 17(2), pp. 165-176<br />

Carter L. & Be<strong>la</strong>nger F. (2005) ‘The utilisation of e-government services: citizen trust, innovation<br />

and accepance’, Information Systems Journal, vol. 15, pp. 5-25<br />

Castells M. (1996), The rise of the network society, Mal<strong>de</strong>n, MA: B<strong>la</strong>ckwell<br />

Christensen T. and Laegreid P. (2003), ‘Trust in Government: The Significance of Attitu<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Towards Democracy, Public Sector and Public Sector Reforms’, Working Paper 7,<br />

Stein Rokkan Center for Social Studies and Bergen University, p. 25 Research Foundation,<br />

April, p. 1-30. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/rokkan/N/N07-03.pdf<br />

(<strong>la</strong>st accessed May 17, 2010)<br />

Codagnone C. & osimo D. (2009), ‘e-government current challenges and future scenarios’,<br />

in Nixon P., Koutrakou V. & Rawal R. (eds) Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding e-government in Europe,<br />

Routledge, New York<br />

Cor<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> A. & Iannacci F. (2010), ‘Information systems in the public sector: The e-Government<br />

enactment framework’, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, vol. (19), pp.<br />

52-66


478 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Feenberg A. (1992), ‘Subversive rationalization: Technology, power, and <strong>de</strong>mocracy’, Inquiry,<br />

Vol. 35(3&4), pp. 301-322<br />

Fu R. Farm K. & Chao P. (2006), ‘Acceptance of electronic tax filling: a study of taxpayer<br />

intentions, Information and Management’, vol. 43, pp.109-126<br />

Fulk J., Steinfield W., Schmitz J. (1987), ‘A social information processing mo<strong>de</strong>l of media<br />

use in organizations’, Communication Research, vol.14, pp. 529-552<br />

Heeks R. & Bailur S. (2007), ‘Analyzing e-government research: Perspectives, philosophies,<br />

theories, methods, and practice’, Government Information Quarterly, Vol. 24, pp. 243-<br />

265<br />

Hendriks F. (2009), ‘Contextualizing the Dutch drop in political trust: connecting un<strong>de</strong>rlying<br />

factors’, International Review of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 75(3), pp. 473-492.<br />

Hereafter: Hendriks, 2009<br />

Homburg V. (2008), Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding e-government: Information systems in public administration,<br />

Routledge, New York<br />

Horst M., Kuttschreuter M., & Guttelin J. (2007), ‘Perceived usefulness, personal<br />

experiences, risk perception and trust as <strong>de</strong>terminants of adoption of e-government<br />

services in The Nether<strong>la</strong>nds’, Computers in Human Behavior, vol.23, pp. 1838–185<br />

Hudson, (2006), ‘Institutional Trust and Subjective Well-Being across the EU’, KYKLOS,<br />

vol. 59(1), pp. 43–62<br />

Hung S., Chang C. & Yu T. (2006), ‘Determinants of user acceptance of the e-Government<br />

services: The case of on-line tax filling and payment system’, Government Information<br />

Quarterly, Vol. 23, pp.97-122<br />

Janssen D. & Rotthier S. (2005), ‘Trends and consolidations in e-government implementation’.<br />

In Bekkers V. & Homburg V. (eds), The Information ecology of e-government:<br />

e-government as Institutional and Technological Innovation, Amsterdam: IoS Press<br />

King J., Gurbaxani V, Kraemer K, McFar<strong>la</strong>n F, Raman K, Yap C. (1994) ‘Institutional<br />

Factors in Information Technology Innovation’, Information Systems Research, vol. 5(2),<br />

pp. 139-16<br />

Lee S., Tan X. & Trimi S. (2005), ‘Current practices of leading e-government countries’,<br />

Communications of the ACM - The digital society, vol. 48(10), pp. 99 – 104<br />

Lewis J. & Linzer A. (2005), ‘Estimating Regression Mo<strong>de</strong>ls in Which the Depen<strong>de</strong>nt Variable<br />

Is Based on Estimates’, Political Analysis, vol. 13, pp. 345-364<br />

Madda<strong>la</strong> S. (1983) Limited Depen<strong>de</strong>nt and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics, Cambridge:<br />

Cambridge University Press<br />

Margetts, H. & Dunleavy, P. (2002) Cultural Barriers to e-Government, National Audit<br />

office, House of Common, London: UK, p.10<br />

Markus L. (1983), ‘Power, Politics and MIS implementation’, Communications of the ACM,<br />

vol. 26, pp. 430-444


Institutional trust and e-government Adoption in the eU: a Cross-National Analysis<br />

479<br />

Moon J. & Norris D. (2005), ‘Does managerial orientation matters? The adoption of reinventing<br />

government and e-government at the municipal level’, Information Systems<br />

Journal, vol. 15, pp. 43-60<br />

Norris P. (2001), Digital Divi<strong>de</strong>: Citizen Engagement, Information Poverty and the Internet<br />

Worldwi<strong>de</strong>, Cambridge University Press: New York<br />

Norris, D. (2003), ‘Building the virtual state … or not: A critical appraisal’, Social Science<br />

Computer Review, vol. 21(4), pp. 417−424. Hereafter: Norris, 2003<br />

orlikowski W. & Barley R. (2001), ‘Technology and institutions: What can research on<br />

information technology and research on organizations learn from each other?’ MIS<br />

Quarterly, Vol. 25(2), pp. 145-165<br />

orlikowski W. (2000). ‘Using Technology and Constituting Structures: A Practice Lens for<br />

Studying Technology in organizations’, Organization Science, Vol. 11(4), pp. 404-428<br />

osborne, J. (2002), ‘Notes on the use of data transformations’, Practical Assessment, Research<br />

& Evaluation, vol. 8(6)<br />

Reddick C. (2005), ‘Citizen interaction with e-government: from the streets to servers?’,<br />

Government Information Quarterly, vol. 22, pp. 38-57<br />

Riedl R. (2004), ‘Rethinking trust and confi<strong>de</strong>nce in European e-government: Linking the<br />

public sector with post-mo<strong>de</strong>rn society’ in W. Lamersdorf, V. Tschammer, and S. Amarger<br />

(eds.), Building the E-Service Society: E-Commerce, E-Business, and E-government.<br />

Norvell, MA: Kluwer, pp. 89-108<br />

Rotter B. (1971), ‘Generalized expectations for interpersonal trust’, American Psychologist,<br />

vol. 26 (5), pp. 443–452<br />

Strejcek G. & Theil M. (2003), ‘Technology push, legis<strong>la</strong>tion pull? E-government in the<br />

European Union’, Decision Support Systems, vol. 34( 3), pp. 305-313<br />

Titah R. & Barki H. (2006), ‘E-government adoption and acceptance: A literature review’,<br />

International Journal of Electronic Government Research, vol. 2(3), pp. 23-57<br />

Tolbert & Mossberger, 2006;<br />

Tolbert J. & Mossberger K. (2006), ‘The effect of e-government on trust and confi<strong>de</strong>nce<br />

in government’, Public Administration Review, vol. 66, pp.354-369; Hereafter: Tolbert<br />

& Mossberger, 2006<br />

West D. (2004), ‘E-government and the Transformation of Service Delivery and Citizen<br />

Attitu<strong>de</strong>s’, Public Administration Review, Vol. 64, pp. 15-27<br />

Williams R. & Edge D. (1996), ‘The Social Shaping of Technology’, Research Policy, vol.25,<br />

pp. 865-899


27<br />

AN INtrODUCtOry HIstOrICAl CONtextUAlIzAtION<br />

Of ONlINe CreAtION COmmUNItIes fOr tHe<br />

BUIlDINg Of DIgItAl COmmONs: tHe emergeNCe<br />

Of A free CUltUre mOVemeNt<br />

Mayo Fuster Morell<br />

Postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Govern and Public Policies (Autonomous University of Barcelona)<br />

and visiting scho<strong>la</strong>r at the Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (Open University of Catalonia)<br />

AbstrAct: online Creation Communities (oCCs) are a set of individuals that communicate, interact<br />

and col<strong>la</strong>borate; in several forms and <strong>de</strong>grees of participation which are eco-systemically integrated;<br />

mainly via a p<strong>la</strong>tform of participation on the Internet, on which they <strong>de</strong>pend; and aiming at knowledgemaking<br />

and sharing. The paper will first provi<strong>de</strong> an historical contextualization oCCs. Then, it will<br />

show how the <strong>de</strong>velopment of oCCs is fuelled by and contributes to, the rise of a free culture movement<br />

<strong>de</strong>fending and advocating the creation of digital commons, and provi<strong>de</strong> an empirically groun<strong>de</strong>d<br />

<strong>de</strong>finition of free culture movement. The empirical analyses is based content analysis of 80 interviews to<br />

free culture practitioners, promoters and activists with an international background or rooted in Europe,<br />

USA and Latino-America and the content analysis of two seminar discussions. The data collection was<br />

<strong>de</strong>veloped from 2008 to 2010.<br />

Keywords: online creation communities; Free culture movement; Digital commons; Web 2.0;<br />

online col<strong>la</strong>boration.<br />

1. introduction<br />

online Creation Communities (oCCs) are a set of individuals that communicate, interact<br />

and col<strong>la</strong>borate; in several forms and <strong>de</strong>grees of participation which are eco-systemically integrated;<br />

mainly via a p<strong>la</strong>tform of participation on the Internet, on which they <strong>de</strong>pend; and aiming<br />

at knowledge-making and sharing (Fuster Morell, 2010). oCCs based on certain governance<br />

conditions result on the building of a digital commons. Digital commons are <strong>de</strong>fined as an<br />

information and knowledge resources that are collectively created and owned or sha<strong>red</strong> between<br />

or among a community and that tend to be non-exclusivedible, that is, be (generally freely) avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

to third parties. Thus, they are oriented to favor use and reuse, rather than to exchange as a<br />

commodity. Additionally, the community of people building them can intervene in the governing<br />

of their interaction processes and of their sha<strong>red</strong> resources (Fuster Morell, 2010).<br />

oCCs early <strong>de</strong>velopment and cultural roots could be found back in 1950s; continue<br />

through the appearance and success of the first oCCs around Free and open source software<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment in the 1990s, to the <strong>la</strong>ter <strong>de</strong>velopments in the first <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> of the 21 st<br />

century, particu<strong>la</strong>rly with the explosion of commercial Web 2.0, and the new frontiers of<br />

potentiality that are evolving. The paper politically contextualize the oCCs. It will show


482 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

how the <strong>de</strong>velopment of oCCs is fuelled by and contributes to, the rise of a free culture<br />

movement <strong>de</strong>fending and advocating the creation of digital commons. To then provi<strong>de</strong> an<br />

empirically groun<strong>de</strong>d <strong>de</strong>finition of free culture movement.<br />

The empirical analyses is based content analysis of 80 interviews to free culture practitioners,<br />

promoters and activists with an international background or rooted in Europe,<br />

USA and Latino-America and the content analysis of two seminar discussions 1 . The data<br />

collection was <strong>de</strong>veloped from 2008 to 2010.<br />

2. from tHe 1950s: cultural roots of occs: Pioneer online<br />

communities<br />

A first cultural origin of oCCs is the hacker culture. The hacking culture emerged in<br />

the 1950s around the Artificial Intelligence Lab of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology<br />

(MIT). The hacking culture was based first on a sense of exploration and creative enjoyment<br />

with technology, and afterwards on the optimization of technology. The hacker ethic<br />

is characterized by a passion to create and share knowledge and to consi<strong>de</strong>r collective creation<br />

as a humorous and enjoyable action (Himanen, 2001). A hacker is <strong>de</strong>fined as a person interested<br />

in experimenting with technology and its social uses, who acts to distribute knowledge<br />

in an effective, free and creative way; and for whom the Internet is not only a medium, but<br />

also a political space (Raymond, 2000, 2001).<br />

In this first period of software coding, most of the software circu<strong>la</strong>ted freely between<br />

the <strong>de</strong>veloper-hackers (Castells, 2002). However, in the 1970s a proprietary sense of the<br />

software started to grow, meaning restrictions on the use of software and the incorporation<br />

of a commercial sense. Richard Stallman, a programmer from the Artificial Intelligence Lab<br />

of the MIT, c<strong>la</strong>imed the risk of the privatization of software to be an attack on the freedom<br />

of expression. In the famous words of Stallman: “Free as in free speech, not necessarily free as<br />

in free beer” 2 . In or<strong>de</strong>r to preserve the free character of the software, Stallman foun<strong>de</strong>d the<br />

GNU project in 1984 to <strong>de</strong>velop an operating system that was to be completely free. Stallman<br />

also foun<strong>de</strong>d, in Boston in 1985, the Free Software Foundation, and with legal assistance<br />

established the General Public License and the Lesser General Public License, which<br />

allowed for the legal protection of free software (Stal<strong>de</strong>r, 2010).<br />

Another cultural reference of the oCCs is the counter-culture movement of the 1960s.<br />

In the book “From counterculture to cyberculture” Turner presents in <strong>de</strong>tail the roots of cyberculture<br />

in the American counterculture of the 1960s (2006). one of the first social sectors<br />

to see meaning in the new technologies of information and communication was the North-<br />

1 Networked Politics seminar on Networked Politics, Berlin, June 2006 and Networked Politics seminar<br />

on commons, Berkeley, 7th December, 2009.<br />

2 Free software <strong>de</strong>finition by the Free software foundation. Retrieved May 28, 2010 from http://www.<br />

gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html (May 28, 2010).


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

483<br />

American counterculture. The WELL (Whole Earth ’Lectronic Link) was a pioneering online<br />

community established in 1985. Its participants were mainly composed of members of<br />

the “back to the <strong>la</strong>nd” movement based on the Californian coast.<br />

A third point of reference for oCCs are previous experiences of participatory knowledge-making.<br />

The oCCs are characterized by their participative approach to knowledgemaking.<br />

However, the oCCs do not represent the first attempt to <strong>de</strong>velop a participatory<br />

and collective approach to knowledge-building. Some examples of previous experiences of<br />

collective and col<strong>la</strong>borative methodologies for knowledge-building are: Italian <strong>la</strong>bour coresearch;<br />

women’s groups of self-awareness and feminist epistemology; French institutional<br />

analysis; the Latino-American action-participation methodologies and communitarian research<br />

in general (Malo, 2004). The aca<strong>de</strong>mic communities were initially also constituted<br />

by highly col<strong>la</strong>borative environments and communitarian dynamics. oCCs take special<br />

advantage of new technologies of information and communication (NTI) to <strong>de</strong>velop i<strong>de</strong>as<br />

already present in these previous experiences.<br />

3. from tHe 1990s: tHe aPPearance of tHe first online creation<br />

communities: free and oPen source software Projects<br />

The first oCCs to appear were <strong>de</strong>velopment communities based around software programming.<br />

By the early 1990s, the Internet had become a medium for col<strong>la</strong>boration among<br />

programmers. Linus Torvalds from Helsinki suggested, in 1991, the further <strong>de</strong>velopment of<br />

the Linux kernel (a key component) to a newsgroup on the Internet. This led to the rise of<br />

one of the first and <strong>la</strong>rgest oCCs on col<strong>la</strong>borative software <strong>de</strong>velopment. The work involved<br />

Linux joining the previous work of GNU, which led to the first completely free operating<br />

system built by a <strong>de</strong>velopment community (Stal<strong>de</strong>r, 2010).<br />

Since the 1990s <strong>de</strong>velopment communities have proliferated. Free software became<br />

very popu<strong>la</strong>r and most of the software infrastructure that powers the internet is FLoSS<br />

(Weber, 2004). In 2007 Wheeler, drawing on an extensive survey of the rate of FLoSS<br />

adoption across various sectors, conclu<strong>de</strong>d that in many cases FLoSS is more used than<br />

proprietary competitiors’ productus according to various measures (Wheeler, 2007) 3 . From<br />

the <strong>la</strong>te 1990s onwards, some alternative terms for free software came into common usage,<br />

including open source software (FoSS), software libre, free, libre and open source software<br />

(FLoSS). The distinction between free software and open software is not so much a question<br />

of the software itself, but of two different i<strong>de</strong>ological approaches. Whereas free software<br />

emphasizes the liberty free software gives users, open source instead emphasizes productive<br />

efficiency and business mo<strong>de</strong>ls based on open col<strong>la</strong>boration (Stallman, 1996).<br />

3 For example, several of the Internet’s most basic technologies, such as the domain name system, have since<br />

its beginnings used FLoSS. other components such as mail and web servers also run p<strong>red</strong>ominantly on<br />

FLoSS (Wheeler, 2007). According to web analytics firm Netcraft, in August 2010, 56% of webservers<br />

run on Apache based and free software. Retrieved August 15, 2010 from htt://www.netcraft.com.


484 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

4. 2001: from free software to free culture: tHe exPansion of<br />

occs to otHer immaterial content<br />

At the beginning of the millennium, the spread of the Internet and personal computers<br />

lowe<strong>red</strong> barriers, the expansion of education, particu<strong>la</strong>rly in the global North, and knowledge-based<br />

markets saw <strong>la</strong>rger sections of the popu<strong>la</strong>tion able to communicate and col<strong>la</strong>borate<br />

in online settings and holding the skills for engaging in activities of cultural creativity.<br />

Additionally, starting in the 1980s and 1990s a group of USA aca<strong>de</strong>mics –mostly <strong>la</strong>w<br />

scho<strong>la</strong>rs– began to worry about the expansion of Intellectual Property in the neoliberal frame<br />

and initiated action in or<strong>de</strong>r to protect creativity and the public domain 4 . These aca<strong>de</strong>mics<br />

helped <strong>de</strong>velop the i<strong>de</strong>a of the intellectual commons and invented Creative Commons<br />

licenses with the aid of Lawrence Lessig (2004). Creative Commons Licenses enable sharing<br />

and <strong>de</strong>velop <strong>de</strong>rivative work from previous materials and were adopted to support online<br />

col<strong>la</strong>boration (Creative Commons, 2009).<br />

In this context, oCCs based on content other than software began to grow. New “free<br />

culture” expressions emerged with the aim of col<strong>la</strong>boratively creating cultural content and<br />

generating universal access to knowledge. The most important example of this is Wikipedia.<br />

It is an online encyclopedia foun<strong>de</strong>d in 2001 which has grown enormously since then.<br />

The strategy to build an autonomous infrastructure of communication and coordination<br />

within the GJM for the global confluence of the movement after the events of Seattle<br />

against the World Tra<strong>de</strong> organization in 1999 represents another important step in the<br />

formation of oCCs around social memory processes (Mi<strong>la</strong>n, 2009). The structure of communication<br />

of the Global Justice Movement (GJM) was extremely innovative at the time,<br />

and Indymedia (an alternative media website) became a reference point for open publishing<br />

and content generated by users (Haas, 2007). The distinctive emphasis on the participatory<br />

methods characteristic of the GJM, in contrast to the more centralized or hierarchical methods<br />

of the past, has also been applied to the role and nature of knowledge generated by<br />

the GJM (Fuster Morell, 2004; Santos, 2007; Wainwright, 2005). Furthermore, with the<br />

growing importance of NTI in society, access to NTI and its consequences, <strong>de</strong>fined as communication<br />

rights, is becoming an area of continuous struggle, and was incorporated into the<br />

GJM’s agenda (Mi<strong>la</strong>n & Hintz, 2004).<br />

In 1999, influenced by the impact of Indymedia, journalism produced “by the people”<br />

began to flourish, enabled in part by emerging Internet and networking technologies, such<br />

as weblogs, chat rooms, message boards, wikis and mobile computing. Furthermore, hund<strong>red</strong>s<br />

of virtual news communities have been created and spread using Free Culture i<strong>de</strong>als,<br />

generating a critical media ecosystem, experimenting with different regimes in terms of<br />

intellectual property rights and conceptions, ready to mobilize and diffuse the a<strong>la</strong>rm when a<br />

new impediment to free circu<strong>la</strong>tion appears (Keren, 2006).<br />

4 Among them Pame<strong>la</strong> Samuelson, Jessica Litman, James Boyle, Yochai Benkler, Larry Lessig and<br />

among others.


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

485<br />

Another relevant part of oCCs’ configuration is the first generation to be ‘born digital’.<br />

The first “digital generations” were born in the 1980s and 1990s. In rich countries, most of the<br />

younger generations grow up with access to education at different levels, and with access to<br />

the Internet and use the Internet in their everyday lives. These generations are known as digital<br />

born or digital native generations (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008; Tapscott, 2008). The normalcy of<br />

the online multi-interactive environment for the digital generation has resulted in what Lessig<br />

calls the “Remix Culture”, also known as “read/write” culture (Lessig, 2008). The Remix Culture<br />

of the digital generation is characterized by: easy access to text information and knowledge<br />

and audio-visual materials; easy access and the capacity to use programs and tools to create<br />

and e<strong>la</strong>borate new cultural products; proactive or “prosumer” attitu<strong>de</strong>s, that is a combination<br />

of a consumer attitu<strong>de</strong> and a producer attitu<strong>de</strong>, an i<strong>de</strong>ntity of creators, not of consumers or<br />

spectators; and the habit of public exposure and living in public. Alex Kozak from Stu<strong>de</strong>nts for<br />

Free Culture – Berkeley puts it this way: ‘It is part of the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of my generation to create and<br />

share content on <strong>la</strong>rge social networks, organise events online and share with each other our favourite<br />

music and movies, sometimes legally and sometimes not,’ (Buxton, 2009).<br />

Finally, the history of oCCs also saw an important moment with the European invention<br />

of file-sharing and peer-to-peer architectures of information to facilitate access to cultural<br />

products. File sharing is the practice of making files avai<strong>la</strong>ble for others to use though<br />

the Internet or smaller intranet networks (Bauwens, 2005). A good example is the Swedish<br />

Pirate Bay. To <strong>de</strong>fend the values of file-sharing, a political party, called the Pirate Party, has<br />

also been formed in Swe<strong>de</strong>n, which won representation in the European elections in 2009.<br />

oCCs i<strong>de</strong>als have also arrived in the scientific world with the building of digital commons<br />

with scientific content. Several online mechanisms for scientific col<strong>la</strong>boration emerged, such as<br />

the establishment of poles of empirical data (David, 2004). Furthermore, an important historical<br />

moment for the emergence of oCCs guaranteeing access to scientific knowledge were the struggles<br />

over access to anti-retroviral drugs to treat HIV/AIDS in South Africa during the 1990s.<br />

This impulse led to the wish to rec<strong>la</strong>im the public character of research through open access to<br />

research results. one example of this is the Public Library of Science (PloS). PloS is a non-profit,<br />

open access scientific publishing project fun<strong>de</strong>d in 2001, aimed at creating a library of open<br />

access journals and other scientific literature un<strong>de</strong>r an open content license 5 . Finally, another<br />

preeminent example of mobilizing for access to knowledge is Stu<strong>de</strong>nts For Free Culture. Stu<strong>de</strong>nts<br />

For Free Culture is composed by a network of over 35 chapters in universities. The chapters are<br />

mainly in United States universities but are expanding in other countries.<br />

5. 2006: tHe exPlosion of commercial web 2.0<br />

While previous <strong>de</strong>velopments are key for oCCs following a commons logic, another<br />

approach appears in the new economy based on information access and sharing.<br />

5 Website of the Public Library of Science: http://www.plos.org/


486 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

In the fall of 2001, the technological industry suffe<strong>red</strong> what was called the “dot-com”<br />

crisis, which marked a turning point for the sector. The companies that had survived the dotcom<br />

col<strong>la</strong>pse had some things in common. With the spread of the Internet during the 1990s,<br />

a major shift from storing data online and virtually instead of on individual computers took<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce, known as data cloud. With data cloud more and more commercial provi<strong>de</strong>rs specializing in<br />

services for data storage and exchange online appea<strong>red</strong>. The new economy of information access<br />

and sharing, also known as Web 2.0 or Wikinomics, is an innovative economic trend based on<br />

the commercialization of flows and services of information and knowledge by multinational<br />

communication (o’Reilly, 2005; Tapscott & Williams, 2007) 6 . The most distinctive example<br />

of the New economy is Google. Examples can also be found in YouTube, MySpace or Flickr,<br />

p<strong>la</strong>tforms provi<strong>de</strong>d by Multinational Communication Companies 7 .<br />

The <strong>de</strong>velopment of a new economy based on information access and sharing contributed<br />

substantially to the popu<strong>la</strong>rization of the multi-interactive infrastructure of the web.<br />

However, major accessibility (linked to Internet diffusion) instead of functionality is what<br />

distinguishes the Web 2.0 from the Web 1.0 (Shirky, 2008).<br />

The new economy was inspi<strong>red</strong> by the innovations presented in the previous sections (I.e.<br />

FLoSS, Wikipedia, Indymedia, among others) to <strong>de</strong>fine a new business mo<strong>de</strong>l based on the data<br />

cloud. However, in the light of this research, the corporation as infrastructure provi<strong>de</strong>r also changed<br />

the conditions of use of infrastructure in contrast to previous cases based on commons logic.<br />

In this period, oCCs based on commons logic and GJM position as protagonists in the use<br />

of the technology was taken by the communications companies of the new economy. A media<br />

activist from Mi<strong>la</strong>n characterized this stage with the expression the “market is going beyond us”<br />

(A, Foti, Notes Networked Politics seminar on Networked Politics, Berlin, June 2006).<br />

The expansion of commercial type of infrastructure provi<strong>de</strong>rs online based on a corporate<br />

logic stresses the conflict with oCCs based instead of a commons logic. Previous<br />

empirical research sheds light on and exp<strong>la</strong>ins the difference between a commons logic and<br />

a corporate logic in shaping collective action in the digital era (Fuster Morell, 2010). In the<br />

light of this research, it can be p<strong>red</strong>icted that in coming years, the possibilities for political<br />

mobilization on free culture issues will be likely to increase.<br />

6. a free culture moVement in formation?<br />

The <strong>de</strong>velopment of oCCs is also fuelled by and contributes to the rise of the movement<br />

<strong>de</strong>fending and advocating the creation of digital commons.<br />

6 The term Web 2.0 was originally used to represent a shift in the business mo<strong>de</strong>l, “a new way of doing<br />

business”, after the dot-com crisis (o’Reilly, 2005; Tapscott & Williams, 2007).<br />

7 YouTube, with the slogan “Broadcast yourself”, is a website to archive, share and comment on homema<strong>de</strong><br />

vi<strong>de</strong>os; Myspace is a website for social networking where each person has their own page to<br />

present him or herself and interact with others; and Flickr is a website to archive, share and comment<br />

on photos.


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

Several events, campaigns and international networks led to the formation of a free<br />

culture movement. The International networks such as the commons international network<br />

of supporters of Creative Commons licenses (Dobusch, 2009), the recent Campaign against<br />

the Telecom Pack Reform in the European Union (Breindl, 2010), and the celebration of<br />

the first free culture and access to knowledge forum in 2009 constitute some of the key<br />

moments of confluence. Additionally, the oCCs for the building of digital commons are<br />

instances of participation in this FCM. By producing digital commons, oCCs fulfill the<br />

broad political goals of the FCM. oCCs for the building of digital commons, based on a<br />

commons logic, are arenas in which the communities c<strong>la</strong>sh and contrast with oCCs based<br />

instead on corporate logic, challenging the established proprietary production system of information<br />

and knowledge and a corporate oriented adoption of NTI. However, free culture<br />

activism and buil<strong>de</strong>rs of oCCs are not necessarily the same people. Plus, a common i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />

for both profiles does not yet exist.<br />

Several political aims are present in the FCM discourse: first, to preserve digital commons<br />

and empower oCCs through the avai<strong>la</strong>bility of infrastructure for sharing and <strong>de</strong>centralised<br />

creativity and col<strong>la</strong>boration based on conditions which empower communities<br />

vis-à-vis infrastructure provi<strong>de</strong>rs and guarantee their individual and collective autonomy<br />

and in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce. Second, the FCM aims to make important information avai<strong>la</strong>ble to<br />

the public for discussion and ultimately to increase freedom of expression by guaranteeing<br />

the possibility to intervene and the free circu<strong>la</strong>tion of information in public life. North<br />

American free culture activists frame this goal as inspi<strong>red</strong> by the Free Speech Movement of<br />

the 1960s and aim to have a simi<strong>la</strong>r impact to the Free Speech Movement. In Alex Kozak’s<br />

words: ‘Like the Free Speech movement, we are fighting against the top-down control of speech<br />

and are motivated by beliefs about basic rights. The differences are in our ability to organise<br />

electronically – our Mario Savio [one of the lea<strong>de</strong>rs of the Free Speech Movement] is more likely<br />

to inspire with a blog post than with a speech,’ (A. Kozak, Presentation at Networked Politics<br />

seminar on commons, Berkeley, 7th December, 2009). Third, the FCM aims to improve<br />

social justice and solidarity, particu<strong>la</strong>rly in the global North/South context, by removing<br />

barriers to access to knowledge goods. Fourth, in or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve the previous goals, the<br />

movement seeks to influence policy making and reform copyright, patent, and tra<strong>de</strong>mark<br />

<strong>la</strong>w in the public interest, as well as the reform of the management of scientific knowledge<br />

at Universities.<br />

Interestingly, the term “political remix” illustrates how the above c<strong>la</strong>im is built. According<br />

to this research, political remix can be un<strong>de</strong>rstood as the customization of the political<br />

message according to the “remix” of each individual’s preferences, supported by the use of<br />

“individual media”. This means, on the one hand, not only pushing to see the Free Culture<br />

message in mainstream old media, but activists themselves spreading the free culture though<br />

their own means, contacts and audiences online. on the other hand, an activist does not<br />

“consume” or adopt the political message on free culture as a package, but creates the message<br />

and customizes it. Generally, the message combines the private and personal information of<br />

the person who spreads it with information of public interest.<br />

487


488 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

However, the FCM is not easily characterized with traditional political categories. It<br />

it is better characterized by political ambivalence 8 . The form of collective aggregation of<br />

the FCM could be one of the reasons that exp<strong>la</strong>in this political ambivalence. It tends to be<br />

specific, mission oriented, and pragmatic. The FCM emerged around series of practices and<br />

sha<strong>red</strong> conception of knowledge and its politics. Moreover, and, importantly, participants of<br />

the FCM do not need to agree on aspects that go beyond this specific area. The aggregation<br />

on specific common objectives could be exemplified with the case of Wikipedia. Wikipedia<br />

editors contribute on the base of very diverse motivations (Glott, Schmidt, & Ghosh, 2009)<br />

additionally, through my participant observation; I observed that Wikipedia editors can be<br />

situated across the political spectrum (from right to left). The aggregation around Wikipedia,<br />

however, is mission oriented and based on a pragmatic approach to col<strong>la</strong>boration in the<br />

common task of building of an online encyclopedia accessible to as many people as possible.<br />

There is no expectation that the editors share a common program or common politics which<br />

goes beyond building an encyclopedia.<br />

The same can be said about the FLoSS communities. Here too, the motivations to<br />

contribute are very diverse, but the communities focus on specific goals of solfware <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

with a sha<strong>red</strong> politics of knowledge (Ghosh, Ruediger, Bernhard, & Robles, 2002;<br />

Weber, 2004). FLoSS can be seen as a rich political expression from the feminist theory<br />

approaches to the political, with however, a political agnosticism. Colleman stresses the firm<br />

<strong>de</strong>nial by FLoSS <strong>de</strong>velopers of having any <strong>de</strong>liberate political agenda, in a conventional<br />

conception of politics. Though as Colleman argues, this political agnosticism has its own<br />

complexity. As Coleman puts it:“while (among FOSS <strong>de</strong>velopers) it is perfectly acceptable and<br />

encouraged to have a panel on free software at an anti-globalization conference, FOSS <strong>de</strong>velopers<br />

would suggest that it is unacceptable to c<strong>la</strong>im that FOSS has as one of its goals anti-globalization,<br />

or for that matter any political program –a subtle but vital difference” (Colleman, 2004, p. 1).<br />

Colleman and Hill (2004) points to FLoSS`s political agnosticism and its resistance to<br />

<strong>de</strong>fining FLoSS in traditional political terms as one of the factors which would favor the<br />

“traveling” of the FLoSS and its adoption in diverse terrains. In the words of Colleman and<br />

Hill: Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) has been adopted as a political tool by leftist activists.<br />

At the same time, it has been embraced by <strong>la</strong>rge corporations to extend profits and has been<br />

criticized as an integral force in <strong>la</strong>te capitalism. It has been adopted by members of the growing<br />

Commons movement as a mo<strong>de</strong>l for limiting the power of capitalism (2004, p. 1). This political<br />

agnosticism could be read as an instrumental approach, a way to create more force around<br />

the adoption of FLoSS; however, it cannot be exp<strong>la</strong>ined simply in terms of instrumentalism.<br />

FCM aggregation is built around specific missions with a strong ten<strong>de</strong>ncy towards<br />

performative politics (that is, around “building” practices), and in the <strong>la</strong>nd of politics of<br />

knowledge, not involving other dimensions such as those linked to political i<strong>de</strong>ology in<br />

a c<strong>la</strong>ssic sense. As a result, there is around the FCM, a <strong>la</strong>rge political spectrum of partici-<br />

8 Benkler suggests that the FCM open an opportunity to approach the left and libertarian agenda (Y.<br />

Benkler, personal communication, June 29, 2010).


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

489<br />

pants, and the aggregation is based on their communality around the conditions of access to<br />

knowledge and the possibility to share and col<strong>la</strong>borate around information and knowledge<br />

creation. Around these issues of access to knowledge and the digital rights linked to sharing<br />

and col<strong>la</strong>boration, the FCM <strong>de</strong>velops political actions, such as the Pirate Party which aims<br />

to give a political representation to the the interests of the FCM, or lobbying and political<br />

campaigns in the most traditional sense. In this regard, the FCM represents an emerging<br />

source of conflict and a c<strong>la</strong>sh in society around several conceptions of knowledge. The FCM<br />

grew over a new source of aggregation in society which is able of put together and create<br />

col<strong>la</strong>boration between very diverse forces, and of actors which are part of the whole political<br />

spectrum. However, the FCM does not aggregate around conflicts or areas which go beyond<br />

the politics of knowledge (which could un<strong>de</strong>rmine the possibility of col<strong>la</strong>boration around<br />

the sha<strong>red</strong> terrain).<br />

It is worth highlighting that more recently, linked to changes in the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of Intellectual<br />

Property and the lobbying pressure of the cultural industry, a more conventional<br />

political dimension of the FCM is gaining in importance. However, the ten<strong>de</strong>ncy towards<br />

<strong>de</strong>fining specific common goals and targets bringing together a plurality of actors, also<br />

applies to the more politically conventional expressions of the FCM, such as protest actions,<br />

campaigns, lobbing activities or/ and search of political representation. For example, the<br />

agenda of the Pirate Party with political representation at the European Parliament is limited<br />

to issues linked to knowledge policy and its voters are part of the diverse political spectrum 9 .<br />

Finally, the political support that the FCM gains in institutions tends to be different in<br />

the North than in the South. While in the North, particu<strong>la</strong>rly in Europe, the traditional left<br />

has been reluctant to adopt and support the FCM agenda (perhaps because FCM challenges<br />

traditional left visions of culture and knowledge, and its forms of collective aggregation); in<br />

the South, where the consequences of the current conditions to access to knowledge (such<br />

as in terms of access to medicines, education materials, etc) can be seen to be more dramatic,<br />

lefties parties, such as the Workers party in Brazil, has adopted the FCM agenda as one of<br />

its priorities.<br />

7. <strong>de</strong>fining tHe moVement dimension of free culture<br />

According to Tilly social movements are <strong>de</strong>fined as “a series of challenges to established<br />

authorities, especially national authorities, in the name of an unrepresented constituency”<br />

(Tilly 1983, p. 466). The FCM fits Tilly <strong>de</strong>finition of a social movement insofar as it aims<br />

to challenge authorities in a traditional sense in or<strong>de</strong>r to reform the Intellectual Proprietary<br />

regime and c<strong>la</strong>im the support of public institutions for free culture expression, in particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

by protecting and preserving digital commons. However, a national authority is not its main<br />

target, it focuses instead on the European Union and the World Intellectual Property or-<br />

9 Sources: Amelia An<strong>de</strong>rsdotter (Member European Parliament for the Swedish Pirate Party) and programe<br />

Pirate Party 2009. Retrieved from http://www.piratpartiet.se/


490 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

ganization (WIPo), a sub-organization of the United Nations. For example, the campaign<br />

against the approval of software patents in the European Parliament in 2006 was one of the<br />

major victories of the FCM (Breindl, 2010). The same can be said with regard to the achievement<br />

of the 2007 lobbying campaign at the WIPo in or<strong>de</strong>r to introduce a <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

agenda, which un<strong>de</strong>rlined the need for access to intellectual property to meet <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />

goals, regarding, for example access to medicines (Stal<strong>de</strong>r, 2010). other authors have pointed<br />

out the transnational evolution of social mobilizations, (<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> Porta & Tarrow 2005;<br />

Keck & Sikkink, 1998; Rucht, 1999), as is the case for the GJM (<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> Porta, 2009).<br />

Additionally, focusing on state-re<strong>la</strong>ted outcomes has kept scho<strong>la</strong>rs from <strong>de</strong>veloping a<br />

comprehensive un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of how social movements effect change in socio-economic<br />

and cultural contexts (Amenta & Caren, 2004; Earl, 2000; Melucci, 1996). Social movement<br />

scho<strong>la</strong>rs have traditionally viewed movement outcomes narrowly, as the ability of a<br />

movement to achieve political or policy goals (Amenta & Caren, 2004; Gamson, 1992).<br />

Melucci states how a social movement “entails a breach of the limits of compatibility of the<br />

system within which the action itself takes p<strong>la</strong>ce” (1996, pp. 29-30).<br />

The FCM adopted the goal of putting participative knowledge-making into practice.<br />

However, in or<strong>de</strong>r to make it possible, it engaged in <strong>de</strong>veloping legal innovations, protest<br />

and lobbying political institutions (Frickel & Gross, 2005; Moore, 1996). Those involved<br />

in the Free culture movement are not only interested in policy outcomes, but also contest<br />

cultural values and beliefs (Earl, 2000), leading to the construction of oCCs as alternative<br />

systems of production (Carroll & Swaminathan, 2000; Rao, 1998; Schneiberg, 2002). Very<br />

significant examples in this regard are the Free and open source projects, which transformed<br />

the production of software in the NTI industry. Recent research shows that movements engaged<br />

in production as a mo<strong>de</strong> of opposition have ma<strong>de</strong> significant creative and economic<br />

contributions to society (Dah<strong>la</strong>n<strong>de</strong>r & Magnusson, 2005; Shah, 2005; von Hippel, 2005).<br />

Furthermore, a focus on protest risks an incomplete un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of how cycles of contestation<br />

evolve. Contestation is not likely to remain constant, mobilization may characterize<br />

early stages but then transform.<br />

As is typical of New Social Movements, the movement struggles for broad cultural<br />

change as opposed to material c<strong>la</strong>ims. – fitting into the current shift towards the postmaterial<br />

(Appadurai, 1996). Touraine stressed that “the social control of the main cultural<br />

patterns, that is, of the patterns through which our re<strong>la</strong>tionships with the environment are<br />

normatively organized” (Touraine, 2008, p. 213) or “great cultural orientations” (Tourraine,<br />

1981) are at stake in social movements. This could have no better expression than in the Free<br />

culture movement, which contests a certain conception of culture and the protocols which<br />

gui<strong>de</strong> the possibility to construct culture in a digital environment.<br />

According to <strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> Porta and Diani, a social movement dynamic is present “when single<br />

episo<strong>de</strong>s of collective action are perceived as components of a longer-<strong>la</strong>sting action, rather than discrete<br />

events; and when those who are engaged in them feel linked by ties of solidarity and of i<strong>de</strong>al<br />

communion with protagonists of other analogous mobilization” (<strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> Porta & Diani, 2006, p. 23).<br />

The FCM can be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> as in a stage of emergence and formation. Additionally, the FCM<br />

is less centralized than traditional social movements, ma<strong>de</strong> up of loosely connected commu-


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

491<br />

nities that in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ntly organize or produce digital goods and which occasionally engage in<br />

common campaigns. Additionally, the FCM can be <strong>de</strong>fined as a “movement of movements”.<br />

It is the result of the confluence and networking of several experiences and diverse trajectories<br />

based on a common set of values and principles, the most important of which are: accessibility<br />

and the flow of information and knowledge; creativity; participative formats; network settings;<br />

and communal ownership. Although still emerging and loose in character, the celebration of<br />

the first international forum on free culture and access to knowledge in october 2009 marks<br />

one of the moments in which an umbrel<strong>la</strong> framing of these various collective actions took<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce. on this occasion, a coalition of 200 organizations from several continents drafted and<br />

signed a common Charter for innovation, creativity and access to knowledge.<br />

Additionally, alongsi<strong>de</strong> the informal exchanges between individuals or organizations engaged<br />

in collective projects, Diani i<strong>de</strong>ntifies other two elements that <strong>de</strong>fine a social movement:<br />

conflictual orientations to clearly i<strong>de</strong>ntified opponents and a sha<strong>red</strong> collective i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />

(Diani, 2003, p. 301). The above mentioned Charter for innovation, creativity and access<br />

to knowledge is an example of how the FCM frames its opponents as political institutions<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>ting against its c<strong>la</strong>ims and multinational corporations (and their lobbies) as adopting<br />

monopolistic and abusive practices against the principles of the net. In line with the cultural<br />

theory approach to the <strong>de</strong>finition of social movements, it also raises a sense of injustice (Ryan<br />

& Gamson, 2006). However, sha<strong>red</strong> collective action seems to be the least (or most loosely)<br />

<strong>de</strong>veloped dimension in the FCM. The FCM is in its very early stages and is still <strong>de</strong>veloping<br />

its collective i<strong>de</strong>ntity. There is no single term to refer to it, and although free culture is the<br />

most common one, other terms used inclu<strong>de</strong> the Free knowledge movement and the Universal<br />

access to knowledge movement, among others. The term which frames the movement, that is<br />

free culture, was originally the title of a 2004 book by <strong>la</strong>w scho<strong>la</strong>r Laurence Lessig. Since then,<br />

it has been wi<strong>de</strong>ly adopted. However, internal confrontations on <strong>de</strong>fining the movement’s<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntity are also present. A survey on the use of free culture term of 256 free culture initiatives<br />

in Brazil conclu<strong>de</strong>d that there is inconsistency between the concept of free culture as held<br />

by practitioners and that used by theorists (referring to Lessig’s <strong>de</strong>finition of free culture and<br />

Stallman’s <strong>de</strong>finition of free software) (Reia, 2009). Additionally, the <strong>de</strong>centralized orientation<br />

of the FCM, as well as oCCs, stresses a challenge that already exists within the GJM, that is<br />

how intense interaction among members should be, and how homogeneous should a way of<br />

thinking be before we may speak of movements or collective i<strong>de</strong>ntities.<br />

The repertoire of action inclu<strong>de</strong>s a range of strategies. From the building of the digital<br />

commons to lobbying for legal and policy changes that affect the free circu<strong>la</strong>tion of information<br />

and the governance of the Internet. The FCM is composed by oCCs’ foundations,<br />

peer-to-peer infrastructures, international networks, specific campaigns, lobbies, alternative<br />

licenses, stu<strong>de</strong>nts and librarian groups, blog rings, meet-ups and local collectives, f<strong>la</strong>sh mobs,<br />

and individuals 10 .<br />

10 The more visible organizations and expressions of the FCM are the Linux operating system, the Free<br />

Software Foundation, Pirate Bay file-sharing architecture, Indymedia an alternative media p<strong>la</strong>tform,


492 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

The recent history of the FCMs goes hand in hand with the cultural conception, evolution<br />

and diffusion of NTI. The FCMs seems to <strong>de</strong>pend on the level of diffusion of NTI<br />

because it is more visible in p<strong>la</strong>ces where accessibility to the Internet is greater. Furthermore,<br />

the Free Culture frame seems to be moul<strong>de</strong>d by the context of political opportunity and overall<br />

socio-political schemata of each p<strong>la</strong>ce. FCM in the USA has closer connections with entrepreneurship<br />

and with universities (E. Stark, Interview, February 1, 2009; B. Moskowitz,<br />

Interview, December 16, 2008; J. Jacob, Interview, December 15, 2008; D. Harris, Interview,<br />

December 7, 2008). Additionally, the San Francisco Bay Area hosts the headquarters<br />

of a significant proportion of prominent organizations supporting the FCM. In Europe, the<br />

FCM has instead <strong>de</strong>veloped more connections with the autonomous sector of the GJM 11 . In<br />

Latin America, the FCM is linked to popu<strong>la</strong>r education and the “culture of the periphery” as<br />

seen from the popu<strong>la</strong>r expression of the “fave<strong>la</strong>s” (P. ortel<strong>la</strong>do, Informal interview, January<br />

28, 2009). Furthermore, a particu<strong>la</strong>r case is Brazil where there is institutional support for<br />

Free Culture from the Lu<strong>la</strong> Government. In this regard, the Brazilian government has adopted<br />

and promoted Free and open Source Software and promotes a Free Culture industry,<br />

among others. In the Brazilian context, a “counter-view” of the official discourse around<br />

“Free Culture” has also emerged, rec<strong>la</strong>iming a vision of Free Culture not seen as a commodity,<br />

and the <strong>de</strong>velopment of mechanisms to restrict State control over the production of culture<br />

and expression. As the Brazilian Epi<strong>de</strong>mia collective wrote in their manifesto; “Free Culture<br />

is not a characteristic of the product alone. (...) Culture is free when those who re<strong>la</strong>te to it are<br />

also free (...). Free Culture is a step towards the construction of a new society” (Epi<strong>de</strong>mia, 2009).<br />

FCM challenges traditional conceptions of social movements. However, simi<strong>la</strong>rities<br />

with other social movements can be pointed out – particu<strong>la</strong>rly concerning its contemporary,<br />

the GJM. Boyle suggests that free cultural activism is a new form of environmentalism (Boyle,<br />

1997). However, other authors c<strong>la</strong>im that a comparison with music-based subcultures<br />

is more appropriate than any simi<strong>la</strong>rities with traditional conceptions of social movements<br />

(Dafermos, 2009; Dafermos & So<strong>de</strong>rberg, 2009; Gel<strong>de</strong>r, 2007).<br />

In conclusion, the Free culture movement (FCM) is <strong>de</strong>fined as a network of individuals<br />

and organizations, linked by more or less <strong>de</strong>nse networks, solidarity ties and moments<br />

of confluence, sharing a loose collective i<strong>de</strong>ntity and a common set of values and principles<br />

(most importantly accessibility and the flow of information and knowledge, creativity, participative<br />

formats, network settings and communal ownership), whose acting together aims to<br />

challenge forms of knowledge-making and accessibility by engaging in the construction of<br />

Wikipedia an online free encyclopedia, Creative Commons Licenses, the Electronic Frontier Foundation,<br />

the Public Knowledge Foundation, the Public Library of Science archive, and the Stu<strong>de</strong>nts for<br />

Free Culture network, among others.<br />

11 The FCM in Southern Europe <strong>de</strong>veloped connections with networks formed by the alternative media,<br />

the “hackmeetings” process, movements in <strong>de</strong>fense of free circu<strong>la</strong>tion of people and the squatter<br />

movement. For example, Copyfight (http://www.e<strong>la</strong>stico.net/copyfight) and Fadaiat (http://www.<br />

fadaiat.net) have a special interest in connecting the free circu<strong>la</strong>tion of information with the free<br />

circu<strong>la</strong>tion of people.


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

digital commons and mobilizations directed against the media and cultural industries, their<br />

lobbies, and political institutions (at the national, regional and global levels).<br />

8. bibliograPHic references<br />

493<br />

Amenta, E., & CAREN, N. (2004). The legis<strong>la</strong>tive, organization al, and beneficiary consequences<br />

of state-oriented challengers. In SNoW, D. A, SoULE, S. A. & H. KRIESI<br />

(Eds.). The B<strong>la</strong>ckwell Com panion to Social Movements (pp. 461–488). Mal<strong>de</strong>n, MA:<br />

Wiley B<strong>la</strong>ckwell.<br />

and Global Politcs. Solidarity Beyond the State. New York: Syracuse University Press<br />

Appadurai, A. (1996). Mo<strong>de</strong>rnity at Large: cultural dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis:<br />

University of Minnesota Press.<br />

Bauwens, M. (2005). The Political Economy of Peer Production. 1000 Days of Theory. Retrieved<br />

from http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=499<br />

Breindl, Y. (2010). Internet-based protest in European policymaking: The case of digital<br />

activism International Journal of E-Politics (IJEP), 1, 57-72.<br />

Buxton, N. (2009). Piracy and the digital revolution. Red Pepper. Retrieved from http://tni.<br />

org/inthemedia/piracy-and-digital-revolution<br />

Carroll, G. R., & Swaminathan, A. (2000). Why the microbrewery movement? organizational<br />

dynamics of resource partitioning in the US brewing industry. American Journal<br />

of Sociology, 106, 715–762.<br />

Castells, M. (2002, october 4). La dimensió cultural <strong>de</strong> Internet. Sesion 1: Cultura y sociedad<br />

<strong>de</strong>l conocimiento: presente y perspectivas <strong>de</strong> futuro [Culture and knowledge<br />

society: present and perspective for the future]. Institut <strong>de</strong> cultura. Barcelona, Spain.<br />

Colleman, G. (2004). The political agnosticism of free and open source software and the inadvertent<br />

politics of contrast. Anthropology Quarterly. 77, 507-519.<br />

Colleman, G., & HILL, M. (2004). The social production of ethics in Debian and free software<br />

communities. In S. KoCH (Ed.), Free and open source software <strong>de</strong>velopment (pp.<br />

27-58). Hershey, PA: I<strong>de</strong>a Group.<br />

Creative Commons. (2009, September). Defining “noncommercial”: A study of how the online<br />

popu<strong>la</strong>tion un<strong>de</strong>rstands “noncommercial use”. Retrieved from http://mirrors.creativecommons.org/<strong>de</strong>fining-noncommercial/Defining_Noncommercial_fullreport.pdf<br />

Dafermos, G., & Sö<strong>de</strong>rberg, J. (2009, March 22). The hacker movement as a continuation<br />

of <strong>la</strong>bour struggle. Capital and C<strong>la</strong>ss. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.<br />

com/The+hacker+movement+as+a+continuation+of+<strong>la</strong>bour+struggle.-a0194549143<br />

Dafermos, G. (2009). Hackers and social movements. Paper presented at the conference<br />

Shaping Europe in a Globalized World? Protest Movements and the Rise of a Transnational<br />

Civil Society. University of Zurich, Switzer<strong>la</strong>nd June 23-26, 2009.


494 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Dah<strong>la</strong>n<strong>de</strong>r, L., & Magnusson, M. G. (2005). Re<strong>la</strong>tionships between open source software<br />

companies and communities: observa tions from Nordic firms. Research Policy, 34,<br />

481–493.<br />

Darvid, P. A. (2004). Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the emergence of “open science” institutions: Funtionalist<br />

economics in history context. Industrial and Corporate Change, 13, 571–589.<br />

Del<strong>la</strong> Porta, D., & Diani, M. (2006). Social Movements. An Introduction. 2nd edition.<br />

oxford: B<strong>la</strong>ckwell.<br />

Del<strong>la</strong> Porta, D. & Tarrow, S. (Eds.). (2005). Transnational protest and global activism.<br />

New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.<br />

Del<strong>la</strong> Porta, D. (Ed.). (2009). Democracy in social movements. New York, NY: Palgrave.<br />

Diani, M. (2003). Introduction: social movements, contentious actions, and social networks:<br />

‘metaphor to substance?. In DIANI, M. & MCADAM, D. (Eds.), Social movements<br />

and networks. Re<strong>la</strong>tional approaches to collective action (pp. 1-18 ). New York: oxford<br />

University Press.Dobusch, L. (2009). Wikimania preview the importance of clear<br />

boundaries for community-participation. Retrieved from http://governancexbor<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

wordpress.com/2009/05/25/wikimania-preview-1-the-importance-of-clear-boundaries-for-community-participation/<br />

Earl, J. (2000). Methods, movements, and outcomes: Methodological difficulties in the<br />

study of extra movement outcomes. In P. G. CoY (ed.), Research in Social Movements,<br />

Conflicts, and Change (pp. 3–25). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.<br />

Epi<strong>de</strong>mia. (2009). Free culture is not a commodity. (Paper distributed at the World Social<br />

Forum).<br />

Frickel, S., & Gross, N. (2005). A general theory of scientific/intellectual movements.<br />

American Sociological Review, 70, 204–232.<br />

Fuster Morell, M. (2004). InvestigAction and social forums. In o. REYES, H.<br />

WAINWRIGHT, M. FUSTER MoRELL, and M. BERLINGUER (2004). Euromovements<br />

Newsletter: European Social Forum, a <strong>de</strong>bate on the challenges for its future. Retrieved<br />

from http://www.euromovements.info/newsletter/mayo.htm<br />

Fuster Morell, M. (2010). Governance of online creation communities. Provision of infrastructure<br />

for the building of digital commons. Unpublished dissertation. European<br />

University Institute, Florence.<br />

Gamson, W. A. (1992). Talking Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />

Gel<strong>de</strong>r, K. (2007). Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice. Routledge.<br />

Ghosh, R., Ruediger, G., Bernhard, K., & Robles, G. (2002). Free/Libre and open source<br />

software: Survey and study [Report]. Maastricht, The Nether<strong>la</strong>nds: International Institute<br />

of Infonomics. Retrieved from http://www.flossproject.org/report/FLoSS_Final4.<br />

pdf<br />

Glott, R., Schmidt, P., & Ghosh, R. (2009). Wikipedia survey. Working draft. Unu - Merit.


An introductory historical contextualization of online creation communities for the building of digital…<br />

495<br />

Haas, T. (2007). Do citizen-based media of communication advance public journalism’s<br />

i<strong>de</strong>als? Evi<strong>de</strong>nce from the empirical research literature. International Journal of Communication.<br />

New York: Gale Group.<br />

Himanen, P. (2001). The hackers ethics and the and the spirit of information age. New York,<br />

NY: Random House.<br />

Keck, M. & Sikkink, K., (1998). Activists beyond bor<strong>de</strong>rs. Advocacy Networks in International<br />

Policy. London: Cornell University Press.<br />

Keren, M. (2006). Blogosphere: The New Political Arena. Lexington Books<br />

Lessig, L. (2004). Free culture: How big media uses technology and the <strong>la</strong>w to lock down culture<br />

and control creativity. New York, NY: Penguin Press.<br />

Malo, M. (2004). Nociones comunes: Experiencias y ensayos entre investigación y militancia.<br />

[Common notions: Experiences and tests between investigation and militancy]. Posse,<br />

Deriva approdi, Precarias a <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>riva, Grupo 116, Colectivo Sin Ticket, Colectivo<br />

Situaciones. Madrid Ed: Traficantes <strong>de</strong> sueños.<br />

Melucci, A. (1996). Challenging co<strong>de</strong>s. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press<br />

Mi<strong>la</strong>n, S., & Hintz, A. (2004, July). Civil society media and visions for communication governance:<br />

The cases of the world social forum and the World Summit on the Information<br />

Society. International Association for Media and Communication Research Annual<br />

Conference. Porto Alegre, Brazil.<br />

Moore, K. (1996). organizing integrity: American science and the creation of public interest<br />

organizations, 1955–1975. American Journal of Sociology, 101, 1592–1627.<br />

o’reilly, T. (2005, September 20). What is Web2.0? Design patters and business mo<strong>de</strong>ls for<br />

the next generation of software. Retrieved from http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html<br />

Palfrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2008). Born digital: Un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the first generation of digital<br />

natives. New York, NY: Basic Books.<br />

Rao, H. (1998). Caveat emptor: The construction of nonprofit consumer watchdog organizations.<br />

American Journal of an open project. Aca<strong>de</strong>my of Sociology, 103, 912–961.<br />

Raymond, E. S. (2000). The cathedral and the bazaar. Retrieved from http://www.apogeonline.com/openpress/cathedral<br />

Raymond, E.S. (2001). The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source<br />

from an acci<strong>de</strong>ntal revolutionary. Sebastapol, CA: o’Reilly and Associates.<br />

Reia, J. F. (2009). Alternative Licensing and the free culture movement in Sao Paulo. Free<br />

culture research workshop, october 2009. Harvard University. Retrieved from<br />

http://cyber.<strong>la</strong>w.harvard.edu fcrw/sites/fcrw/images/Reia_Free_Culture_2009__<br />

Harvard.pdf<br />

Rucht, D. (1999). The Transnationalisation of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems.<br />

In D. DELLA PoRTA. H. KRIESI, & D. RUCHT (Eds.). Social Movements<br />

in a Globalizing World. (pp. 206-22). Basingstoke: Macmil<strong>la</strong>n.


496 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Ryan, C., & Gamson, W. A. (2009). Are Frames Enough? (from “The Art of Reframing<br />

Political <strong>de</strong>bate”). In GooDWIN, J., & JASPER, J. J. (Eds.). The Social Movement<br />

Rea<strong>de</strong>r. Cases and Concepts. (pp. 167-174). Mal<strong>de</strong>n, MA: Wiley-B<strong>la</strong>ckwell.<br />

Santos, B. <strong>de</strong> S., (Ed.). (2007). Another knowledge is possible. London, UK: Verso.<br />

Schneiberg, M. (2002). organizational heterogeneity and the production of new forms:<br />

Politics, social movements and mutual companies in American fire insurance, 1990–<br />

1930. In M. LoUNSBURY & M. J. VENTRESCA (Eds.). Research in the Sociology of<br />

Organizations, 19, 39–89.<br />

Shah, S. (2005). open beyond software. In DIBoNA, C., CooPER D., & M. SToNE,<br />

M. (Eds.). Open Sources, 2, (pp. 339–360). Sebastapol, CA: o’Reilly.<br />

Shirky, C. (2008). Here comes everybody: The power of organizing without organizations. New<br />

York, NY: Penguin Press.<br />

Stal<strong>de</strong>r, F. (2010). Digital Commons. In: Hart, Keith; Laville, Jean-Louis; Cattani, Antonio<br />

David (eds). The Human Economy: A World Citizen’s Gui<strong>de</strong>. Cambridge, UK, Polity<br />

Press.<br />

Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. (2007). Wikinomics. Portfolio. New York, NY: Penguin.<br />

Tapscott, D. (2008). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. Columbus,<br />

oH: McGraw-Hill.<br />

Tilly, C. (1983). Speaking Your Mind Without Elections, Surveys, and Social Movements.<br />

The Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(4), 461-478 .<br />

Touraine, A. (2008). An Introduction to the study of social movements. In RUGGIERo,<br />

V., & MoNTAGNA, N., (Eds.) Social Movements. A Rea<strong>de</strong>r. (pp. 212-217. ) London<br />

and New York: Routledge.<br />

Touraine, A. (1981). The voice and the eye: An analysis of social movements. Cambridge, UK:<br />

Cambridge University Press.<br />

Turner, F. (2006). From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network,<br />

and the rise of digital utopianism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.<br />

Von Hippel, E. (2005). Democratizing innovation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<br />

Wainwright, H. (2005). Report on the methodology of the WSF and its possible relevance for<br />

the 2006 ESF Transnational Institute: Retrieved from http://tni.org/article/reportmethodology-wsf-and-its-possible-relevance-2006-esf<br />

Weber, S. (2004). The success of open source. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.


28<br />

self-gOVerNeD sOCIO-teCHNICAl INfrAstrUCtUres.<br />

Autonomy and Cooperation through free software<br />

and Community wireless Networks<br />

Daniel Guagnin<br />

Junior researcher at the Technical University Berlin<br />

Car<strong>la</strong> Ilten<br />

Junior researcher at the Technical University Berlin<br />

AbstrAct: open Source Software has become a well-known concept over the past years, representing<br />

a hybrid of the initial Free Software i<strong>de</strong>a and commercial structures. These <strong>de</strong>velopments call for<br />

a reconsi<strong>de</strong>ration of the political dimension of “freedom of co<strong>de</strong>” as stated in the famous quote of R.<br />

Stallman “free as in free speech“. At the same time, the hardware and infrastructures un<strong>de</strong>rlying software<br />

applications are un<strong>de</strong>rgoing transformation and possibly incorporation into economic structures. This<br />

poses a threat to the Internet as a <strong>de</strong>mocratizing infrastructure, as argued by Net Neutrality proponents.<br />

This presentation approaches the issue from two si<strong>de</strong>s: it investigates the i<strong>de</strong>a of “freedom” in software<br />

and how the freedom of software affects real life. It will be argued from a sociological perspective that<br />

the structure of an application, namely the character of being free or closed source can have an impact<br />

on the practice of <strong>de</strong>mocracy. Secondly, a case study on a Community Wireless project is presented as<br />

an example for the use of Free Software in or<strong>de</strong>r to build in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt infrastructures for disadvantaged<br />

communities – one way to preserve Net Neutrality.<br />

Keywords: Free Software, Community Wireless Networks, Net Neutrality, open Source, Crowd<br />

Sourcing, Expert-<strong>la</strong>y distinction, Alternative Niches.<br />

introduction<br />

People need not only to obtain things, they need above all the freedom to make things among<br />

which they can live, to give shape to them according to their own tastes, and to put them to<br />

use in caring for and about others. – Ivan Illich 1 .<br />

Network Neutrality is about the freedom to use a communication infrastructure in<br />

all possible ways without constraints on content, software or hardware elements of this<br />

complex infrastructure. It is about the user’s freedom and creativity within an increasingly<br />

commercialised socio-technical space.<br />

The freedom of software and infrastructure can be un<strong>de</strong>rstood in terms of power structures<br />

as discussed in the sociological literature. Using Gid<strong>de</strong>ns’ un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of expert systems<br />

based on scientific knowledge, it can be shown how the closed structure of proprietary<br />

1 See Illich 2011.


498 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

software makes it impossible to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the rules un<strong>de</strong>rlying the systems. This represents<br />

a re<strong>la</strong>pse into the tradition of pre-mo<strong>de</strong>rn times, where rules were opaque and unquestionable,<br />

com<strong>para</strong>ble to religious dogmas.<br />

We will argue here that specific characteristics of technology necessitate a critique of<br />

the above <strong>de</strong>scribed proprietary structure of software. Latour <strong>de</strong>scribes technology as „society<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> durable“ insofar as practical rules are inscribed into technology, and Lessig argues<br />

from a legal perspective that „Co<strong>de</strong> is Law“. In other words, har<strong>de</strong>ned technology structures<br />

such as closed-source software constitute societal power structures.<br />

open access to knowledge about the workings of expert systems is about transparency<br />

and trust –and about power, the distribution of which is a central characteristic of <strong>de</strong>mocracies.<br />

The case study of Community Wireless Networks which we present illustrates the empowerment<br />

dimension of in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt and noncommercial infrastructures. Fundamental<br />

elements of this empowering characteristic are their modifiability and a blur<strong>red</strong> expert-<strong>la</strong>y<br />

distinction.<br />

1. free software: a constitution for crowd sourcing<br />

1.1. Principles of free software<br />

open Source Software has become a well-known concept of crowd-sourced programming<br />

which is often used synonymously with Free Software. Although there are different<br />

concepts and philosophies behind the terms, the distinction between these is nowadays not<br />

very popu<strong>la</strong>r. Quite the converse, the <strong>de</strong>cision about which term to use has been avoi<strong>de</strong>d as<br />

of <strong>la</strong>te by scho<strong>la</strong>rs through using another term: Free/Libre open Source Software (FLoSS).<br />

This term reintroduces the notion of liberty which is originally inten<strong>de</strong>d in the “free” quality<br />

of Free Software, but the philosophical distinction is mostly neglected in favour of analysing<br />

the organisational phenomenon of crowd-sourced <strong>de</strong>veloping: the different styles of collective<br />

programming which have been famously compa<strong>red</strong> to a “bazaar” versus the building<br />

of a “cathedral” by Eric Raymond (2000). In this paper we want to stress the philosophical<br />

aspect of freedom and follow the Free Software Definition according to the Free Software<br />

Foundation:<br />

“Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To un<strong>de</strong>rstand the concept, you should<br />

think of free as in free speech, not as in free beer” 2 .<br />

The Free Software Definition is as follows:<br />

1. “The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.<br />

2. The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your needs. Access to<br />

the source co<strong>de</strong> is a precondition for this.<br />

3. The freedom to <strong>red</strong>istribute copies so you can help your neighbor.<br />

2 http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html [Last accessed 19.5.2011]


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

499<br />

4. The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements (and modified<br />

versions in general) to the public, so that the whole community benefits. Access to<br />

the source co<strong>de</strong> is a precondition for this.” (Free Software Foundation, 2011a)<br />

While the term open Source is often used to <strong>de</strong>scribe the access to the source co<strong>de</strong>,<br />

the open Source Initiative’s open Source Definition is simi<strong>la</strong>r to the Free Software Definition<br />

in many points. However there is one main difference between the <strong>de</strong>finitions:<br />

The Free Software Foundation stresses the so called copyleft effect of Free Software which is<br />

consciously omitted by the open Source Initiative. The open Source Initiative argues that<br />

commercial <strong>de</strong>velopers should not be exclu<strong>de</strong>d and that the Software should be adaptable<br />

to business mo<strong>de</strong>ls and hybrids:<br />

“6. No Discrimination Against Fields of En<strong>de</strong>avor – […] Rationale: The major intention<br />

of this c<strong>la</strong>use is to prohibit license traps that prevent open source from being used<br />

commercially. We want commercial users to join our community, not feel exclu<strong>de</strong>d<br />

from it.” (open Source Initiative, 2011)<br />

The Free Software Foundation stresses the copyleft principle as a sine qua non argument:<br />

“That’s the basic reason why the GNU General Public License is written the way it is<br />

–as a copyleft. All co<strong>de</strong> ad<strong>de</strong>d to a GPL-cove<strong>red</strong> program must be free software, even<br />

if it is put in a se<strong>para</strong>te file. I make my co<strong>de</strong> avai<strong>la</strong>ble for use in free software, and not<br />

for use in proprietary software, in or<strong>de</strong>r to encourage other people who write software<br />

to make it free as well. I figure that since proprietary software <strong>de</strong>velopers use copyright<br />

to stop us from sharing, we cooperators can use copyright to give other cooperators an<br />

advantage of their own: they can use our co<strong>de</strong>.” (Free Software Foundation, 2011b)<br />

Finally, besi<strong>de</strong>s the transparency and openness of the source co<strong>de</strong> –as we will argue below–<br />

this copyleft is a main feature of Free Software which we consi<strong>de</strong>r part of a constitution<br />

of free cooperation.<br />

But what is meant by openness of the source co<strong>de</strong>? In short, source co<strong>de</strong> is the humanreadable<br />

set of rules behind the software programme. It consists of logical conditions, loops<br />

and instructions. To make this readable for the computer, it has to be trans<strong>la</strong>ted into so-called<br />

binary co<strong>de</strong> consisting of zeros and ones. This binary co<strong>de</strong> is hardly readable for human<br />

beings, and it is extremely difficult to reconstruct the original instructions. In contrast to<br />

closed proprietary software, open Source and Free Software provi<strong>de</strong>s the human-readable<br />

source co<strong>de</strong>, which is not necessary to execute the programme. The rationale behind the<br />

“closing”of co<strong>de</strong> is to prevent an un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of its structure and the reuse or the remake<br />

of parts of the programme.<br />

1.2. why freedom of software affects the freedom of everyday life<br />

obviously, freedom is a very strong term, and surely Free Software will not be able to<br />

provi<strong>de</strong> a general, overall freedom to its users. The term of freedom remains limited to the<br />

socio-technical arrangement user – computer – software. However within this setting, Free<br />

Software provi<strong>de</strong>s an environment which enables users to recognize the structure of its im-


500 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

plementation, to be in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt from software companies, and to choose and change their<br />

virtual environment: it offers autonomy and self-<strong>de</strong>termination to users – this is the freedom<br />

which Free Software can provi<strong>de</strong>.<br />

Free Software is about transparent source co<strong>de</strong> which empowers user control in terms<br />

of monitoring the functions performed by a programme. Beyond that, users have the possibility<br />

to become a part of the <strong>de</strong>velopment process and to spread their improvements, and<br />

thus exert some <strong>de</strong>gree of control through participation.<br />

1.2.1. Society Ma<strong>de</strong> Durable and the Law of Cyberspace<br />

We now introduce two perspectives from sociological theory which provi<strong>de</strong> us with<br />

further insight into the meaning of transparency in technological settings. According to an<br />

essay by Bruno Latour (1991), we can consi<strong>de</strong>r technology – and thus software – as “society<br />

ma<strong>de</strong> durable.” He <strong>de</strong>scribes technologies as enforcements of ‘programmes’, based on the<br />

assumption that ‘programmes’ inscribed in technology are easier to enforce then social conventions<br />

and regu<strong>la</strong>tions. A simple example is a locked door: it is a technological measure<br />

that regu<strong>la</strong>tes that only authorized people are allowed to enter the room behind the door.<br />

In the realm of computers, restrictions can be implemented in various ways by software; for<br />

example proprietary software usually cannot be installed without accepting the End User<br />

License Agreement (EULA). The absence of the “next” button when the “accept” option is<br />

not selected shows the software implementation of the ‘programme’ accept the EULA.<br />

With the growing presence of computers in our every day life, the possibilities to enforce<br />

rules via software are increasing, too. This is what Lawrence Lessig (1999) calls the<br />

“<strong>la</strong>w of cyberspace”. To give another example, Apple restricts iPod users to use iTunes for<br />

merely syncing Music with the personal library rather than allowing to share the music with<br />

friends. This ‘programme’ is implemented with the application marking the music on the<br />

iPod as part of one’s personal music library. Consequently one cannot sync their iPod with<br />

the personal music library of friends –unless the user knows how to bypass these mechanisms<br />

(e.g. by using Free Software like amarok 3 ). While this can be seen as a mechanism to<br />

enforce existing copyright <strong>la</strong>ws, Apple takes it one step further with the iPad: Apple restricts<br />

contents in applications offe<strong>red</strong> in its App store, such as tabloid newspapers which inclu<strong>de</strong><br />

pictures of lightly c<strong>la</strong>d women 4 –and rejected some newspapers entirely from the store. A<br />

journal about Android –the main competitor in mobile applications– was not accepted for<br />

distribution through the App store 5 .<br />

It is evi<strong>de</strong>nt that software can enforce serious restrictions, endangering Net Neutrality<br />

–even when experts may always find ways to avoid some restrictions. But the restrictions do<br />

3 http://amarok.k<strong>de</strong>.org/ [<strong>la</strong>st accessed 20.5.2011]<br />

4 http://www.heise.<strong>de</strong>/mac-and-i/meldung/Boulevardzeitung-will-leichtbeklei<strong>de</strong>te-Maedchen-in-<strong>de</strong>n-<br />

App-Store-k<strong>la</strong>gen-1150054.html [<strong>la</strong>st accessed 20.5.2011]<br />

5 http://mediawatch.dk/artikel/apple-bans-mag-app-android-app-store [<strong>la</strong>st accessed 20.5.2011]


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

501<br />

not necessarily become visible – the trans<strong>la</strong>tion of rules into hard restrictions ren<strong>de</strong>r those<br />

“natural” to the onlooker. (cf. Degele 2002, p. 132f) For iPod users it will seem self-evi<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

that you can only store music of your own library on the iPod, while users of common music<br />

p<strong>la</strong>yers will be surprised that they can only transfer music on a iPod when using iTunes. This<br />

invisibility becomes even more clear when applications such as Google search will not show<br />

some pages because there is a content restriction –users will not even know that they are not<br />

seeing these pages.<br />

one way to make these inscribed rules visible in software is to open up the source co<strong>de</strong>.<br />

It may still be difficult to find the relevant co<strong>de</strong> lines, but it is possible. To be able to see the<br />

functions and restrictions is just a passive type of control, however. Free Software implies that<br />

everyone is allowed to modify the co<strong>de</strong> and to <strong>red</strong>istribute the modified software. This enables<br />

users not only to recognize uninten<strong>de</strong>d functions, but also to change the behaviour of the<br />

software – it enables people to change the rules un<strong>de</strong>rlying their socio-technical environment.<br />

of course there are obstacles: Not everyone is able to read or even modify software<br />

co<strong>de</strong>. However the possibility to take a look, to learn and to inquire exists. This question<br />

engages us in the next section: who is supposed to be an expert?<br />

1.2.2. Expert Systems, Resources and the Power of Laypeople<br />

We will now focus on the question how technology is <strong>de</strong>fined. Who gets to formu<strong>la</strong>te rules,<br />

and why do these rules become stronger in a technological setting: Since technology has<br />

no inherent agency, rules are interpreted following strict (techno)logical patterns. of course,<br />

users of technology have a certain range of interaction with technologies, but through the<br />

socio-technical environment, rules represent materialized framework. The constitution of<br />

rules (<strong>de</strong>velopment) is disembed<strong>de</strong>d from the practical sphere of application –this is a main<br />

characteristic of expert systems. This division of work is a main driver of rationalisation in<br />

the mo<strong>de</strong>rn age: experts build expert systems and negotiate their rules, and <strong>la</strong>ypeople can<br />

reference these rules, that is, use these expert systems without knowing why but just how<br />

they “work”. (cf. Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, 1995, p. 32)<br />

It follows that actors are <strong>de</strong>fined through different levels of knowledge: Experts know<br />

about the rules un<strong>de</strong>rlying the systems while <strong>la</strong>ypeople merely use them (Schulz-Schaeffer,<br />

2000, p. 191) However there are certain access points to knowledge, mostly knowledge about<br />

the “how” of systems. Contact with experts, e.g. a visit at the doctor’s (if we think more generally<br />

of expert systems beyond technological settings), or artefacts like user manuals are instances<br />

of expert-<strong>la</strong>y interfaces. They enable <strong>la</strong>ypeople to access to necessary knowledge in or<strong>de</strong>r to use<br />

the expert systems and provi<strong>de</strong> a flow of knowledge from the experts to <strong>la</strong>ypeople.<br />

Because the users do not know why the systems work, they have to <strong>de</strong>velop trust.<br />

Gid<strong>de</strong>ns compares the necessity of trust in expert systems to the necessity to trust in religious<br />

lea<strong>de</strong>rs in pre-mo<strong>de</strong>rn times. However a characteristic of the mo<strong>de</strong>rn age is that<br />

through the scientific base of expert systems, <strong>la</strong>ypeople principally have the possibility to<br />

learn more about the systems, or eventually become experts. Even if there may be obstacles<br />

in un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the expert <strong>la</strong>nguage, trust in expert systems is based on the traceability of


502 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the un<strong>de</strong>rlying rules. This principle of traceability enhances trust and at the same time limits<br />

the power of the experts. (Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, 1996, p. 127)<br />

If we think of software as expert systems, traceability of a programme is not given when<br />

we look at the binary co<strong>de</strong> – the system remains shadowy like the healing procedure employed<br />

by a shaman. This prevents <strong>la</strong>ypeople from reviewing the mechanisms in p<strong>la</strong>ce. However<br />

both trust in the system and the limitation of expert power are based on the principle of<br />

traceability. Given the openness of Free Software, <strong>la</strong>ypeople have access to the knowledge<br />

about “how” the expert systems work, and can thus become experts of their own. This leads<br />

to a growing community of semi-experts and experts which constitute further access points<br />

to expert knowledge. The blurring of expert-<strong>la</strong>ypeople boundaries becomes visible in online<br />

communities like user forums and wikis, and in local user groups who share their knowledge<br />

and support each other. Since Free Software projects are highly dynamic and innovate on a<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>r basis, an entirely new support culture has <strong>de</strong>veloped around the accompanying bugs<br />

and “teething troubles”.<br />

To revisit the meaning of software, we now consi<strong>de</strong>r the concept of resources. Within<br />

Gid<strong>de</strong>ns’ theory of stucturation, resources represent the second aspect of structure besi<strong>de</strong>s<br />

rules. He distinguishes authoritative resources –the authority over persons through the organisation<br />

of space and time– and allocative resources –the authority over goods and products<br />

(Schulz-Schaeffer, 2000, p. 186) An important feature of resources is the possibility to store<br />

these in or<strong>de</strong>r to increase the power of accessible resources. While the storage of allocative<br />

resources is obvious, the storage of authoritative resources becomes clear if we think of administrative<br />

data like personal files, health records or expanding numbers of electronic databases.<br />

In this regard, computers increase the efficacy of storage and access to authoritative<br />

resources and thus the power associated with these resources.<br />

Consequently, access to these information structures and the potentiality to constitute<br />

the un<strong>de</strong>rlying rules is a matter of power. To prevent that a small elite has the authority over<br />

the formu<strong>la</strong>tion of rules and access to the (allocative and authoritative) resources at the same<br />

time, it is imperative to <strong>de</strong>centralise this power and to make the rules transparent to everyone<br />

(cf. Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, 1992). Citizens’ trust in the systems and the <strong>de</strong>gree of <strong>de</strong>mocratisation of<br />

the virtual world <strong>de</strong>pend on the state of this re<strong>la</strong>tionship.<br />

If software can be un<strong>de</strong>rstood as the <strong>la</strong>w of cyberspace, it is important to open up the<br />

<strong>la</strong>w for transparency and participation. Evi<strong>de</strong>ntly, cyberspace or the virtual world have become<br />

part of daily life. Having been <strong>la</strong>rgely unregu<strong>la</strong>ted in its early times, cyberspace has now<br />

become a p<strong>la</strong>ying field for commercial interests. The inherent danger is a subtle shift towards<br />

opaque structures of oligarchy that eventually affect all realms of life that take p<strong>la</strong>ce in virtual<br />

structures. As pointed out, Free Software is a way to provi<strong>de</strong> the necessary transparency and<br />

participation in the socio-technical environment and to empower users to regain autonomy.<br />

1.3. a constitution for crowd sourcing<br />

The transparency and modifiability of Free Software is relevant for the issue of Net<br />

Neutrality. As initially stated, the main distinctive feature of Free Software is the copyleft


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

503<br />

principle. The GNU Public License (GPL) forces distributors of Free Software to distribute<br />

all co<strong>de</strong> ad<strong>de</strong>d to it as Free Software – even if it is in a se<strong>para</strong>te file.<br />

“Copyleft is a general method for making a program (or other work) free, and requiring<br />

all modified and exten<strong>de</strong>d versions of the program to be free as well.” (Free Software<br />

Foundation, 2011c)<br />

Stallmann argues that copyleft “provi<strong>de</strong>s an incentive for other programmers to add to<br />

free software.” (Free Software Foundation, 2011c) While the i<strong>de</strong>a of open Source is not to<br />

exclu<strong>de</strong> commercial <strong>de</strong>velopers and companies, Stallman exp<strong>la</strong>ins that in his perspective commercial<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopers are not explicitly exclu<strong>de</strong>d but invited to join the community which is<br />

however based on the copyleft principle. He prefers convincing a smaller portion of them to<br />

become a part of the Free Software community rather than dropping the copyleft principle.<br />

The i<strong>de</strong>a behind copyleft is to protect the voluntary work of a whole community which<br />

is materialized in a Free Software Programme. Without protection, it could be used to<br />

serve the commercial interests of a company which adds slight modifications and sells the<br />

product as non-free software. This is essentially free-riding by a for-profit company on the<br />

performance of a crowd. In contrast, copyleft assures that any subsequent modification to a<br />

programme must be licensed as Free Software: the benefit of the community’s work is given<br />

back to it, and both the community and its wealth are growing.<br />

one example is the C++ compiler which is a modification of the GNU C compiler.<br />

MCC, the company that enhanced it to a C++ compiler usually uses proprietary licenses,<br />

but had to apply a free license because of the copyleft principle. The copyleft thus can<br />

be un<strong>de</strong>rstood as an enforceable copyright turned upsi<strong>de</strong> down which ensures that sha<strong>red</strong><br />

knowledge stays within the community. It is “contagious” in that it regu<strong>la</strong>tes all subsequent<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment based on the original work. This can be seen as a constitution of crowd sourcing,<br />

where volunteers can be sure that their work will not be exploited as cheap work force,<br />

but will serve the i<strong>de</strong>al of a community to spread knowledge, cooperation and freedom.<br />

1.4. interlu<strong>de</strong><br />

We have stressed that Free Software is more than a crowd-sourced form of software<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment. It is based on a philosophy of freedom and collective control. Within this<br />

socio-technical arrangement, Free Software provi<strong>de</strong>s transparency of the rules that constitute<br />

it and opens up options to participate in the configuration of the rules. The potential<br />

to modify the socio-technical environment corresponds with autonomy and self-<strong>de</strong>termination.<br />

Consequently, <strong>la</strong>ypeople can become experts and communities of <strong>la</strong>y-expert hybrids<br />

can grow, giving more representation to <strong>la</strong>ypeople. Groups like the Chaos Computer Club<br />

popu<strong>la</strong>rly have taken on the role of an expert panel and advocate of computer users –and<br />

thus the citizen.<br />

In the next section a case study of Community Wireless Networks (CWN) will be<br />

presented to illustrate how Free Software is used in concert with Do-It-Yourself hardware in<br />

or<strong>de</strong>r to build autonomous infrastructures. It will be argued that both Free Software and free<br />

infrastructures are important niches that work towards Net Neutrality.


504 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

2. community wireless networks: free software and diy<br />

Hardware citizen-owned infrastructures<br />

2.1. what are community wireless networks?<br />

For some ten years, community wireless networks as well as municipally owned wireless<br />

networks have been set up all over the world, but prominently in the US and Europe.<br />

This article is based on an earlier case study (Ilten, 2009) about a Chicago-based Community<br />

Wireless Network (CWN) and the CWN niche that has been <strong>de</strong>veloping as an alternative<br />

communication infrastructure.<br />

2.1.1. Wireless Architectures: Socio-Technical Configurations<br />

A wireless network uses radio to send data via the medium of airwaves. This medium<br />

is limited by the frequencies that can be used for transmission, but is otherwise much more<br />

unlimited than cable-based transmission: radio antennas send all around or in one direction,<br />

but the reach of their waves cannot be limited sensibly. The traffic thus takes p<strong>la</strong>ce “openly”<br />

and must be limited artificially if only particu<strong>la</strong>r receivers are allowed to read the traffic. This<br />

characteristic helps wireless networks to an entirely different potential when compa<strong>red</strong> to<br />

cabled networks: a much bigger range can be reached with radio without having to inclu<strong>de</strong><br />

every single recipient to a cost intensive cable line per <strong>la</strong>st mile connections.<br />

Wireless networks are much more flexible when it comes to architectures. Hub-andspokes<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>l architectures are com<strong>para</strong>ble to a cable set-up: participants are hooked up to a<br />

base station, e.g. an Internet router, via wireless. This is the c<strong>la</strong>ssic set-up for home networks<br />

or Hot Spots in public p<strong>la</strong>ces that aim to share an Internet connection among a number of<br />

computers. This architecture is limited to the transmission range of the base station antenna.<br />

A different type of architecture is the peer-to-peer or ad hoc network. In this constel<strong>la</strong>tion,<br />

computers take on the role of access points that repeat signals to other receivers that<br />

would otherwise be out of range. The network is <strong>de</strong>centralized and sca<strong>la</strong>ble – it works like a<br />

mesh and is accordingly also called mesh network. The more no<strong>de</strong>s there are in close proximity,<br />

the more stable the mesh becomes. The failure of single no<strong>de</strong>s does not lead to network<br />

failure because routing is done dynamically along possible no<strong>de</strong>s in an ad hoc fashion.<br />

The specific software that enables this dynamic routing has been <strong>de</strong>veloped since<br />

2000 by CUWiN, the Champaign-Urbana Wireless Network: “CUWiN has been working<br />

since 2000 to <strong>de</strong>velop the community wireless networking software that is DIY open<br />

source technology.” 6 CUWiN <strong>de</strong>velops software un<strong>de</strong>r the BSD 4-c<strong>la</strong>use license (the “original”<br />

BSD license), which is a Free Software license that, however, does not incorporate the<br />

copyleft mechanism. This makes it a more “permissive” license than the contagious copyleft<br />

6 CUWIN: The Champaign-Urbana Community Wireless Network. Website URL http://www.cuwin.<br />

net/. – retrieved July 5, 2008


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

505<br />

licenses, since the software can be incorporated into commercial software as long as attribution<br />

is ma<strong>de</strong> to the creator.<br />

The mesh architecture has been re<strong>la</strong>tively experimental in 2002, and local projects<br />

such as the Chicago Wireless Community Networks project have started using CUWiN’s<br />

software in or<strong>de</strong>r to set up a mesh architecture network that builds a specific socio-technical<br />

configuration. A cooperation between software <strong>de</strong>velopers, hardware provi<strong>de</strong>rs, non-profit<br />

project p<strong>la</strong>nners and <strong>la</strong>st but not least, participants, have ma<strong>de</strong> these networks possible in<br />

hund<strong>red</strong>s of communities.<br />

While commercial cable Internet connections tie participants in a business mo<strong>de</strong>l via hardware<br />

–the use of a cable infrastructure– wireless networks are already “out there”. The physical<br />

transmission of data is potentially unlimited and must be turned into a scarce good by closing up<br />

these networks using passwords for access and encryption for data. Most private households close<br />

their hub-and-spoke networks in or<strong>de</strong>r to exclu<strong>de</strong> unknown participants. The situation where a<br />

<strong>la</strong>ptop receives some 20 different network signals, but none of them allows traffic, has become a<br />

common sight –a frustrating sight from the perspective of mesh network <strong>de</strong>velopers.<br />

Mesh networks help a theoretically 7 unlimited number of participants to share Internet<br />

connections. Since these networks must be open or regu<strong>la</strong>ted on a community basis, they are<br />

called “free wireless” (e.g. Freifunk in Germany) or “community wireless” (common in the<br />

US). The quality of a mesh network is highly <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on its geographic set-up of no<strong>de</strong>s and<br />

their <strong>de</strong>nsity. Urban environments with high buildings pose entirely different conditions than<br />

rural long-distance no<strong>de</strong> connections. Neighbourly cooperation is thus a precondition for a<br />

working, commonly used mesh network. Community networks not only provi<strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

connection to their participants, but build a Local Area Network between these neighbours.<br />

2.1.2. Chicago Wireless Community Networks<br />

The case studied closely by the author is a project run by a regionally operating nonprofit<br />

focusing on sustainable and livable urban neighbourhoods. The Center for neighbourhood<br />

Technology’s WCN project accordingly aimed mostly to support community organizing<br />

efforts and poverty alleviation through these networks: not only is a sha<strong>red</strong> Internet<br />

connecting a very cheap way to link up un<strong>de</strong>r-served communities, the networks can also<br />

become resources for local issues. Lastly, building and maintaining the network itself is a<br />

huge effort and can help build re<strong>la</strong>tionships and a sense of community and accomplishment:<br />

“Wireless technology in a mesh network mo<strong>de</strong>l acts much like a neighbourhood – becoming<br />

stronger as more people support it and as more “repeaters” are p<strong>la</strong>ced; the network’s<br />

infrastructure reinforces the concept of a community of users.” 8<br />

7 of course, in practice, the greater the number of participants, the smaller the transmission rate for<br />

each participant; it thus <strong>de</strong>pends on the Internet connection and the usage how sca<strong>la</strong>ble a particu<strong>la</strong>r<br />

set-up is.<br />

8 WCN: Wireless Community Networks. Handout for presentation. 2005


506 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

The CNT emphasized the innovative character of both the technical infrastructure of<br />

the mesh wireless network as well as the organizational configuration. The two elements are<br />

combined into a structure that is in stark contrast with the dominant regime of telecommunication<br />

–market based, cable-based and individualized Internet access. From an STS quasievolutionary<br />

perspective, the socio-technical configuration of a CWN can be consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> a<br />

radical alternative to the incumbent regime.<br />

CNT’s goal with the Wireless Community Networks project in 2003-2006 was the<br />

implementation of WCN infrastructures in four quite different neighbourhoods in Chicago<br />

and greater area. Its activities were both technologically and socially oriented: hardware<br />

nee<strong>de</strong>d to be acqui<strong>red</strong> –mostly through donations– and assembled into functioning ensembles,<br />

which was done collectively most of the time in so called “no<strong>de</strong> build parties” by<br />

volunteers. Then the material infrastructure had to be installed in homes, on rooftops, be<br />

configu<strong>red</strong> and tested in real life conditions. CNT used CUWiN’s free software for routing<br />

and reported its performance to the group. The performance of the network was constantly<br />

monito<strong>red</strong>, and <strong>la</strong>st but not least, users and potential users had to be won for participation<br />

and introduced to using the network –or even a computer.<br />

The project thus had a very strong aspect of training in some neighbourhoods where<br />

digital literacy is very low. The ambitions of the project were high in that a lot of community<br />

organizing and persuasion was necessary in some of neighbourhoods where levels of<br />

education were low and poverty was persistent. This poses a utterly different situation from<br />

networks such as Freifunk in Germany where many participants come from an aca<strong>de</strong>mic<br />

milieu or IT professional background and help build the community network for i<strong>de</strong>ological<br />

(as well as technical) reasons rather than because no access would be affordable to them<br />

otherwise.<br />

Since the WCN project was only fun<strong>de</strong>d for a few years, it worked as a jump start<br />

effort. A central goal of the project was of course to build networks that would be continued<br />

by their respective communities. A second goal was policy oriented, though, and concerned<br />

the general issue of access to broadband Internet for disadvantaged communities. The CNT<br />

used its WCN project to lobby for a telecommunications policy that allows for alternative<br />

infrastructures (e.g. through a public interest spectrum policy) and engaged in the discussion<br />

about a possible municipally owned city-wi<strong>de</strong> wireless network. While a municipal<br />

architecture would satisfy the basic need for access, CNT argued that there is more to community<br />

networks than just access –they represent socially valuable assets and an important<br />

variant in the ecosystem of communications infrastructures.<br />

2.2. a community wireless networks niche<br />

The CNT project clearly had mo<strong>de</strong>l character –which makes it an interesting case for<br />

our argumentation. Its managers were very aware of the political <strong>la</strong>ndscape and telecommunications<br />

market situation. At the same time, the conditions for this WCN project were<br />

adverse seen that it <strong>de</strong>alt with disadvantaged neighbourhoods. CNT tried to both build four<br />

concrete communication infrastructures taking all the local idiosyncrasies into account; at


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

the same time, the non-profit used its expertise and connections to engage in niche-building<br />

activities.<br />

2.2.1. The Broadband Market<br />

507<br />

Why did the CNT even perceive the need for self-ma<strong>de</strong>, community owned communication<br />

infrastructures? It recognized the importance of access to the Internet –in broadband<br />

quality– for these already left behind individuals and communities. Due to the current telecommunications<br />

market structure, this access is far from taken for granted for many people<br />

and is highly contingent on the geographic region they happen to live in.<br />

The Internet has become an ever more important –and taken for granted– medium<br />

for participation in the job market, in political discourse and <strong>de</strong>cision making, as well as in<br />

social engagement. The qualities of the Internet that have been <strong>la</strong>u<strong>de</strong>d as potentially <strong>de</strong>mocratizing<br />

–equal representation of socially and hierarchically dis<strong>para</strong>te actors, access to heaps<br />

of information, new structures of communication and archiving for social groups etc.– are<br />

empowering to those who have good access –but become a real disadvantage to those who<br />

cannot enter this infrastructure. This discussion has been led un<strong>de</strong>r the umbrel<strong>la</strong> term of<br />

Digital Divi<strong>de</strong> and refers to global as well as regional divi<strong>de</strong>s in access and (IT) literacy. Even<br />

in countries like the US –the cradle of the Internet– a Digital Divi<strong>de</strong> powerfully exclu<strong>de</strong>s<br />

social groups. While the divi<strong>de</strong> might not always be about access, the rise of data intensive<br />

high graphics software ren<strong>de</strong>rs simple dial-up connections unbearable.<br />

The US telecommunications market is regu<strong>la</strong>ted by the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Communications Commission<br />

(FCC). While regional service provi<strong>de</strong>rs are requi<strong>red</strong> to let others use their hardware<br />

infrastructure since 1996, this is not true for the so called “information services” which are distinguished<br />

from telephone services (cf. Al<strong>de</strong>n, 2002, p. 16). High speed fiber cable and cable<br />

TV infrastructures fall un<strong>de</strong>r this category, thus exempting them from the obligation to provi<strong>de</strong><br />

service or opening up the infrastructures to other provi<strong>de</strong>rs (cf. Daggett & Morris, 2005, p.<br />

7). Consumers are entirely <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on service provi<strong>de</strong>rs’ choices to build infrastructure and<br />

on their pricing schemes (cf. For<strong>la</strong>no, Powell, Shaffer, & Lennett, 2011, p. 3).<br />

Net Neutrality starts here – when it comes to sheer access. The above <strong>de</strong>scribed market<br />

structure is at the root of the Net Neutrality controversy: provi<strong>de</strong>rs are in monopoly-like<br />

positions and are free of service obligations. The Internet has – surprisingly enough - not yet<br />

been <strong>de</strong>fined as a utility, or a public interest infrastructure. It is wi<strong>de</strong>ly viewed as a p<strong>la</strong>ying<br />

field for business mo<strong>de</strong>ls rather than as a communication infrastructure with major societal<br />

impact and of <strong>de</strong>mocratic value.<br />

2.2.2. Alternative Niches<br />

Com<strong>para</strong>ble to the somewhat longer standing battle about in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt media in the<br />

US 9 , activists perceive a need to build alternative communication infrastructures in or<strong>de</strong>r to<br />

9 FreePress, MediaAccessProject etc.


508 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

remedy this state of exclusion and dominance. CNT’s local project can thus be analysed as<br />

a contribution to a higher-level niche of “Community Wireless Networks” that has started<br />

to <strong>de</strong>velop internationally as of ten years.<br />

In the <strong>la</strong>nguage of quasi-evolutionary theories on socio-technical change, niches <strong>de</strong>nominate<br />

the particu<strong>la</strong>r social spaces where socio-technical novelty is <strong>de</strong>veloped, tested and<br />

radical alternatives to existing structures come into being. Niches grow in the shadow of<br />

existing, stable socio-technical arrangements:<br />

“Technological regimes, as we <strong>de</strong>fine them, are configurations of science, technics, organizational<br />

routines, practices, norms and values, <strong>la</strong>beled for their core technology or<br />

mo<strong>de</strong> of organization.” (Kemp, Rip, & Schot, 2001, p. 273)<br />

Regimes become stable through mechanisms of path <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce, returns and social<br />

learning. They enable <strong>la</strong>rge technological infrastructures, but they also have a ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to<br />

block other alternative infrastructures. This is best observed in <strong>la</strong>rge-scale infrastructures<br />

such as energy provision or mobility regimes. The <strong>de</strong>velopment of niches –for example<br />

electro-mobility– is hence a challenging en<strong>de</strong>avour over time. It <strong>de</strong>pends on whether expectations<br />

can be coupled to current problems, how the new alternative is articu<strong>la</strong>ted, for<br />

example through mo<strong>de</strong>l building, and whether a powerful actor network can be formed to<br />

support the niche.<br />

These processes happen in “real” p<strong>la</strong>ces: when actors like CNT start local projects in or<strong>de</strong>r<br />

to build a specific, geographically <strong>de</strong>fined infrastructure, but also to enact the general i<strong>de</strong>a of<br />

open infrastructures and a right to access. They share these i<strong>de</strong>as with other activists, and when<br />

they link up and meet for events like the “International Summit for Community Wireless Networks<br />

” (as of 2004), then a niche is being built around a new socio-technical configuration.<br />

This configuration now <strong>de</strong>velops its own rules and <strong>para</strong>digms – what is a Community Wireless<br />

Network? Why are we building one, and what are our goals and visions?<br />

2.2.3. Community Wireless I<strong>de</strong>als<br />

Before wireless became a well-known technological option, the “community networks”<br />

i<strong>de</strong>a has already existed on wi<strong>red</strong> basis within the Community Technology niche. Schuler’s<br />

“New Community Networks. Wi<strong>red</strong> for Change” (1996) represents a manifest for the “marriage<br />

of community and technology”. This is a call for community/civil society owned<br />

socio-technical infrastructures and media and community produced content (cf. 32).<br />

Simi<strong>la</strong>rly to the ol<strong>de</strong>r Alternative Technology movement, Schuler explicates the following<br />

values for this “new community”: “Community over individual”, “public over private”,<br />

“community culture over mass culture”, “civic over commercial”, “process over goal”,<br />

“networks over hierachies” and so on. (Schuler, 1996, p. 33) and Hess et al. (2008a) <strong>de</strong>scribe<br />

how the “community media movement” came about in the 1990s, fostering new hopes for<br />

<strong>de</strong>mocratic participation. Wi<strong>red</strong> community networks, amateur radio, alternative media<br />

and community informatics as well as the Free Software movement are among the ancestors<br />

of today’s Community Wireless Networks (Doheny-Farina, 1996; Hess, Breyman, Campbell,<br />

& Martin, 2008b; Wikipedia, 2011a).


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

509<br />

The Champaign-Urbana Community Wireless Network initiative (CUWiN) was one<br />

of the first to systematically work on the technological infrastructure of a mesh wireless and<br />

the corresponding software, but also to articu<strong>la</strong>te their i<strong>de</strong>ology with regard to Community<br />

Wireless:<br />

“The CUWiN Foundation <strong>de</strong>velops <strong>de</strong>centralized, community-owned networks that<br />

foster <strong>de</strong>mocratic cultures and local content. Through advocacy and through our commitment<br />

to open source technology, we support organic networks that grow to meet<br />

the needs of their community.” (CUWiN 2008) 10<br />

The central goals of Community Wireless are autonomy and cooperation. These basic<br />

i<strong>de</strong>als of social communal life are exten<strong>de</strong>d to socio-technical infrastructures in general and<br />

are un<strong>de</strong>rstood in the context of the politics of technology. Actors clearly i<strong>de</strong>ntify as a “movement”<br />

with specific technology oriented visions:<br />

“The Freifunk community is part of a global movement for free infrastructures. The vision<br />

behind Freifunk initiatives is the diffusion of free networks, the <strong>de</strong>mocratisation of<br />

communication media and the fostering of local social structures. Through networking<br />

entire neighbourhoods, vil<strong>la</strong>ges and regions, the initiatives want to resist the Digital<br />

Divi<strong>de</strong> and build free in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt network structures. These free networks enable<br />

license free community radio, the transmission of local events, private swap sites and<br />

collective cheap use of one Internet connection. The exchange within free networks is<br />

not based in commercial interests, but in voluntary give and take of everyone in the<br />

network. This i<strong>de</strong>a has been articu<strong>la</strong>ted in the Pico Peering Agreement.” 11 (Wikipedia,<br />

2011b)<br />

Free infrastructures encompass both software and hardware structures. The re<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

between the above discussed “freedom” of software and Community Wireless Networks<br />

becomes immediately clear: self-owned, self-built infrastructures can only work if both hardware<br />

and software are avai<strong>la</strong>ble and modifiable in or<strong>de</strong>r to meet the local requirements. The<br />

Free Software movement and Community Wireless activists are soul mates in the sense that<br />

they build IT based on their own constitution of cooperation.<br />

In the above quote, a central articu<strong>la</strong>tion of this CWN constitution is mentioned: the<br />

Pico Peering Agreement. This agreement is an important framework for open, dynamic<br />

networks with spontaneous ad hoc peering (rather than highly organised neighbourhood<br />

networks): the network represents a “commons” whose use is regu<strong>la</strong>ted by the Agreement:<br />

“This process involves finding partners willing to link up and then working with them<br />

to build a network. The necessary rules are established via processes based on the principle<br />

of self-organization. The Network Commons draws on the <strong>de</strong>sire to create a network<br />

based on free cooperation and self-ma<strong>de</strong> rules. It was to provi<strong>de</strong> a framework for<br />

making such rules that the Pico-Peering Agreement was <strong>de</strong>veloped.” (Medosch, 2011)<br />

10 CUWIN: The Champaign-Urbana Community Wireless Network. Website URL http://www.cuwin.<br />

net/. – retrieved July 5, 2008<br />

11 Trans<strong>la</strong>ted from German by the authors.


510 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Thus, the agreement is equivalent to a copyleft license with regard to Free Software in<br />

that it formally articu<strong>la</strong>tes the “freedom” in free networks. The agreement regu<strong>la</strong>tes through<br />

the following principles (cf. Picopeering, 2011):<br />

1. Free transit (f.ex. “The owner agrees to provi<strong>de</strong> free transit across their free network”)<br />

2. open Communication (“The owner agrees to publish the information necessary for<br />

peering to take p<strong>la</strong>ce”)<br />

3. No warranty (“The service can be scaled back or withdrawn at any time”)<br />

The document itself is open and modifiable by users as long as the spirit is adhe<strong>red</strong> to.<br />

In conclusion, it offers a constitution to CW and free network initiatives. This formalisation<br />

of i<strong>de</strong>als is an important aspect of niche building. Local networks have the opportunity to<br />

use these resources and to build upon the knowledge and rules that have been tested in<br />

trial and error. At the same time, common values are har<strong>de</strong>ned among the community and<br />

certain actors take on lea<strong>de</strong>rship with regard to its policies. Eventually, the niche becomes a<br />

structure with some stability of its own and a real alternative to existing structures e.g. the<br />

incumbent telecommunication or commercial broadband regime.<br />

2.3. diversity and local expertise Through socio-technical niches<br />

Very simi<strong>la</strong>rly to Free Software, the proponents of free networks and CWN emphasize<br />

the cooperative use of some sort of technological commons – they value the collective<br />

social quality of this self-governed crowd sourcing. At the same time, the collective element<br />

is very functional in that it creates control over infrastructures both for individuals and for<br />

the general public. As stated in the first part, control through participation is part of the<br />

Free Software agenda, and the same is true for Community Technology in general, and for<br />

wireless networks in particu<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

Participation can be seen as a standing offer, a possibility to get engaged within these<br />

expert systems on different levels. The expert-<strong>la</strong>y distinction becomes much more blur<strong>red</strong><br />

when communities organise around a socio-technical infrastructure. Typically, there are core<br />

groups that maintain the infrastructure with high commitment and knowledge. The se<strong>para</strong>ting<br />

line, though, is not drawn formally and every participant in a CWN is explicitly invited<br />

to engage in the collective en<strong>de</strong>avour –be it through technical support, organisational<br />

support or i<strong>de</strong>ological work.<br />

By <strong>de</strong>finition, CWN operate in a specific local setting such as a neighbourhood in a<br />

city with particu<strong>la</strong>r geographical characteristics and conditions, e.g. climate, air quality, and<br />

energy supply. Expertise within a network hence always also inclu<strong>de</strong>s local expertise that<br />

pertains to this socio-technical configuration only. Who knows what, and where did we buy<br />

this <strong>de</strong>vice a few years ago? How did the signal change when the weather was this extreme?<br />

Local projects profit from niche-wi<strong>de</strong> knowledge and best practices, but will always have to<br />

figure out some of the difficulties of making things “work” in everyday practice themselves.<br />

Knowledge from local projects, in turn, inform niche building processes and helps other<br />

communities with simi<strong>la</strong>r conditions and struggles. The expert-<strong>la</strong>y distinction is permeable<br />

not only at the local level, but at niche level where knowledge is easily and happily sha<strong>red</strong>.


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

511<br />

The possibilities of transparency and trust are taken to the next level of organisation, as the<br />

Picopeering Agreement shows.<br />

Self-organised infrastructures contribute to a diverse socio-technical <strong>la</strong>ndscape and<br />

offer sometimes radical alternatives to existing commercial systems of e.g. software or telecommunication.<br />

Diversity is a given for these infrastructures because of the local character<br />

and changing needs of communities. The more options are avai<strong>la</strong>ble, the more in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt<br />

users become of incumbent market p<strong>la</strong>yers. Looking at society as a whole and its technological<br />

regimes, diversity means that a “portfolio of promises” is existent (Hoogma, Weber,<br />

& Elzen, 2005, p. 226) – this implies the <strong>de</strong>centralised innovation of new socio-technical<br />

configurations and re<strong>la</strong>ted values and constitutions. Diversity on a societal level ensures<br />

neutrality in the sense that control is diffused among many actors rather than just one regu<strong>la</strong>tory<br />

agency.<br />

3. nicHes based on tHe usage of free software and Hardware<br />

foster network neutrality<br />

In this article, we have tried to highlight the significance of alternative socio-technical<br />

infrastructures which transcend the expert-<strong>la</strong>ypeople distinction that has become so adamant<br />

in many socio-technical systems. We have argued that the issue of Net Neutrality can<br />

be un<strong>de</strong>rstood as a battle about the control over infrastructures and socio-technical regimes,<br />

simi<strong>la</strong>r to control of infrastructures of energy generation or mobility.<br />

We have used sociological concepts of structuration and expert-<strong>la</strong>y re<strong>la</strong>tionships to exp<strong>la</strong>in<br />

how transparency and trust are necessary conditions for socio-technical constel<strong>la</strong>tions<br />

that enable <strong>de</strong>mocratic control. Rules become har<strong>de</strong>ned when inscribed in technological<br />

structures and add to the power exercised over users and <strong>la</strong>ypeople. A massive distinction<br />

between experts and <strong>la</strong>ypeople must be seen critically at a societal level because it concentrates<br />

knowledge and control over infrastructures that affect almost everyone. This is true<br />

for the Internet today where attempts to heavily regu<strong>la</strong>te its commercialization <strong>de</strong>form its<br />

original structure and potential as a universal communication infrastructure.<br />

As long as the Internet is not politically <strong>de</strong>fined as a universal neutral utility, it is especially<br />

important that non-commercial niches exist where alternative infrastructures are set<br />

up. We have presented Free Software and Community Wireless Networks as two re<strong>la</strong>ted<br />

niches that are governed by their own “constitutions” and are built on values of cooperation<br />

and freedom of knowledge. These movements transcend the expert-<strong>la</strong>y distinction in that<br />

all knowledge is collected and distributed publicly and that everyone is invited to become a<br />

(semi-)expert and exercise some <strong>de</strong>gree of control over socio-technical infrastructures.<br />

These niches in particu<strong>la</strong>r, and diversity through alternatives in general, thus contribute<br />

to neutrality at a societal level: alternative hardware and software structures exist which can<br />

be used to circumvent incumbent systems of non-neutrality – as long as regu<strong>la</strong>tion does not<br />

thwart this, as the ongoing battles about the legal status of Community Wireless Networks<br />

show. Moreover, these solutions are real, sometimes radical, alternatives both technologically


512 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

and organisationally and represent hopeful promises for future, more <strong>de</strong>mocratically controlled<br />

infrastructures.<br />

4. bibliograPHy<br />

Al<strong>de</strong>n, J. (2002). Competition Policy in Telecommunications: The Case of the United States of<br />

America. International Telecommunication Union.<br />

Daggett, B. V., & Morris, D. (2005). Who will own Minnesota’s information highways?<br />

Minneapolis, MN: Institute for Local Self-Reliance.<br />

Degele, Nina. 2002. Einführung in die Techniksoziologie. München: Wilhelm Fink Ver<strong>la</strong>g.<br />

Doheny-Farina, S. (1996). The wi<strong>red</strong> neighborhood. New Haven and London: Yale University<br />

Press.<br />

For<strong>la</strong>no, L., Powell, A., Shaffer, G., & Lennett, B. (2011). From the Digital Divi<strong>de</strong> to<br />

Digital Excellence. Global best practices to aid <strong>de</strong>velopment of municipal and community<br />

wireless networks in the United States. New America Foundation.<br />

Free Software Foundation. (2011a). The Free Software Definition. Retrieved from http://<br />

www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html<br />

Free Software Foundation. (2011b). Copyleft: Pragmatic I<strong>de</strong>alism. Retrieved May 20,<br />

2011, from http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/pragmatic.html<br />

Free Software Foundation. (2011c). What is Copyleft? Retrieved May 20, 2011, from<br />

http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/<br />

Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, A. (1992). Die Konstitution <strong>de</strong>r Gesellschaft. Grundzüge einer Theorie <strong>de</strong>r Strukturierung.<br />

Frankfurt am Main: Campus Ver<strong>la</strong>g.<br />

Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, A. (1995). Konsequenzen <strong>de</strong>r Mo<strong>de</strong>rne (1st ed.). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.<br />

Gid<strong>de</strong>ns, A. (1996). Leben in einer Posttraditionalen Gesellschaft. In U. Beck, A. Gid<strong>de</strong>ns,<br />

& S. Lash (Eds.), Reflexive Mo<strong>de</strong>rnisierung. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.<br />

Hess, D., Breyman, S., Campbell, N., & Martin, B. (2008a). Science, Technology, and<br />

Social Movements. In E. J. Hackett, o. Amsterdamska, M. Lynch, & J. Wajcman<br />

(Eds.), The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Vol. 3, pp. 473-498). Cambridge,<br />

MA: The MIT Press.<br />

Hess, D., Breyman, S., Campbell, N., & Martin, B. (2008b). Science, Technology, and<br />

Social Movements. In E. J. Hackett, o. Amsterdamska, M. Lynch, & J. Wajcman<br />

(Eds.), The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Vol. 3, pp. 473-498). Cambridge,<br />

MA: The MIT Press.<br />

Hoogma, R., Weber, M., & Elzen, B. (2005). Integrated Long-Term Strategies to Induce<br />

Regime Shift towards Sustainability: The Approach of Strategic Niche Management.<br />

In M. Weber & J. Hemmelkamp (Eds.), Towards Environmental Innovation Systems.<br />

Berlin: Springer.


self-governed socio-technical Infrastructures Autonomy and Cooperation through free software…<br />

513<br />

Illich, I. (2011). Tools for Conviviality. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from http://opencollector.org/history/homebrew/tools.html<br />

Ilten, C. (2009). Strategisches und soziales Nischenmanagement : zur Analyse gesellschaftspolitisch<br />

motivierter Innovation (1st ed.). Wiesba<strong>de</strong>n: VS Research.<br />

Kemp, R., Rip, A., & Schot, J. (2001). Constructing Transition Paths Through the Management<br />

of Niches. In R. Garud & P. Karn\oe (Eds.), Path Depen<strong>de</strong>nce and Creation,<br />

LEA’s organization and Management Series (pp. 269-299). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence<br />

Erlbaum Associates, Inc.<br />

Latour, B. (1991). Technology is Society Ma<strong>de</strong> Durable. In J. Law (Ed.), A Sociology of<br />

Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination. London: Routledge.<br />

Lessig, L. (1999). Co<strong>de</strong> and other <strong>la</strong>ws of cyberspace. New York: Basic Books.<br />

Medosch, A. (2011, May 19). Free Networks Movement - P2P Foundation. Retrieved May<br />

19, 2011, from http://p2pfoundation.net/Free_Networks_Movement<br />

open Source Initiative. (2011). The Open Source Definition. Retrieved from http://www.<br />

opensource.org/docs/osd<br />

Picopeering. (2011, May 19). Picopeering Agreement v1.0. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from<br />

http://picopeer.net/PPA-en.html<br />

Raymond, E. S. (2000). The Cathedral and the Bazaar. Retrieved May 20, 2011, from<br />

http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/in<strong>de</strong>x.html<br />

Schuler, D. (1996). New Community Networks. Wi<strong>red</strong> for Change. Reading, MA: Addison-<br />

Wesley.<br />

Schulz-Schaeffer, I. (2000). Sozialtheorie <strong>de</strong>r Technik. Frankfurt am Main; New York:<br />

Campus-Verl.<br />

Wikipedia. (2011a, May 19). Wireless community network - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.<br />

Retrieved May 19, 2011, from https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/<br />

Community_wireless_network<br />

Wikipedia. (2011b, May 19). Freies Funknetz – Wikipedia. Retrieved May 19, 2011, from<br />

https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/<strong>de</strong>/wiki/Freies_Funknetz


29<br />

CONflICts ABOUt tHe regUlAtION Of<br />

INtelleCtUAl PrOPerty IN INterNet: COmPArINg<br />

tHe IssUe NetwOrks IN Uk AND sPAIN<br />

Jorge Luis Salcedo 1<br />

Universidad Autónoma <strong>de</strong> Barcelona, Spain<br />

Research group on Democracy, Elections and Citizenship (DEC)<br />

AbstrAct: Regu<strong>la</strong>tions and policy initiatives concerning the non-authorized use of copyright contents<br />

in the Internet have generated in multiple countries strong lobby processes which inclu<strong>de</strong> a media<br />

campaign between the different agents that consi<strong>de</strong>r these regu<strong>la</strong>tions essential for their interests. The<br />

copyrights coalition (CRC) argues that “un-authorized” uses of contents are a risk for their business and<br />

because of that they lobby for strong policies to protect rights hol<strong>de</strong>rs. The Internet Service Provi<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

(ISP) do not want to assume the supervision cost of internet users´ behaviour although they would<br />

like to participate in the profits of the digital content business. Digital Rights Activists (DRA) believe<br />

that regu<strong>la</strong>tion proposals and policies threaten fundamental rights such as personal privacy, freedom of<br />

speech, free circu<strong>la</strong>tion of information and knowledge as well as the right of Internet access. In this paper<br />

we study the media visibility of different stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs that are part of this conflict; we analyze the cases<br />

of United Kingdom (Digital Economy Act) and Spain (Ley <strong>de</strong> Economía Sostenible). We suppose that<br />

the most visible agents have a greater chance of exerting influence in the issue in terms of spreading and<br />

legitimating their statements about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion and to influence policy maker’s <strong>de</strong>cisions. We measure<br />

visibility in terms of the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ saliency on the issue network, saliency that we calcu<strong>la</strong>te drawing<br />

upon a content analysis in multiple channels (news and blogs) and a network analysis consi<strong>de</strong>ring the<br />

back-links between stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ web sites and its back-links according to Google and Alexa. We do<br />

this in or<strong>de</strong>r to i<strong>de</strong>ntify and to compare the most visible agents in multiple channels. In this way we<br />

i<strong>de</strong>ntify the visibility of the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs and asses if there is a corre<strong>la</strong>tion between the agents’ visibilities<br />

on different channels. We i<strong>de</strong>ntify and exp<strong>la</strong>in how <strong>de</strong>pending on the contextual features and the agents´<br />

attributes the visibility in different channels varies.<br />

Keywords: Antipiracy <strong>la</strong>ws, copyrights, media visibility, hyperlink analysis, new media, and internet<br />

policies. 1<br />

1. introduction<br />

Regu<strong>la</strong>tions initiatives concerning the “un-authorized” 2 use of copyright contents in<br />

the Internet are being negotiated around the world in supranational and national levels,<br />

1 This work has the support of a grant from the European Social Foundation and the Agència <strong>de</strong> Gestió<br />

d’Ajuts Universitaris i <strong>de</strong> Recerca AGAUR.<br />

2 Un authorized by the titu<strong>la</strong>r rights hol<strong>de</strong>rs of the contents.


516 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

for instance the ACTA 3 and recently, the European Union (EU) <strong>la</strong>unched the initiative of<br />

a common European Digital Market and has approved a set of norms called the Telecoms<br />

package 4 (November 2009) that in one of its amendments (138) allows to members states<br />

to <strong>de</strong>velop their own legal initiatives to fight against what they typify as internet infringements;<br />

the only consi<strong>de</strong>rations are that the states members have to ensure “a prior, fair and<br />

impartial procedure” and they have to respect the European Convention for the Protection<br />

of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (EU Parliament and Council 2009) a very<br />

wi<strong>de</strong> framework that allows each state to create its own legal procedure to fight against<br />

the un-authorized use of copyrighted content on the Web. All the states of the EU have<br />

to implement Telecoms package provisions before June 2011. Currently, multiple national<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tions have been approved: the French Hadopi Law, the Spanish Sustainable Economy<br />

Law-LES- and the British Digital Economy Act-DEA.<br />

We focus on the Spanish (LES) and the UK (DEA) regu<strong>la</strong>tions. This selection answers<br />

to a criterion of diversity. Spanish <strong>la</strong>w compa<strong>red</strong> to the British differs in the scope in terms<br />

of the target and type of punishments; the DEA does not only consi<strong>de</strong>r the closure of web<br />

sites with “un-authorized” contents as it is proposed in the LES, but also the DEA penalizes<br />

Internet users with fines or even with Internet disconnection in cases of recurring consume<br />

of “un-authorized” contents, at least in the final act version that we know until March of<br />

2011, date we finished the data collection.<br />

Nevertheless, we do not analyze all the lobbying process along the <strong>de</strong>velopment of the<br />

<strong>la</strong>w. We concentrate in the media campaign and specifically, in the media visibility that the<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs of the conflict achieve in different channels. Several authors sustain how mass<br />

media are a fundamental part of the policy process to achieve public support and legitimize<br />

the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ causes (M. Hajer 2009; Helms 2008; Newton 1999; Bennett & Entman<br />

2001; Crozier 2007), and how media have an essential role in the formation of public opinion<br />

and in the <strong>de</strong>finition of the public agenda (Walgrave & De Swert 2005; Walgrave &<br />

Van Aelst 2006), but it is surprising as Hajer (2009) sustains the little attention paid to the<br />

impact of media visibility on the public policy <strong>de</strong>velopment . This work expects to contribute<br />

to the un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of media visibility of different type of stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in a policy<br />

process. We assume that every si<strong>de</strong> who expects to have influence in the final outcome of a<br />

policy and specifically communicate their standpoints to the public opinion is expected to<br />

be worried about their visibility on the different media channels.<br />

By analyzing the two political campaigns that have been implemented by different advocacy<br />

groups (Copyrights Coalition-CRC, and what we call Digital Rights Activists DRA)<br />

3 Anti-Counterfeiting Agreement, members Australia, Canada, European Union (EU), Japan, Mexico,<br />

Morocco, New Zea<strong>la</strong>nd, South Korea, Singapore, Switzer<strong>la</strong>nd and United States (US)<br />

4 The package covers a diversity of issues, for instance: –improved consumer rights, e.g. by allowing<br />

customers to have their mobile telephone number transfer<strong>red</strong> within one working day when changing<br />

operators; requiring a user’s consent before “cookies” are installed on his computer; an obligation<br />

for provi<strong>de</strong>rs to simplify their contracts; easier access to the internet for people with disabilities.(European<br />

parliament, 2009)


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

517<br />

in a bid to influence national policy making, this paper examines the conditions un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

which stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in the conflict are visible in different type of media channels and the specific<br />

characteristics of the political context that have an effect on the way that stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

achieve media visibility. In this vein our main research questions are:<br />

1. How is media visibility distributed between the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in this conflict in the<br />

different studied contexts?<br />

2. Does a specific stakehol<strong>de</strong>r of the conflict tend to be in the core (highest visibility) of<br />

one channel but not in the core of another one?<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to address these questions and exp<strong>la</strong>in the difference on media visibility between<br />

the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in the conflict, we consi<strong>de</strong>r as exp<strong>la</strong>ined factors the features that each<br />

channel present, the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs´ attributes and how these attributes differ in the studied<br />

context.<br />

The paper is structu<strong>red</strong> in the following way: first of all we present our theoretical framework<br />

and hypotheses to try to answer our research questions. Secondly we present our<br />

methodology in which we exp<strong>la</strong>in the documentary analysis that we make to <strong>de</strong>scribe the<br />

conflict, the social hyperlink and automatic content analyses implemented to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the<br />

most visible agents in different channels and the way we c<strong>la</strong>ssify the different agents who<br />

compose the issue network, then we contextualize and make a <strong>de</strong>scription of the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs<br />

in conflict. Finally we expose our findings and we discuss them<br />

2. literature<br />

2.1. why media visibility is important?<br />

Traditionally it is consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> to be more effective and intelligent for some agents like<br />

coalition members and corporations to lobby and to promote face to face contact with<br />

policy makers in or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve their policy objectives. Nowadays in <strong>de</strong>mocratic regimes,<br />

although this action seems to be very common, policy makers are also very concerned<br />

with showing the image to their electors that they support their interests. When the issue<br />

becomes a part of the public <strong>de</strong>bate it is inevitable that even coalition members will try to<br />

legitimize their standpoints and mobilize public support, while politicians will try to avoid<br />

being penalized with the antipathy of their electors.<br />

The <strong>de</strong>bate about the effects of mass media in the shaping of public opinion is very<br />

extensive and there is no established agreement between scho<strong>la</strong>rs (Newton 1999; Entman<br />

1989; Milner 2002; D. Weaver & Drew 2001; Voltmer & Schmitt-Beck 2002), except on<br />

a few common matters, such as on the importance of media visibility. Higher visibility of<br />

media sources implies higher chances to capture issue attention and <strong>de</strong>termine the public<br />

agenda (Entman 1989; Walgrave & Van Aelst 2006; McCombs & Shaw 1993; Iyengar<br />

& Simon 2000). It is fundamental the role of the media in making sense of the world by<br />

casting issues within frames (Reese et al. 2003), or as Zaller (1996) illustrates, the powerful<br />

effects by locating instances of information imba<strong>la</strong>nce, where one campaign is several times<br />

more visible than the opposing campaign, a sizable portion of respon<strong>de</strong>nts will exhibit a


518 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

“reception gap”: having got one message but not the other (pp. 23-26). In this vein we could<br />

assume that agents will try to have the highest level of success in terms of media visibility<br />

Media have always performed a fundamental role in politics, given that they have<br />

always been a necessary intermediate between people and political centres and vice-versa<br />

to transmit news. Additionally in contemporary <strong>de</strong>mocratic regimes we observe the growing<br />

importance that politicians give to their image and their popu<strong>la</strong>rity and when an issue<br />

becomes a part of the public agenda it is difficult to consi<strong>de</strong>r that media visibility is just a<br />

concern for politicians. Any political agent (movements or coalitions) who expects to get the<br />

politicians support and who needs public opinion contentment must consi<strong>de</strong>r media visibility.<br />

At least in a mediatic <strong>de</strong>mocratic context it is relevant to those who want to influence<br />

in policy making and legitimize their cause.<br />

Nevertheless, the concept of media inclu<strong>de</strong>s a wi<strong>de</strong> diversity of media channels such as<br />

traditional (newspapers, radio, TV) and non traditional media (social networks, blogs, web<br />

pages, micro blogging, vi<strong>de</strong>o-sharing...), this <strong>la</strong>st ones with a <strong>de</strong>centralized and a low cost of<br />

access compa<strong>red</strong> to traditional media. Features that makes much more difficult to control<br />

the creation of contents and information flow, and hence much more difficult for those in<br />

power to ensure that the information avai<strong>la</strong>ble to individuals is the one that they want to<br />

make visible. These conditions in a <strong>de</strong>mocratic regime generate a space of ubiquity where<br />

it is difficult for a public issue to avoid the public scrutiny (J. B. Thompson 2005). In that<br />

sense, multiple agents involved in the <strong>de</strong>velopment of different types of policies will be worried<br />

about the standpoint that they want to diffuse trough the media and the visibility and<br />

the type of visibility that they want to have.<br />

The concept of visibility should not only be assumed in a positive connotation. It can<br />

be a double-edged sword (J. B. Thompson 2005) and in many cases could be against the interests<br />

that we wish to c<strong>la</strong>im. An agent can be very visible but with an image that attracts the<br />

hat<strong>red</strong> of the public. In this sense, the visibility has different faces. on one hand it implies<br />

endorsement, a form of social visibility but still could be positive or negative. In this paper<br />

we assess visibility in a positive sense that means the ability to be heard and to capture the<br />

attention of the public opinion. Being visible means that the message to be conveyed has<br />

a <strong>la</strong>rger audience, which indirectly increases the power to mobilize, to influence the public<br />

<strong>de</strong>bate and to <strong>de</strong>termine what people give priority as an important actor or as an influential<br />

media (John B Thompson 2008; Brighenti 2007; J. B. Thompson 2005). Being visible allows<br />

positioning particu<strong>la</strong>r perspectives and contending potential challengers.<br />

obviously it is not the same approach to media visibility if you are a coalition of economical<br />

groups or a social movement, but in all cases when the issue is part of the public<br />

agenda the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in a policy will try to obtain public support to legitimize their cause<br />

at least in a <strong>de</strong>mocratic context. For instance, strategically the government together with<br />

the CRC who promote the bill, in a first stage of the conflict they prefer do not make a lot<br />

of noise, and consequently have a low media profile, but when the conflict emerges as part<br />

of the public agenda, they will try to justify and <strong>de</strong>fend their standpoints against the critics<br />

of the digital rights movement and other agents who oppose to the bill. For the politicians,<br />

their electoral capital is very important and they will pretend that they are <strong>de</strong>fending the


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

519<br />

interest of their electorates and not private interests; in this vein if the coalition expects that<br />

politicians support its causes, it is important that its causes seem to be aligned with the public<br />

interests because of that the CRC together with the government will promote a media<br />

campaign to try to influence the behaviour of people who consume un-authorized digital<br />

contents, and also advertising about the social and economical importance of its industry.<br />

(Figure number 1)<br />

Gráficos UOC Jorge Luis Salcedo<br />

Figure 1: Campaign stage of Copyright Advocacy coalition<br />

Figure 1: Campaign stage of Copyright Advocacy coalition<br />

First stage<br />

•!A low volume of news coverage may<br />

be a strategic value.They do not<br />

want the issue to be inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the<br />

general public agenda.<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

First Stage<br />

Digital rights movement<br />

has the incentive to<br />

expand the scope of the<br />

conflict and inclu<strong>de</strong> it in<br />

public agenda but direct<br />

traditional media access<br />

is so expensive.<br />

Second stage<br />

•!If the proposal is part of the public<br />

agenda the coalition would like to<br />

<strong>de</strong>fend it against all the critics, look<br />

for media access and try to<br />

legitimize its stament.<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Second Stage<br />

They concentrate their<br />

campaign effort in nontraditional<br />

channels<br />

(more granu<strong>la</strong>r) and try to<br />

make the highest level of<br />

noise to capture<br />

traditional media<br />

attention and public<br />

support.<br />

Second and third stage<br />

•!The coalition uses its economical<br />

resources and bussiness ties to<br />

access to traditional media, applying<br />

a campaing of stick and carrot to<br />

diffuse and justify their cause.<br />

Moreover, there is an extensive literature about what is called the political economical<br />

Figure 2 Campaign stage of DRA<br />

approach of media (K<strong>la</strong>ehn 2002; Chomsky & E. S. Herman 2002; Castells 2009), literature<br />

that questions the i<strong>de</strong>a about the normative values that theoretically must gui<strong>de</strong> media,<br />

values as impartiality, justice, equity and the i<strong>de</strong>a of media as a public good. This literature<br />

sustains that media are not alien of commercial purposes and favour the interests of the<br />

elites that they advertise and that are their main stockhol<strong>de</strong>rs (Castells 2009; K<strong>la</strong>ehn 2002;<br />

Strömberg 2001). In our case the CRC is economical elite (CNN money team 2008) that<br />

has the economical resources to pay for traditional media access and it has strong business<br />

ties with them. According to this fact we expect that:<br />

Third Stage<br />

Only when digital rights<br />

movement campaing in<br />

non-traditional media is<br />

highly noisy it achieves<br />

the attention in<br />

traditional channels and<br />

in policy makers.<br />

1. The regu<strong>la</strong>tion supporters (CRC and–governments) will achieve a greater visibility level<br />

on the news channel.<br />

on the other hand, the DRA will try to make a high level of noise trying to set the<br />

issue in the public agenda. It is well known that the Web <strong>red</strong>uces the barrier of entrance5 and also it is cheaper to diffuse a message in comparison to traditional media channels<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

5 obviously when you have guaranteed the access to internet, that in our agents we take for granted


Gráficos UOC Jorge Luis Salcedo<br />

Figure 1: Campaign stage of Copyright Advocacy coalition<br />

520 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

(Castells 2009; Benkler 2006; Rheingold 2003; Chadwick 2008). Besi<strong>de</strong>s non traditional<br />

First stage<br />

Second stage<br />

Second and third stage<br />

•!A media low volume have of news long coverage been may consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> •!If the proposal a key is part element of the public in the •!The emergence coalition uses of its economical social movements<br />

be a strategic value.They do not<br />

agenda the coalition would like to resources and bussiness ties to<br />

because want the issue of to its be inclu<strong>de</strong>d impact in the on information <strong>de</strong>fend it against diffusion all the critics, look access to traditional media, applying<br />

and contagious processes, by enhancing<br />

general public agenda.<br />

for media access and try to<br />

a campaing of stick and carrot to<br />

the speed, flexibility and reach legitimize of information its stament.<br />

diffuse and justify their cause.<br />

flows, by allowing communication across<br />

<strong>la</strong>rge distances in real time and facilitating the success of spontaneous protest to draw the<br />

attention of traditional media, politicians and the support of public opinion (Pickerill<br />

2003; Andrews & Biggs 2006). The easiest and cheapest way for a social movement to<br />

spread its message is to use what we call non-traditional channels because these channels<br />

give the possibility to stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs that do not have the economical resources or business<br />

ties to spread and to amplify the scope of their message and to try to incorporate the issue<br />

in the public agenda (Figure number 2)<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Figure 2 Campaign stage of DRA<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

First Stage<br />

Digital rights movement<br />

has the incentive to<br />

expand the scope of the<br />

conflict and inclu<strong>de</strong> it in<br />

public agenda but direct<br />

traditional media access<br />

is so expensive.<br />

Figure 2 Campaign stage of DRA<br />

Second Stage<br />

They concentrate their<br />

campaign effort in nontraditional<br />

channels<br />

(more granu<strong>la</strong>r) and try to<br />

make the highest level of<br />

noise to capture<br />

traditional media<br />

attention and public<br />

support.<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Third Stage<br />

Only when digital rights<br />

movement campaing in<br />

non-traditional media is<br />

highly noisy it achieves<br />

the attention in<br />

traditional channels and<br />

in policy makers.<br />

Moreover, as we point out this is an international conflict, Herman (2009) in his policy<br />

analysis of the <strong>de</strong>bate of the digital rights management in US and Briatte (2008) in the<br />

French case confirm that the digital rights movement has a higher visibility online compa<strong>red</strong><br />

to the coalition that has a slightly higher visibility in traditional media. In that sense we<br />

expect that:<br />

2. The DRA will have a higher visibility on non traditional media (blogs, web) than the CRC.<br />

In<strong>de</strong>ed Internet has increased the opportunities to communicate with the <strong>red</strong>uction<br />

of the diffusion cost but it has not resolve the question about how to gain the public attention.<br />

Several authors have i<strong>de</strong>ntified that just a few web sites concentrate most of the public<br />

attention, they are the central no<strong>de</strong>s on the Web, this means that in terms of the web confi-


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

521<br />

guration this implies to concentrate the most important 6 and the majority of back-links (S.<br />

Gonzalez-Bailon 2009; Lada A. Adamic et al. 2001; L. A Adamic & B. A Huberman 2002;<br />

Barabási 2003).<br />

The links have important functional attributes on the Web, González (2008) says that<br />

“links are the basic building blocks that <strong>de</strong>fine the structure of this information <strong>la</strong>ndscape”<br />

they are important because they are the routes that surfers and search engines follow when<br />

browsing and mapping web content. Most of the search engines that are the main entrance<br />

to the web7 and specifically Google which is the most popu<strong>la</strong>r search engine consi<strong>de</strong>r the<br />

back-links that receive each web site to rank on the Google results, following this i<strong>de</strong>a “the<br />

rich get richer” (Barabási 2003; Watts 2003; Taleb 2007), the sites receiving attention tend<br />

to acquire more visibility. The difference between the centre and the other no<strong>de</strong>s may tend<br />

to grow. Moreover as González <strong>de</strong>monstrates (2009) back-links are not in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt of the<br />

level of economical resources managed by the targets of those links. Better resources allow<br />

hiring the services to optimize websites and improve the position in search engines rankings.<br />

Because of that, we challenge our second hypothesis and we also want to assess if the<br />

DRA compa<strong>red</strong> to the wealthy group of agents who support the <strong>la</strong>w (CRC and government)<br />

not necessarily is going to be the most visible on the entire web. The DRA could be more<br />

visible in the specific issue network (blogs, websites) but not in the search engines and according<br />

to web traffic ranks.<br />

3. The DRA has a higher visibility in specific web channels but not on the entire web.<br />

other important matter re<strong>la</strong>ted to the nature and features of the media channels is<br />

that not all of them have the same level of public trust (Tumber 2001). Different surveys<br />

confirm that citizens continue trusting more in traditional channels than in non-traditional<br />

ones (European Commission 2009a; Dutton et al. 2009; Pew Research Center’s Internet &<br />

American Life Project 2010; CIS 2736 2007) In a context of superabundance of information<br />

as internet, it seems to be important to have a trust gui<strong>de</strong> to choose reliable information.<br />

González (2008) and Hindman (2008) found a strong corre<strong>la</strong>tion between saliency on traditional<br />

channels with saliency on non traditional channels, in our case we expect to observe<br />

a simi<strong>la</strong>r ten<strong>de</strong>ncy, although this could question our first hypothesis:<br />

4. The most visible agents on the news channels are going to be the most visible on the issue<br />

network and in blogs.<br />

6 Not all the back-links have the same value; the back-links from the most popu<strong>la</strong>r web sites have a<br />

highest weight in the final outcome of the search engines rankings in this case Google. (Brin & Page<br />

1998).<br />

7 Until 2010 Google continues to be the main entrance to the web, however authors as Rogers i<strong>de</strong>ntify<br />

that the era of the back link web may be close to the end because of the growing of social networks<br />

and specifically Facebook. Despite of this trend in the next years we bet for the coexistence and also<br />

for a convergence of both systems to organize information.


522 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

3. metHods<br />

A mixed-method approach is used to <strong>de</strong>fine the issue network and to analyze the visibility<br />

level of multiple stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in different channels. We apply documentary analysis,<br />

hyperlinks network analysis and automatic content analysis.<br />

our units of analysis are the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs involved in this conflict, most of them civil<br />

organizations, governmental and enterprise organizations (CRC and DRA). We focus in the<br />

channels that traditionally have had more political influence: as traditional media we consi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

the news filte<strong>red</strong> by period of time and by region (Spain-UK) 8 aggregated by Google<br />

news 9 and as non-traditional media we analyze national blogs and the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ organization<br />

web sites. Although we recognize the relevance of social networks, micro-blogging,<br />

and vi<strong>de</strong>o sharing services, these are channels that we expect to analyze in further research.<br />

The period un<strong>de</strong>r study in the Spanish case is from october of 2009 until the end of<br />

March of 2011 and in the UK case the period is from June 2009 until November 2010. These<br />

periods have been <strong>de</strong>fined because they inclu<strong>de</strong> all the <strong>de</strong>velopment of the regu<strong>la</strong>tion, we<br />

analyze since the regu<strong>la</strong>tion initiative was <strong>la</strong>unched until the regu<strong>la</strong>tion has been approved,<br />

however we cannot achieve to cover the implementation process.<br />

We measure visibility according to:<br />

1. The presence of policy agents’ web sites within the online issue network.<br />

2. The saliency of the stakehol<strong>de</strong>r’s websites measu<strong>red</strong> by back-links within the issue network.<br />

3. To asses our hypothesis number three we compare the level of back-links of our issue<br />

network with the level of back-links obtained by Google and Alexa. The first case is an<br />

indicator to asses in what extend each agent’s web site is also visible in Google that is<br />

the most popu<strong>la</strong>r search engine. Alexa back-links indicate us the general online audiences<br />

of agents’ web sites.<br />

4. Finally we evaluate visibility in Blogs and News measu<strong>red</strong> by the number of times that<br />

each agent is mentioned. Data that we contrast with the visibility of the main messages<br />

formu<strong>la</strong>ted by the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />

In a first stage the documentary analysis allows us to:<br />

1. obtain an overview of the conflict and create a first set of the diverse agents involved<br />

in it. The documents are composed by journalist research, TV programs, YouTube<br />

vi<strong>de</strong>os and some wikis that exp<strong>la</strong>in the regu<strong>la</strong>tion; finally we inclu<strong>de</strong> a set of news<br />

whose main sources were “El Pais” and “El Mundo” in the Spanish case and the BBC<br />

in the UK case. Because in this step the process is strictly manual we just have the<br />

8 For each case we use Goggle News Spain and Goggle News UK, we apply the same process for searching<br />

on blogs.<br />

9 To compare some of the difference of using Lexis-Nexis or Google News see: (D. A. Weaver & Bimber<br />

2008)


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

523<br />

chance to analyze a few sources; we recognize that these sources could have a small bias<br />

as a consequence of their corporate and i<strong>de</strong>ological p<strong>red</strong>isposition, however we have<br />

privileged the special section that these sources <strong>de</strong>dicate to cover the policy across their<br />

<strong>de</strong>velopment.<br />

2. To in<strong>de</strong>ntify the most saliency messages that advertises the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs. (Next table)<br />

Table 1. List of main messages by stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs LES and DEA<br />

LES-Spain DEA-UK<br />

Oppose Favor Oppose Favor<br />

En <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales en Internet<br />

Derechos <strong>de</strong> los creadores Freedom os Speech Copyrights protection<br />

Por una <strong>red</strong> sostenible Protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> creación For the dark ages Defense of copyrights<br />

No a <strong>la</strong> censura en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> Protección <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cultura Don’t Disconnect Us Against piracy<br />

Compartir no es un crimen Si eres legal, eres legal Digital Rights Why Music Matters<br />

Ciber-<strong>de</strong>rechos La música es cultura, <strong>la</strong><br />

música es empleo<br />

Por <strong>la</strong> cultura remix Defensa <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos <strong>de</strong><br />

propiedad intelectual<br />

Free knowledge Stop piracy<br />

Free culture Stop Illegal file-sharing<br />

Nos<strong>otros</strong> también creamos Di no a <strong>la</strong> piratería Piracy is not theft Not piracy<br />

Internet no será otra TV No mates <strong>la</strong> música File sharing is not piracy Don’t Kill the Music<br />

Cultura libre No a <strong>la</strong> piratería File sharing is not theft<br />

Conocimiento libre Se legal Respect privacy<br />

Por <strong>la</strong> libertad en <strong>la</strong> Red.<br />

No al cierre <strong>de</strong> webs<br />

La propiedad intelectual<br />

no pue<strong>de</strong> colocarse por<br />

encima <strong>de</strong> los <strong>de</strong>rechos<br />

fundamentales<br />

Rights in the digital age<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

3. Moreover, this documentary analysis allows us to recognize the main features of the<br />

opposing stances and to i<strong>de</strong>ntify simi<strong>la</strong>rities and differences between the regu<strong>la</strong>tions. 10<br />

Although the documentary analysis is a rich source of valuable information, it could<br />

also be a little bit limited, when we are building a data set that covers a long period of time<br />

with a <strong>la</strong>rge number of agents and recording many events. In that sense we <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> to test<br />

other methods.<br />

As it is known, Internet users create different types of networks and most of their interactions<br />

are documented on the Web. When we use web communication tools, database<br />

are created and maintained with records and log files that document the <strong>de</strong>tails of the time,<br />

10 The documents that we have analyzed can be consulted in this reference (Salcedo M 2011). We do not<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong> it here because of their size (more than 30 pages).


524 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

p<strong>la</strong>ce and participants of each interaction. In that sense we have an accurate and extensive set<br />

of data to explore. For this reason, in or<strong>de</strong>r to complement our traditional methodological<br />

approaches such as documentary analysis and automatic content analysis, we have <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d<br />

to apply hyperlink network analysis.<br />

We emphasize in the functional attributes of hyperlinks, as we exp<strong>la</strong>in web sites visibility<br />

is <strong>la</strong>rgely <strong>de</strong>termined by the number of back-links from other web sites particu<strong>la</strong>rly<br />

from the highly ranked ones. Referring to hyperlink analysis, in the footnotes we consi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

important to make a short review of some key concepts that are essential to un<strong>de</strong>rstand this<br />

process. These concepts are crawling and seeds. 11 The crawler and the scrapper that we use<br />

have been <strong>de</strong>veloped by the Digital Methods Initiative 12 .<br />

How do we <strong>de</strong>fine our media issue network?<br />

1. We use the documentary analysis to <strong>de</strong>fine the selection of agents that we use as seeds<br />

to the online issue network. In our first crawlers we <strong>de</strong>fine as seeds:<br />

a. In the first Spanish crawler, we <strong>de</strong>fine twenty-five initial agents. Seven of them are a<br />

part of the coalition and the other eighteen are a part of the digital rights movement.<br />

b. In the first UK crawler our list of seeds is composed by ten agents, six of them are<br />

a part of the coalition and the other four are a part of the digital rights movement.<br />

c. With both lists of agents we <strong>la</strong>unched two preliminary crawlers for each of the cases,<br />

in or<strong>de</strong>r to test with our final crawlers and to have more robust results.<br />

2. Following Park and Thewall (2005:179), we must be very careful to ensure that the<br />

interpretations p<strong>la</strong>ced upon links in online networks are genuinely evi<strong>de</strong>nt from the<br />

data, as some individual links appear to have no meaning at all and do not perform a<br />

communication role (Thelwall 2009). This means that the links must be assessed to corroborate<br />

if they actually reflect the intention that we suppose and in that vein we have<br />

to clean and to c<strong>la</strong>ssify our crawler outcomes according to a <strong>de</strong>fined criteria. To i<strong>de</strong>ntify<br />

what an organization represents on the Web we study the web sites, coding the crawler<br />

outcomes (URLs), to do that we visit and read each site obtained, this process help us<br />

to obtain more information about the conflict and the stance of the different actors. If<br />

they have any <strong>de</strong>c<strong>la</strong>rations (opinion, comments or logo of the campaign...) about the<br />

11 Crawling is the process of fetching (getting / downloading) web pages using what is called a crawl,<br />

which is a software robot who is programmed to <strong>de</strong>velop this kind of task. (Rogers 2006a). The<br />

process of crawling that we applied is a co-link analysis. That means that out links of the initial<br />

URLs(<strong>de</strong>gree one) are located and the website pages (no<strong>de</strong>s) that share minimum two links in common<br />

are saved.. After the first <strong>de</strong>gree the crawl begins again the process. It could do it until three<br />

<strong>de</strong>grees. We use at least three iterations for locating an issue network.<br />

Seeds: In any process of hyperlinks analyses it is crucial how we <strong>de</strong>fine our starting points -what we<br />

called seeds. The crawler builds the web graph from the seed of URLs that we provi<strong>de</strong>d. The seed is expected<br />

to inclu<strong>de</strong> the websites of the most significant agents in the issue of interest.<br />

12 Richard Rogers. http://wiki.digitalmethods.net/ (03/03/2011)


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

525<br />

<strong>la</strong>w, we <strong>de</strong>termine their stance in the conflict (Favour/oppose). When the issue stance<br />

of the agent is not evi<strong>de</strong>nt we do an advanced search within each site looking for the<br />

following queries: “Ley <strong>de</strong> Economía Sostenible” oR “Ley Sin<strong>de</strong>” oR “Digital Act”<br />

oR “Digital Bill” according if it is part of the Spanish or UK network. If we do not<br />

find anything we c<strong>la</strong>ssify it as no position (NP). This process allow us to answer how<br />

much a specific web site has to say about the given issue, or why it is likely to have been<br />

inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the web graph results.<br />

3. The criteria we use to co<strong>de</strong> the URLs by the type of agents are the following:<br />

i. Digital Rights Movement (associations of users, and civil and fundamental rights)<br />

ii. Copyright advocacy coalition (members of the entertainment industry, tra<strong>de</strong> associations,<br />

private software organizations)<br />

iii. Government (national and international governmental agencies)<br />

iv. Company (enterprises that <strong>de</strong>fend their own interests but not are totally aligned with<br />

the coalition or the movement such as internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs, search engines).<br />

4. After this process we <strong>la</strong>unch a second wave of crawls with a more representative set of<br />

seeds. To <strong>de</strong>fine our seeds for the second crawl, we do a specialized search in Google<br />

news UK and Google news Spain, to i<strong>de</strong>ntify which are the first one hund<strong>red</strong> results on<br />

the issue (“Digital Act” oR “Digital Economy Bill” oR “Man<strong>de</strong>lson’s <strong>la</strong>w”” oR “Antipiracy<br />

<strong>la</strong>w”/”ley <strong>de</strong> Economía Sostenible” oR “ley Sin<strong>de</strong>” oR “ley anti<strong>de</strong>scargas” oR<br />

“ley antipiratería”). We consi<strong>de</strong>r that with one hund<strong>red</strong> we have a correct level of reliability<br />

(Jansen & Spink 2003; Spink & Jansen 2004); we chose 100 sorted by Google News<br />

relevance. The period of analysis is the same one that we use in the documentary analysis.<br />

5. In these one hund<strong>red</strong> results with the list of agents that we have obtained in the first<br />

wave of crawlers we do an automatic content analysis to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the agents with the<br />

highest frequency of citations in news. We use this list of agents (the URLs) as our new<br />

seeds. We obtain 46 seeds for each case (UK and Spain), 23 that oppose to the <strong>la</strong>w<br />

and 23 which support the <strong>la</strong>w. This is the minimum number of agents that are visible,<br />

there are agents that ranking by the number of citation have a measure of zero in the<br />

position 24, this was our cut-off to choose the first 23 seeds for each issue stance. Also<br />

the number of agents must be the same in both networks in or<strong>de</strong>r to avoid the problem<br />

of imba<strong>la</strong>nce (in terms of number of seeds that could affect the final outcome) that the<br />

preliminary crawlers had (see the list of final seeds in the next tables).<br />

Table 2. List of seeds Spain, LES<br />

Seeds Spain favor Seeds Spain oppose<br />

1 http://www.aisge.es http://www.alt1040.com<br />

2 http://www.asesoriajuridica<strong>de</strong><strong>la</strong>sartes.com/ http://www.archive.org<br />

3 http://www.asociacion<strong>de</strong>distribuidoreseimportadorescinema.visualnet.com/ http://www.aui.es<br />

4 http://www.bsa.org/country.aspx?sc_<strong>la</strong>ng=es-ES http://www.bufetalmeida.com<br />

5 http://www.cedro.org http://www.conservas.tk<br />

6 http://www.cinemavip.com/companies/adivan http://www.creativecommons.org


526 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Seeds Spain favor Seeds Spain oppose<br />

7 http://www.circulo.es/ http://www.culturalibre.org<br />

8 http://www.damautor.es http://www.eff.org<br />

9 http://www.egeda.es http://www.elcosmonauta.es<br />

10 http://www.fap.org.es http://www.enriquedans.com<br />

11 http://www.fnac.com/ http://www.error500.net<br />

12 http://www.llorenteycuenca.com/ http://www.estalel<strong>la</strong>.wordpress.com<br />

13 http://www.mcu.es http://www.exgae.net<br />

14 http://www.nearco.es/ http://www.fsf.org<br />

15 http://www.promusicae.es http://www.gnu.org<br />

16 http://www.<strong>red</strong>.es http://www.hispalinux.es<br />

17 http://www.sansebastianfestival.com http://www.internautas.org<br />

18 http://www.secies.com/ http://www.jamendo.com<br />

19 http://www.sgae.es http://www.<strong>la</strong>quadrature.net<br />

20 http://www.siereslegalereslegal.com http://www.mangasver<strong>de</strong>s.es<br />

21 http://www.tercermercado.com/ http://www.mero<strong>de</strong>ando.com<br />

22 http://www.uveunionvi<strong>de</strong>ograficaespano<strong>la</strong>.visualnet.com/ http://www.noalcierre<strong>de</strong>webs.com<br />

23 http://www.ecam.es http://www.nomada.blogs.com<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Table 3. List of UK seeds. Digital Economy Act.<br />

Seeds UK favor Seeds UK oppose<br />

1 http://www.abo.org.uk http://www.38<strong>de</strong>grees.org.uk/page/speakout/extremeinternetl<br />

2 http://www.berr.gov.uk http://www.archive.org<br />

3 http://www.billboard.biz http://www.chillingeffects.org<br />

4 http://www.billboard.com http://www.creativecommons.org<br />

5 http://www.bmi.com http://www.dontdisconnect.us<br />

6 http://www.bpi.co.uk http://www.eff.org<br />

7 http://www.britishaca<strong>de</strong>my.com http://www.effi.org<br />

8 http://www.britishcopyright.org http://www.epic.org<br />

9 http://www.brits.co.uk http://www.ffii.org<br />

10 http://www.ccskills.org.uk http://www.fipr.org<br />

11 http://www.creative-choices.co.uk http://www.freeculture.org<br />

12 http://www.culture.gov.uk http://www.freedom-to-tinker.com<br />

13 http://www.equity.org.uk http://www.ico.gov.uk<br />

14 http://www.hp.com http://www.lessig.org<br />

15 http://www.ifpi.org http://www.magnatune.com<br />

16 http://www.interactive.bis.gov.uk http://www.musicindie.com<br />

17 http://www.ipo.gov.uk http://www.musicindie.org<br />

18 http://www.ism.org http://www.mysociety.org<br />

19 http://www.mi<strong>de</strong>m.com http://www.no2id.net<br />

20 http://www.mpg.org.uk http://www.openrightsgroup.org


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

Seeds UK favor Seeds UK oppose<br />

21 http://www.musicweek.com http://www.privacyinternational.org<br />

22 http://www.own-it.org http://www.soros.org<br />

23 http://www.patent.gov.uk http://www.theyworkforyou.com<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration.<br />

527<br />

6. With the outcomes of the second crawl we c<strong>la</strong>ssify and co<strong>de</strong> the URLs again following<br />

the same criteria as in step 3 in or<strong>de</strong>r to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the stance and type of the different<br />

agents in the issue network.<br />

7. With the crawl results we calcu<strong>la</strong>te the number of back-links for each URL in the issue<br />

network, and at the same time we obtain the back-links in Google and Alexa, in or<strong>de</strong>r to<br />

observe if there is a corre<strong>la</strong>tion between visibility in the sample, and visibility on the Web.<br />

8. With the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ name list that we get after coding and making our database<br />

with the crawl results, we scrape the news (Google news) and the blogosphere (Google<br />

Blogs) in or<strong>de</strong>r to i<strong>de</strong>ntify the number of times that each agent is mentioned in each<br />

channel. Also we assess the corre<strong>la</strong>tion level between presences in the different channels.<br />

As we mention we expect to i<strong>de</strong>ntify if the same agents who have a high level of<br />

citation on news and also on blogs have a high level of visibility on the web. In this case<br />

we use the first 100 results of each channel. In or<strong>de</strong>r to query each channel we use the<br />

same syntax and the same period of time used in the documentary analysis.<br />

4. contextual features<br />

Spain and United Kingdom are countries with a high penetration rate of Internet users,<br />

both of them are ranked among the top 20 countries worldwi<strong>de</strong>; however in the European<br />

context Spain compa<strong>red</strong> to UK in internet uses and practice is not a frontrunner (Table 4).<br />

According to the Europe´s digital competitiveness report (European Commission 2009b) in<br />

EU (27 countries) Spain has a lot of indicators below average and show low rankings. In the<br />

same report UK is consi<strong>de</strong><strong>red</strong> one of the best performing countries in Europe, with most of<br />

the benchmarking indicators above the EU average.<br />

Table 4. Internet use statistics.<br />

UK Spain<br />

EU ranking top 10 (in terms of number of users) 3 7<br />

World ranking (top 20 in terms of number of users) 8 18<br />

Internet (penetration rate in households) 62% 47%<br />

Broadband (penetration rate in households) 58% 44%<br />

Downloading/listening to/watching music and/or films (popu<strong>la</strong>tion %) 34% 31%<br />

Paying for online audiovisual contents (popu<strong>la</strong>tion %) 12% 3%<br />

Source: Internet world stats 2010, Eurobarometer No.335 -2010,<br />

Europe’s Digital Competitiveness Report, 2009


528 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

The exceptions are with downloading, listening and watching music vi<strong>de</strong>os or films,<br />

which present a very close popu<strong>la</strong>tion rate in both cases (Table 4), however in the Spanish<br />

case we can observe that just a 3% of the popu<strong>la</strong>tion finally pay for the audiovisual content<br />

that they consume compa<strong>red</strong> to the 12% in UK. It seems that Spanish audiovisual<br />

consumers compa<strong>red</strong> to UK usually do not pay for audiovisual contents, and prefer other<br />

mechanisms to get these contents. one common comment from people of the DRA is<br />

that in Spain there is not an enough legal supply of digital contents as we can find in UK<br />

or USA, also they sustain that the price continue being so high and it is difficult to find<br />

updated content (Grueso Stéphane 2011; Levi 2011; Cuchí 2011; Dans 2010). According<br />

to the report of E-communication 2008 (Fundación orange 2009) Spain is the European<br />

country with the highest circu<strong>la</strong>tion of P2P networks and at the same time is the country<br />

with the highest level of Creative of Commons licenses (El Pais 2010; creativecommonsorg<br />

2009). These facts may exp<strong>la</strong>in a higher visibility of the Spanish DRM movement<br />

on the web.<br />

other contextual factor to consi<strong>de</strong>r is the public perception about internet regu<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

in both cases. Spanish internet users are divi<strong>de</strong>d about regu<strong>la</strong>tion, 47% of users agree<br />

with the position that the internet should never be subject to any level of government<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion, whereas 51% disagree with this statement. In the British case, 43% of Internet<br />

users agree with the statement that Internet should never be subject to any level of government<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion, whereas 55 % disagree (GlobeScan 2009). Consequently we could<br />

expect that the opposition regarding the regu<strong>la</strong>tion in Spain has a slight higher public<br />

support compa<strong>red</strong> to British movement, and this may affect in a positive way its levels of<br />

media visibility.<br />

If we analyze the <strong>la</strong>ws, Spanish regu<strong>la</strong>tion –LES-compa<strong>red</strong> to the British-DEA– differs<br />

in the scope in terms of the target and type of punishments; the DEA does not only consi<strong>de</strong>r<br />

the closure of websites with “un-authorized” contents as it is proposed in the LES, but<br />

also the DEA inclu<strong>de</strong>s the provision to penalize Internet users with fines or even Internet<br />

disconnection in cases of repeated consume of “un-authorized” contents. This fact allows<br />

us to think, that internet users in UK have a stronger motivation to mobilize against the<br />

government proposal.<br />

The process to approve the <strong>la</strong>w has also been different in both countries; in UK all<br />

the government and also the parties have supported the <strong>la</strong>w. Moreover, the <strong>la</strong>w has been<br />

approved in an extraordinary parliamentary term, what is called the “wash-up” period in<br />

which bills are not given the usual <strong>de</strong>tailed examination. It is one of the critics of the movement<br />

and some internet service provi<strong>de</strong>rs to the <strong>la</strong>w; they say that the <strong>la</strong>w has just two<br />

hours of <strong>de</strong>bate in the Commons. In Spain all the parties initially, except the government<br />

party, opposed to the <strong>la</strong>w, and also it was very difficult to obtain parties support after all<br />

the leaks of the US Department of State about the lobby of US officials to promote this<br />

regu<strong>la</strong>tion (El País 2010a, El País 2010b; Elo<strong>la</strong> 2010; Fraguas 2010). Finally the <strong>la</strong>w was<br />

approved in a second <strong>de</strong>bate, but with some changes that seem to have unsatisfied all the<br />

stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in the conflict (Iglesia 2011; El País 2011; El mundo.es 2011; Alonso Julio<br />

et al. 2011).


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

5. findings<br />

529<br />

In or<strong>de</strong>r to answer our hypothesis number one about the higher visibility of the CRC<br />

and the government on news channel, on the next table it can be observed that the CRC<br />

in the Spanish case is more visible than the movement (in terms of number of citations)<br />

something that is according to our expectations. If we also consi<strong>de</strong>r the government, the<br />

news visibility of those who support the <strong>la</strong>w is higher in Spain. In UK if we consi<strong>de</strong>r that<br />

the government agencies share the same position with the CRC this alliance will be much<br />

more visible than DRA but if we focus only in the CRC we must reject our hypothesis<br />

one, however the difference between both (CRC and DRA) in news visibility is very slight<br />

and with this data there is little evi<strong>de</strong>nce that one stakehol<strong>de</strong>r is more visible than the<br />

other in UK 13 .<br />

Table 5. Number of times the agents are mentioned in different channels by type of agent<br />

CRC<br />

DRA<br />

Gov<br />

News (# of<br />

times quoted)<br />

UK Spain<br />

Blogs (# of<br />

times quoted)<br />

OIN* (backlinks)<br />

News (# of times<br />

quoted)<br />

Blogs (# of times<br />

quoted)<br />

OIN (backlinks)<br />

Mean 177 5380 60 48581 27700 7<br />

%Sum Colum ,5% 10,6% 10,4% 10,1% 30,6% ,3%<br />

Std. Deviation 989 12407 160 14582 67392 15<br />

Max 6017 68465 707 4658 220426 42<br />

Min 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

n 37 11<br />

Mean 248 7778 125 611 1350 353<br />

%Sum Colum ,7% 15,8% 22,8% 7,3% 8,3% 86,2%<br />

Std. Deviation 1122 19342 301 3713 3097 656<br />

Max 6619 93828 1360 28808 15372 3725<br />

Min 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

n 39 61<br />

Mean 21358 23961 249 56583 105154 136<br />

%Sum Colum 80,8% 67,7% 61,6% 44,5% 42,2% 2,2%<br />

Std. Deviation 151100 149587 731 113156 209531 159<br />

Max 1100519 1091379 4831 226316 419449 308<br />

Min 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

n 53 4<br />

13 It is important to observe that our data has very high standard <strong>de</strong>viations; this means that there are extreme<br />

values that affect the visibility distribution; in our case this implies that a few agents (members<br />

of the CRC, DRA, Government, Companies) concentrate a very high level of visibility and others<br />

have a very low level.


530 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Companies<br />

News (# of<br />

times quoted)<br />

UK Spain<br />

Blogs (# of<br />

times quoted)<br />

OIN* (backlinks)<br />

News (# of times<br />

quoted)<br />

Blogs (# of times<br />

quoted)<br />

OIN (backlinks)<br />

Mean 252820 27739 278 19389 18809 284<br />

%Sum Colum 18,0% 5,9% 5,2% 38,1% 18,9% 11,4%<br />

Std. Deviation 126410 52768 314 60541 48246 569<br />

Max 63205 106837 561 191681 153323 1667<br />

Min 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />

n 4 10<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Nevertheless, this measure is not highly reliable if we want to assess visibility in a positive<br />

way, because it is possible that your name is mentioned very often but it is to criticize you,<br />

or it is mentioned with other purpose not re<strong>la</strong>ted with the regu<strong>la</strong>tion. Because of that and<br />

to triangu<strong>la</strong>te our first findings, we <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to assess the visibility of the main slogans advertised<br />

by the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in the different channels. In the table 6 we summarize our findings.<br />

UK<br />

Spain<br />

Table 6. Number of times the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs slogans are<br />

mentioned in different channels by issue stance.<br />

Blogs Mean Blogs News-Mean News<br />

Oppose 124211 92,7% 17049 54,8%<br />

Favour 10855 7,3% 15626 45,2%<br />

Oppose 610 99,9% 11207 11,3%<br />

Favour 1 ,1% 103626 88,7%<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

Following our analysis in news channel, we confirm that in UK the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs who<br />

are against the <strong>la</strong>w have a higher news visibility (55%), so we have to refute our hypothesis<br />

one for the UK case. In Spain the data about slogans verify our previous findings; the CRC<br />

is more visible on news (89%) than the DRA.<br />

Figure 3: Stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs presence on the online issue network.<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

531<br />

To asses our hypothesis number two about the higher visibility by the DRA on nontraditional<br />

media, firstly in the figure three in terms of the presence on the online issue<br />

network in both cases (UK-Spain), there are more DRA members (organizations web sites)<br />

than CRC members, this is something that we expected. When we analyse percentage of<br />

back-links to each type of actor (table 5) which is a more accurate measure of online visibility<br />

we observe the same trend. In UK the DRA concentrates 23% of backlinks versus 10% of<br />

backlinks to the CRC, as we point out in the news analysis in UK if we consi<strong>de</strong>r also the<br />

government this alliance has a higher visibility than the DRA; in Spain the difference is huge,<br />

the DRA concentrates 86% of back-links. When we consi<strong>de</strong>r the slogans visibility on blogs<br />

(table 6), the trend is the same, and the slogans against the <strong>la</strong>w in both cases (UK-Spain)<br />

dominate wi<strong>de</strong>ly the blogs channels. The DRA is stronger on the online <strong>de</strong>bate, and in this<br />

way we confirm our hypothesis number two.<br />

As we expected and because of the contextual features that we <strong>de</strong>scribe the movement<br />

in Spain is stronger than in UK, but someone may have presence on the issue network that<br />

is a small sample of the web and this is not a guarantee that these agents are really visible on<br />

the entire web which is what we expected to <strong>de</strong>monstrate in our hypotheses number three.<br />

Because of that and to asses our third hypotheses we compare the sample back-links with<br />

Google and Alexa back-links.<br />

Table 7. Corre<strong>la</strong>tion DRA back-links sample, Alexa and Google<br />

Spearman’s rho<br />

Back-links Google Back-links Alexa<br />

Back-links DRA UK ,424** ,410**<br />

UK N 39<br />

Back-links DRA Spain ,335** ,416**<br />

Spain N 61<br />

**. Corre<strong>la</strong>tion is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

In table 7 we can observe the Spearman’s corre<strong>la</strong>tion coefficient between the visibility<br />

of the DRA agents’ web sites sample and the visibility of these web sites according to Google<br />

and Alexa. For the UK case our results are 0.42 (Google) and 0.41 (Alexa) and in the Spanish<br />

case there are 0.33 (Google) and 0.42 (Alexa). These results suggest that the visibility<br />

on the issue network and the visibility on the entire web is re<strong>la</strong>ted in a certain extent, and<br />

just in a few cases they are in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt (the coefficients tell us that the corre<strong>la</strong>tion is mo<strong>de</strong>rate).<br />

When we do the same analysis with the other types of actors we do not find significant<br />

corre<strong>la</strong>tions 14 . From this analysis we must reject our hypothesis number three. Being visible<br />

14 Just in the case of companies for the Spanish online issue network but in a negative direction, something<br />

that we expect to explore carefully in a further work.


532 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

on the online issue network for the DRA corresponds to be visible in the entire web, at least<br />

in a mo<strong>de</strong>rate level.<br />

To asses our hypotheses number 4, that is about the corre<strong>la</strong>tion of visibility in news<br />

with visibility on the issue network and blogs, we analyze the visibility of the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs in<br />

terms of the number of times they are mentioned in blogs and news, and we compare them<br />

with the number of back-links of the sample; we expected to i<strong>de</strong>ntify a corre<strong>la</strong>tion between<br />

visibility on traditional and non traditional channels (back-links).<br />

Log_n_ sample backlinks<br />

Log_n_news<br />

Log_n_blogs<br />

Table 8. Corre<strong>la</strong>tion between Back-linkss, news and blogs.<br />

**. Corre<strong>la</strong>tion is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).<br />

Spanish Spearman’s rho<br />

Log_n_ sample backlinks Log_n_news Log_n_blogs<br />

Corre<strong>la</strong>tion Coefficient 1.000 ,163 -,436**<br />

Sig. (2-tailed) . ,130 ,000<br />

N 88 88 88<br />

Corre<strong>la</strong>tion Coefficient ,163 1.000 ,433**<br />

Sig. (2-tailed) ,130 . ,000<br />

N 88 88 88<br />

Corre<strong>la</strong>tion Coefficient -,436** ,433** 1.000<br />

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 .<br />

N 88 88 88<br />

Source: own e<strong>la</strong>boration<br />

In the Spanish case we find a mo<strong>de</strong>rate positive corre<strong>la</strong>tion between news visibility<br />

and blogs, a finding that is according to the theory (Sandra Gonzalez-Bailon 2008; Hindman<br />

2009). on the other hand, when we assess the corre<strong>la</strong>tion between back-links and<br />

blogs we find a negative mo<strong>de</strong>rate corre<strong>la</strong>tion, something that in the theoretical perspective<br />

has not much sense. The corre<strong>la</strong>tion between news and back-links is not significant.<br />

This suggests that in this media <strong>de</strong>bate being visible on the news channels does not imply<br />

visibility on the online issue network (sample backlinks). In the UK case the same corre<strong>la</strong>tion<br />

between the different channels is not significant; each channel seems to have an<br />

in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt behaviour.<br />

Discussion<br />

In the online Spanish network, the Digital Rights Movement is dominant. We did<br />

not expect that the gap between the issue network visibility (presence and back-links) of<br />

the movement compa<strong>red</strong> to the visibility of the coalition would be so wi<strong>de</strong>. We recognize<br />

that the coalition has other strategies to lobby and to achieve visibility, but what we can see<br />

in the Spanish case is that the coalition visibility (Blogs and the issue network) is really low<br />

compa<strong>red</strong> to the movement, the coalition in Spain privileges traditional media.


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

533<br />

In Spain the control of the <strong>de</strong>bate online by the DRA is almost total something that<br />

may be a projection of the public antipathy that the CRC has in Spain and other contextual<br />

features that we have mentioned as the citizen perception about internet regu<strong>la</strong>tion in Spain<br />

furthermore the low online visibility level of the CRC in Spain may be associated with other<br />

signals of the bad performance on the online media of the Spanish CRC, signals as the weak<br />

and inefficient legal supply of digital contents compa<strong>red</strong> to other European countries.<br />

The DRA in both cases dominates the online channels; these findings are in the same<br />

direction as the findings of Herman (2009) in US and Briatte (2008) in France. In UK DRA<br />

seems to be a little passive if we compare it to the online visibility level of the Spanish DRA,<br />

nevertheless when we are assessing the hypothesis number two the UK DRA is also visible<br />

in news channels, a fact that theoretically involves a high level of economical resources; in<br />

addition focusing in the online channels the CRC in UK is much bigger than the CRC in<br />

Spain and seems to be better prepa<strong>red</strong> to this environment; because of that the competition<br />

to achieve online visibility is stronger in UK than in Spain and this can exp<strong>la</strong>in that the UK<br />

DRA is not as visible as the Spanish one. In addition, <strong>de</strong>spite the UK regu<strong>la</strong>tion contemp<strong>la</strong>tes<br />

penalties to internet users they have more and better legal alternatives to download<br />

“authorized” digital content, in this way there are fewer motivations to mobilize.<br />

The UK coalition is not hated as it is in the case of Spain (the Sgae bad reputation) and<br />

seems to have public support. For instance only the Lib<strong>de</strong>m has some amendments about<br />

the <strong>la</strong>w, all parties supported the <strong>la</strong>w in the UK parliament and the issue network composition<br />

shows that there are more agents that support the regu<strong>la</strong>tion than oppose it. This result<br />

is in contrast with the Spanish case, in which the regu<strong>la</strong>tion has a very low level of public<br />

support, for instance in the first <strong>de</strong>bate all the parties opposed to the government initiative,<br />

most of them seem to be afraid of the electoral cost .<br />

In contrast with the Spanish case and with US findings (B. D. Herman 2009) the<br />

UK coalition has a strong visibility on the online <strong>de</strong>bate (both in number of blog mentions<br />

and web in-links) when compa<strong>red</strong> to the Spanish coalition, which is quite weak in terms<br />

of media visibility. We can see a great difference between the UK coalition and the Spanish<br />

coalition in size, resources and digital market knowledge. This possibly exp<strong>la</strong>ins why the<br />

UK coalition has a higher visibility than the Spanish coalition. Even so, if we compare the<br />

UK case with the study of Herman (2009), his findings are in contradiction with the results<br />

we find for the case of the UK, consi<strong>de</strong>ring that the US coalition is the world’s <strong>la</strong>rgest one.<br />

Nevertheless, we need to go <strong>de</strong>eply in the UK case, the coalition seems to learn from the US<br />

experience and in this sense has <strong>de</strong>veloped a strong online campaign, and also has <strong>la</strong>unched<br />

a massive and attractive media campaign called “Why Mussic Matters?”About the personal<br />

risks and the threats to the industry and to Internet users that result from consuming unauthorized<br />

contents. Also as we mentioned in the UK the entertainment industry supplies<br />

a wi<strong>de</strong> set of legal p<strong>la</strong>tforms to consume digital content and currently the digital market in<br />

Britain is more dynamic and richer than the Spanish one. For instance nowadays Internet<br />

publicity in UK is bigger than TV advertising (Sweney Mark 2009).<br />

Re<strong>la</strong>ted to the question of a particu<strong>la</strong>r si<strong>de</strong> of the conflict being in the core of one channel,<br />

we could answer that the DRA dominates the blogosphere and in general is stronger in


534 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

the online <strong>de</strong>bate as we expected. However, if we consi<strong>de</strong>r the government as being in the<br />

same si<strong>de</strong> as the coalition, in UK the visibility of the agents who support the regu<strong>la</strong>tion is<br />

much stronger. We can see that the alliance has a high visibility (Table 5)<br />

other issues that we have to explore more <strong>de</strong>eply are the features of these agents who<br />

attain the highest level of visibility (e.g. Creative Commons, GNU org or Arts council).<br />

What are the most relevant factors that exp<strong>la</strong>in the media visibility of different stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs?<br />

And specifically insi<strong>de</strong> the DRA where as in other agents there are high levels of dispersion<br />

between visibility levels. We expect to explore if it is just the avai<strong>la</strong>bility of economical resources<br />

the possible answer to the dispersion between visibility levels.<br />

Nevertheless, in this specific conflict we observe that those agents who are not necessary<br />

wealthy have the chance to be highly visible and spread their standpoints about how<br />

the Internet should be, also their visibility on internet seems to facilitate the access to traditional<br />

media. It is not guaranteed that the authorities will incorporate their <strong>de</strong>mands in<br />

the final version of the <strong>la</strong>w, but the consequences of the policy should be analyzed during a<br />

long period of time, at this moment in both countries it is <strong>de</strong>veloped the regu<strong>la</strong>tion and the<br />

mechanism to implement the <strong>la</strong>w. The <strong>de</strong>bate continues and the stakehol<strong>de</strong>rs’ arguments in<br />

different levels are becoming visible, the DRA seems not to be limited to act against the <strong>la</strong>w,<br />

their slogans c<strong>la</strong>im for a <strong>de</strong>eper social change, further research is to analyze other countries<br />

and their c<strong>la</strong>ims and to compare them to see if common patterns emerge.<br />

6. references<br />

Adamic, L. A & Huberman, B. A, 2002. Zipf’s <strong>la</strong>w and the Internet. Glottometrics, 3(1),<br />

pág.143–150.<br />

Adamic, Lada A. et al., 2001. Search in power-<strong>la</strong>w networks. Physical Review E, 64(4),<br />

pág.046135.<br />

Alonso Julio et al., 2011. Diez visiones sobre <strong>la</strong> «Ley Sin<strong>de</strong>» | Navegante | elmundo.es.<br />

Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2011/01/27/navegante/1296143905.<br />

html [Accedido Enero 30, 2011].<br />

Andrews, K.T. & Biggs, M., 2006. The dynamics of protest diffusion: Movement organizations,<br />

social networks, and news media in the 1960 sit-ins. American Sociological<br />

Review, 71(5), pág.752.<br />

Barabási, A.-L., 2003. Linked: How Everything Is Connected to Everything Else and What It<br />

Means for Business, Science, and Everyday Life, New York, NY: A plume book.<br />

Benkler, Y., 2006. The wealth of networks : how social production transforms markets and<br />

freedom, New Haven [Conn.]: Yale University Press.<br />

Bennett, W.L. & Entman, R.M., 2001. Mediated politics: Communication in the future of<br />

<strong>de</strong>mocracy, Cambridge Univ Pr.


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

535<br />

Briatte, F., 2008. Parliamentary Controversy Expansion over Digital Rights Management<br />

in France. En Joint Sessions ECPR. Rennes. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://f.briatte.org/research/<br />

[Accedido Noviembre 3, 2010].<br />

Brighenti, A., 2007. Visibility. Current Sociology, 55(3), págs.323 -342.<br />

Brin, S. & Page, L., 1998. The anatomy of a <strong>la</strong>rge-scale hypertextual Web search engine.<br />

Computer networks and ISDN systems, 30(1-7), pág.107–117.<br />

Castells, M., 2009. Comunicación Y Po<strong>de</strong>r, Madrid: Alianza.<br />

Chadwick, A., 2008. Web 2.0: New Challenges for the Study of E-Democracy in Era of<br />

Informational Exuberance. I/S: A Journal of Law and Policy for the Information Society,<br />

5, págs.9-42.<br />

Chomsky, N. & Herman, E.S., 2002. A Propaganda Mo<strong>de</strong>l. Manufacturing Consent: the<br />

Political Economy of the Mass Media. 2d ed. New York: Pantheon Books, pág.1–35.<br />

CIS 2736, 2007. Internet y Participación Política, Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.cis.es/cis/<br />

opencms/-Archivos/Marginales/2720_2739/2736/e273600.html [Accedido Febrero<br />

24, 2010].<br />

CNN money team, 2008. FoRTUNE 500 2007: Top Performers. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2007/performers/industries/return_on_<br />

revenues/in<strong>de</strong>x.html [Accedido Julio 28, 2010].<br />

creativecommonsorg, 2009. World - CC Monitor. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://monitor.creativecommons.org/World<br />

[Accedido Abril 6, 2010].<br />

Crozier, M., 2007. Recursive governance: Contemporary political communication and<br />

public policy. Political Communication, 24(1), pág.1–18.<br />

Cuchí, J., 2011. Entrevista representate Asociación <strong>de</strong> Internautas por Jorge L Salcedo.<br />

Dans, E., 2010. Entrevistas Digitales en ELPAÍS.com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/<br />

edigitales/entrevista.html?encuentro=6344&k=Enrique_Dans [Accedido Marzo 5,<br />

2010].<br />

Dutton, W., Helsper, E. & Gerber, M., 2009. oxIS - oxford Internet Surveys. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at: http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/microsites/oxis/ [Accedido Mayo 26, 2010].<br />

El mundo.es, 2011. El PP y Cultura negocian <strong>la</strong> ley Sin<strong>de</strong> | Cultura | elmundo.es. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at: http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2011/01/17/cultura/1295260642.html<br />

[Accedido Enero 17, 2011].<br />

El Pais, 2010. España, primer país <strong>de</strong>l mundo en <strong>la</strong> adopción <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> licencia Creative Commons ·<br />

ELPAÍS.com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/tecnologia/Espana/primer/<br />

pais/mundo/adopcion/licencia/Creative/Commons/elpeputec/20100326elpeputec_4/<br />

Tes [Accedido Marzo 26, 2010].<br />

El País, 2010a. Cable que resume <strong>la</strong>s entrevistas mantenidas en España por el «número 2»<br />

<strong>de</strong> Comercio Exterior <strong>de</strong> EE UU · ELPAÍS.com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/<br />

articulo/espana/Cable/resume/entrevistas/mantenidas/Espana/numero/Comercio/Exterior/EE/UU/elpepuesp/20101220elpepunac_25/Tes<br />

[Accedido Febrero 4, 2011].


536 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

El País, 2010b. Cable sobre <strong>la</strong> polémica por <strong>la</strong> ley contra <strong>la</strong> piratería · ELPAÍS.com.<br />

Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Cable/polemica/ley/pirateria/<br />

elpepuesp/20101203elpepunac_49/Tes [Accedido Diciembre 4, 2010].<br />

El País, 2011. El «acuerdo <strong>de</strong>l Senado» encien<strong>de</strong> los ánimos en todos los sectores · ELPAÍS.<br />

com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/acuerdo/Senado/encien<strong>de</strong>/<br />

animos/todos/sectores/elpepucul/20110125elpepucul_2/Tes [Accedido Enero 25,<br />

2011].<br />

Elo<strong>la</strong>, J., 2010. EE UU ejecutó un p<strong>la</strong>n <strong>para</strong> conseguir una ley anti<strong>de</strong>scargas · ELPAÍS.com.<br />

Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/EE/UU/ejecuto/p<strong>la</strong>n/conseguir/<br />

ley/anti<strong>de</strong>scargas/elpepuesp/20101203elpepunac_52/Tes [Accedido Diciembre 4,<br />

2010].<br />

Entman, R.M., 1989. How the media affect what people think: An information processing<br />

approach. The journal of Politics, 51(02), pág.347–370.<br />

EU Parliament and Council, 2009. Telecoms Package EUR-Lex - Case-<strong>la</strong>w. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at:<br />

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JoHtml.do?uri=oJ:L:2009:337:SoM:EN:HTML [Accedido<br />

Mayo 18, 2011].<br />

European Commission, 2009a. European Commission Information society statistics - Statistics<br />

exp<strong>la</strong>ined. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_exp<strong>la</strong>ined/in<strong>de</strong>x.php/Information_society_statistics<br />

[Accedido Marzo 6, 2010].<br />

European Commission, 2009b. Europes Digital Competitiveness Report. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/key_documents/in<strong>de</strong>x_<br />

en.htm [Accedido Mayo 18, 2010].<br />

Fraguas, A., 2010. El Gobierno pidió a EE UU que presionase al PP, CiU y PNV ELPAÍS.<br />

com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/pidio/EE/<br />

UU/presionase/PP/CiU/PNV/elpepuint/20101220elpepuint_28/Tes [Accedido Diciembre<br />

21, 2010].<br />

Fundación orange, 2009. eEspaña2008, España: Fundación orange. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://<br />

fundacionorange.es/areas/25_publicaciones/publi_analisis_prospectiva.asp [Accedido<br />

Marzo 1, 2011].<br />

GlobeScan, 2009. Global Poll on Internet Access. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://globescan.com/news_<br />

archives/bbc2010_internet/ [Accedido Marzo 8, 2010].<br />

Gonzalez-Bailon, S., 2009. opening the b<strong>la</strong>ck box of link formation: Social factors un<strong>de</strong>rlying<br />

the structure of the web. Social Networks, 31(4), pág.271–280.<br />

Gonzalez-Bailon, Sandra, 2008. The inner circle divi<strong>de</strong>:How the web contributes (or not)<br />

to political equality. Oxford OXI 3UQ, Departament of Sociology, 2, págs.1-22.<br />

Grueso Stéphane, 2011. ¡Copiad, malditos! - El documental - RTVE.es. ¡Copiad, malditos!<br />

Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.rtve.es/television/documentales/copiad-malditos/ [Accedido<br />

Abril 18, 2011].<br />

Hajer, M., 2009. Authoritative governance : policy-making in the age of mediatization,<br />

oxford ;;New York: oxford University Press.


Conflicts about the regu<strong>la</strong>tion of intellectual property in Internet: comparing the issue networks…<br />

537<br />

Hajer, M.A., 2009. Authoritative governance: policy-making in the age of mediatization,<br />

oxford University Press.<br />

Helms, L., 2008. Governing in the Media Age: The Impact of the Mass Media on Executive<br />

Lea<strong>de</strong>rship in Contemporary Democracies1. Government and Opposition, 43(1),<br />

pág.26–54.<br />

Herman, B.D., 2009. The Battle over Digital Rights Management: A Multi-Method Study of<br />

the Politics of Copyright Management Technologies. SSRN eLibrary. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://<br />

papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1357203 [Accedido Mayo 11, 2010].<br />

Hindman, M.S., 2009. The myth of digital <strong>de</strong>mocracy, Princeton Univ Press.<br />

Iglesia, A., 2011. «Después <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ga<strong>la</strong>, dimito como presi<strong>de</strong>nte» · ELPAÍS.com. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble<br />

at: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Despues/ga<strong>la</strong>/dimito/presi<strong>de</strong>nte/<br />

elpepucul/20110125elpepucul_9/Tes [Accedido Enero 25, 2011].<br />

Iyengar, S. & Simon, A.F., 2000. New perspectives and evi<strong>de</strong>nce on political communication<br />

and campaign effects. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), pág.149–169.<br />

Jansen, B.J. & Spink, A., 2003. An analysis of web documents retrieved and viewed. En<br />

International Conference on Internet Computing. pág 65–69.<br />

K<strong>la</strong>ehn, J., 2002. A critical review and assessment of Herman and Chomsky’s’ propaganda<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>l’. European Journal of Communication, 17(2), pág.147.<br />

Levi, S., 2011. Entrevista Simona Leví por Jorge L Salcedo.<br />

McCombs, M.E. & Shaw, D.L., 1993. The evolution of agenda-setting research: twentyfive<br />

years in the marketp<strong>la</strong>ce of i<strong>de</strong>as. Journal of Communication, 43(2), pág.58–67.<br />

Milner, H., 2002. Civic literacy: How informed citizens make <strong>de</strong>mocracy work, Tufts University.<br />

Newton, K., 1999. Mass media effects: mobilization or media ma<strong>la</strong>ise? British Journal of<br />

Political Science, 29(04), pág.577–599.<br />

Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project, 2010. Infographics | Pew<br />

Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.pewinternet.org/Static-Pages/Data-Tools/Get-the-Latest-Statistics/Infographics.aspx[Accedido<br />

Enero 30, 2011].<br />

Pickerill, J., 2003. Cyberprotest: Environmental Activism Online, Manchester [etc.]: Manchester<br />

University Press.<br />

Reese, S.D., Gandy, o.H. & Grant, A.E., 2003. Framing public life: perspectives on media<br />

and our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the social world, Routledge.<br />

Rheingold, H., 2003. Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, Basic Books.<br />

Salcedo M, J.L., 2011. Jorge Luis Salcedo Maldonado | Universitat Autònoma <strong>de</strong> Barcelona<br />

- Aca<strong>de</strong>mia.edu. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://uab.aca<strong>de</strong>mia.edu/JorgeLuisSalcedoMaldonado<br />

[Accedido Marzo 2, 2011].<br />

Spink & Jansen, 2004. A study of Web search trends. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://webology.ir/2004/<br />

v1n2/a4.html [Accedido Julio 18, 2010].


538 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Strömberg, D., 2001. Mass media and public policy. European Economic Review, 45(4-6),<br />

págs.652-663.<br />

Sweney Mark, 2009. Internet overtakes television to become biggest advertising sector in<br />

the UK | Media | The Guardian. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/<br />

sep/30/internet-biggest-uk-advertising-sector [Accedido Mayo 26, 2010].<br />

Taleb, N.N., 2007. B<strong>la</strong>ck swans and the domains of statistics. The American Statistician,<br />

61(3), pág.198–200.<br />

Thelwall, 2009. Introduction to webometrics quantitative Web research for the social sciences,<br />

[San Rafael, Calif.] :: Morgan & C<strong>la</strong>ypool Publishers,.<br />

Thompson, J. B., 2005. The New Visibility. Theory, Culture & Society, 22(6), págs.31-51.<br />

Thompson, John B, 2008. :: revista TELoS Por una teoría interre<strong>la</strong>cional <strong>de</strong> los<br />

medios.La nueva visibilidadTowards an Integrated Theory of Media.The<br />

New Visibility. Avai<strong>la</strong>ble at: http://sociedadinformacion.fundacion.telefonica.com/<br />

telos/cua<strong>de</strong>rnoimprimible.asp@idarticulo=7&rev=74.htm [Accedido Enero 24, 2011].<br />

Voltmer, K. & Schmitt-Beck, R., 2002. The Mass Media and Citizens’ orientations Towards<br />

Democracy: The Experience of Six ‘Third-Wave’Democracies in Southern Europe,<br />

Eastern Europe and Latin America. En Workshops of the European Consortium for<br />

Political Research. pág 22–27.<br />

Walgrave, S. & De Swert, K., 2005. Does news content matter? Ethical Perspectives, 9(4),<br />

pág.249–274.<br />

Walgrave, S. & Van Aelst, P., 2006. The contingency of the mass media’s political agenda setting<br />

power: Toward a preliminary theory. Journal of Communication, 56(1), pág.88–109.<br />

Watts, D.J., 2003. Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age, New York [etc.]: W.W. Norton.<br />

Weaver, D.A. & Bimber, B., 2008. Finding news stories: A comparison of searches using<br />

LexisNexis and Google News. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(3),<br />

pág.515–530.<br />

Weaver, D. & Drew, D., 2001. Voter Learning and Interest in the 2000 Presi<strong>de</strong>ntial Election:<br />

Did the Media Matter?. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 78(4),<br />

pág.787–98.<br />

Zaller, J., 1996. The myth of massive media impact revived: New support for a disc<strong>red</strong>ited<br />

i<strong>de</strong>a. En Political persuasion and attitu<strong>de</strong> change. pág 17–78.


30<br />

lAs CIBer-CAmPAñAs eN AmérICA lAtINA:<br />

POteNCIAlIDADes y lImItANtes<br />

Dr. Andrés Val<strong>de</strong>z Zepeda<br />

Universidad <strong>de</strong> Guada<strong>la</strong>jara (México)<br />

AbstrAct: La ponencia discute sobre el <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas en América Latina a <strong>la</strong> luz<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s transformaciones políticas <strong>de</strong> cuño <strong>de</strong>mocrático <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s últimas décadas y <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> socialización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s<br />

nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones que se ha observado en <strong>la</strong> región.<br />

Se analiza el caso <strong>de</strong> seis países <strong>de</strong> este subcontinente (Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y<br />

Venezue<strong>la</strong>) que han incorporado a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones<br />

como parte central <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s estrategias <strong>de</strong> campaña en <strong>la</strong>s elecciones generales. Se analizan también <strong>la</strong>s<br />

potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes <strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> campañas. Se concluye que <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas llegaron <strong>para</strong><br />

quedarse en América <strong>la</strong>tina, cuyo nivel <strong>de</strong> socialización tecnológica avanza a pasos agigantados. Sin embargo,<br />

este tipo <strong>de</strong> campañas tiene sus limitantes <strong>para</strong> lograr sus objetivos, ante un electorado con bajos<br />

niveles educativos y cada día más <strong>de</strong>cepcionado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> c<strong>la</strong>se política.<br />

pAlAbrAs clAve: Cibercampañas, América <strong>la</strong>tina, re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, <strong>de</strong>mocracia digital, <strong>la</strong> política en<br />

<strong>la</strong> era punto com.<br />

1. introducción<br />

Las cibercampañas electorales se están <strong>institucional</strong>izando como una nueva forma <strong>de</strong><br />

hacer política en América <strong>la</strong>tina, producto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> socialización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías y <strong>de</strong><br />

los procesos <strong>de</strong> consolidación <strong>de</strong>mocrática, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong>l aprendizaje que se ha obtenido <strong>de</strong>l<br />

ejemplo que han dado <strong>la</strong>s naciones <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>das, como Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> Norteamérica y<br />

España, respecto <strong>de</strong> su funcionalidad y eficiencia.<br />

Los ejemplos <strong>de</strong> Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Venezue<strong>la</strong> muestran que<br />

este tipo <strong>de</strong> campaña es cada día más utilizado por los partidos y sus candidatos en <strong>la</strong> región,<br />

ya sea <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> ganar un mayor número <strong>de</strong> votos a su favor o <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> quitárselos<br />

a sus opositores.<br />

En este sentido, bien se pue<strong>de</strong> asegurar que <strong>la</strong>s campañas digitales, como también se les<br />

conoce a <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas, llegaron <strong>para</strong> quedarse en América <strong>la</strong>tina, cuyo nivel <strong>de</strong> socialización<br />

tecnológica avanza a pasos agigantados. Sin embargo, este tipo <strong>de</strong> campañas tiene sus<br />

limitantes <strong>para</strong> lograr sus objetivos, ante un electorado con bajos niveles educativos y cada<br />

día más <strong>de</strong>cepcionado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> c<strong>la</strong>se política.<br />

En esta ponencia, se realiza un diagnóstico situacional <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cibrercampañas<br />

en los principales países <strong>de</strong> América <strong>la</strong>tina, se seña<strong>la</strong>n sus potencialida<strong>de</strong>s en materia <strong>de</strong> persuasión<br />

y movilización electoral y, sobre todo, se analizan <strong>la</strong>s limitaciones que este tipo <strong>de</strong><br />

estrategias políticas enfrentan en esta importante región <strong>de</strong>l continente americano.


540 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

2. <strong>la</strong> PolÍtica en <strong>la</strong> era “Punto.com”<br />

La política ha sido transformada históricamente gracias, en gran medida, al <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

tecnológico. Por ejemplo, con <strong>la</strong> invención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> imprenta mo<strong>de</strong>rna, en 1440 por el alemán<br />

Johannes Gutenberg, <strong>la</strong>s i<strong>de</strong>as políticas y religiosas pudieron ser reproducidas masivamente<br />

<strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r llegar a más gente. De esta forma, <strong>la</strong>s copias manuscritas <strong>de</strong> proc<strong>la</strong>mas, manifiestos,<br />

i<strong>de</strong>arios o doctrinas políticas, dieron paso a reproducciones <strong>de</strong> publicaciones en serie <strong>de</strong><br />

libros, periódicos y revistas, lo que significó un avance revolucionario <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r propagar<br />

i<strong>de</strong>as y proyectos políticos a esca<strong>la</strong> mucho mayor. Fue así como <strong>la</strong>s i<strong>de</strong>as renacentistas tuvieron<br />

mayor eco y difusión al ser reproducidas en textos e imágenes en toda <strong>la</strong> vieja Europa.<br />

Hoy día, <strong>la</strong> impresión manual ha cedido lugar a <strong>la</strong> impresión electrónica y digital que posibilita<br />

una alta calidad y rapi<strong>de</strong>z en <strong>la</strong> reproducción <strong>de</strong> textos e imágenes <strong>de</strong> carácter político.<br />

Por su parte, con <strong>la</strong> invención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> radio por el inglés Guglielmo Marconi en 18971 ,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s posibilida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> propagar <strong>la</strong>s i<strong>de</strong>as políticas y sociales aumentaron significativamente2 .<br />

Ahora ya no sólo era el texto, sino <strong>la</strong> voz, el medio por el cual se pudo propagar <strong>la</strong>s i<strong>de</strong>as<br />

políticas a gran<strong>de</strong>s distancias. Ya <strong>para</strong> los años veinte <strong>de</strong>l siglo próximo pasado (XX), <strong>la</strong>s<br />

estaciones <strong>de</strong> radio con programas <strong>de</strong> entretenimiento e informativos empezaron a surgir<br />

en diferentes partes <strong>de</strong>l mundo, como en los Estados Unidos y Argentina. Para <strong>la</strong> siguiente<br />

década, <strong>la</strong> radio había incursionado <strong>de</strong> lleno en <strong>la</strong> política y, en lo particu<strong>la</strong>r, en <strong>la</strong>s campañas<br />

electorales. Un ejemplo <strong>de</strong> esto fue <strong>la</strong> campaña <strong>de</strong> F.D. Roosevelt en los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong><br />

Norteamérica, quien utilizó <strong>la</strong> radio como medio <strong>para</strong> ganar <strong>la</strong>s elecciones presi<strong>de</strong>nciales3 .<br />

Con <strong>la</strong> invención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> televisión, a finales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> década <strong>de</strong> los veinte4 , <strong>la</strong> comunicación<br />

política alcanzó niveles sin prece<strong>de</strong>nte, posibilitando <strong>la</strong> transmisión a distancia <strong>de</strong> sonidos,<br />

imágenes y textos. En 1952, el candidato republicano D. Eisenhower utilizó <strong>la</strong> televisión<br />

<strong>para</strong> ganar <strong>la</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial, transmitiendo 36 diferentes spots publicitarios en este<br />

nuevo medio <strong>de</strong> comunicación <strong>de</strong> masas. A partir <strong>de</strong> este momento, <strong>la</strong> televisión se convirtió<br />

en el medio privilegiado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> política a nivel global <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> influir en el comportamiento<br />

y conducta <strong>de</strong> los electores5 .<br />

1 Marconi montó <strong>la</strong> primera estación <strong>de</strong> radio <strong>de</strong>l mundo en Ing<strong>la</strong>terra, utilizando <strong>la</strong>s ondas electromagnéticas<br />

<strong>de</strong>scubiertas por Heinrich Rudolf Hertz y James Clerk Maxwell.<br />

2 Ya antes, en 1840 Samuel Morse había inventado el telégrafo y en 1875 Graham Bell inventó <strong>la</strong> telefonía,<br />

misma que posibilitó propagar sonidos y mensajes a través <strong>de</strong> cables.<br />

3 En Argentina, por su parte, <strong>la</strong> radio hizo su aparición como medio hegemónico <strong>de</strong> comunicación<br />

política en <strong>la</strong> elección <strong>de</strong> 1928, en el segundo periodo <strong>de</strong> Hipólito Yrigoyen.<br />

4 En 1927 se inició <strong>la</strong> primera emisión <strong>de</strong> televisión pública en Ing<strong>la</strong>terra y en 1930 en los Estados<br />

Unidos <strong>de</strong> Norteamérica. En 1937, comenzaron <strong>la</strong>s transmisiones regu<strong>la</strong>res <strong>de</strong> televisión electrónica<br />

en Francia e Ing<strong>la</strong>terra. En México, en 1946 se inaugura el primer canal <strong>de</strong> televisión, Canal 5, en<br />

1951 en Argentina con el Canal 7 y en Nicaragua en 1956, con el Canal 8.<br />

5 John F. Kennedy ganó <strong>la</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial en 1960 gracias a su mejor <strong>de</strong>sempeño en un <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

televisado frente a Richard Nixon.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

541<br />

Para <strong>la</strong> década <strong>de</strong> los setentas, con <strong>la</strong> invención <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Internet6 y su socialización a<br />

fines <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> década <strong>de</strong> los ochentas, esta nueva tecnología <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones<br />

generó otro gran avance, mismo que posibilitó una comunicación política<br />

muchos más masiva, pero a su vez, personalizada. Hoy día, gracias a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías<br />

es posible hacer llegar a millones <strong>de</strong> electores los mensajes <strong>de</strong> campaña <strong>de</strong> los partidos y<br />

los candidatos7 . Es posible también, a través <strong>de</strong> este medio, recabar sumas millonarias<br />

<strong>para</strong> el financiamiento político, como lo hizo Barack obama en los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong><br />

Norteamérica durante el 2008. De hecho, <strong>la</strong> nueva ten<strong>de</strong>ncia mundial es impulsar cibercampañas<br />

electorales, utilizando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones<br />

con el fin <strong>de</strong> ganar una elección a un puesto público. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong><br />

los ejercicios proselitistas en el orbe utilizan <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones como medio <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> influir en <strong>la</strong> conducta <strong>de</strong>l votante y ganar <strong>la</strong>s<br />

campañas electorales.<br />

En cierta medida, hoy día estamos viviendo en <strong>la</strong> política una nueva era, que bien se<br />

podría <strong>de</strong>nominar “punto.com,” sustentado en el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> internet, <strong>la</strong> telefonía (celu<strong>la</strong>r) y<br />

<strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones mediadas por dispositivos computacionales <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> influir en los<br />

<strong>de</strong>más y alcanzar objetivos políticos.<br />

3. <strong>la</strong>s ciber-camPaÑas<br />

Las ciber-campañas pue<strong>de</strong>n ser conceptualizadas como <strong>la</strong>s diversas acciones y activida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

<strong>de</strong> investigación, comunicación, organización, financiación, movilización y cuidado<br />

y <strong>de</strong>fensa <strong>de</strong>l voto que realizan partidos y candidatos usando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

información y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones con el objetivo, por un <strong>la</strong>do, <strong>de</strong> conseguir el voto <strong>de</strong><br />

los electores y, por el otro, <strong>de</strong> evitar que los opositores ganen <strong>la</strong>s elecciones. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s<br />

ciber-campañas implican dos frentes: el frente <strong>de</strong> atracción <strong>de</strong> votos a favor <strong>de</strong> un partido o<br />

candidato y el frente <strong>de</strong> repulsión <strong>de</strong> votos hacia <strong>la</strong> competencia8 .<br />

A través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas es posible conocer los gustos, necesida<strong>de</strong>s, problemas,<br />

<strong>de</strong>seos, aspiraciones, expectativas, sentimientos y emociones <strong>de</strong> los electores, así como permiten<br />

conocer sobre sus filias y fobias, simpatías y antipatías políticas. En otras pa<strong>la</strong>bras, a<br />

6 Paul Baran es consi<strong>de</strong>rado como una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s figuras c<strong>la</strong>ve <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> Internet. En 1964, él tuvo <strong>la</strong><br />

i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>de</strong> crear una <strong>red</strong> con <strong>la</strong> forma <strong>de</strong> una enorme te<strong>la</strong>raña. En agosto <strong>de</strong> 1969, al margen <strong>de</strong>l proyecto<br />

militar, ARPA (Agencia <strong>de</strong> Proyectos <strong>de</strong> Investigación Avanzados, una división <strong>de</strong>l Ministerio <strong>de</strong> Defensa<br />

<strong>de</strong> Estados Unidos) creó <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> experimental Arpanet, cuyo fin era conectar cuatro universida<strong>de</strong>s.<br />

7 Las nuevas tecnologías posibilitan una comunicación no sólo bidireccional (políticos ciudadanos),<br />

sino también multidireccional, (políticos-ciudadanos-ciudadanos- políticos).<br />

8 El primer frente es lo que da origen a lo que se conoce como ciber campaña positiva y el segundo a<br />

<strong>la</strong> ciber-campaña negativa. Estas últimas, han sido proscritas o prohibidas en <strong>la</strong> televisión en varios<br />

países, como México, pero no en el ciber-espacio.


542 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías es posible conocer a profundidad a los votantes y saber qué<br />

es lo que los mueve, simpatiza o motiva 9 .<br />

Por <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas, también, es posible comunicarse con los electores, principalmente<br />

con los más jóvenes y los sectores con mayores niveles <strong>de</strong> educación e ingreso<br />

económico que tienen acceso a <strong>la</strong> Internet y a <strong>la</strong> telefonía, l<strong>la</strong>mados “generación web”. De<br />

hecho, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones permiten una<br />

comunicación más interactiva entre los candidatos y los votantes, facilitan el diálogo multidireccional<br />

y, sobre todo, posibilitan una comunicación más horizontal con los electores,<br />

amén <strong>de</strong> facilitar <strong>la</strong> comunicación interna entre los impulsores <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> campaña. De cierta<br />

manera, <strong>la</strong> ciber-campañas son entendidas como activida<strong>de</strong>s o acciones eminentemente <strong>de</strong><br />

comunicación entre políticos y ciudadanos utilizando los nuevos dispositivos tecnológicos.<br />

(Lopez, 2000).<br />

A través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas, también, es posible organizar a los electores, transformándolos<br />

en ciber-militantes o ciber-voluntarios que impulsen también acciones proselitistas<br />

<strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> comodidad <strong>de</strong> su hogar o su trabajo a través <strong>de</strong> sus re<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> amigos, familiares y<br />

vecinos, organizado ejércitos <strong>de</strong> promotores <strong>de</strong>l voto y dotándolos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información necesaria<br />

<strong>para</strong> el trabajo político.<br />

Recolectar fondos económicos <strong>para</strong> financiar <strong>la</strong>s diferentes activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> campaña y<br />

hacer frente a los gastos, producto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> proselitismo electoral, a través <strong>de</strong> donaciones<br />

<strong>de</strong> los simpatizantes, es posible también mediante el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones. Este ha sido el caso, por ejemplo, <strong>de</strong> naciones<br />

que sustentan el financiamiento <strong>de</strong> sus campañas en fondos privados más que públicos,<br />

como es el caso <strong>de</strong> Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> Norteamérica.<br />

Usando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, también, es<br />

posible movilizar a los votantes a <strong>la</strong>s urnas el día <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s elecciones, facilitando los operativos<br />

<strong>de</strong> organización, logística y movilización electoral, con el fin <strong>de</strong> ganar <strong>la</strong>s elecciones. Es <strong>de</strong>cir,<br />

<strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas no sólo ayudan a conocer a los electores, a comunicarse con ellos y a<br />

organizarlos, sino también a movilizarlos, políticamente hab<strong>la</strong>ndo. (Da<strong>de</strong>r, 2006).<br />

Finalmente, los nuevos dispositivos tecnológicos, también, son herramientas o medios<br />

muy útiles que pue<strong>de</strong>n ayudar en <strong>la</strong>s tareas <strong>de</strong> vigi<strong>la</strong>ncia, observación, cuidado y <strong>de</strong>fensa<br />

<strong>de</strong>l voto, especialmente los re<strong>la</strong>cionados con <strong>la</strong>s vi<strong>de</strong>ograbaciones, que pue<strong>de</strong>n ser utilizados<br />

como medios disuasivos <strong>para</strong> evitar conductas y prácticas ilegales o <strong>para</strong> documentar irregu<strong>la</strong>rida<strong>de</strong>s<br />

y <strong>de</strong>litos que se cometan durante <strong>la</strong> jornada electoral. (Holmes, 1997)<br />

En suma, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones han posibilitado<br />

<strong>la</strong> existencia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas, <strong>la</strong>s cuales son estratégicas en <strong>la</strong> nueva arena<br />

político electoral en el orbe, ayudando <strong>de</strong> sobremanera a construir ventajas competitivas,<br />

con el fin <strong>de</strong> ganar un puesto <strong>de</strong> elección popu<strong>la</strong>r.<br />

9 Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>de</strong>tectar los temas que preocupan a los futuros votantes en sus diferencias y similitu<strong>de</strong>s, escuchar<br />

sugerencias y ofrecer soluciones al respecto.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

4. <strong>la</strong>s ciber-camPaÑas en amÉrica <strong>la</strong>tina<br />

543<br />

Las ciber-campañas llegaron a América <strong>la</strong>tina a finales <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> década <strong>de</strong> los noventas<br />

<strong>de</strong>l siglo XX y hoy día se han popu<strong>la</strong>rizado como formas tradicionales <strong>de</strong> hacer, enten<strong>de</strong>r y<br />

procesar <strong>la</strong> política en esta importante región. Estos ejercicios <strong>de</strong> proselitismo mo<strong>de</strong>rno, no<br />

sólo han implicado el impulso <strong>de</strong> campañas <strong>de</strong> precisión, usando bases <strong>de</strong> datos y estudios<br />

históricos sobre comportamientos <strong>de</strong> los votantes a nivel, incluso, <strong>de</strong> sección electoral o casil<strong>la</strong>,<br />

sino también como medios i<strong>de</strong>ales <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> persuasión política <strong>de</strong> alto impacto.<br />

Estos ejercicios <strong>de</strong> proselitismo mo<strong>de</strong>rno, se han apoyado en el uso principalmente <strong>de</strong><br />

YouTube, Hi5, MySpace, Facebook, Twitter, wikis, blogs, MSM, páginas <strong>de</strong> internet y los<br />

correos electrónicos, como nuevos instrumentos o medios digitales <strong>de</strong> hacer campaña. El <strong>de</strong>sarrollo<br />

<strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> campañas, se ha dado <strong>de</strong> manera más intensa y amplia en países con<br />

economías más pujantes y con mayores niveles educativos, como Argentina, Brasil, Chile,<br />

Colombia, México y Venezue<strong>la</strong> 10 .<br />

¿Cuándo inician <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas en estas naciones y cómo se han <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>do estos<br />

nuevos ejercicios <strong>de</strong> proselitismo político electoral? A continuación, se <strong>de</strong>scribe el estado<br />

actual <strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> campañas en seis países <strong>de</strong> América <strong>la</strong>tina.<br />

argentina<br />

La primera gran ciber-campaña electoral a nivel <strong>de</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial en este país se<br />

impulsó 11 en el 2007, por Cristina Fernán<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> Kirchner, candidata <strong>de</strong>l Partido Justicialista<br />

(Frente por <strong>la</strong> Victoria). Durante el proceso electoral y como parte <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas se<br />

crearon cientos <strong>de</strong> weblogs, se utilizó los chats, el messenger, los teléfonos celu<strong>la</strong>res, los call<br />

centers, Twitter, Facebook, MySpace, Hi5 y todos los dispositivos computaciones asociadas<br />

a <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales con el fin <strong>de</strong> ganar el voto <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos. El slogan <strong>de</strong> esta campaña<br />

fue “Blog por blog, vecino por vecino, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> lo virtual a <strong>la</strong>s urnas. 12 ” De esta forma, los seguidores<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> candidata se convirtieron en ciber-activistas que lograron impactar a miles <strong>de</strong><br />

votantes, ganando <strong>la</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial celebrada en octubre <strong>de</strong>l 2007 con el 45.29 por<br />

ciento <strong>de</strong> los votos.<br />

Des<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma en <strong>la</strong> Web www.sumateacristina.com sus seguidores pudieron bajar<br />

y utilizar diferentes herramientas informáticas, propagandísticas y manuales promociones<br />

10 En <strong>otros</strong> países <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> región como Nicaragua, Bolivia, Ecuador y El Salvador <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas han<br />

sido menos utilizadas, ya que <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada “brecha digital” es más gran<strong>de</strong> y, por lo tanto, el porcentaje<br />

<strong>de</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> internet es <strong>red</strong>ucido.<br />

11 Se consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>la</strong> campaña legis<strong>la</strong>tiva <strong>de</strong>l 2005 Francisco De Narváez fue una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s pioneras en <strong>la</strong><br />

Argentina al apostarle fuertemente a <strong>la</strong> Web 2.0. Sin embargo, <strong>la</strong> campaña <strong>de</strong> Cristina fue <strong>la</strong> primer<br />

gran cibercampaña a nivel presi<strong>de</strong>ncial.<br />

12 Al final, el slogan que quedó como parte central <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> ciber-estrategia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Generación K fue “Vota a<br />

Cristina, Súmate,” <strong>la</strong> cual duro en su totalidad 60 días.


544 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>de</strong>l voto a favor <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> candidata presi<strong>de</strong>ncial 13 . De esta forma, utilizando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones, <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>nominada “Generación K” pudo activar<br />

miles <strong>de</strong> blogs que llegaron a impactar en los más <strong>de</strong> 260 mil bloggers que <strong>para</strong> esa fecha<br />

estaban activadas en <strong>la</strong> Argentina, llegando <strong>de</strong> esta forma a los jóvenes <strong>de</strong> entre 20 y 40 años<br />

y a sectores sociales con mayores niveles educativos.<br />

La ciber-campaña consistió en un esfuerzo “24 por 24” durante treinta días en <strong>la</strong>s que<br />

cualesquier lista que tuviera en <strong>la</strong> cabeza a “Cristina presi<strong>de</strong>nte” tuvo asistencia técnica <strong>para</strong><br />

construir su página, diseñar su gráfica o tener data e imagen sobre algún tema en <strong>de</strong>bate<br />

durante esta jornada electoral 14 .<br />

Esta campaña resultó exitosa y complementaria a <strong>la</strong> campaña por televisión y a <strong>la</strong> campaña<br />

por tierra, <strong>para</strong> finalmente po<strong>de</strong>r incidir <strong>de</strong>terminantemente en el resultado final <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

elección. Se consi<strong>de</strong>ra que <strong>de</strong> 41.3 millones <strong>de</strong> habitantes que tenía esta nación <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> fecha<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> elección, 26.61 millones <strong>de</strong> argentinos eran usuarios <strong>de</strong> internet, lo que representaba<br />

un 64.4 por ciento <strong>de</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> Internet, según lo seña<strong>la</strong> <strong>la</strong> Internet World Stadistics<br />

(IWS).<br />

brasil<br />

En el caso <strong>de</strong> Brasil, <strong>la</strong> última elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial se realizó en octubre <strong>de</strong>l 2010. Durante<br />

el proceso electoral, al igual que en Argentina, se utilizaron <strong>de</strong> manera amplia <strong>la</strong>s diferentes<br />

tecnologías digitales <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> ganar <strong>la</strong> elección 15 . De esta forma, <strong>la</strong>s páginas Web<br />

<strong>de</strong> los candidatos y sus apoyadores, los blogs, <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales (orkut 16 , Facebook, MySpace,<br />

Hi5 y Twitter), así como los news groups, los correos electrónicos, los vi<strong>de</strong>os en Youtube, los<br />

mensajes por telefonía celu<strong>la</strong>r y los ciber-<strong>de</strong>bates fueron parte <strong>de</strong> los medios utilizados <strong>para</strong><br />

tratar <strong>de</strong> persuadir a los electores.<br />

De hecho, <strong>para</strong> el 2 <strong>de</strong> agosto <strong>de</strong>l 2010, José Serra, candidato <strong>de</strong>l Partido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Social<br />

Democracia <strong>de</strong> Brasil (PSDB) contaba con 318 mil seguidores en su cuenta Twitter (@joseserra_),<br />

mientras que Dilma Rousseff (@dilmabr), candidata <strong>de</strong>l Partido <strong>de</strong> los Trabajadores<br />

(PT) poseía 135 mil seguidores.<br />

Algo novedoso en esta campaña fue el ciber <strong>de</strong>bate, ya que el 18 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong>l 2010 se<br />

realizó el primer <strong>de</strong>bate presi<strong>de</strong>ncial on-line <strong>de</strong> ese país, organizado por Folha <strong>de</strong> São Paulo<br />

y UoL. Este <strong>de</strong>bate contó con <strong>la</strong> presencia <strong>de</strong> los tres principales candidatos a ganar <strong>la</strong>s<br />

elecciones: Marina Silva (Partido Ver<strong>de</strong>), José Serra (PSDB) y <strong>la</strong> candidata oficialista Dilma<br />

13 Hubo diferentes portales interactivos en esta campaña, como el www.cristinacobosyvos.com en el que<br />

se mostraba fotos, vi<strong>de</strong>os y discursos <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> entonces primera dama <strong>de</strong> este país.<br />

14 Véase Ciber-militantes <strong>para</strong> CFK, Página 12, 28 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong>l 2007.<br />

15 Según datos <strong>de</strong>l Instituto Brasileño <strong>de</strong> opinión Pública y Estadística, al momento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> elección 67.5<br />

millones <strong>de</strong> brasileños mayores <strong>de</strong> 16 años, que representaba el 35por ciento <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pob<strong>la</strong>ción, tenían<br />

acceso a Internet.<br />

16 orkut es <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> social más popu<strong>la</strong>r en este país.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

545<br />

Rousseff (PT). El encuentro contó con diferentes bloques temáticos <strong>para</strong> que los candidatos<br />

se hicieran preguntas entre ellos y tuvo un momento en el que fueron los ciudadanos que<br />

seguían el <strong>de</strong>bate on-line los que tuvieron <strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> transmitir sus inquietu<strong>de</strong>s a los<br />

candidatos17 . Se consi<strong>de</strong>ra que este <strong>de</strong>bate fue seguido en vivo por más <strong>de</strong> 50 millones <strong>de</strong><br />

internautas a través <strong>de</strong> Twitter y Facebook, <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> 127 países18 .<br />

Durante esta campaña, también se establecieron sitios en Internet como el http://<br />

www.10preguntas.com.br en el cual los ciudadanos podían hacer preguntas a los candidatos<br />

presi<strong>de</strong>nciales y recibir respuestas a los cuestionamientos más reiterativos y que tenía que ver<br />

con <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma electoral y el proyecto <strong>de</strong> país que proponía cada uno <strong>de</strong> los partidos. Para<br />

esas fechas, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo a IWS se consi<strong>de</strong>raba que cerca <strong>de</strong> ochenta millones <strong>de</strong> brasileños<br />

tenían acceso a Internet. Al final, <strong>la</strong> candidata <strong>de</strong>l PT logró ganar <strong>la</strong> elección al obtener el<br />

54.74 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los votos, contra 45.78 <strong>de</strong> votos <strong>de</strong>l candidato <strong>de</strong>l PSDB19 .<br />

chile<br />

La elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial en este país se realizó, en su segunda vuelta, el 17 <strong>de</strong> enero<br />

<strong>de</strong>l 2010, resultando ganador Sebastián Piñera, candidato por <strong>la</strong> “Coalición por el<br />

Cambio” como primer presi<strong>de</strong>nte no elegido por <strong>la</strong> Concertación (<strong>de</strong> Partidos por <strong>la</strong><br />

Democracia), <strong>de</strong>s<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> salida <strong>de</strong> Augusto Pinochet <strong>de</strong>l po<strong>de</strong>r en 199020 . La campaña <strong>de</strong><br />

Piñera apostó fuerte por <strong>la</strong> comunicación 2.0 como el eje fundamental <strong>de</strong> su carrera hacia<br />

el Pa<strong>la</strong>cio <strong>de</strong> La Moneda21 . Su estrategia estuvo orientada a generar un auténtico vínculo<br />

entre el candidato y <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía, li<strong>de</strong>rando siempre <strong>la</strong> elección en el terreno digital. Tan<br />

sólo en Youtube, por ejemplo, Piñera acumuló más <strong>de</strong> un millón <strong>de</strong> visitas a sus vi<strong>de</strong>os<br />

subidos a esta p<strong>la</strong>taforma.<br />

“El trabajo <strong>de</strong> Piñera comenzó años antes <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> cita con <strong>la</strong>s urnas, mediante <strong>la</strong> formación<br />

<strong>de</strong> los grupos <strong>de</strong> trabajo Tantauco, que recorrieron el país y recogieron propuestas <strong>para</strong> el futuro<br />

programa electoral. Internet sirvió <strong>para</strong> conectar el proceso <strong>de</strong> coordinación interna <strong>de</strong><br />

17 Véase “Los presi<strong>de</strong>nciales en Brasil <strong>de</strong>baten en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>” en http://webpoliticadoscero.blogspot.com/<br />

search/<strong>la</strong>bel/Brasil.<br />

18 El candidato <strong>de</strong>l Partido Socialismo y Libertad, Plinio <strong>de</strong> Arruda Sampaio, como no fue invitado<br />

al <strong>de</strong>bate, utilizó <strong>la</strong> herramienta Twitcam, <strong>la</strong> cual le permitió <strong>la</strong> transmisión en tiempo real <strong>de</strong> sus<br />

mensajes (Si no me invitan a los <strong>de</strong>bates, aparezco a través <strong>de</strong> Twitter. ¡No me he marchado!). Este<br />

candidato, también, ofreció una serie <strong>de</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>oconferencias en Twitter.<br />

19 La estrategia <strong>de</strong> Dilma se centró también en aprovechar los buenos resultados que había generado en<br />

gobierno saliente <strong>de</strong> Luis Ignacio Lu<strong>la</strong> da Silva, especialmente en materia económica y combate a <strong>la</strong><br />

pobreza.<br />

20 Sebastián Piñera obtuvo un 51.61 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los votos frente a 48.38 por ciento <strong>de</strong> Eduardo Frei,<br />

candidato <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Concertación.<br />

21 Véase Diego Sánchez <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Cruz, “Política 2.0 en <strong>la</strong> Campaña Presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> Sebastián Piñera,” 1 <strong>de</strong><br />

febrero <strong>de</strong>l 2011.


546 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

<strong>la</strong> campaña, mediante <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> foros y <strong>de</strong>más canales, enfocado a organizar el activismo<br />

<strong>de</strong> los simpatizantes a través <strong>de</strong>l portal “Chile con todos. 22 ”<br />

Su estrategia online fue articu<strong>la</strong>da <strong>para</strong> mostrar a un candidato cercano y asequible a los<br />

votantes, impulsando una comunicación mo<strong>de</strong>rna y atrevida, asociándolo con el cambio que<br />

querían ver los chilenos 23 . Esta campaña fue <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>da sobre <strong>la</strong> p<strong>la</strong>taforma wordpress, más<br />

flexible y dinámica, en <strong>la</strong> que se implementaron los siguientes servicios disponibles en <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong>:<br />

Google Apps (correos pinera2010.ch, algunos casos <strong>de</strong> gestión <strong>de</strong> documentos, formu<strong>la</strong>rios<br />

en línea), Facebook, Twitter, (sebatianpinera y comandosp), Flickr, fotolog, Youtube (Canal<br />

oficial y Grupos Tantauco), Google Maps, Podcaster, Issuu, Twitpic y Twinnon, entre <strong>otros</strong> 24 .<br />

A<strong>de</strong>más, se uso por parte <strong>de</strong>l comando online otras tecnologías como el streaming, un<br />

CRM centralizado, campañas <strong>de</strong> mailing y mensajes vía SMS, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> equipo<br />

Bluetooth <strong>para</strong> entregar contenidos por celu<strong>la</strong>res. De esta forma, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones se transformaron en un componente importante <strong>de</strong><br />

difusión <strong>de</strong> los mensajes políticos 25 .<br />

Al final, <strong>la</strong> estrategia <strong>de</strong> comunicación online <strong>de</strong> Piñera, con sus estrategias creativas <strong>de</strong> interacción<br />

social 26 , fue mucho mejor que <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong> Frei 27 , contribuyendo a <strong>de</strong>finir el resultado final <strong>de</strong> esta<br />

histórica contienda presi<strong>de</strong>ncial, que marcó, <strong>de</strong> hecho, el regreso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>recha al po<strong>de</strong>r en Chile.<br />

colombia<br />

La elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial en Colombia se realizó, en su primera vuelta, el 30 <strong>de</strong> mayo<br />

<strong>de</strong>l 2010, en <strong>la</strong> que compitieron seis como candidatos 28 , entre los que sobresalieron Juan<br />

Manuel Santos <strong>de</strong>l Partido Social <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unidad Nacional, conocido como el Partido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

U y Antanás Mockus <strong>de</strong>l Partido Ver<strong>de</strong>. Esta fue una elección muy competida en su primer<br />

vuelta, en <strong>la</strong> que el Partido Ver<strong>de</strong> articuló una gran ciber campaña sustentada en <strong>la</strong>s nuevas<br />

herramientas 2.0.La elección <strong>de</strong>finitiva, segunda vuelta, se realizó el 20 <strong>de</strong> junio <strong>de</strong>l 2010,<br />

con los dos candidatos punteros: Santos y Mockus.<br />

22 Ibí<strong>de</strong>m.<br />

23 Su lema <strong>de</strong> campaña fue “Así queremos a Chile,” en <strong>la</strong> que <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía podía opinar y dar propuestas<br />

<strong>para</strong> integrar su p<strong>la</strong>n <strong>de</strong> gobierno, todo esto facilitado a través <strong>de</strong> una aplicación Web.<br />

24 En esta campaña también se utilizó Google Webmaster Tools y Analytics.<br />

25 Se creó a<strong>de</strong>más, una i<strong>de</strong>ntidad digital <strong>de</strong> Sebastián, el diseño <strong>de</strong> esquemas eficientes <strong>de</strong> generación <strong>de</strong><br />

contenido y una RedSP que posibilitó <strong>la</strong> comunicación y organización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> campaña y su vincu<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

con los votantes.<br />

26 Su diseño invitaban a <strong>la</strong> acción y su arquitectura <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información en <strong>la</strong> Web 2.0 era muy estética y<br />

atractiva.<br />

27 Su portal se <strong>de</strong>nominó “Chile Primero,” el cual contenía <strong>de</strong>masiada información y su lectura era<br />

cansada y tediosa.<br />

28 Los <strong>otros</strong> candidatos fueron German Vargas <strong>de</strong>l Partido Cambio Radical, Gustavo Petro <strong>de</strong>l Polo Democrático<br />

Alternativo, Noemí Sanín <strong>de</strong>l Partido Conservador Colombiano y Rafael Pardo <strong>de</strong>l Partido<br />

Liberal Colombiano.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

547<br />

Lo novedoso <strong>de</strong> esta ciber campaña fue <strong>la</strong> creación <strong>de</strong> una emisora <strong>de</strong> radio on line <strong>de</strong>nominada<br />

<strong>la</strong> “o<strong>la</strong> ver<strong>de</strong>,” que logró ser muy popu<strong>la</strong>r entre los colombianos, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong>l uso<br />

intensivo <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> información y <strong>la</strong> comunicación, lográndolo posicionar<br />

como uno <strong>de</strong> los candidatos más competitivos en <strong>la</strong> elección.<br />

Por ejemplo, a través <strong>de</strong>l número <strong>de</strong> búsquedas <strong>de</strong> Google se pudo constatar cómo el<br />

término “Antanas Mockus”, sólo en el mes <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong> ese año, duplicaba el nombre <strong>de</strong> sus<br />

competidores. Una situación simi<strong>la</strong>r sucedió con el término “La o<strong>la</strong> ver<strong>de</strong>” en los tags29 .<br />

Para el 5 <strong>de</strong> mayo, el candidato sobrepasó el medio millón <strong>de</strong> seguidores en Facebook,<br />

sólo en su página personal. Pero el fenómeno <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> o<strong>la</strong> ver<strong>de</strong> superó los límites <strong>de</strong>l ciberespacio,<br />

dando lugar a <strong>la</strong>s expectativas <strong>de</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> miles <strong>de</strong> ciudadanos. Si bien <strong>la</strong>s<br />

elecciones se realizaron sino hasta el 30 <strong>de</strong> mayo en su primera vuelta, <strong>la</strong> intención <strong>de</strong> voto,<br />

producto <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas, en pocas semanas ascendió más <strong>de</strong>l 18% a favor <strong>de</strong> Mockus,<br />

quedando en primer lugar frente al candidato <strong>de</strong> Uribe, Juan Manuel Santos30 .<br />

Su estrategia digital diseminó <strong>la</strong> fórmu<strong>la</strong> presi<strong>de</strong>ncial Mockus-Fajardo a través <strong>de</strong> todos<br />

los espacios que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> ofrecía: no sólo re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, sino también sus sitios web, blogs y<br />

canales <strong>de</strong> YouTube, don<strong>de</strong> los visitantes podían participar ampliamente, tanto en el p<strong>la</strong>no<br />

virtual como real. De esta forma, consiguieron, en este sentido, que fueran sus seguidores los<br />

que propagarán su mensaje <strong>de</strong> campaña.<br />

Por su parte, Juan Manuel Santos, también, se apoyó en <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías y herramientas<br />

2.0 en su campaña electoral, impulsando una ciber campaña creativa e intensa, a<br />

través <strong>de</strong> wikis, re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, blogs, páginas web, teléfonos celu<strong>la</strong>res, Youtube, foros virtuales,<br />

y correos electrónicos, aprovechando el auge en el uso <strong>de</strong> estas tecnologías por parte <strong>de</strong><br />

amplios sectores sociales31 .<br />

De acuerdo con el resultado <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> elección, Santos obtuvo el 46.67 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los<br />

votos en <strong>la</strong> primera vuelta y el 69.13 por ciento en <strong>la</strong> segunda vuelta. Por su parte, Mockus<br />

logró el 21.51 por ciento <strong>de</strong> sufragios en <strong>la</strong> primer vuelta y 27.47 por ciento en <strong>la</strong> segunda<br />

vuelta.<br />

méxico<br />

En México, <strong>la</strong>s primeras cibercampañas se realizaron en el año 2000, durante <strong>la</strong> histórica<br />

elección en <strong>la</strong> que el otrora partido hegemónico <strong>de</strong> Estado (Partido Revolucionario<br />

29 Véase “La o<strong>la</strong> ver<strong>de</strong> se extien<strong>de</strong> a <strong>la</strong> realidad política” en http://webpoliticadoscero.blogspot.com/<br />

search/<strong>la</strong>bel/Colombia. Fecha <strong>de</strong> consulta: 6 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong>l 2011.<br />

30 Algunos <strong>otros</strong> cálculos apuntaban que Mockus pasó <strong>de</strong> 4 por ciento en <strong>la</strong>s preferencias electorales<br />

a cerca <strong>de</strong>l 34 por ciento tan solo en un mes, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo a diferentes son<strong>de</strong>os <strong>de</strong> opinión (Centro<br />

Nacional <strong>de</strong> Consultoría).<br />

31 Para 2010, <strong>de</strong> acuerdo con <strong>la</strong> IWS, Colombia tenía más <strong>de</strong> 21.5 millones <strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> Internet, lo<br />

cual representaba un 48.7 por ciento <strong>de</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías digitales.


548 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Institucional) perdió <strong>la</strong> presi<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> república y <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> los asientos en el congreso<br />

bicameral 32 .<br />

Durante <strong>la</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong>l 2006, <strong>la</strong> internet sirvió no sólo <strong>para</strong> hacer llegar<br />

los mensajes y <strong>la</strong>s propuestas <strong>de</strong> los diferentes candidatos a un puesto <strong>de</strong> elección popu<strong>la</strong>r,<br />

sino, sobre todo, <strong>para</strong> atacar y <strong>de</strong>nostar a los adversarios. De hecho, <strong>la</strong> campaña negativa en<br />

contra <strong>de</strong> Andrés Manuel López obrador (AMLo), entonces candidato presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

Alianza por el Bien <strong>de</strong> México 33 , se dio principalmente a través <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información, <strong>la</strong> telefonía celu<strong>la</strong>r y, por supuesto, <strong>la</strong> televisión.<br />

De esta forma, era común ver vi<strong>de</strong>os <strong>de</strong>mostrativos en Youtube, recibir correos electrónicos<br />

difamatorios y, sobre todo, atacar por diversos medios digitales a AMLo, articu<strong>la</strong>ndo<br />

una campaña <strong>de</strong> odio y miedo, que logró finalmente sus objetivos 34 .<br />

En <strong>la</strong>s elecciones <strong>de</strong>l 2009, el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s<br />

comunicaciones se intensificó 35 , especialmente a través <strong>de</strong>l uso <strong>de</strong> Facebook 36 y Twitter. Por<br />

ejemplo, el Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), a través <strong>de</strong> su página ofreció a los ciudadanos<br />

<strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> opinar sobre sus notas y noticias, a<strong>de</strong>más <strong>de</strong> usar <strong>de</strong> manera amplia <strong>la</strong>s<br />

diferentes herramientas <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Web 2.0.<br />

<strong>otros</strong> partidos como el Partido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Revolución Democrática (PRD) y el Partido<br />

Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), también acudieron a <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas, utilizando <strong>la</strong>s<br />

re<strong>de</strong>s sociales <strong>para</strong>r tratar <strong>de</strong> incidir en <strong>la</strong> conducta y comportamiento <strong>de</strong> los electores, impulsando<br />

diferentes info estrategias e info tácticas, así como articu<strong>la</strong>ron, incluso, mítines<br />

virtuales y canales <strong>de</strong> televisión y radio en Internet, como medios alternativos <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong><br />

ganar <strong>la</strong>s elecciones.<br />

Venezue<strong>la</strong><br />

Las últimas elecciones legis<strong>la</strong>tivas <strong>para</strong> integrar <strong>la</strong> Asamblea Nacional en este país se realizaron<br />

el 26 <strong>de</strong> septiembre <strong>de</strong>l 2010, generándose el siguiente resultado. El Partido Socialista<br />

32 De 500 asientos en <strong>la</strong> cámara <strong>de</strong> diputados el PRI obtuvo 211 y <strong>de</strong> 128 curules en el Senado este<br />

partido obtuvo sólo 60.<br />

33 Esta alianza fue formada por el Partido <strong>de</strong>l Trabajo, el Partido Convergencia y el Partido <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Revolución<br />

Democrática.<br />

34 De acuerdo con los resultados electorales dados a conocer por el Instituto Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Electoral, Felipe<br />

Cal<strong>de</strong>rón ganó <strong>la</strong> elección con el 35.89 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los votos en contra <strong>de</strong>l 35.33 por ciento <strong>de</strong><br />

AMLo. Roberto Madrazo Pintado, candidato <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Alianza por México, integrada por el PRI y el<br />

Partido Ver<strong>de</strong> Ecologista <strong>de</strong> México, obtuvo 22.23 por ciento.<br />

35 Según un estudio <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> IAB, <strong>para</strong> 2010, el 86 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los mexicanos contaba con teléfono celu<strong>la</strong>r,<br />

59 por ciento computadora <strong>de</strong> escritorio, 54 por ciento computadora portátil, 45 por ciento a<strong>para</strong>tos<br />

<strong>de</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>ojuegos, 14 por ciento teléfonos inteligentes, 8 por ciento asistentes personales PDA y 4 por<br />

ciento Ipads.<br />

36 De acuerdo a Socialbaker, una <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s empresas consultoras <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información,<br />

tan sólo en <strong>la</strong> ciudad <strong>de</strong> México existen más <strong>de</strong> 9.3 millones <strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> Facebook.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

549<br />

Unificado <strong>de</strong> Venezue<strong>la</strong> y sus aliados (el Partido Comunista <strong>de</strong> Venezue<strong>la</strong>) obtuvieron el 48.13<br />

por ciento <strong>de</strong> los votos y <strong>la</strong> Mesa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Unidad Nacional 47.22 por ciento, lo que les representó<br />

98 escaños <strong>para</strong> los primeros y 65 escaños en el par<strong>la</strong>mento <strong>para</strong> <strong>la</strong> opción opositora.<br />

De acuerdo con los resultados electorales, votaron el 66.45 por ciento <strong>de</strong> los inscritos<br />

en el padrón electoral, siendo motivados a través <strong>de</strong> campañas mediáticas, <strong>de</strong> tierra y, sobre<br />

todo, por <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas. De acuerdo a estadísticas gubernamentales, un tercio <strong>de</strong> los<br />

electores en este país usan Facebook, un diez por ciento posee un B<strong>la</strong>ckBerry y un siete punto<br />

cinco por ciento utiliza Twitter. De acuerdo a IWS, <strong>la</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> Internet es <strong>de</strong> 34.2<br />

por ciento, teniendo acceso a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información cerca <strong>de</strong> 10 millones<br />

<strong>de</strong> venezo<strong>la</strong>nos.<br />

Estas campañas se caracterizaron por <strong>la</strong> po<strong>la</strong>rización, en <strong>la</strong> que los opositores utilizaron,<br />

<strong>de</strong> manera intensiva, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías como formas alternas <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> contrarrestar<br />

<strong>la</strong> hegemonía mediática <strong>de</strong> los partidarios <strong>de</strong> Hugo Chávez. Sin embargo, también los<br />

aliados <strong>de</strong>l presi<strong>de</strong>nte Chávez hicieron uso intensivo <strong>de</strong> estas herramientas 2.0, con el fin <strong>de</strong><br />

alcanzar <strong>la</strong> mayoría calificada <strong>de</strong> escaños <strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r realizar reformas constitucionales.<br />

De esta forma, <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales, el Facebook, los microbloggs, los teléfonos con capacidad<br />

Wap y los #hastag invadieron el timeline <strong>de</strong> miles <strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> Twitter, entre ellos<br />

los famosos #26S, #hayuncaminomejor, # MUD y #elecciones, entre <strong>otros</strong>. La finalidad era<br />

tratar <strong>de</strong> ganar el mayor número <strong>de</strong> apoyos en esta importante elección legis<strong>la</strong>tiva, previa a<br />

<strong>la</strong> elección presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong>l 2012.<br />

5. limitantes y Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber-camPaÑas<br />

Las ciber campañas en América Latina, se han generalizado <strong>de</strong> tal forma que prácticamente<br />

todas <strong>la</strong>s elecciones presi<strong>de</strong>nciales y par<strong>la</strong>mentarias utilizan <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong><br />

<strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones como medio <strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> influir en <strong>la</strong> conducta<br />

y comportamiento <strong>de</strong> los electores. Sin embargo, en varios casos <strong>la</strong> utilización <strong>de</strong> estas herramientas<br />

presentan una serie <strong>de</strong> limitantes, más allá <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ventajas que conllevan. (Rash,<br />

1997)<br />

Las principales limitaciones <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas en estos países son <strong>la</strong>s siguientes:<br />

Primero, son campañas que sólo llegan a una parte minoritaria <strong>de</strong> los electores, ya<br />

que <strong>la</strong> mayoría <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> pob<strong>la</strong>ción todavía no tiene acceso al internet. De acuerdo con <strong>la</strong><br />

Internet World Stadistics (IWS) <strong>para</strong> 2010 Argentina tenía un 64.4 por ciento penetración<br />

<strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> Internet respecto <strong>de</strong> su pob<strong>la</strong>ción, Brasil un 37.8%, Colombia<br />

un 48.7%, Venezue<strong>la</strong> un 34.2% y México un 27.2 por ciento, mientras que el índice<br />

<strong>de</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> Facebook era mucho más baja en estos países, como se muestra en<br />

el siguiente cuadro. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, por el bajo nivel <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>sarrollo económico y social <strong>de</strong> estos<br />

países, en com<strong>para</strong>ción con <strong>la</strong>s naciones <strong>de</strong>sarrol<strong>la</strong>das, ha generado una “brecha” y una<br />

exclusión digital <strong>de</strong> amplios sectores sociales, quienes no tienen acceso a <strong>la</strong>s nuevas<br />

tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y, por lo tanto, están excluidos <strong>de</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r ser persuadidos<br />

por <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas.


550 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Segundo, los sectores sociales con mayor índice <strong>de</strong> penetración <strong>de</strong> Internet en estos países<br />

son <strong>la</strong>s c<strong>la</strong>ses medias y altas, jóvenes en su mayoría y con re<strong>la</strong>tivamente altos niveles<br />

<strong>de</strong> esco<strong>la</strong>ridad. Sin embargo, estos mismos sectores sociales son los que presentan un<br />

mayor nivel <strong>de</strong> abstencionismo.<br />

Tercero, existe una creciente ten<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> interactividad (técnica) que no significa automáticamente<br />

una mayor interacción (diálogo) entre políticos y ciudadanos en estos<br />

países. La comunicación mediada por computadora dificulta o imposibilita el contacto<br />

directo, el calor humano y <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>la</strong>ciones afectivas entre los principales actores <strong>de</strong>l proceso<br />

electoral.<br />

Cuarto, por <strong>la</strong> dificultad <strong>de</strong> su regu<strong>la</strong>ción y control, <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas se han utilizado<br />

también como forma maniqueas <strong>para</strong> manipu<strong>la</strong>r a los electores usando <strong>la</strong>s herramientas<br />

2.0 con correos electrónicos injuriosos, con información falsa, ataques y<br />

difamaciones en contra <strong>de</strong> los adversarios, <strong>de</strong>teriorando <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>bate político y<br />

<strong>de</strong>sinformando a los ciudadanos.<br />

Quinto, <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas han sido hasta hoy muy generales, utilizando <strong>la</strong> “estrategia<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> escopeta,” tratando <strong>de</strong> incidir en <strong>la</strong> conducta política <strong>de</strong> todo tipo <strong>de</strong> electores.<br />

Sin embargo, esto no ha posibilitado realizar campañas digitales <strong>de</strong> precisión, con targets<br />

muchos más específicos producto <strong>de</strong> una mayor segmentación <strong>de</strong> mercados electorales<br />

y con formas <strong>de</strong> comunicación ad dock <strong>de</strong>pendiendo <strong>de</strong>l tipo <strong>de</strong> elector al que<br />

se quiera persuadir.<br />

Sexto, <strong>la</strong>s ciber-campañas no han podido superar el grave problema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> falta <strong>de</strong> c<strong>red</strong>ibilidad<br />

y <strong>de</strong> confianza que tienen amplios sectores sociales sobre sus políticos. Los<br />

diseños gráficos, los mensajes, vi<strong>de</strong>os y <strong>la</strong> publicidad en <strong>la</strong>s re<strong>de</strong>s sociales digitalizadas<br />

no abonan necesariamente a reconstruir <strong>la</strong> c<strong>red</strong>ibilidad y confianza ciudadana sobre sus<br />

políticos que requiere tener una real <strong>de</strong>mocracia.<br />

Séptimo, <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas en <strong>la</strong> región han estado orientadas prácticamente a <strong>la</strong> publicidad,<br />

pensando contactar más bien con los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación, distendiendo<br />

<strong>la</strong> posibilidad <strong>de</strong> un verda<strong>de</strong>ro diálogo e interacción con <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía.<br />

octavo, <strong>la</strong>s convergencias que ayudan a obtener <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas muchas veces son<br />

efímeras (coyunturales) y reactivas (poco meditadas) por parte <strong>de</strong> amplios sectores sociales,<br />

lo que pue<strong>de</strong> generar <strong>la</strong> elección <strong>de</strong> gobernantes sobre bases muy superficiales.<br />

Como lo apunta Divina Frau-Meigs (2001) “<strong>la</strong> tecnología no incrementa por si misma<br />

<strong>la</strong>s opiniones cívicas,” ni <strong>la</strong> calidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia.<br />

Novena, el nivel <strong>de</strong> persuabilidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas es mucho más bajo en com<strong>para</strong>ción<br />

<strong>de</strong> campañas <strong>de</strong> tierra centrados en el contacto directo <strong>de</strong>l partido, los candidatos<br />

o los equipos <strong>de</strong> campaña con <strong>la</strong> gente, en <strong>la</strong>s comunida<strong>de</strong>s, barrios, ejidos, ciuda<strong>de</strong>s<br />

y calles <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> circunscripción electoral <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> que se traté. A<strong>de</strong>más, el problema <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong><br />

<strong>de</strong>sconfianza en el medio persiste, ya que, al igual que muchos electores <strong>de</strong>sconfían en<br />

<strong>la</strong> televisión o en <strong>la</strong> radio, también <strong>de</strong>sconfían en <strong>la</strong> Internet, porque le llega, muchas<br />

veces, gran cantidad <strong>de</strong> información <strong>de</strong> personas <strong>de</strong>sconocidas.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

551<br />

Por otro <strong>la</strong>do, es indudable que el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s<br />

telecomunicaciones proporcionan una serie <strong>de</strong> ventajas o potencialida<strong>de</strong>s en <strong>la</strong>s campañas<br />

electorales, sobresaliendo <strong>la</strong>s siguientes:<br />

Primero, el costo económico es mucho más bajo en com<strong>para</strong>ción con campañas por<br />

radio, televisión o campañas <strong>de</strong> contacto directo con el electorado. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s ciber<br />

campañas <strong>red</strong>ucen significativamente su costo económico y son accesibles a partidos y<br />

candidatos con bajos presupuestos.<br />

Segundo, <strong>la</strong> rapi<strong>de</strong>z con <strong>la</strong>s que llega el mensaje a los electores es mucho mayor que <strong>la</strong>s<br />

campañas mediáticas y <strong>de</strong> tierra, teniendo una comunicación prácticamente inmediata<br />

con <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía o los representantes <strong>de</strong> los medios <strong>de</strong> comunicación. A<strong>de</strong>más, el flujo<br />

<strong>de</strong> información, en formato <strong>de</strong> imagen, fotografías, vi<strong>de</strong>os, audio y texto que <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong><br />

pue<strong>de</strong> ayudar a proporcionar a los ciudadanos es abundante.<br />

Tercero, <strong>la</strong> Internet permite al ciudadano rastrear selectivamente cualquier tipo <strong>de</strong> documentación<br />

política y convertirse ellos mismos, en productores <strong>de</strong> mensajes como<br />

parte <strong>de</strong>l trabajo co<strong>la</strong>borativo y en generadores <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mandas a los candidatos a un<br />

puesto <strong>de</strong> elección popu<strong>la</strong>r (Rodota, 2004).<br />

Cuarto, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías permiten comunicarse con el elector, establecer re<strong>la</strong>ciones<br />

con los votantes y po<strong>de</strong>r hacerles llegar sus propuestas y mensajes, apoyando <strong>la</strong>s<br />

estrategias <strong>de</strong> comunicación interna y externa durante <strong>la</strong>s campañas electorales.<br />

Quinto, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías posibilitan y facilitan <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos<br />

en <strong>la</strong> vida política electoral y pue<strong>de</strong>n lograr generar interés e impulsar <strong>la</strong> participación<br />

en sectores <strong>de</strong> electores que tradicionalmente no votan, <strong>red</strong>uciendo el abstencionismo.<br />

Sexto, <strong>la</strong> Internet posibilita una respuesta o ac<strong>la</strong>ración rápida ante rumores, ataques,<br />

críticas y <strong>de</strong>nostaciones <strong>de</strong> los adversarios, así como el po<strong>de</strong>r impulsar contra-estrategias<br />

<strong>para</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> neutralizar acometidas y campañas negativas.<br />

Séptimo, el internet posibilita el obtener el apoyo <strong>de</strong> los votantes, reforzando p<strong>red</strong>isposiciones<br />

políticas ya existentes en <strong>la</strong> mente <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos y, sobre todo, pue<strong>de</strong><br />

generar el voto <strong>de</strong> nuevos electores, especialmente <strong>de</strong>l sector social <strong>de</strong> los usualmente<br />

abstencionistas o los <strong>de</strong>nominados switchers.<br />

octavo, <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones posibilitan<br />

el impulso <strong>de</strong> campañas más profesionalizadas, ayudando a lograr una mejor comunicación<br />

interna y coordinación operativa entre los equipos <strong>de</strong> campaña, construyendo<br />

ventajas competitivas en <strong>la</strong> disputa por el po<strong>de</strong>r público.<br />

Finalmente, <strong>la</strong>s cibercampañas ayudan a evitar un mayor daño ecológico, ya que <strong>la</strong><br />

propaganda tradicional llena <strong>de</strong> basura y contaminación visual a <strong>la</strong>s ciuda<strong>de</strong>s, evitándose o<br />

aminorándose el problema con el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías digitales.


552 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

País<br />

total <strong>de</strong> habitantes, total <strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> internet y facebook, penetración<br />

en américa central y sudamérica<br />

Pob<strong>la</strong>ción<br />

estimada<br />

Usuarios <strong>de</strong><br />

Internet<br />

Usuarios <strong>de</strong><br />

Facebook<br />

Penetración<br />

<strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

Brasil 201,103,330 75,943,600 6,114,340 37.8% 3.0%<br />

Penetración<br />

<strong>de</strong> Facebook<br />

Colombia 44,205,293 21,529,415 11,115,840 48.7% 25.1%<br />

México 112,468,855 30,600,000 15,037,020 27.2% 13.4%<br />

Venezue<strong>la</strong> 27,223,228 9,306,916 7,148,100 34.2% 26.3%<br />

Argentina 41,343,201 26,614,813 11,381,120 64.4% 27.5%<br />

Fuente: E<strong>la</strong>boración propia con base en información disponible en el IWS<br />

6. a modo <strong>de</strong> conclusión<br />

Las nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s comunicaciones han transformado <strong>la</strong><br />

forma como se realizan <strong>la</strong>s campañas electorales en América <strong>la</strong>tina. A partir <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> gran experiencia<br />

exitosa <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas en los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> Norteamérica en <strong>la</strong> elección<br />

presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong>l 2008 37 , cuando obama 38 ganó <strong>la</strong> contienda, esta región ha revolucionado su<br />

forma <strong>de</strong> hacer política y <strong>de</strong> tratar <strong>de</strong> ganar el voto <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos 39 .<br />

De esta forma, hoy día toda campaña electoral exitosa implica el establecimiento <strong>de</strong><br />

tres gran<strong>de</strong>s frentes estratégicos: 1) El mediático, centrado en <strong>la</strong> radio y <strong>la</strong> televisión; 2) El<br />

territorial, centrado en el contacto directo con <strong>la</strong> gente; y 3) El <strong>de</strong>l ciberespacio, centrado en<br />

el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones.<br />

El frente <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas ha experimentado, en los últimos años, un crecimiento<br />

exponencial <strong>de</strong>bido a <strong>la</strong> socialización <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> computación y <strong>la</strong><br />

telefonía. De acuerdo a <strong>la</strong> consultora ComScore, el uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> social Twitter en América<br />

Latina ha tenido aumentos sustanciales en los últimos años, ya que, por ejemplo, <strong>de</strong>l 2009<br />

37 En <strong>la</strong> campaña presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong>l 2008, obama invirtió 750 millones <strong>de</strong> dó<strong>la</strong>res y en <strong>la</strong> campaña <strong>de</strong>l<br />

2012 se estima pueda superar <strong>la</strong> cifra <strong>de</strong> los mil millones <strong>de</strong> dó<strong>la</strong>res. La mayoría <strong>de</strong> estos recursos<br />

obtenidos a través <strong>de</strong> recaudaciones utilizando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información.<br />

38 El 4 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong>l 2011, en los Estados Unidos <strong>de</strong> Norteamérica el presi<strong>de</strong>nte Barack obama anunció<br />

su candidatura rumbo a <strong>la</strong> reelección a través <strong>de</strong> un correo electrónico dirigido a sus seguidores, un<br />

mensaje en Twitter y un vi<strong>de</strong>o subido a Youtube y a su sitio Web con testimonios <strong>de</strong> partidarios con el<br />

título “Comienza con nos<strong>otros</strong>.” De esta forma, obama continuó con <strong>la</strong> estrategia digital que utilizó<br />

en su última campaña y que ha marcado <strong>la</strong> nueva política en el presente siglo (Véase Rafael Mathus<br />

Ruiz, Costará reelección <strong>de</strong> obama mil millones <strong>de</strong> dó<strong>la</strong>res, periódico Mural, sección internacional,<br />

5 <strong>de</strong> abril <strong>de</strong>l 2011, p. 9).<br />

39 De acuerdo a Luis Arvizu, anteriormente los partidos asignaban lo que sobraba <strong>de</strong> sus presupuestos al<br />

uso <strong>de</strong> internet. Hoy <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> forma parte importante <strong>de</strong> sus estrategias.


<strong>la</strong>s Ciber-campañas en América <strong>la</strong>tina: Potencialida<strong>de</strong>s y limitantes<br />

553<br />

al 2010 se tuvo un aumento <strong>de</strong> usuarios <strong>de</strong> un 305 por ciento 40 . Algo simi<strong>la</strong>r ha pasado<br />

con Facebook, con los micro blogs, los wikis, Hi5, Myspace y <strong>la</strong>s <strong>de</strong>más re<strong>de</strong>s sociales. Sin<br />

embargo, el mayor uso <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías no significa automáticamente un mayor<br />

número <strong>de</strong> votos <strong>para</strong> los candidatos usuarios, ni una mayor calidad <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>mocracia en los<br />

países <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> región. Todo <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> forma como se usen estas tecnologías y el fin que se<br />

pretenda alcanzar.<br />

Hoy día, <strong>la</strong>s elecciones no necesariamente se ganan en <strong>la</strong> televisión, sino también en el<br />

ciber-espacio, utilizando <strong>la</strong>s nuevas formas <strong>de</strong> comunicación política alternativa, que posibilitan<br />

el posicionamiento <strong>de</strong> candidatos, partidos y temas <strong>de</strong> campaña en sectores específicos<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> sociedad. Las ciber campañas, también, posibilitan <strong>la</strong> transformación <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s campañas<br />

tradicionales sustentadas en <strong>la</strong> acción uni<strong>la</strong>teral <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> c<strong>la</strong>se política hacedores <strong>de</strong> campañas en<br />

amplios y verda<strong>de</strong>ros movimientos ciudadanos en <strong>la</strong> búsqueda <strong>de</strong> un mejor futuro.<br />

Ciertamente, <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas abaratan, simplifican y hacen accesible los mensajes<br />

<strong>de</strong> los candidatos y partidos a <strong>la</strong> ciudadanía. Sin embargo, todavía no se ha sabido explotar<br />

en <strong>la</strong> región <strong>la</strong>s potencialida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> este tipo <strong>de</strong> herramientas y los políticos lo que comúnmente<br />

han hecho es tras<strong>la</strong>dar <strong>la</strong> forma tradicional <strong>de</strong> hacer política a <strong>la</strong> Internet con poca<br />

innovación y creatividad 41 .<br />

En el ámbito electoral, <strong>la</strong> mejor campaña no es <strong>la</strong> que sólo proporciona información,<br />

sino <strong>la</strong> que invita a <strong>la</strong> acción, involucra a los ciudadanos, generan confianza y los hace participes<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> contienda, permite a <strong>la</strong> gente interesarse, presentar proyectos y propuesta <strong>de</strong><br />

gobierno, manifestar criticas y preocupaciones, subir a <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> vi<strong>de</strong>os y fotos, publicar eventos<br />

y, sobre todo, logra el involucramiento y <strong>la</strong> participación <strong>de</strong> amplios sectores sociales.<br />

Por ello, <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas <strong>de</strong>ben ir mucho más allá <strong>de</strong>l simple hecho <strong>de</strong> dar información<br />

y difundir <strong>la</strong>s activida<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> los candidatos y partidos. Las ciber campañas <strong>de</strong>be ser consi<strong>de</strong>radas<br />

como un conjunto <strong>de</strong> herramientas que le permitan a los electores y, especialmente<br />

a los simpatizantes y apoyadores, el po<strong>de</strong>r comunicarse y organizarse <strong>para</strong> hacer proselitismo<br />

ellos mismos. Es <strong>de</strong>cir, <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas <strong>de</strong>ben ser concebidas como un medio que facilite<br />

<strong>la</strong> comunicación y <strong>la</strong> organización <strong>de</strong> los ciudadanos <strong>para</strong> convertir a <strong>la</strong> campaña en un gran<br />

movimiento social capaz <strong>de</strong> movilizar a miles <strong>de</strong> votantes a <strong>la</strong>s urnas <strong>para</strong> construir una gran<br />

victoria electoral.<br />

Finalmente, se <strong>de</strong>be consi<strong>de</strong>rar que <strong>la</strong> política es construcción y <strong>la</strong>s nuevas tecnologías<br />

<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> información y <strong>la</strong>s telecomunicaciones son herramientas importantes e imprescindibles<br />

<strong>para</strong> po<strong>de</strong>r edificar gran<strong>de</strong>s proyectos <strong>de</strong> política, ya sea a nivel local, regional, nacional o internacional.<br />

En el futuro, el tiempo <strong>de</strong>dicado a Internet por parte <strong>de</strong> los electores en América<br />

<strong>la</strong>tina será mayor al número <strong>de</strong> horas por semanas <strong>de</strong>stinadas a <strong>la</strong> exposición en televisión.<br />

40 ComScore es una empresa norteamericana que se <strong>de</strong>dica a medir <strong>la</strong>s audiencias en el mundo digital,<br />

su página Web es www.comscore.com.<br />

41 La <strong>de</strong>sconfianza social en los políticos y los partidos, a<strong>de</strong>más, <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>de</strong>sconfianza en <strong>la</strong> Internet ha<br />

limitado a <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas como medio alternativo <strong>de</strong> propaganda electoral, que ayu<strong>de</strong> a fomentar<br />

una mayor participación ciudadana en <strong>la</strong>s urnas.


554 <strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet<br />

De ahí <strong>la</strong> importancia <strong>de</strong> mejorar <strong>la</strong>s estrategias <strong>de</strong> persuasión, interre<strong>la</strong>ción, diseño y arquitectura<br />

propagandística <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s ciber campañas.<br />

7. bibliografÍa<br />

Lopez, C. E. (2000). Las Ciber-campañas In<strong>de</strong>pendientes Gutiérrez Fernando e Is<strong>la</strong>s Carmona<br />

Octavio, Revista Latina <strong>de</strong> Comunicación Social No. 33.<br />

Da<strong>de</strong>r, J. L. (2006). Comunicación Política en <strong>la</strong> Red: Des<strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong>s Cibercampañas a <strong>la</strong> Transparencia<br />

Virtual <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> Administración. Ponencia presentada en <strong>la</strong>s Jornadas Autoría y<br />

Contenidos en <strong>la</strong> Red, Universidad Internacional Menén<strong>de</strong>z Pe<strong>la</strong>yo, Valencia, España,<br />

<strong>de</strong>l 27 al 29 <strong>de</strong> marzo <strong>de</strong>l 2006.<br />

Holmes, D. (1997). Virtual Politics. I<strong>de</strong>ntity and Community in Ciberspace. London. Sage.<br />

Rash, W. (1997). Politics on the Nets. Wiring the Political Process. New York. W.H. Freeman.<br />

Rodota, S. (2004). Tecnopolítica. La <strong>de</strong>mocracia e le nuove tecnologie <strong>de</strong>l<strong>la</strong> comunicazione.<br />

Sagittari.<br />

Sánchez, D. (2011). Política 2.0 en <strong>la</strong> campaña presi<strong>de</strong>ncial <strong>de</strong> Sebastián Piñera. Recuperado<br />

el 01 <strong>de</strong> febrero <strong>de</strong> 2011 <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> página http://www.politicare<strong>de</strong>s.com.


<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet.<br />

Actas <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso Internacional Internet, Derecho y Política<br />

(IDP 2011)<br />

ISBN: 978-84-694-7037-4<br />

Para citar <strong>la</strong> obra, por favor, utilicen <strong>la</strong>s<br />

siguientes referencias indistintamente:<br />

Cerrillo-i-Martínez, A., Peguera, M., Peña-López, I. & Vi<strong>la</strong>sau So<strong>la</strong>na, M. (coords.) (2011).<br />

<strong>Neutralidad</strong> <strong>de</strong> <strong>la</strong> <strong>red</strong> y <strong>otros</strong> <strong>retos</strong> <strong>para</strong> el futuro <strong>de</strong> Internet. Actas <strong>de</strong>l VII Congreso<br />

Internacional Internet, Derecho y Política. Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya,<br />

Barcelona 11-12 <strong>de</strong> julio <strong>de</strong> 2011. Barcelona: UOC-Huygens Editorial.<br />

Cerrillo-i-Martínez, A., Peguera, M., Peña-López, I. & Vi<strong>la</strong>sau So<strong>la</strong>na, M. (coords.) (2011).<br />

Net Neutrality and other challenges for the future of the Internet. Proceedings of<br />

the 7 th International Conference on Internet, Law & Politics. Universitat Oberta <strong>de</strong> Catalunya,<br />

Barcelona, 11-12 July, 2011. Barcelona: UOC-Huygens Editorial.<br />

http://edcp.uoc.edu/symposia/idp2011/proceedings/<br />

Universitat Oberta<br />

<strong>de</strong> Catalunya<br />

www.uoc.edu

Hooray! Your file is uploaded and ready to be published.

Saved successfully!

Ooh no, something went wrong!