Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volume II of II - (NEPIS)(EPA) - US ...

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The purpose of this revised Lead AQCD is to critically assess the latest scientific information that has become available since the literature assessed in the 1986 Lead AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement, with the main focus being on pertinent new information useful in evaluating health and environmental effects of ambient air lead exposures. This includes discussion in this document of information regarding: the nature, sources, distribution, measurement, and concentrations of lead in the environment; multimedia lead exposure (via air, food, water, etc.) and biokinetic modeling of contributions of such exposures to concentrations of lead in brain, kidney, and other tissues (e.g., blood and bone concentrations, as key indices of lead exposure).; characterization of lead health effects and associated exposureresponse relationships; and delineation of environmental (ecological) effects of lead. This final version of the revised Lead AQCD mainly assesses pertinent literature published or accepted for publication through December 2005. The First External Review Draft (dated December 2005) of the revised Lead AQCD underwent public comment and was reviewed by the Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC) at a public meeting held in Durham, NC on February 28-March 1, 2006. The public comments and CASAC recommendations received were taken into account in making appropriate revisions and incorporating them into a Second External Review Draft (dated May, 2006) which was released for further public comment and CASAC review at a public meeting held June 28-29, 2006. In addition, still further revised drafts of the Integrative Synthesis chapter and the Executive Summary were then issued and discussed during an August 15, 2006 CASAC teleconference call. Public comments and CASAC advice received on these latter materials, as well as Second External Review Draft materials, were taken into account in making and incorporating further revisions into this final version of this Lead AQCD, which is being issued to meet an October 1, 2006 court-ordered deadline. Evaluations contained in the present document provide inputs to an associated Lead Staff Paper prepared by EPA’s Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS), which poses options for consideration by the EPA Administrator with regard to proposal and, ultimately, promulgation of decisions on potential retention or revision, as appropriate, of the current Pb NAAQS. Preparation of this document has been coordinated by staff of EPA’s National Center for Environmental Assessment in Research Triangle Park (NCEA-RTP). NCEA-RTP scientific staff, together with experts from academia, contributed to writing of document chapters. Earlier II-iv
drafts of document materials were reviewed by scientists from other EPA units and by non-EPA experts in several public peer consultation workshops held by EPA in July/August 2005. NCEA acknowledges the valuable contributions provided by authors, contributors, and reviewers and the diligence of its staff and contractors in the preparation of this document. The constructive comments provided by public commenters and CASAC that served as valuable inputs contributing to improved scientific and editorial quality of the document are also acknowledged by NCEA. DISCLAIMER Mention of trade names or commercial products in this document does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. . II-v
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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NCEA acknowledges the valuable cont
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Table of Contents Page PREFACE ....
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Authors, Contributors, and Reviewer
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Executive Direction U.S. Environmen
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Chair U.S. Environmental Protection
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Abbreviations and Acronyms αFGF α
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BLL blood lead level BLM biotic lig
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CRI chronic renal insufficiency CSF
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EPT macroinvertebrates from the Eph
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GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
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KABC Kaufman Assessment Battery for
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NADP nicotinamide adenine dinucleot
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Pb(Ac)2 lead acetate PbB blood lead
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RR RT RSEM RSUC RT ∑SEM SA7 SAB S
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TGF transforming growth factor TH t
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AX4. CHAPTER 4 ANNEX ANNEX TABLES A
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AX4-3 Table AX4-1 (cont’d). Analy
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AX4-5 Table AX4-2 (cont’d). Summa
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AX4-7 Table AX4-3. Bone Lead Measur
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AX4-9 Reference, Study Location, an
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AX4-11 Table AX4-4 (cont’d). Bone
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AX4-19 Reference, Study Location, a
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AX4-37 Table AX4-9 (cont’d). Lead
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AX4-39 Table AX4-11. Summary of Sel
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AX4-41 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Sum
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AX-43 Table AX4-12 (cont’d). Summ
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Barltrop, D.; Meek, F. (1979) Effec
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Carroll, R. J.; Galindo, C. D. (199
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Flegal, A. R.; Smith, D. R. (1995)
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Gulson, B.; Mizon, K.; Smith, H.; E
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Khoury, G. A.; Diamond, G. L. (2003
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Morgan, W. D.; Ryde, S. J.; Jones,
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Pounds, J. G.; Leggett, R. W. (1998
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Skerfving, S. (1988) Biological mon
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement,
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables AX4-1 Analytical Met
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-6.3 G
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-9.3 S
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Principal Authors (cont’d) Author
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Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANP atrial natriuretic peptide AP a
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CCE Coordination Center for Effects
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DR drinking water DSA delayed spati
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FTII Fagan Test of Infant Intellige
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H3PO4 phosphoric acid HPRT hypoxant
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MATC maximum acceptable threshold c
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NOS nitric oxide synthase; not othe
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PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary T
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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AX5-2 Table AX5-2.1. Effect of Lead
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AX5-4 Table AX5-2.1 (cont’d). Eff
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AX5-6 Table AX5-2.2. Lead, Erythroc
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AX5-8 Table AX5-2.2 (cont’d). Lea
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AX5-10 Table AX5-2.4. Lead Effects
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AX5-12 Table AX5-2.5. Lead Interact
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AX5-14 Table AX5-2.7. Lead, Erythro
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AX5-16 Subject Exposure Protocol Ra
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AX5-22 Subject Rat, female, 22 wks
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AX5-24 Subject Rat, F344, male Expo
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AX5-26 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-28 Subject Rat, SD, male, PND 6
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AX5-30 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-32 Subject Exposure Protocol Ta
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AX5-34 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-36 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-38 Citation Al-Hakkak et al. (1
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AX5-40 Citation Fox et al. (1997)
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AX5-42 Citation Pinon- Lataillade e
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AX5-44 Citation Wiebe et al. (1998)
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AX5-46 Citation Chowdhuri et al. (2
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AX5-48 Citation Graca et al. (2004)
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AX5-50 Citation Marchlewicz et al.
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AX5-52 Table AX5-4.2 (cont’d). Ef
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AX5-54 Citation Sokol et al. (1985)
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AX5-56 Citation Table AX5-4.3 (cont
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AX5-58 Citation Priya et al. (2004)
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ANNEX TABLES AX5-5 AX5-60
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AX5-62 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-64 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-66 Reference Watts et al. (1995
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AX5-68 Reference Lai et al. (2002)
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AX5-70 Reference Shelkovnikov and G
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AX5-72 Reference Fujiwara and Kaji
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AX5-74 Reference Fugiwara et al. (1
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AX5-76 Table AX5-6.1. Genotoxic/Car
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AX5-80 Table AX5-6.3 (cont’d). Ge
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AX5-86 Compound Table AX5-6.6. Geno
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AX5-96 Table AX5-6.10 (cont’d). G
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AX5-98 Table AX5-6.12. Genotoxic/Ca
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AX5-100 Table AX5-6.14. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-102 Compound Table AX5-6.16. Ge
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AX5-104 Table AX5-6.18. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-106 Table AX5-6.18 (cont’d).
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AX5-110 Compound Assay (Concentrati
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AX5-112 Table AX5-7.1. Light Micros
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AX5-114 Table AX5-7.2. Lead and Fre
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AX5-116 Table AX5-7.2 (cont’d). L
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AX5-118 Table AX5-7.4. Effect of Ch
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AX5-120 Table AX5-7.5 (cont’d). E
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AX5-122 Table AX5-8.1. Bone Growth
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AX5-124 Table AX5-8.1 (cont’d). B
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AX5-126 Table AX5-8.2. Regulation o
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AX5-128 Table AX5-8.2 (cont’d). R
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AX5-136 Table AX5-8.4. Bone Lead as
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AX5-142 Table AX5-8.5. Uptake of Le
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AX5-144 Table AX5-8.7. Effects of L
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AX5-148 Nature of Exposure Table AX
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AX5-150 Table AX5-9.2. Effect of Le
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AX5-152 Species Strain/Gender Age M
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AX5-162 Table AX5-10.2. Biochemical
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AX5-166 Table AX5-10.4. Lead, Oxida
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AX5-180 Table AX5-10.7. Lead and In
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AX5-184 Table AX5-10.9. Lead, Calci
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AX5-188 Source Organ Species Table
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REFERENCES Abdollahi, M.; Dehpour,
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Bataineh, H.; Al-Hamood, M. H.; Elb
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Buchet, J.-P.; Roels, H. E.; Huberm
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Cline, H. T.; Witte, S.; Jones, K.
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Cory-Slechta, D. A.; McCoy, L.; Ric
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children's health: immune and respi
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Ferguson, C.; Kern, M.; Audesirk, G
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Fullmer, C. S. (1991) Intestinal ca
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Goyer, R. A.; Leonard, D. L.; Moore
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Hengstler, J. G.; Bolm-Audorff, U.;
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Jacquet, P.; Leonard, A.; Gerber, G
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Kim, K. A.; Chakraborti, T.; Goldst
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Laughlin, N. K.; Bowman, R. E.; Fra
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Maldonado-Vega, M.; Cerbón-Solórz
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Moorman, W. J.; Skaggs, S. R.; Clar
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O'Flaherty, E. J.; Inskip, M. J.; F
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Price, R. G.; Taylor, S. A.; Chiver
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Rodamilans, M.; Mtz.-Osaba, M. J.;
Page 367 and 368:
Schlipkoter, H.-W.; Frieler, L. (19
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Skoczyńska, A.; Smolik, R.; Jeleń
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Tavakoli-Nezhad, M.; Pitts, D. K. (
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Valentino, M.; Governa, M.; Marchis
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Wetmur, J. G.; Lehnert, G.; Desnick
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Zhou, J.; Xu, Y.-H.; Chang, H.-F. (
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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The purpose of this revised Lead AQ
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables Number Page AX6-2.1
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List of Tables (cont’d) Number Pa
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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AX6-4 Table AX6-2.1 (cont’d). Pro
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AX6-10 Table AX6-2.2 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-12 Table AX6-2.3 (cont’d). Cr
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AX6-14 Table AX6-2.4. Effects of Le
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AX6-24 Table AX6-2.8. Effects of Le
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AX6-30 Table AX6-3.1. Neurobehavior
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AX6-32 Table AX6-3.1 (cont’d). Ne
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AX6-34 Table AX6-3.2 (cont’d). Sy
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AX6-36 Table AX6-3.3. Neurobehavior
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AX6-50 Table AX6-3.4 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-56 Table AX6-3.6. Evoked Potent
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AX6-58 Table AX6-3.6 (cont’d). Ev
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AX6-60 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-62 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-64 Table AX6-3.8 (cont’d). Oc
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AX6-66 Table AX6-3.9. Other Neurolo
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AX6-68 Table AX6-3.9 (cont’d). Ot
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AX6-70 Table AX6-4.1. Renal Effects
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AX6-72 Table AX6-4.1 (cont’d). Re
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AX6-104 Table AX6-4.3. Renal Effect
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AX6-166 Table AX6-5.4. Cardiovascul
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AX6-170 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). P
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AX172 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). Pla
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AX6-174 Table AX6-6.2. Lead Exposur
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AX6-176 Table AX6-6.2 (cont’d). L
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AX6-186 Table AX6-7.2. Key Occupati
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AX6-188 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-190 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-192 Table AX6-7.3. Key Studies
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AX6-194 Table AX6-7.4. Other Studie
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AX6-196 Table AX6-7.4 (cont’d). O
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AX6-224 Table 6-9.2 (cont’d). Eff
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AX6-232 Table AX6-9.3 (cont’d.).
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Page 667 and 668: AX6-250 Table AX6-9.6 (cont’d). E
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Page 677 and 678: REFERENCES Abbate, C.; Buceti, R.;
Page 679 and 680: Baghurst, P. A.; McMichael, A. J.;
Page 681 and 682: Bolla, K. I.; Schwartz, B. S.; Stew
Page 683 and 684: Chia, K. S.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Tan, C
Page 685 and 686: David, O. J.; Clark, J.; Hoffman, S
Page 687 and 688: Englyst, V.; Lundstrom, N. G.; Gerh
Page 689 and 690: Gennart, J. P.; Bernard, A.; Lauwer
Page 691 and 692: Haraguchi, T.; Ishizu, H.; Takehisa
Page 693 and 694: Jemal, A.; Graubard, B. I.; Devesa,
Page 695 and 696: Lanphear, B. P.; Howard, C.; Eberly
Page 697 and 698: Lundström, N.-G.; Nordberg, G.; En
Page 699 and 700: Muntner, P.; He, J.; Vupputuri, S.;
Page 701 and 702: Paksy, K.; Gáti, I.; Náray, M.; R
Page 703 and 704: Rhainds, M.; Levallois, P.; Dewaill
Page 705 and 706: Sargent, J. D.; Dalton, M. A.; O'Co
Page 707 and 708: Sheffet, A.; Thind, I.; Miller, A.
Page 709 and 710: Stevens, L. A.; Levey, A. S. (2005b
Page 711 and 712: Van Larebeke, N.; Koppen, G.; Nelen
Page 713 and 714: Winker, R.; Ponocny-Seliger, E.; R
Page 715 and 716: October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
Page 717: PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
Page 721 and 722: Table of Contents PREFACE..........
Page 723 and 724: Table of Contents (cont’d) II-ix
Page 725 and 726: List of Tables (cont’d) AX7-2.3.1
Page 727 and 728: List of Figures (cont’d) Number P
Page 729 and 730: Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
Page 731 and 732: Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
Page 733 and 734: Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
Page 735 and 736: Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
Page 737 and 738: Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
Page 739 and 740: ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
Page 741 and 742: CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
Page 743 and 744: DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
Page 745 and 746: FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
Page 747 and 748: HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
Page 749 and 750: MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
Page 751 and 752: NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
Page 753 and 754: ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
Page 755 and 756: SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
Page 757 and 758: vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
Page 759 and 760: Pb is ideally suited for this task.
Page 761 and 762: Concept For a given metal or metall
Page 763 and 764: (1979) observed that “the smaller
Page 765 and 766: Figure AX7-1.1.3. Illustration of p
Page 767 and 768: • Colorimetric • Electrochemica
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Figure AX7-1.1.5. Bulk lead versus
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diffraction lines and comparing the
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The major disadvantage of SIMS to s
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techniques can be useful in a study
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have included phosphoric acid (H3PO
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to 15 years after biosolid applicat
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thin films (DGT), and ICP technique
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completely extract targeted phases.
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epresents Eb. The precise energy re
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1974; Ruby et al., 1994). However,
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T1/2 = 14 × 10 9 year). The result
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floor) time-series data to evaluate
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contributions of dry deposition may
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Compared to their estimated 20th-ce
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thought to enter the plant via the
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soil was not allowed to equilibrate
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Lead concentrations in various tiss
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that the nematode may detoxify Pb v
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plasma levels of uric acid and crea
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effective use of glutathione metabo
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and oats (Avena sativa) had signifi
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other metals is inconsistent (Påhl
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Speciation and Form of Lead Recent
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organism responses to Pb. Section A
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Primary Producers Commonly reported
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solution and minimal translocation
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AX7.1.3.3 Recent Studies on the Eff
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AX7-66 Avian Species Reproduction J
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AX7-68 Avian Species American kestr
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Very little research has been done
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AX7-72 Mammalian Species Reproducti
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AX7-74 Mammalian Species No. of Dos
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AX7-80 Mammalia n Species No. of Do
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A literature search and review was
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Table AX7-1.3.6. Invertebrate Toxic
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The effects of Pb-chloride on the p
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Ecological Soil Screening Levels (E
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Since the movement and fate of Pb i
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Land Use and Industry Changes in la
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lakes in the United Kingdom the dis
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zinc; had very low pH; and were det
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Sites Affected by Long-Range Lead T
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iomass carbon. Because of this link
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in an oak woodland site 3 km from a
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the forested Lehstenbach catchment
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there is little evidence that Pb ac
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ecosystems. Just as in the terrestr
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To develop chronic AWQC, acceptable
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for the binding of free-metal ion a
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partition in sediment between acid-
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AX7.2.1.5 Metal Mixtures As discuss
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varies from 4:1 in rural streams to
Page 877 and 878:
Organic compounds in surface waters
Page 879 and 880:
solution phase, complexation with c
Page 881 and 882:
The NAWQA dataset was chosen over o
Page 883 and 884:
Lead Distributions Generated from t
Page 885 and 886:
AX7-128 Figure AX7-2.2.3. Spatial d
Page 887 and 888:
AX7-130 Figure AX7-2.2.5. Spatial d
Page 889 and 890:
AX7-132 ` Figure AX7-2.2.7. Spatial
Page 891 and 892:
Figure AX7-2.2.8. Frequency distrib
Page 893 and 894:
Table AX7-2.2.4. Summary Statistics
Page 895 and 896:
Table AX7-2.2.5. Comparison of NCBP
Page 897 and 898:
AX7-140 Figure AX7-2.2.13. Spatial
Page 899 and 900:
calculations indicate that only a s
Page 901 and 902:
from municipal sewage, storm runoff
Page 903 and 904:
AX7.2.3 Aquatic Species Response/Mo
Page 905 and 906:
aquatic plants and insects and on t
Page 907 and 908:
designed to model uptake, MINTEQ pr
Page 909 and 910:
sequestering to organ tissues). The
Page 911 and 912:
AbdAllah and Moustafa (2002) studie
Page 913 and 914:
Summary of Detoxifiction Processes
Page 915 and 916:
1.1 µg/L Cd, 12 µg/L Cu, 55 µg/L
Page 917 and 918:
Studies have identified ALAD in fis
Page 919 and 920:
metals over nonessential metals. Th
Page 921 and 922:
In summary, relationships between a
Page 923 and 924:
potential toxic effects in other or
Page 925 and 926:
esulted in 91.7% survival (Horne an
Page 927 and 928:
carbon sources (including glucose),
Page 929 and 930:
separate concentration-effects mode
Page 931 and 932:
1994. mSQGQs are useful to risk ass
Page 933 and 934:
Algae The 1986 Lead AQCD (U.S. Envi
Page 935 and 936:
observed in Selenastrum capricornut
Page 937 and 938:
Nitrate uptake reported after 48, 7
Page 939 and 940:
1997). The most sensitive primary p
Page 941 and 942:
Freshwater Invertebrates Acute and
Page 943 and 944:
AX7-186 Amphipod (Hyalella azteca)
Page 945 and 946:
concentrations of
Page 947 and 948:
AX7-190 Freshwater Species Chemical
Page 949 and 950:
AX7-192 Species Chemical Frogs (Ran
Page 951 and 952:
studied using Spirodela polyrhiza,
Page 953 and 954:
However, in other cases multivariat
Page 955 and 956:
species was observed. Similar, sign
Page 957 and 958:
AX7-200 Table AX7-2.5.2. Essential
Page 959 and 960:
AX7-202 Table AX7-2.5.2 (cont’d).
Page 961 and 962:
variables, it does not imply causat
Page 963 and 964:
Poulton et al. (1995), the effects
Page 965 and 966:
metal levels. Furthermore, although
Page 967 and 968:
environment through bioaccumulation
Page 969 and 970:
Angle, C. R.; McIntire, M. S.; Colu
Page 971 and 972:
Black, M. C.; Ferrell, J. R.; Horni
Page 973 and 974:
Clements, W. H. (1994) Benthic inve
Page 975 and 976:
Ekenler, M.; Tabatabai, M. (2002) E
Page 977 and 978:
Getz, L. L.; Haney, A. W.; Larimore
Page 979 and 980:
Houlton, B. Z.; Driscoll, C. T.; Fa
Page 981 and 982:
Krüger, F.; Gröngröft, A. (2003)
Page 983 and 984:
Manceau, A.; Lanson, B.; Schlegel,
Page 985 and 986:
Niyogi, S.; Wood, C. M. (2003) Effe
Page 987 and 988:
Rand, G. M.; Wells, P. G.; McCarty,
Page 989 and 990:
Scherer, E.; McNicol, R. E. (1998)
Page 991 and 992:
Sturges, W. T.; Barrie, L. A. (1987
Page 993 and 994:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 995 and 996:
Zenk, M. H. (1996) Heavy metal deto
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