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AX4-40 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Summary of Selected Measurements of Urine Lead Levels in Humans Reference, Study Location, and Period Study Description Urine Lead Measurement Comment United States (cont’d) Berger et al. (1990) Ohio 1983-1986 Europe Chamberlain et al. (1978) United Kingdom 1975-1976 Brockhaus et al. (1988) Germany 1982-1986 Koster et al. (1989) Germany NR Australia Gulson et al. (2000) Australia Design: cross-sectional, convenience sample Subjects: children (n = 39), age range not reported. Biomarker measured: timed urine lead Analysis: AAS Design: experimental Subjects: adult males (n = 6), intravenous injection of 203 Pb tracer Biomarker: urinary lead clearance Analysis: gamma spectrometer ( 203 Pb) Design: cross-sectional Subjects: children (n = 184), age range 4-11 yrs residing in 2 areas impacted by smelting operations Biomarker measured: urine lead Analysis: GFAAS Design: cross-sectional Subjects: adult (n = 46, 40 males) hospital workers, age range 20-78 yr. Biomarker measured: urine lead Analysis: GFAAS Design: longitudinal Subjects: women (n = 58) during pregnancy, age range 18-35 yrs Biomarker measured: blood-to-urine clearance Analysis: TIMS Units: µg/day range: 5-70 Units: L/day Arithmetic mean (range) Blood-to-urine: 0.09 (0.08-0.10) Plasma-to-urine: 20 Units: µg/g creatinine Geometric mean (GSD, range) Stolberg (n = 106): 9.6 (2.3, 0.2-43.0) Dortmund (n = 78): 6.7 (2.0, 1.6-41.0) Units: µg/24 hr-1.73 m 2 (adult body surface area) Arithmetic mean (range): 6.8 (2.3-18.9) Units: µg/h Arithmetic mean (SD, range): 3.2 (0.8-10.2) Geometric mean: 2.7 PbB range was 22-55 µg/dL. Blood-to urine clearance estimate was 0.07 L/day (from Diamond, 1992). Geometric mean PbB levels were ~7 µg/dL. Arithmetic mean (range) PbB (µg/dL) was 7.6 (2.6-18.7). Blood-to-urine clearance estimate was 0.15 L/day (from Diamond, 1992). Reported blood-to-urine clearance corresponds to ~0.08 L/day.
AX4-41 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Summary of Selected Measurements of Urine Lead Levels in Humans Reference, Study Location, and Period Study Description Urine Lead Measurement Comment Asia Araki et al. (1986, 1990) Japan NR Lee et al. (1990) Korea NR Schwartz et al. (2000a), Lee et al. (2001) Korea 1997-1999 Design: cross-sectional Subjects: adult (n = 19) male, gun metal foundry workers, age range 34-59 yr. Biomarker measured: urine lead Analysis: AAS Design: cross-sectional Subjects: adults (n = 95) male workers in lead smelting, battery manufacture, PVC-stabilizer manufacture facilities, age range: 19-64 yrs; reference subjects (n = 13), age range 22-54 yr. Biomarker measured: DMSA (10 mg/kg)provoked urine lead Analysis: GFAAS Design: Cross-sectional Subjects: Adult lead (inorganic) workers (n = 798, 634 males), age range 18-65 yrs. Biomarker measured: MSA (10 mg/kg)-provoked urine lead Analysis: GFAAS Units: µg/24 hr Arithmetic mean (range): 94 (37-171) Units: µg/4 hr Arithmetic mean (SD, range) Lead workers: 288.7 (167.7, 32.4-789) Reference: 23.7 (11.5, 10.5-43.5) Units: µg/4 hr Arithmetic mean (SD, range) 186 (208, 4.8-2100) Arithmetic mean plasma concentration was 0.67 µg/dL (range 0.37-0.92). Plasma-to urine clearance estimate was 22 L/day. Blood-to-urine clearance estimate was 0.33 L/day (from Diamond, 1992). Arithmetic mean (SD, range) PbB concentration (µg/dL) was 44.6 (12.6, 21.4-78.4) in lead workers and 5.9 (1.2, 4.0-7.2) in reference subjects. PbB was strongest predictor or DMSAprovoked urine lead. Arithmetic mean (SD, range) PbB (µg/dL) was 32.0 (15, 4-86). PbB was strongest predictor or DMSA-provoked urine lead. Arithmetic mean (SD, range) tibia lead (µg/g, XRF) was 37.1 (40.4, -7 to 338). AAS - atomic absorption spectroscopy; PbB = blood lead; ET-AAS - electro-thermal atomic absorption spectrometry; GFAAS - graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy; ICP-AES - inductively coupled plasma/atomic emission spectroscopy; ICP-MS - inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry; MS - mass spectrometry; NR - not reported; Pct - percentile; TEL -tetraethyl lead; TIMS - thermal ionization mass spectrometry.
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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NCEA acknowledges the valuable cont
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Table of Contents Page PREFACE ....
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Authors, Contributors, and Reviewer
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Executive Direction U.S. Environmen
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Chair U.S. Environmental Protection
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Abbreviations and Acronyms αFGF α
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BLL blood lead level BLM biotic lig
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CRI chronic renal insufficiency CSF
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EPT macroinvertebrates from the Eph
Page 27 and 28: GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
Page 29 and 30: KABC Kaufman Assessment Battery for
Page 31 and 32: NADP nicotinamide adenine dinucleot
Page 33 and 34: Pb(Ac)2 lead acetate PbB blood lead
Page 35 and 36: RR RT RSEM RSUC RT ∑SEM SA7 SAB S
Page 37 and 38: TGF transforming growth factor TH t
Page 39 and 40: AX4. CHAPTER 4 ANNEX ANNEX TABLES A
Page 41 and 42: AX4-3 Table AX4-1 (cont’d). Analy
Page 43 and 44: AX4-5 Table AX4-2 (cont’d). Summa
Page 45 and 46: AX4-7 Table AX4-3. Bone Lead Measur
Page 47 and 48: AX4-9 Reference, Study Location, an
Page 49 and 50: AX4-11 Table AX4-4 (cont’d). Bone
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Page 75 and 76: AX4-37 Table AX4-9 (cont’d). Lead
Page 77: AX4-39 Table AX4-11. Summary of Sel
Page 81 and 82: AX-43 Table AX4-12 (cont’d). Summ
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Page 91 and 92: Khoury, G. A.; Diamond, G. L. (2003
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Page 95 and 96: Pounds, J. G.; Leggett, R. W. (1998
Page 97 and 98: Skerfving, S. (1988) Biological mon
Page 99 and 100: U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 101 and 102: Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
Page 103 and 104: AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement,
Page 105 and 106: Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
Page 107 and 108: List of Tables AX4-1 Analytical Met
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Page 111 and 112: List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-9.3 S
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Page 115 and 116: Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
Page 117 and 118: Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
Page 119 and 120: Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
Page 121 and 122: Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
Page 123 and 124: ANP atrial natriuretic peptide AP a
Page 125 and 126: CCE Coordination Center for Effects
Page 127 and 128: DR drinking water DSA delayed spati
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FTII Fagan Test of Infant Intellige
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H3PO4 phosphoric acid HPRT hypoxant
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MATC maximum acceptable threshold c
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NOS nitric oxide synthase; not othe
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PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary T
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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AX5-2 Table AX5-2.1. Effect of Lead
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AX5-4 Table AX5-2.1 (cont’d). Eff
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AX5-6 Table AX5-2.2. Lead, Erythroc
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AX5-8 Table AX5-2.2 (cont’d). Lea
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AX5-10 Table AX5-2.4. Lead Effects
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AX5-12 Table AX5-2.5. Lead Interact
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AX5-14 Table AX5-2.7. Lead, Erythro
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AX5-16 Subject Exposure Protocol Ra
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AX5-22 Subject Rat, female, 22 wks
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AX5-24 Subject Rat, F344, male Expo
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AX5-26 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-28 Subject Rat, SD, male, PND 6
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AX5-30 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-32 Subject Exposure Protocol Ta
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AX5-34 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-36 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-38 Citation Al-Hakkak et al. (1
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AX5-40 Citation Fox et al. (1997)
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AX5-42 Citation Pinon- Lataillade e
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AX5-44 Citation Wiebe et al. (1998)
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AX5-46 Citation Chowdhuri et al. (2
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AX5-48 Citation Graca et al. (2004)
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AX5-50 Citation Marchlewicz et al.
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AX5-52 Table AX5-4.2 (cont’d). Ef
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AX5-54 Citation Sokol et al. (1985)
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AX5-56 Citation Table AX5-4.3 (cont
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AX5-58 Citation Priya et al. (2004)
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ANNEX TABLES AX5-5 AX5-60
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AX5-62 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-64 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-66 Reference Watts et al. (1995
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AX5-68 Reference Lai et al. (2002)
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AX5-70 Reference Shelkovnikov and G
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AX5-72 Reference Fujiwara and Kaji
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AX5-74 Reference Fugiwara et al. (1
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AX5-76 Table AX5-6.1. Genotoxic/Car
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AX5-80 Table AX5-6.3 (cont’d). Ge
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AX5-86 Compound Table AX5-6.6. Geno
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AX5-96 Table AX5-6.10 (cont’d). G
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AX5-98 Table AX5-6.12. Genotoxic/Ca
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AX5-100 Table AX5-6.14. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-102 Compound Table AX5-6.16. Ge
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AX5-104 Table AX5-6.18. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-106 Table AX5-6.18 (cont’d).
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AX5-110 Compound Assay (Concentrati
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AX5-112 Table AX5-7.1. Light Micros
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AX5-114 Table AX5-7.2. Lead and Fre
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AX5-116 Table AX5-7.2 (cont’d). L
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AX5-118 Table AX5-7.4. Effect of Ch
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AX5-120 Table AX5-7.5 (cont’d). E
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AX5-122 Table AX5-8.1. Bone Growth
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AX5-124 Table AX5-8.1 (cont’d). B
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AX5-126 Table AX5-8.2. Regulation o
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AX5-128 Table AX5-8.2 (cont’d). R
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AX5-136 Table AX5-8.4. Bone Lead as
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AX5-142 Table AX5-8.5. Uptake of Le
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AX5-144 Table AX5-8.7. Effects of L
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AX5-148 Nature of Exposure Table AX
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AX5-150 Table AX5-9.2. Effect of Le
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AX5-152 Species Strain/Gender Age M
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AX5-162 Table AX5-10.2. Biochemical
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AX5-166 Table AX5-10.4. Lead, Oxida
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AX5-180 Table AX5-10.7. Lead and In
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AX5-184 Table AX5-10.9. Lead, Calci
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AX5-188 Source Organ Species Table
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REFERENCES Abdollahi, M.; Dehpour,
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Bataineh, H.; Al-Hamood, M. H.; Elb
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Buchet, J.-P.; Roels, H. E.; Huberm
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Cline, H. T.; Witte, S.; Jones, K.
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Cory-Slechta, D. A.; McCoy, L.; Ric
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children's health: immune and respi
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Ferguson, C.; Kern, M.; Audesirk, G
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Fullmer, C. S. (1991) Intestinal ca
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Goyer, R. A.; Leonard, D. L.; Moore
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Hengstler, J. G.; Bolm-Audorff, U.;
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Jacquet, P.; Leonard, A.; Gerber, G
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Kim, K. A.; Chakraborti, T.; Goldst
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Laughlin, N. K.; Bowman, R. E.; Fra
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Maldonado-Vega, M.; Cerbón-Solórz
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Moorman, W. J.; Skaggs, S. R.; Clar
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O'Flaherty, E. J.; Inskip, M. J.; F
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Price, R. G.; Taylor, S. A.; Chiver
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Rodamilans, M.; Mtz.-Osaba, M. J.;
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Schlipkoter, H.-W.; Frieler, L. (19
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Skoczyńska, A.; Smolik, R.; Jeleń
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Tavakoli-Nezhad, M.; Pitts, D. K. (
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Valentino, M.; Governa, M.; Marchis
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Wetmur, J. G.; Lehnert, G.; Desnick
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Zhou, J.; Xu, Y.-H.; Chang, H.-F. (
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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The purpose of this revised Lead AQ
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables Number Page AX6-2.1
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List of Tables (cont’d) Number Pa
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Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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AX6-4 Table AX6-2.1 (cont’d). Pro
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AX6-10 Table AX6-2.2 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-12 Table AX6-2.3 (cont’d). Cr
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AX6-14 Table AX6-2.4. Effects of Le
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AX6-24 Table AX6-2.8. Effects of Le
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AX6-30 Table AX6-3.1. Neurobehavior
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AX6-32 Table AX6-3.1 (cont’d). Ne
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AX6-34 Table AX6-3.2 (cont’d). Sy
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AX6-36 Table AX6-3.3. Neurobehavior
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AX6-50 Table AX6-3.4 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-56 Table AX6-3.6. Evoked Potent
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AX6-58 Table AX6-3.6 (cont’d). Ev
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AX6-60 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-62 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-64 Table AX6-3.8 (cont’d). Oc
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AX6-66 Table AX6-3.9. Other Neurolo
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AX6-68 Table AX6-3.9 (cont’d). Ot
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AX6-70 Table AX6-4.1. Renal Effects
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AX6-72 Table AX6-4.1 (cont’d). Re
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AX6-104 Table AX6-4.3. Renal Effect
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AX6-166 Table AX6-5.4. Cardiovascul
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AX6-170 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). P
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AX172 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). Pla
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AX6-174 Table AX6-6.2. Lead Exposur
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AX6-176 Table AX6-6.2 (cont’d). L
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AX6-186 Table AX6-7.2. Key Occupati
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AX6-188 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-190 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-192 Table AX6-7.3. Key Studies
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AX6-194 Table AX6-7.4. Other Studie
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AX6-196 Table AX6-7.4 (cont’d). O
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AX6-224 Table 6-9.2 (cont’d). Eff
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AX6-232 Table AX6-9.3 (cont’d.).
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AX6-258 Table AX6-9.10. Effects of
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REFERENCES Abbate, C.; Buceti, R.;
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Baghurst, P. A.; McMichael, A. J.;
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Bolla, K. I.; Schwartz, B. S.; Stew
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Chia, K. S.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Tan, C
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David, O. J.; Clark, J.; Hoffman, S
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Englyst, V.; Lundstrom, N. G.; Gerh
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Gennart, J. P.; Bernard, A.; Lauwer
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Haraguchi, T.; Ishizu, H.; Takehisa
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Jemal, A.; Graubard, B. I.; Devesa,
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Lanphear, B. P.; Howard, C.; Eberly
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Lundström, N.-G.; Nordberg, G.; En
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Muntner, P.; He, J.; Vupputuri, S.;
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Paksy, K.; Gáti, I.; Náray, M.; R
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Rhainds, M.; Levallois, P.; Dewaill
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Sargent, J. D.; Dalton, M. A.; O'Co
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Sheffet, A.; Thind, I.; Miller, A.
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Stevens, L. A.; Levey, A. S. (2005b
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Van Larebeke, N.; Koppen, G.; Nelen
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Winker, R.; Ponocny-Seliger, E.; R
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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drafts of document materials were r
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Table of Contents PREFACE..........
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Table of Contents (cont’d) II-ix
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX7-2.3.1
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List of Figures (cont’d) Number P
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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Pb is ideally suited for this task.
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Concept For a given metal or metall
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(1979) observed that “the smaller
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Figure AX7-1.1.3. Illustration of p
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• Colorimetric • Electrochemica
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Figure AX7-1.1.5. Bulk lead versus
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diffraction lines and comparing the
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The major disadvantage of SIMS to s
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techniques can be useful in a study
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have included phosphoric acid (H3PO
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to 15 years after biosolid applicat
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thin films (DGT), and ICP technique
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completely extract targeted phases.
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epresents Eb. The precise energy re
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1974; Ruby et al., 1994). However,
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T1/2 = 14 × 10 9 year). The result
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floor) time-series data to evaluate
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contributions of dry deposition may
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Compared to their estimated 20th-ce
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thought to enter the plant via the
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soil was not allowed to equilibrate
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Lead concentrations in various tiss
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that the nematode may detoxify Pb v
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plasma levels of uric acid and crea
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effective use of glutathione metabo
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and oats (Avena sativa) had signifi
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other metals is inconsistent (Påhl
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Speciation and Form of Lead Recent
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organism responses to Pb. Section A
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Primary Producers Commonly reported
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solution and minimal translocation
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AX7.1.3.3 Recent Studies on the Eff
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AX7-66 Avian Species Reproduction J
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AX7-68 Avian Species American kestr
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Very little research has been done
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AX7-72 Mammalian Species Reproducti
Page 831 and 832:
AX7-74 Mammalian Species No. of Dos
Page 833 and 834:
Page 835 and 836:
Page 837 and 838:
AX7-80 Mammalia n Species No. of Do
Page 839 and 840:
A literature search and review was
Page 841 and 842:
Table AX7-1.3.6. Invertebrate Toxic
Page 843 and 844:
The effects of Pb-chloride on the p
Page 845 and 846:
Ecological Soil Screening Levels (E
Page 847 and 848:
Since the movement and fate of Pb i
Page 849 and 850:
Land Use and Industry Changes in la
Page 851 and 852:
lakes in the United Kingdom the dis
Page 853 and 854:
zinc; had very low pH; and were det
Page 855 and 856:
Sites Affected by Long-Range Lead T
Page 857 and 858:
iomass carbon. Because of this link
Page 859 and 860:
in an oak woodland site 3 km from a
Page 861 and 862:
the forested Lehstenbach catchment
Page 863 and 864:
there is little evidence that Pb ac
Page 865 and 866:
ecosystems. Just as in the terrestr
Page 867 and 868:
To develop chronic AWQC, acceptable
Page 869 and 870:
for the binding of free-metal ion a
Page 871 and 872:
partition in sediment between acid-
Page 873 and 874:
AX7.2.1.5 Metal Mixtures As discuss
Page 875 and 876:
varies from 4:1 in rural streams to
Page 877 and 878:
Organic compounds in surface waters
Page 879 and 880:
solution phase, complexation with c
Page 881 and 882:
The NAWQA dataset was chosen over o
Page 883 and 884:
Lead Distributions Generated from t
Page 885 and 886:
AX7-128 Figure AX7-2.2.3. Spatial d
Page 887 and 888:
AX7-130 Figure AX7-2.2.5. Spatial d
Page 889 and 890:
AX7-132 ` Figure AX7-2.2.7. Spatial
Page 891 and 892:
Figure AX7-2.2.8. Frequency distrib
Page 893 and 894:
Table AX7-2.2.4. Summary Statistics
Page 895 and 896:
Table AX7-2.2.5. Comparison of NCBP
Page 897 and 898:
AX7-140 Figure AX7-2.2.13. Spatial
Page 899 and 900:
calculations indicate that only a s
Page 901 and 902:
from municipal sewage, storm runoff
Page 903 and 904:
AX7.2.3 Aquatic Species Response/Mo
Page 905 and 906:
aquatic plants and insects and on t
Page 907 and 908:
designed to model uptake, MINTEQ pr
Page 909 and 910:
sequestering to organ tissues). The
Page 911 and 912:
AbdAllah and Moustafa (2002) studie
Page 913 and 914:
Summary of Detoxifiction Processes
Page 915 and 916:
1.1 µg/L Cd, 12 µg/L Cu, 55 µg/L
Page 917 and 918:
Studies have identified ALAD in fis
Page 919 and 920:
metals over nonessential metals. Th
Page 921 and 922:
In summary, relationships between a
Page 923 and 924:
potential toxic effects in other or
Page 925 and 926:
esulted in 91.7% survival (Horne an
Page 927 and 928:
carbon sources (including glucose),
Page 929 and 930:
separate concentration-effects mode
Page 931 and 932:
1994. mSQGQs are useful to risk ass
Page 933 and 934:
Algae The 1986 Lead AQCD (U.S. Envi
Page 935 and 936:
observed in Selenastrum capricornut
Page 937 and 938:
Nitrate uptake reported after 48, 7
Page 939 and 940:
1997). The most sensitive primary p
Page 941 and 942:
Freshwater Invertebrates Acute and
Page 943 and 944:
AX7-186 Amphipod (Hyalella azteca)
Page 945 and 946:
concentrations of
Page 947 and 948:
AX7-190 Freshwater Species Chemical
Page 949 and 950:
AX7-192 Species Chemical Frogs (Ran
Page 951 and 952:
studied using Spirodela polyrhiza,
Page 953 and 954:
However, in other cases multivariat
Page 955 and 956:
species was observed. Similar, sign
Page 957 and 958:
AX7-200 Table AX7-2.5.2. Essential
Page 959 and 960:
AX7-202 Table AX7-2.5.2 (cont’d).
Page 961 and 962:
variables, it does not imply causat
Page 963 and 964:
Poulton et al. (1995), the effects
Page 965 and 966:
metal levels. Furthermore, although
Page 967 and 968:
environment through bioaccumulation
Page 969 and 970:
Angle, C. R.; McIntire, M. S.; Colu
Page 971 and 972:
Black, M. C.; Ferrell, J. R.; Horni
Page 973 and 974:
Clements, W. H. (1994) Benthic inve
Page 975 and 976:
Ekenler, M.; Tabatabai, M. (2002) E
Page 977 and 978:
Getz, L. L.; Haney, A. W.; Larimore
Page 979 and 980:
Houlton, B. Z.; Driscoll, C. T.; Fa
Page 981 and 982:
Krüger, F.; Gröngröft, A. (2003)
Page 983 and 984:
Manceau, A.; Lanson, B.; Schlegel,
Page 985 and 986:
Niyogi, S.; Wood, C. M. (2003) Effe
Page 987 and 988:
Rand, G. M.; Wells, P. G.; McCarty,
Page 989 and 990:
Scherer, E.; McNicol, R. E. (1998)
Page 991 and 992:
Sturges, W. T.; Barrie, L. A. (1987
Page 993 and 994:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 995 and 996:
Zenk, M. H. (1996) Heavy metal deto
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