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AX4-4 Table AX4-2. Summary of Selected Measurements of PbB Levels in Humans Reference, Study Location, and Period Study Description PbB Measurement Comment United States CDC (2005) U.S. 1999-2002 Brody et al. (1994) Pirckle et al. (1998) U.S. 1988-1994 Design: National survey (NHANES IV) stratified, multistage probability cluster design Subjects: Children and adults ($1 yrs, n = 16, 915) in general population Biomarker measured: PbB Analysis: ICP-MS Design: National survey (NHANES III) stratified multistage probability cluster design. Subjects: Children and adults ($1 yrs, n = 29, 843) in general population Biomarker measured: PbB Analysis: GFAAS Units: µg/dL Geometric mean (95% CI) Age (yr) 1999-2000 2001-2002 1-5: 1.66 (1.60, 1.72) 1.45 (1.39, 1.40) n: 7, 970 8, 945 6-11: 1.51 (1.36, 1.66) 1.25 (1.14, 1.36) n: 905 1,044 12-19: 1.10 (1.04, 1.17) 0.94 (0.90, 0.99) n: 2, 135 2, 231 $20: 1.75 (1.68, 1.81) 1.56 (1.49, 1.62) n: 4, 207 4, 772 Males: 2.01 (1.93, 2.09) 1.78 (1.71, 1.86) n: 3, 913 4, 339 Females: 1.37 (1.32, 1.43) 1.19 (1.14, 1.25) n: 4,057 4, 606 Units: µg/dL Geometric mean (95% CI) Age (yr) 1988-1991 1991-1994 1-5: 3.6 (3.3, 4.0) 2.7 (2.5, 3.0) n: 2, 234 2, 392 6-11: 2.5 (2.2, 2.7) 1.9 (1.8, 2.1) n: 1, 587 1, 345 12-19: 1.6 (1.4, 1.9) 1.5 (1.4, 1.7) n: 1, 376 1, 615 20-49: 2.6 (2.5, 2.8) 2.1 (2.0, 2.2) n: 4, 320 4, 716 50-69 4.0 (3.8, 4.2) 3.1 (2.9, 3.2) n: 2,071 2,026 $70 4.0 (3.7, 4.3) 3.4 (3.3, 3.6) n: 1, 613 1, 548 Males: 3.7 (3.5, 3.9) 2.8 (2.6, 2.9) n: 6,051 6, 258 Females: 2.1 (2.0, 2.2) 1.9 (1.8, 2.) n: 6,068 7, 384 Data from NHANES IV Phase 1 (1999-2000) and 2 (2001-2002). Comparison of data from NHANES III Phase 1 (1988-1991) and Phase 2 (1991-1994) indicated declining PbB concentrations in children.
AX4-5 Table AX4-2 (cont’d). Summary of Selected Measurements of PbB Levels in Humans Reference, Study Location, and Period Study Description PbB Measurement Comment United States (cont’d) Nash et al. (2003) U.S. 1988-1994 Pirkle et al. (1994) U.S. 1976-1980 Symanski and Hertz- Picciotto (1995) U.S. 1982-1984 Design: National survey (NHANES III) stratified, multistage probability cluster design Subjects: Women(n = 2, 575), age range: 40-59 yrs, in general population Biomarker measured: PbB Analysis: GFAAS Design: National survey (NHANES II, III) stratified, multistage probability cluster design Subjects: Children and adults ($1 yrs, n = 29, 843) in general population Biomarker measured: PbB Analysis: GFAAS Design: National survey (HHANES) multistagearea probability sample Subjects: Adults, females (n = 3, 137), age range 20-60 yrs, in general Hispanic population Biomarker measured: PbB Analysis: GFAAS Units: µg/dL Geometric mean (95% CI, n) Premenopausal: 1.9 (1.7, 2.0, 1, 222) Surgically menopausal: 2.7 (2.4, 3.2, 139) Naturally menopausal: 2.9 (2.5, 3.2, 653) Units: µg/dL Geometric mean (95% CI) Age (yr) 1976-1980 1988-1991 1-5: 15.0 (14.2, 15.8) 3.6 (3.3, 4.0) n: 2, 271 2, 234 6-19: 11.7 (11.2, 12.4) 1.9 (1.7, 2.2) n: 2,024 2, 963 20-74: 13.1 (12.7, 13.7) 3.0 (2.8, 3.2) n: 5, 537 6, 922 Males: 15.0 (14.5, 15.5) 3.7 (3.5, 3.9) n: 4, 895 6,051 Females: 11.1 (10.6, 11.5) 2.1 (2.0, 2.2) n: 4, 937 6,068 Units: µg/dL Arithmetic mean (SE, n) All Premenopausal: 7.5 (0.07, 1, 984) Menopausal: 8.9 (0.11, 1, 152) Mexican-American: Premenopausal: 7.2 (0.13, 1, 219) Menopausal: 8.4 (0.20, 624) Geometric mean PbB concentrations were significantly lower in premenopausal women. Increasing PbB concentrations were significantly associated with decreased bone mineral density. Comparison of data from NHANES II (1976-1980) and Phase 1 of NHANES III (1988-1991) indicated declining PbB concentrations in U.S. population. Mean difference between premenopausal and postmenopausal (#4 yrs) was 1.4 µg/dL (95% CI: 0.20, 2.7).
Page 1 and 2: October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
Page 3 and 4: PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
Page 5 and 6: NCEA acknowledges the valuable cont
Page 7 and 8: Table of Contents Page PREFACE ....
Page 9 and 10: Authors, Contributors, and Reviewer
Page 11 and 12: Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
Page 13 and 14: Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
Page 15 and 16: Executive Direction U.S. Environmen
Page 17 and 18: Chair U.S. Environmental Protection
Page 19 and 20: Abbreviations and Acronyms αFGF α
Page 21 and 22: BLL blood lead level BLM biotic lig
Page 23 and 24: CRI chronic renal insufficiency CSF
Page 25 and 26: EPT macroinvertebrates from the Eph
Page 27 and 28: GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
Page 29 and 30: KABC Kaufman Assessment Battery for
Page 31 and 32: NADP nicotinamide adenine dinucleot
Page 33 and 34: Pb(Ac)2 lead acetate PbB blood lead
Page 35 and 36: RR RT RSEM RSUC RT ∑SEM SA7 SAB S
Page 37 and 38: TGF transforming growth factor TH t
Page 39 and 40: AX4. CHAPTER 4 ANNEX ANNEX TABLES A
Page 41: AX4-3 Table AX4-1 (cont’d). Analy
Page 45 and 46: AX4-7 Table AX4-3. Bone Lead Measur
Page 47 and 48: AX4-9 Reference, Study Location, an
Page 49 and 50: AX4-11 Table AX4-4 (cont’d). Bone
Page 57 and 58: AX4-19 Reference, Study Location, a
Page 75 and 76: AX4-37 Table AX4-9 (cont’d). Lead
Page 77 and 78: AX4-39 Table AX4-11. Summary of Sel
Page 79 and 80: AX4-41 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Sum
Page 81 and 82: AX-43 Table AX4-12 (cont’d). Summ
Page 83 and 84: Barltrop, D.; Meek, F. (1979) Effec
Page 85 and 86: Carroll, R. J.; Galindo, C. D. (199
Page 87 and 88: Flegal, A. R.; Smith, D. R. (1995)
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Morgan, W. D.; Ryde, S. J.; Jones,
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Pounds, J. G.; Leggett, R. W. (1998
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Skerfving, S. (1988) Biological mon
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement,
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables AX4-1 Analytical Met
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-6.3 G
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-9.3 S
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Principal Authors (cont’d) Author
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Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANP atrial natriuretic peptide AP a
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CCE Coordination Center for Effects
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DR drinking water DSA delayed spati
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FTII Fagan Test of Infant Intellige
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H3PO4 phosphoric acid HPRT hypoxant
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MATC maximum acceptable threshold c
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NOS nitric oxide synthase; not othe
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PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary T
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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AX5-2 Table AX5-2.1. Effect of Lead
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AX5-4 Table AX5-2.1 (cont’d). Eff
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AX5-6 Table AX5-2.2. Lead, Erythroc
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AX5-8 Table AX5-2.2 (cont’d). Lea
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AX5-10 Table AX5-2.4. Lead Effects
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AX5-12 Table AX5-2.5. Lead Interact
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AX5-14 Table AX5-2.7. Lead, Erythro
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AX5-16 Subject Exposure Protocol Ra
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AX5-22 Subject Rat, female, 22 wks
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AX5-24 Subject Rat, F344, male Expo
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AX5-26 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-28 Subject Rat, SD, male, PND 6
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AX5-30 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-32 Subject Exposure Protocol Ta
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AX5-34 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-36 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-38 Citation Al-Hakkak et al. (1
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AX5-40 Citation Fox et al. (1997)
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AX5-42 Citation Pinon- Lataillade e
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AX5-44 Citation Wiebe et al. (1998)
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AX5-46 Citation Chowdhuri et al. (2
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AX5-48 Citation Graca et al. (2004)
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AX5-50 Citation Marchlewicz et al.
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AX5-52 Table AX5-4.2 (cont’d). Ef
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AX5-54 Citation Sokol et al. (1985)
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AX5-56 Citation Table AX5-4.3 (cont
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AX5-58 Citation Priya et al. (2004)
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ANNEX TABLES AX5-5 AX5-60
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AX5-62 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-64 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-66 Reference Watts et al. (1995
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AX5-68 Reference Lai et al. (2002)
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AX5-70 Reference Shelkovnikov and G
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AX5-72 Reference Fujiwara and Kaji
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AX5-74 Reference Fugiwara et al. (1
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AX5-76 Table AX5-6.1. Genotoxic/Car
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AX5-80 Table AX5-6.3 (cont’d). Ge
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AX5-86 Compound Table AX5-6.6. Geno
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AX5-96 Table AX5-6.10 (cont’d). G
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AX5-98 Table AX5-6.12. Genotoxic/Ca
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AX5-100 Table AX5-6.14. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-102 Compound Table AX5-6.16. Ge
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AX5-104 Table AX5-6.18. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-106 Table AX5-6.18 (cont’d).
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AX5-110 Compound Assay (Concentrati
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AX5-112 Table AX5-7.1. Light Micros
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AX5-114 Table AX5-7.2. Lead and Fre
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AX5-116 Table AX5-7.2 (cont’d). L
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AX5-118 Table AX5-7.4. Effect of Ch
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AX5-120 Table AX5-7.5 (cont’d). E
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AX5-122 Table AX5-8.1. Bone Growth
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AX5-124 Table AX5-8.1 (cont’d). B
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AX5-126 Table AX5-8.2. Regulation o
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AX5-128 Table AX5-8.2 (cont’d). R
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AX5-136 Table AX5-8.4. Bone Lead as
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AX5-142 Table AX5-8.5. Uptake of Le
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AX5-144 Table AX5-8.7. Effects of L
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AX5-148 Nature of Exposure Table AX
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AX5-150 Table AX5-9.2. Effect of Le
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AX5-152 Species Strain/Gender Age M
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AX5-162 Table AX5-10.2. Biochemical
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AX5-166 Table AX5-10.4. Lead, Oxida
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AX5-180 Table AX5-10.7. Lead and In
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AX5-184 Table AX5-10.9. Lead, Calci
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AX5-188 Source Organ Species Table
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REFERENCES Abdollahi, M.; Dehpour,
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Bataineh, H.; Al-Hamood, M. H.; Elb
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Buchet, J.-P.; Roels, H. E.; Huberm
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Cline, H. T.; Witte, S.; Jones, K.
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Cory-Slechta, D. A.; McCoy, L.; Ric
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children's health: immune and respi
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Ferguson, C.; Kern, M.; Audesirk, G
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Fullmer, C. S. (1991) Intestinal ca
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Goyer, R. A.; Leonard, D. L.; Moore
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Hengstler, J. G.; Bolm-Audorff, U.;
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Jacquet, P.; Leonard, A.; Gerber, G
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Kim, K. A.; Chakraborti, T.; Goldst
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Laughlin, N. K.; Bowman, R. E.; Fra
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Maldonado-Vega, M.; Cerbón-Solórz
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Moorman, W. J.; Skaggs, S. R.; Clar
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O'Flaherty, E. J.; Inskip, M. J.; F
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Price, R. G.; Taylor, S. A.; Chiver
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Rodamilans, M.; Mtz.-Osaba, M. J.;
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Schlipkoter, H.-W.; Frieler, L. (19
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Skoczyńska, A.; Smolik, R.; Jeleń
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Tavakoli-Nezhad, M.; Pitts, D. K. (
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Valentino, M.; Governa, M.; Marchis
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Wetmur, J. G.; Lehnert, G.; Desnick
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Zhou, J.; Xu, Y.-H.; Chang, H.-F. (
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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The purpose of this revised Lead AQ
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables Number Page AX6-2.1
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List of Tables (cont’d) Number Pa
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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AX6-4 Table AX6-2.1 (cont’d). Pro
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AX6-10 Table AX6-2.2 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-12 Table AX6-2.3 (cont’d). Cr
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AX6-14 Table AX6-2.4. Effects of Le
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AX6-24 Table AX6-2.8. Effects of Le
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AX6-30 Table AX6-3.1. Neurobehavior
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AX6-32 Table AX6-3.1 (cont’d). Ne
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AX6-34 Table AX6-3.2 (cont’d). Sy
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AX6-36 Table AX6-3.3. Neurobehavior
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AX6-50 Table AX6-3.4 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-56 Table AX6-3.6. Evoked Potent
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AX6-58 Table AX6-3.6 (cont’d). Ev
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AX6-60 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-62 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-64 Table AX6-3.8 (cont’d). Oc
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AX6-66 Table AX6-3.9. Other Neurolo
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AX6-68 Table AX6-3.9 (cont’d). Ot
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AX6-70 Table AX6-4.1. Renal Effects
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AX6-72 Table AX6-4.1 (cont’d). Re
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AX6-104 Table AX6-4.3. Renal Effect
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AX6-166 Table AX6-5.4. Cardiovascul
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AX6-170 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). P
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AX172 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). Pla
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AX6-174 Table AX6-6.2. Lead Exposur
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AX6-176 Table AX6-6.2 (cont’d). L
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AX6-186 Table AX6-7.2. Key Occupati
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AX6-188 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-190 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-192 Table AX6-7.3. Key Studies
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AX6-194 Table AX6-7.4. Other Studie
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AX6-196 Table AX6-7.4 (cont’d). O
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AX6-224 Table 6-9.2 (cont’d). Eff
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AX6-232 Table AX6-9.3 (cont’d.).
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AX6-258 Table AX6-9.10. Effects of
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REFERENCES Abbate, C.; Buceti, R.;
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Baghurst, P. A.; McMichael, A. J.;
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Bolla, K. I.; Schwartz, B. S.; Stew
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Chia, K. S.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Tan, C
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David, O. J.; Clark, J.; Hoffman, S
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Englyst, V.; Lundstrom, N. G.; Gerh
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Gennart, J. P.; Bernard, A.; Lauwer
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Haraguchi, T.; Ishizu, H.; Takehisa
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Jemal, A.; Graubard, B. I.; Devesa,
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Lanphear, B. P.; Howard, C.; Eberly
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Lundström, N.-G.; Nordberg, G.; En
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Muntner, P.; He, J.; Vupputuri, S.;
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Paksy, K.; Gáti, I.; Náray, M.; R
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Rhainds, M.; Levallois, P.; Dewaill
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Sargent, J. D.; Dalton, M. A.; O'Co
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Sheffet, A.; Thind, I.; Miller, A.
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Stevens, L. A.; Levey, A. S. (2005b
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Van Larebeke, N.; Koppen, G.; Nelen
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Winker, R.; Ponocny-Seliger, E.; R
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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drafts of document materials were r
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Table of Contents PREFACE..........
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Table of Contents (cont’d) II-ix
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX7-2.3.1
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List of Figures (cont’d) Number P
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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Pb is ideally suited for this task.
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Concept For a given metal or metall
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(1979) observed that “the smaller
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Figure AX7-1.1.3. Illustration of p
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• Colorimetric • Electrochemica
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Figure AX7-1.1.5. Bulk lead versus
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diffraction lines and comparing the
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The major disadvantage of SIMS to s
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techniques can be useful in a study
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have included phosphoric acid (H3PO
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to 15 years after biosolid applicat
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thin films (DGT), and ICP technique
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completely extract targeted phases.
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epresents Eb. The precise energy re
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1974; Ruby et al., 1994). However,
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T1/2 = 14 × 10 9 year). The result
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floor) time-series data to evaluate
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contributions of dry deposition may
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Compared to their estimated 20th-ce
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thought to enter the plant via the
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soil was not allowed to equilibrate
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Lead concentrations in various tiss
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that the nematode may detoxify Pb v
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plasma levels of uric acid and crea
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effective use of glutathione metabo
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and oats (Avena sativa) had signifi
Page 811 and 812:
other metals is inconsistent (Påhl
Page 813 and 814:
Speciation and Form of Lead Recent
Page 815 and 816:
organism responses to Pb. Section A
Page 817 and 818:
Primary Producers Commonly reported
Page 819 and 820:
solution and minimal translocation
Page 821 and 822:
AX7.1.3.3 Recent Studies on the Eff
Page 823 and 824:
AX7-66 Avian Species Reproduction J
Page 825 and 826:
AX7-68 Avian Species American kestr
Page 827 and 828:
Very little research has been done
Page 829 and 830:
AX7-72 Mammalian Species Reproducti
Page 831 and 832:
AX7-74 Mammalian Species No. of Dos
Page 833 and 834:
Page 835 and 836:
Page 837 and 838:
AX7-80 Mammalia n Species No. of Do
Page 839 and 840:
A literature search and review was
Page 841 and 842:
Table AX7-1.3.6. Invertebrate Toxic
Page 843 and 844:
The effects of Pb-chloride on the p
Page 845 and 846:
Ecological Soil Screening Levels (E
Page 847 and 848:
Since the movement and fate of Pb i
Page 849 and 850:
Land Use and Industry Changes in la
Page 851 and 852:
lakes in the United Kingdom the dis
Page 853 and 854:
zinc; had very low pH; and were det
Page 855 and 856:
Sites Affected by Long-Range Lead T
Page 857 and 858:
iomass carbon. Because of this link
Page 859 and 860:
in an oak woodland site 3 km from a
Page 861 and 862:
the forested Lehstenbach catchment
Page 863 and 864:
there is little evidence that Pb ac
Page 865 and 866:
ecosystems. Just as in the terrestr
Page 867 and 868:
To develop chronic AWQC, acceptable
Page 869 and 870:
for the binding of free-metal ion a
Page 871 and 872:
partition in sediment between acid-
Page 873 and 874:
AX7.2.1.5 Metal Mixtures As discuss
Page 875 and 876:
varies from 4:1 in rural streams to
Page 877 and 878:
Organic compounds in surface waters
Page 879 and 880:
solution phase, complexation with c
Page 881 and 882:
The NAWQA dataset was chosen over o
Page 883 and 884:
Lead Distributions Generated from t
Page 885 and 886:
AX7-128 Figure AX7-2.2.3. Spatial d
Page 887 and 888:
AX7-130 Figure AX7-2.2.5. Spatial d
Page 889 and 890:
AX7-132 ` Figure AX7-2.2.7. Spatial
Page 891 and 892:
Figure AX7-2.2.8. Frequency distrib
Page 893 and 894:
Table AX7-2.2.4. Summary Statistics
Page 895 and 896:
Table AX7-2.2.5. Comparison of NCBP
Page 897 and 898:
AX7-140 Figure AX7-2.2.13. Spatial
Page 899 and 900:
calculations indicate that only a s
Page 901 and 902:
from municipal sewage, storm runoff
Page 903 and 904:
AX7.2.3 Aquatic Species Response/Mo
Page 905 and 906:
aquatic plants and insects and on t
Page 907 and 908:
designed to model uptake, MINTEQ pr
Page 909 and 910:
sequestering to organ tissues). The
Page 911 and 912:
AbdAllah and Moustafa (2002) studie
Page 913 and 914:
Summary of Detoxifiction Processes
Page 915 and 916:
1.1 µg/L Cd, 12 µg/L Cu, 55 µg/L
Page 917 and 918:
Studies have identified ALAD in fis
Page 919 and 920:
metals over nonessential metals. Th
Page 921 and 922:
In summary, relationships between a
Page 923 and 924:
potential toxic effects in other or
Page 925 and 926:
esulted in 91.7% survival (Horne an
Page 927 and 928:
carbon sources (including glucose),
Page 929 and 930:
separate concentration-effects mode
Page 931 and 932:
1994. mSQGQs are useful to risk ass
Page 933 and 934:
Algae The 1986 Lead AQCD (U.S. Envi
Page 935 and 936:
observed in Selenastrum capricornut
Page 937 and 938:
Nitrate uptake reported after 48, 7
Page 939 and 940:
1997). The most sensitive primary p
Page 941 and 942:
Freshwater Invertebrates Acute and
Page 943 and 944:
AX7-186 Amphipod (Hyalella azteca)
Page 945 and 946:
concentrations of
Page 947 and 948:
AX7-190 Freshwater Species Chemical
Page 949 and 950:
AX7-192 Species Chemical Frogs (Ran
Page 951 and 952:
studied using Spirodela polyrhiza,
Page 953 and 954:
However, in other cases multivariat
Page 955 and 956:
species was observed. Similar, sign
Page 957 and 958:
AX7-200 Table AX7-2.5.2. Essential
Page 959 and 960:
AX7-202 Table AX7-2.5.2 (cont’d).
Page 961 and 962:
variables, it does not imply causat
Page 963 and 964:
Poulton et al. (1995), the effects
Page 965 and 966:
metal levels. Furthermore, although
Page 967 and 968:
environment through bioaccumulation
Page 969 and 970:
Angle, C. R.; McIntire, M. S.; Colu
Page 971 and 972:
Black, M. C.; Ferrell, J. R.; Horni
Page 973 and 974:
Clements, W. H. (1994) Benthic inve
Page 975 and 976:
Ekenler, M.; Tabatabai, M. (2002) E
Page 977 and 978:
Getz, L. L.; Haney, A. W.; Larimore
Page 979 and 980:
Houlton, B. Z.; Driscoll, C. T.; Fa
Page 981 and 982:
Krüger, F.; Gröngröft, A. (2003)
Page 983 and 984:
Manceau, A.; Lanson, B.; Schlegel,
Page 985 and 986:
Niyogi, S.; Wood, C. M. (2003) Effe
Page 987 and 988:
Rand, G. M.; Wells, P. G.; McCarty,
Page 989 and 990:
Scherer, E.; McNicol, R. E. (1998)
Page 991 and 992:
Sturges, W. T.; Barrie, L. A. (1987
Page 993 and 994:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 995 and 996:
Zenk, M. H. (1996) Heavy metal deto
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