Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volume II of II - (NEPIS)(EPA) - US ...

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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’d) Authors, Contributors, and Reviewers (cont’d) Dr. Kathryn Mahaffey—Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC 20460 Dr. Karen Martin—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Dr. Zachary Pekar—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Ms. Beth Hassett-Sipple—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Dr. John Vandenberg—National Center for Environmental Assessment (B243-01), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Chapter Manager/Editor CHAPTER 7 ANNEX (ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LEAD) Dr. Timothy Lewis—National Center for Environmental Assessment (B243-01), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Principle Authors Dr. Ruth Hull—Cantox Environmental Inc., 1900 Minnesota Court, Suite 130, Mississauga, Ontario, L5N 3C9 Canada (Section 7.1) Dr. James Kaste—Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, 352 Main Street, Hanover, NH 03755 (Section 7.1) Dr. John Drexler—Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, 1216 Gillespie Drive, Boulder, CO 80305 (Section 7.1) Dr. Chris Johnson—Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, 365 Link Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244 (Section 7.1) Dr. William Stubblefield—Parametrix, Inc. 33972 Texas St. SW, Albany, OR 97321 (Section 7.2) II-xxv
Principle Authors (cont’d) Authors, Contributors, and Reviewers (cont’d) Dr. Dwayne Moore—Cantox Environmental, Inc., 1550A Laperriere Avenue, Suite 103, Ottawa, Ontario, K1Z 7T2 Canada (Section 7.2) Dr. David Mayfield—Parametrix, Inc., 411 108th Ave NE, Suite 1800, Bellevue, WA 98004 (Section 7.2) Dr. Barbara Southworth—Menzie-Cura & Associates, Inc., 8 Winchester Place, Suite 202, Winchester, MA 01890 (Section 7.3) Dr. Katherine Von Stackleberg—Menzie-Cura & Associates, Inc., 8 Winchester Place, Suite 202, Winchester, MA 01890 (Section 7.3) Contributors and Reviewers Dr. Jerome Nriagu—Department of Environmental Health Sciences, 109 South Observatory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Dr. Judith Weis—Department of Biology, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102 Dr. Sharon Harper—National Exposure Research Laboratory (D205-05), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Dr. Karen Bradham—National Research Exposure Laboratory (D205-05), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Dr. Ginger Tennant—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Ms. Gail Lacey—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Dr. John Vandenberg—National Center for Environmental Assessment (B243-01), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 II-xxvi
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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NCEA acknowledges the valuable cont
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Table of Contents Page PREFACE ....
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Authors, Contributors, and Reviewer
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Executive Direction U.S. Environmen
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Chair U.S. Environmental Protection
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Abbreviations and Acronyms αFGF α
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BLL blood lead level BLM biotic lig
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CRI chronic renal insufficiency CSF
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EPT macroinvertebrates from the Eph
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GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
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KABC Kaufman Assessment Battery for
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NADP nicotinamide adenine dinucleot
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Pb(Ac)2 lead acetate PbB blood lead
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RR RT RSEM RSUC RT ∑SEM SA7 SAB S
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TGF transforming growth factor TH t
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AX4. CHAPTER 4 ANNEX ANNEX TABLES A
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AX4-3 Table AX4-1 (cont’d). Analy
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AX4-5 Table AX4-2 (cont’d). Summa
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AX4-7 Table AX4-3. Bone Lead Measur
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AX4-9 Reference, Study Location, an
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AX4-11 Table AX4-4 (cont’d). Bone
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Page 55 and 56:
Page 57 and 58:
AX4-19 Reference, Study Location, a
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Page 61 and 62:
Page 63 and 64:
Page 65 and 66: AX4-27 Reference, Study Location, a
Page 67 and 68: AX4-29 Reference, Study Location, a
Page 69 and 70: AX4-31 Table AX4-8 (cont’d). Bone
Page 75 and 76: AX4-37 Table AX4-9 (cont’d). Lead
Page 77 and 78: AX4-39 Table AX4-11. Summary of Sel
Page 79 and 80: AX4-41 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Sum
Page 81 and 82: AX-43 Table AX4-12 (cont’d). Summ
Page 83 and 84: Barltrop, D.; Meek, F. (1979) Effec
Page 85 and 86: Carroll, R. J.; Galindo, C. D. (199
Page 87 and 88: Flegal, A. R.; Smith, D. R. (1995)
Page 89 and 90: Gulson, B.; Mizon, K.; Smith, H.; E
Page 91 and 92: Khoury, G. A.; Diamond, G. L. (2003
Page 93 and 94: Morgan, W. D.; Ryde, S. J.; Jones,
Page 95 and 96: Pounds, J. G.; Leggett, R. W. (1998
Page 97 and 98: Skerfving, S. (1988) Biological mon
Page 99 and 100: U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 101 and 102: Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
Page 103 and 104: AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement,
Page 105 and 106: Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
Page 107 and 108: List of Tables AX4-1 Analytical Met
Page 109 and 110: List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-6.3 G
Page 111 and 112: List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-9.3 S
Page 113 and 114: Principal Authors (cont’d) Author
Page 115: Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
Page 119 and 120: Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
Page 121 and 122: Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
Page 123 and 124: ANP atrial natriuretic peptide AP a
Page 125 and 126: CCE Coordination Center for Effects
Page 127 and 128: DR drinking water DSA delayed spati
Page 129 and 130: FTII Fagan Test of Infant Intellige
Page 131 and 132: H3PO4 phosphoric acid HPRT hypoxant
Page 133 and 134: MATC maximum acceptable threshold c
Page 135 and 136: NOS nitric oxide synthase; not othe
Page 137 and 138: PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary T
Page 139 and 140: SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
Page 141 and 142: vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
Page 143 and 144: AX5-2 Table AX5-2.1. Effect of Lead
Page 145 and 146: AX5-4 Table AX5-2.1 (cont’d). Eff
Page 147 and 148: AX5-6 Table AX5-2.2. Lead, Erythroc
Page 149 and 150: AX5-8 Table AX5-2.2 (cont’d). Lea
Page 151 and 152: AX5-10 Table AX5-2.4. Lead Effects
Page 153 and 154: AX5-12 Table AX5-2.5. Lead Interact
Page 155 and 156: AX5-14 Table AX5-2.7. Lead, Erythro
Page 157 and 158: AX5-16 Subject Exposure Protocol Ra
Page 163 and 164: AX5-22 Subject Rat, female, 22 wks
Page 165 and 166: AX5-24 Subject Rat, F344, male Expo
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AX5-26 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-28 Subject Rat, SD, male, PND 6
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AX5-30 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-32 Subject Exposure Protocol Ta
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AX5-34 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-36 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-38 Citation Al-Hakkak et al. (1
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AX5-40 Citation Fox et al. (1997)
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AX5-42 Citation Pinon- Lataillade e
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AX5-44 Citation Wiebe et al. (1998)
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AX5-46 Citation Chowdhuri et al. (2
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AX5-48 Citation Graca et al. (2004)
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AX5-50 Citation Marchlewicz et al.
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AX5-52 Table AX5-4.2 (cont’d). Ef
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AX5-54 Citation Sokol et al. (1985)
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AX5-56 Citation Table AX5-4.3 (cont
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AX5-58 Citation Priya et al. (2004)
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ANNEX TABLES AX5-5 AX5-60
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AX5-62 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-64 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-66 Reference Watts et al. (1995
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AX5-68 Reference Lai et al. (2002)
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AX5-70 Reference Shelkovnikov and G
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AX5-72 Reference Fujiwara and Kaji
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AX5-74 Reference Fugiwara et al. (1
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AX5-76 Table AX5-6.1. Genotoxic/Car
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AX5-80 Table AX5-6.3 (cont’d). Ge
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Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
AX5-86 Compound Table AX5-6.6. Geno
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Page 231 and 232:
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
AX5-96 Table AX5-6.10 (cont’d). G
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AX5-98 Table AX5-6.12. Genotoxic/Ca
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AX5-100 Table AX5-6.14. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-102 Compound Table AX5-6.16. Ge
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AX5-104 Table AX5-6.18. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-106 Table AX5-6.18 (cont’d).
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AX5-110 Compound Assay (Concentrati
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AX5-112 Table AX5-7.1. Light Micros
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AX5-114 Table AX5-7.2. Lead and Fre
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AX5-116 Table AX5-7.2 (cont’d). L
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AX5-118 Table AX5-7.4. Effect of Ch
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AX5-120 Table AX5-7.5 (cont’d). E
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AX5-122 Table AX5-8.1. Bone Growth
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AX5-124 Table AX5-8.1 (cont’d). B
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AX5-126 Table AX5-8.2. Regulation o
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AX5-128 Table AX5-8.2 (cont’d). R
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AX5-136 Table AX5-8.4. Bone Lead as
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AX5-142 Table AX5-8.5. Uptake of Le
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AX5-144 Table AX5-8.7. Effects of L
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AX5-148 Nature of Exposure Table AX
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AX5-150 Table AX5-9.2. Effect of Le
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AX5-152 Species Strain/Gender Age M
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AX5-162 Table AX5-10.2. Biochemical
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AX5-166 Table AX5-10.4. Lead, Oxida
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AX5-180 Table AX5-10.7. Lead and In
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AX5-184 Table AX5-10.9. Lead, Calci
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AX5-188 Source Organ Species Table
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REFERENCES Abdollahi, M.; Dehpour,
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Bataineh, H.; Al-Hamood, M. H.; Elb
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Buchet, J.-P.; Roels, H. E.; Huberm
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Cline, H. T.; Witte, S.; Jones, K.
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Cory-Slechta, D. A.; McCoy, L.; Ric
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children's health: immune and respi
Page 343 and 344:
Ferguson, C.; Kern, M.; Audesirk, G
Page 345 and 346:
Fullmer, C. S. (1991) Intestinal ca
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Goyer, R. A.; Leonard, D. L.; Moore
Page 349 and 350:
Hengstler, J. G.; Bolm-Audorff, U.;
Page 351 and 352:
Jacquet, P.; Leonard, A.; Gerber, G
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Kim, K. A.; Chakraborti, T.; Goldst
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Laughlin, N. K.; Bowman, R. E.; Fra
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Maldonado-Vega, M.; Cerbón-Solórz
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Moorman, W. J.; Skaggs, S. R.; Clar
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O'Flaherty, E. J.; Inskip, M. J.; F
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Price, R. G.; Taylor, S. A.; Chiver
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Rodamilans, M.; Mtz.-Osaba, M. J.;
Page 367 and 368:
Schlipkoter, H.-W.; Frieler, L. (19
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Skoczyńska, A.; Smolik, R.; Jeleń
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Tavakoli-Nezhad, M.; Pitts, D. K. (
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Valentino, M.; Governa, M.; Marchis
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Wetmur, J. G.; Lehnert, G.; Desnick
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Zhou, J.; Xu, Y.-H.; Chang, H.-F. (
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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The purpose of this revised Lead AQ
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables Number Page AX6-2.1
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List of Tables (cont’d) Number Pa
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Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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AX6-4 Table AX6-2.1 (cont’d). Pro
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AX6-10 Table AX6-2.2 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-12 Table AX6-2.3 (cont’d). Cr
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AX6-14 Table AX6-2.4. Effects of Le
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AX6-24 Table AX6-2.8. Effects of Le
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AX6-30 Table AX6-3.1. Neurobehavior
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AX6-32 Table AX6-3.1 (cont’d). Ne
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AX6-34 Table AX6-3.2 (cont’d). Sy
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AX6-36 Table AX6-3.3. Neurobehavior
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AX6-50 Table AX6-3.4 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-56 Table AX6-3.6. Evoked Potent
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AX6-58 Table AX6-3.6 (cont’d). Ev
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AX6-60 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-62 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-64 Table AX6-3.8 (cont’d). Oc
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AX6-66 Table AX6-3.9. Other Neurolo
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AX6-68 Table AX6-3.9 (cont’d). Ot
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AX6-70 Table AX6-4.1. Renal Effects
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AX6-72 Table AX6-4.1 (cont’d). Re
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AX6-104 Table AX6-4.3. Renal Effect
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AX6-166 Table AX6-5.4. Cardiovascul
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AX6-170 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). P
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AX172 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). Pla
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AX6-174 Table AX6-6.2. Lead Exposur
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AX6-176 Table AX6-6.2 (cont’d). L
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AX6-186 Table AX6-7.2. Key Occupati
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AX6-188 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-190 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-192 Table AX6-7.3. Key Studies
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AX6-194 Table AX6-7.4. Other Studie
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AX6-196 Table AX6-7.4 (cont’d). O
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AX6-224 Table 6-9.2 (cont’d). Eff
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AX6-232 Table AX6-9.3 (cont’d.).
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AX6-258 Table AX6-9.10. Effects of
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REFERENCES Abbate, C.; Buceti, R.;
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Baghurst, P. A.; McMichael, A. J.;
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Bolla, K. I.; Schwartz, B. S.; Stew
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Chia, K. S.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Tan, C
Page 685 and 686:
David, O. J.; Clark, J.; Hoffman, S
Page 687 and 688:
Englyst, V.; Lundstrom, N. G.; Gerh
Page 689 and 690:
Gennart, J. P.; Bernard, A.; Lauwer
Page 691 and 692:
Haraguchi, T.; Ishizu, H.; Takehisa
Page 693 and 694:
Jemal, A.; Graubard, B. I.; Devesa,
Page 695 and 696:
Lanphear, B. P.; Howard, C.; Eberly
Page 697 and 698:
Lundström, N.-G.; Nordberg, G.; En
Page 699 and 700:
Muntner, P.; He, J.; Vupputuri, S.;
Page 701 and 702:
Paksy, K.; Gáti, I.; Náray, M.; R
Page 703 and 704:
Rhainds, M.; Levallois, P.; Dewaill
Page 705 and 706:
Sargent, J. D.; Dalton, M. A.; O'Co
Page 707 and 708:
Sheffet, A.; Thind, I.; Miller, A.
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Stevens, L. A.; Levey, A. S. (2005b
Page 711 and 712:
Van Larebeke, N.; Koppen, G.; Nelen
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Winker, R.; Ponocny-Seliger, E.; R
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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drafts of document materials were r
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Table of Contents PREFACE..........
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Table of Contents (cont’d) II-ix
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List of Tables (cont’d) AX7-2.3.1
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List of Figures (cont’d) Number P
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
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Pb is ideally suited for this task.
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Concept For a given metal or metall
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(1979) observed that “the smaller
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Figure AX7-1.1.3. Illustration of p
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• Colorimetric • Electrochemica
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Figure AX7-1.1.5. Bulk lead versus
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diffraction lines and comparing the
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The major disadvantage of SIMS to s
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techniques can be useful in a study
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have included phosphoric acid (H3PO
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to 15 years after biosolid applicat
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thin films (DGT), and ICP technique
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completely extract targeted phases.
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epresents Eb. The precise energy re
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1974; Ruby et al., 1994). However,
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T1/2 = 14 × 10 9 year). The result
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floor) time-series data to evaluate
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contributions of dry deposition may
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Compared to their estimated 20th-ce
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thought to enter the plant via the
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soil was not allowed to equilibrate
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Lead concentrations in various tiss
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that the nematode may detoxify Pb v
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plasma levels of uric acid and crea
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effective use of glutathione metabo
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and oats (Avena sativa) had signifi
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other metals is inconsistent (Påhl
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Speciation and Form of Lead Recent
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organism responses to Pb. Section A
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Primary Producers Commonly reported
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solution and minimal translocation
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AX7.1.3.3 Recent Studies on the Eff
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AX7-66 Avian Species Reproduction J
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AX7-68 Avian Species American kestr
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Very little research has been done
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AX7-72 Mammalian Species Reproducti
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AX7-74 Mammalian Species No. of Dos
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AX7-80 Mammalia n Species No. of Do
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A literature search and review was
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Table AX7-1.3.6. Invertebrate Toxic
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The effects of Pb-chloride on the p
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Ecological Soil Screening Levels (E
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Since the movement and fate of Pb i
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Land Use and Industry Changes in la
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lakes in the United Kingdom the dis
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zinc; had very low pH; and were det
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Sites Affected by Long-Range Lead T
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iomass carbon. Because of this link
Page 859 and 860:
in an oak woodland site 3 km from a
Page 861 and 862:
the forested Lehstenbach catchment
Page 863 and 864:
there is little evidence that Pb ac
Page 865 and 866:
ecosystems. Just as in the terrestr
Page 867 and 868:
To develop chronic AWQC, acceptable
Page 869 and 870:
for the binding of free-metal ion a
Page 871 and 872:
partition in sediment between acid-
Page 873 and 874:
AX7.2.1.5 Metal Mixtures As discuss
Page 875 and 876:
varies from 4:1 in rural streams to
Page 877 and 878:
Organic compounds in surface waters
Page 879 and 880:
solution phase, complexation with c
Page 881 and 882:
The NAWQA dataset was chosen over o
Page 883 and 884:
Lead Distributions Generated from t
Page 885 and 886:
AX7-128 Figure AX7-2.2.3. Spatial d
Page 887 and 888:
AX7-130 Figure AX7-2.2.5. Spatial d
Page 889 and 890:
AX7-132 ` Figure AX7-2.2.7. Spatial
Page 891 and 892:
Figure AX7-2.2.8. Frequency distrib
Page 893 and 894:
Table AX7-2.2.4. Summary Statistics
Page 895 and 896:
Table AX7-2.2.5. Comparison of NCBP
Page 897 and 898:
AX7-140 Figure AX7-2.2.13. Spatial
Page 899 and 900:
calculations indicate that only a s
Page 901 and 902:
from municipal sewage, storm runoff
Page 903 and 904:
AX7.2.3 Aquatic Species Response/Mo
Page 905 and 906:
aquatic plants and insects and on t
Page 907 and 908:
designed to model uptake, MINTEQ pr
Page 909 and 910:
sequestering to organ tissues). The
Page 911 and 912:
AbdAllah and Moustafa (2002) studie
Page 913 and 914:
Summary of Detoxifiction Processes
Page 915 and 916:
1.1 µg/L Cd, 12 µg/L Cu, 55 µg/L
Page 917 and 918:
Studies have identified ALAD in fis
Page 919 and 920:
metals over nonessential metals. Th
Page 921 and 922:
In summary, relationships between a
Page 923 and 924:
potential toxic effects in other or
Page 925 and 926:
esulted in 91.7% survival (Horne an
Page 927 and 928:
carbon sources (including glucose),
Page 929 and 930:
separate concentration-effects mode
Page 931 and 932:
1994. mSQGQs are useful to risk ass
Page 933 and 934:
Algae The 1986 Lead AQCD (U.S. Envi
Page 935 and 936:
observed in Selenastrum capricornut
Page 937 and 938:
Nitrate uptake reported after 48, 7
Page 939 and 940:
1997). The most sensitive primary p
Page 941 and 942:
Freshwater Invertebrates Acute and
Page 943 and 944:
AX7-186 Amphipod (Hyalella azteca)
Page 945 and 946:
concentrations of
Page 947 and 948:
AX7-190 Freshwater Species Chemical
Page 949 and 950:
AX7-192 Species Chemical Frogs (Ran
Page 951 and 952:
studied using Spirodela polyrhiza,
Page 953 and 954:
However, in other cases multivariat
Page 955 and 956:
species was observed. Similar, sign
Page 957 and 958:
AX7-200 Table AX7-2.5.2. Essential
Page 959 and 960:
AX7-202 Table AX7-2.5.2 (cont’d).
Page 961 and 962:
variables, it does not imply causat
Page 963 and 964:
Poulton et al. (1995), the effects
Page 965 and 966:
metal levels. Furthermore, although
Page 967 and 968:
environment through bioaccumulation
Page 969 and 970:
Angle, C. R.; McIntire, M. S.; Colu
Page 971 and 972:
Black, M. C.; Ferrell, J. R.; Horni
Page 973 and 974:
Clements, W. H. (1994) Benthic inve
Page 975 and 976:
Ekenler, M.; Tabatabai, M. (2002) E
Page 977 and 978:
Getz, L. L.; Haney, A. W.; Larimore
Page 979 and 980:
Houlton, B. Z.; Driscoll, C. T.; Fa
Page 981 and 982:
Krüger, F.; Gröngröft, A. (2003)
Page 983 and 984:
Manceau, A.; Lanson, B.; Schlegel,
Page 985 and 986:
Niyogi, S.; Wood, C. M. (2003) Effe
Page 987 and 988:
Rand, G. M.; Wells, P. G.; McCarty,
Page 989 and 990:
Scherer, E.; McNicol, R. E. (1998)
Page 991 and 992:
Sturges, W. T.; Barrie, L. A. (1987
Page 993 and 994:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 995 and 996:
Zenk, M. H. (1996) Heavy metal deto
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