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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volume II of II
Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volume II National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, NC EPA/600/R-05/144bF October 2006
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October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
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PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
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NCEA acknowledges the valuable cont
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Table of Contents Page PREFACE ....
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Authors, Contributors, and Reviewer
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Contributors and Reviewers (cont’
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Executive Direction U.S. Environmen
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Chair U.S. Environmental Protection
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Abbreviations and Acronyms αFGF α
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BLL blood lead level BLM biotic lig
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CRI chronic renal insufficiency CSF
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EPT macroinvertebrates from the Eph
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GRP78 glucose-regulated protein 78
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KABC Kaufman Assessment Battery for
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NADP nicotinamide adenine dinucleot
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Pb(Ac)2 lead acetate PbB blood lead
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RR RT RSEM RSUC RT ∑SEM SA7 SAB S
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TGF transforming growth factor TH t
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AX4. CHAPTER 4 ANNEX ANNEX TABLES A
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AX4-3 Table AX4-1 (cont’d). Analy
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AX4-5 Table AX4-2 (cont’d). Summa
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AX4-7 Table AX4-3. Bone Lead Measur
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AX4-9 Reference, Study Location, an
Page 49 and 50: AX4-11 Table AX4-4 (cont’d). Bone
Page 57 and 58: AX4-19 Reference, Study Location, a
Page 75 and 76: AX4-37 Table AX4-9 (cont’d). Lead
Page 77 and 78: AX4-39 Table AX4-11. Summary of Sel
Page 79 and 80: AX4-41 Table AX4-11 (cont’d). Sum
Page 81 and 82: AX-43 Table AX4-12 (cont’d). Summ
Page 83 and 84: Barltrop, D.; Meek, F. (1979) Effec
Page 85 and 86: Carroll, R. J.; Galindo, C. D. (199
Page 87 and 88: Flegal, A. R.; Smith, D. R. (1995)
Page 89 and 90: Gulson, B.; Mizon, K.; Smith, H.; E
Page 91 and 92: Khoury, G. A.; Diamond, G. L. (2003
Page 93 and 94: Morgan, W. D.; Ryde, S. J.; Jones,
Page 95 and 96: Pounds, J. G.; Leggett, R. W. (1998
Page 97 and 98: Skerfving, S. (1988) Biological mon
Page 99: U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 103 and 104: AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement,
Page 105 and 106: Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
Page 107 and 108: List of Tables AX4-1 Analytical Met
Page 109 and 110: List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-6.3 G
Page 111 and 112: List of Tables (cont’d) AX5-9.3 S
Page 113 and 114: Principal Authors (cont’d) Author
Page 115 and 116: Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
Page 117 and 118: Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
Page 119 and 120: Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
Page 121 and 122: Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
Page 123 and 124: ANP atrial natriuretic peptide AP a
Page 125 and 126: CCE Coordination Center for Effects
Page 127 and 128: DR drinking water DSA delayed spati
Page 129 and 130: FTII Fagan Test of Infant Intellige
Page 131 and 132: H3PO4 phosphoric acid HPRT hypoxant
Page 133 and 134: MATC maximum acceptable threshold c
Page 135 and 136: NOS nitric oxide synthase; not othe
Page 137 and 138: PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary T
Page 139 and 140: SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
Page 141 and 142: vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
Page 143 and 144: AX5-2 Table AX5-2.1. Effect of Lead
Page 145 and 146: AX5-4 Table AX5-2.1 (cont’d). Eff
Page 147 and 148: AX5-6 Table AX5-2.2. Lead, Erythroc
Page 149 and 150: AX5-8 Table AX5-2.2 (cont’d). Lea
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AX5-10 Table AX5-2.4. Lead Effects
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AX5-12 Table AX5-2.5. Lead Interact
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AX5-14 Table AX5-2.7. Lead, Erythro
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AX5-16 Subject Exposure Protocol Ra
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AX5-22 Subject Rat, female, 22 wks
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AX5-24 Subject Rat, F344, male Expo
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AX5-26 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-28 Subject Rat, SD, male, PND 6
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AX5-30 Subject Monkey, cynomolgus,
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AX5-32 Subject Exposure Protocol Ta
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AX5-34 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-36 Table AX5-3.6 (cont’d). Ke
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AX5-38 Citation Al-Hakkak et al. (1
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AX5-40 Citation Fox et al. (1997)
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AX5-42 Citation Pinon- Lataillade e
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AX5-44 Citation Wiebe et al. (1998)
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AX5-46 Citation Chowdhuri et al. (2
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AX5-48 Citation Graca et al. (2004)
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AX5-50 Citation Marchlewicz et al.
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AX5-52 Table AX5-4.2 (cont’d). Ef
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AX5-54 Citation Sokol et al. (1985)
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AX5-56 Citation Table AX5-4.3 (cont
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AX5-58 Citation Priya et al. (2004)
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ANNEX TABLES AX5-5 AX5-60
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AX5-62 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-64 Table AX5-5.1 (cont’d). In
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AX5-66 Reference Watts et al. (1995
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AX5-68 Reference Lai et al. (2002)
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AX5-70 Reference Shelkovnikov and G
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AX5-72 Reference Fujiwara and Kaji
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AX5-74 Reference Fugiwara et al. (1
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AX5-76 Table AX5-6.1. Genotoxic/Car
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AX5-80 Table AX5-6.3 (cont’d). Ge
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Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
AX5-86 Compound Table AX5-6.6. Geno
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Page 231 and 232:
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
AX5-96 Table AX5-6.10 (cont’d). G
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AX5-98 Table AX5-6.12. Genotoxic/Ca
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AX5-100 Table AX5-6.14. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-102 Compound Table AX5-6.16. Ge
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AX5-104 Table AX5-6.18. Genotoxic/C
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AX5-106 Table AX5-6.18 (cont’d).
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AX5-110 Compound Assay (Concentrati
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AX5-112 Table AX5-7.1. Light Micros
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AX5-114 Table AX5-7.2. Lead and Fre
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AX5-116 Table AX5-7.2 (cont’d). L
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AX5-118 Table AX5-7.4. Effect of Ch
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AX5-120 Table AX5-7.5 (cont’d). E
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AX5-122 Table AX5-8.1. Bone Growth
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AX5-124 Table AX5-8.1 (cont’d). B
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AX5-126 Table AX5-8.2. Regulation o
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AX5-128 Table AX5-8.2 (cont’d). R
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AX5-136 Table AX5-8.4. Bone Lead as
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AX5-142 Table AX5-8.5. Uptake of Le
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AX5-144 Table AX5-8.7. Effects of L
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AX5-148 Nature of Exposure Table AX
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AX5-150 Table AX5-9.2. Effect of Le
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AX5-152 Species Strain/Gender Age M
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AX5-162 Table AX5-10.2. Biochemical
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AX5-166 Table AX5-10.4. Lead, Oxida
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AX5-180 Table AX5-10.7. Lead and In
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AX5-184 Table AX5-10.9. Lead, Calci
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AX5-188 Source Organ Species Table
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REFERENCES Abdollahi, M.; Dehpour,
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Bataineh, H.; Al-Hamood, M. H.; Elb
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Buchet, J.-P.; Roels, H. E.; Huberm
Page 337 and 338:
Cline, H. T.; Witte, S.; Jones, K.
Page 339 and 340:
Cory-Slechta, D. A.; McCoy, L.; Ric
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children's health: immune and respi
Page 343 and 344:
Ferguson, C.; Kern, M.; Audesirk, G
Page 345 and 346:
Fullmer, C. S. (1991) Intestinal ca
Page 347 and 348:
Goyer, R. A.; Leonard, D. L.; Moore
Page 349 and 350:
Hengstler, J. G.; Bolm-Audorff, U.;
Page 351 and 352:
Jacquet, P.; Leonard, A.; Gerber, G
Page 353 and 354:
Kim, K. A.; Chakraborti, T.; Goldst
Page 355 and 356:
Laughlin, N. K.; Bowman, R. E.; Fra
Page 357 and 358:
Maldonado-Vega, M.; Cerbón-Solórz
Page 359 and 360:
Moorman, W. J.; Skaggs, S. R.; Clar
Page 361 and 362:
O'Flaherty, E. J.; Inskip, M. J.; F
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Price, R. G.; Taylor, S. A.; Chiver
Page 365 and 366:
Rodamilans, M.; Mtz.-Osaba, M. J.;
Page 367 and 368:
Schlipkoter, H.-W.; Frieler, L. (19
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Skoczyńska, A.; Smolik, R.; Jeleń
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Tavakoli-Nezhad, M.; Pitts, D. K. (
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Valentino, M.; Governa, M.; Marchis
Page 375 and 376:
Wetmur, J. G.; Lehnert, G.; Desnick
Page 377 and 378:
Zhou, J.; Xu, Y.-H.; Chang, H.-F. (
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead Volum
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The purpose of this revised Lead AQ
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Air Quality Criteria for Lead (Seco
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List of Tables Number Page AX6-2.1
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List of Tables (cont’d) Number Pa
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Principal Authors Authors, Contribu
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Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
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ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
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CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
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DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
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FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
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HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
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MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
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NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
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ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
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vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
Page 419 and 420:
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AX6-4 Table AX6-2.1 (cont’d). Pro
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AX6-10 Table AX6-2.2 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-12 Table AX6-2.3 (cont’d). Cr
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AX6-14 Table AX6-2.4. Effects of Le
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AX6-24 Table AX6-2.8. Effects of Le
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AX6-30 Table AX6-3.1. Neurobehavior
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AX6-32 Table AX6-3.1 (cont’d). Ne
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AX6-34 Table AX6-3.2 (cont’d). Sy
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AX6-36 Table AX6-3.3. Neurobehavior
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AX6-50 Table AX6-3.4 (cont’d). Me
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AX6-56 Table AX6-3.6. Evoked Potent
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AX6-58 Table AX6-3.6 (cont’d). Ev
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AX6-60 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-62 Table AX6-3.7 (cont’d). Po
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AX6-64 Table AX6-3.8 (cont’d). Oc
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AX6-66 Table AX6-3.9. Other Neurolo
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AX6-68 Table AX6-3.9 (cont’d). Ot
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AX6-70 Table AX6-4.1. Renal Effects
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AX6-72 Table AX6-4.1 (cont’d). Re
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AX6-104 Table AX6-4.3. Renal Effect
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AX6-166 Table AX6-5.4. Cardiovascul
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AX6-170 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). P
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AX172 Table AX6-6.1 (cont’d). Pla
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AX6-174 Table AX6-6.2. Lead Exposur
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AX6-176 Table AX6-6.2 (cont’d). L
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Page 603 and 604:
AX6-186 Table AX6-7.2. Key Occupati
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AX6-188 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-190 Table AX6-7.2 (cont’d). K
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AX6-192 Table AX6-7.3. Key Studies
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AX6-194 Table AX6-7.4. Other Studie
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AX6-196 Table AX6-7.4 (cont’d). O
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AX6-224 Table 6-9.2 (cont’d). Eff
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AX6-232 Table AX6-9.3 (cont’d.).
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AX6-258 Table AX6-9.10. Effects of
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REFERENCES Abbate, C.; Buceti, R.;
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Baghurst, P. A.; McMichael, A. J.;
Page 681 and 682:
Bolla, K. I.; Schwartz, B. S.; Stew
Page 683 and 684:
Chia, K. S.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Tan, C
Page 685 and 686:
David, O. J.; Clark, J.; Hoffman, S
Page 687 and 688:
Englyst, V.; Lundstrom, N. G.; Gerh
Page 689 and 690:
Gennart, J. P.; Bernard, A.; Lauwer
Page 691 and 692:
Haraguchi, T.; Ishizu, H.; Takehisa
Page 693 and 694:
Jemal, A.; Graubard, B. I.; Devesa,
Page 695 and 696:
Lanphear, B. P.; Howard, C.; Eberly
Page 697 and 698:
Lundström, N.-G.; Nordberg, G.; En
Page 699 and 700:
Muntner, P.; He, J.; Vupputuri, S.;
Page 701 and 702:
Paksy, K.; Gáti, I.; Náray, M.; R
Page 703 and 704:
Rhainds, M.; Levallois, P.; Dewaill
Page 705 and 706:
Sargent, J. D.; Dalton, M. A.; O'Co
Page 707 and 708:
Sheffet, A.; Thind, I.; Miller, A.
Page 709 and 710:
Stevens, L. A.; Levey, A. S. (2005b
Page 711 and 712:
Van Larebeke, N.; Koppen, G.; Nelen
Page 713 and 714:
Winker, R.; Ponocny-Seliger, E.; R
Page 715 and 716:
October 2006 EPA/600/R-05/144bF Air
Page 717 and 718:
PREFACE National Ambient Air Qualit
Page 719 and 720:
drafts of document materials were r
Page 721 and 722:
Table of Contents PREFACE..........
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Table of Contents (cont’d) II-ix
Page 725 and 726:
List of Tables (cont’d) AX7-2.3.1
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List of Figures (cont’d) Number P
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Page 731 and 732:
Page 733 and 734:
Principle Authors (cont’d) Author
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Technical Support Staff U.S. Enviro
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Members (cont’d) U.S. Environment
Page 739 and 740:
ANOVA analysis of variance ANP atri
Page 741 and 742:
CCD charge-coupled device CCE Coord
Page 743 and 744:
DPPD N-N-diphenyl-p-phynylene-diami
Page 745 and 746:
FTES free testosterone FTII Fagan T
Page 747 and 748:
HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatog
Page 749 and 750:
MAO monoamine oxidase MATC maximum
Page 751 and 752:
NORs nucleolar organizing regions N
Page 753 and 754:
ppm parts per million PPVT-R Peabod
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SOPR sperm-oocyte penetration rate
Page 757 and 758:
vit C vitamin C vit E vitamin E VMA
Page 759 and 760:
Pb is ideally suited for this task.
Page 761 and 762:
Concept For a given metal or metall
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(1979) observed that “the smaller
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Figure AX7-1.1.3. Illustration of p
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• Colorimetric • Electrochemica
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Figure AX7-1.1.5. Bulk lead versus
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diffraction lines and comparing the
Page 773 and 774:
The major disadvantage of SIMS to s
Page 775 and 776:
techniques can be useful in a study
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have included phosphoric acid (H3PO
Page 779 and 780:
to 15 years after biosolid applicat
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thin films (DGT), and ICP technique
Page 783 and 784:
completely extract targeted phases.
Page 785 and 786:
epresents Eb. The precise energy re
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1974; Ruby et al., 1994). However,
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T1/2 = 14 × 10 9 year). The result
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floor) time-series data to evaluate
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contributions of dry deposition may
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Compared to their estimated 20th-ce
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thought to enter the plant via the
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soil was not allowed to equilibrate
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Lead concentrations in various tiss
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that the nematode may detoxify Pb v
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plasma levels of uric acid and crea
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effective use of glutathione metabo
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and oats (Avena sativa) had signifi
Page 811 and 812:
other metals is inconsistent (Påhl
Page 813 and 814:
Speciation and Form of Lead Recent
Page 815 and 816:
organism responses to Pb. Section A
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Primary Producers Commonly reported
Page 819 and 820:
solution and minimal translocation
Page 821 and 822:
AX7.1.3.3 Recent Studies on the Eff
Page 823 and 824:
AX7-66 Avian Species Reproduction J
Page 825 and 826:
AX7-68 Avian Species American kestr
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Very little research has been done
Page 829 and 830:
AX7-72 Mammalian Species Reproducti
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AX7-74 Mammalian Species No. of Dos
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Page 835 and 836:
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AX7-80 Mammalia n Species No. of Do
Page 839 and 840:
A literature search and review was
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Table AX7-1.3.6. Invertebrate Toxic
Page 843 and 844:
The effects of Pb-chloride on the p
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Ecological Soil Screening Levels (E
Page 847 and 848:
Since the movement and fate of Pb i
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Land Use and Industry Changes in la
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lakes in the United Kingdom the dis
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zinc; had very low pH; and were det
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Sites Affected by Long-Range Lead T
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iomass carbon. Because of this link
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in an oak woodland site 3 km from a
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the forested Lehstenbach catchment
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there is little evidence that Pb ac
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ecosystems. Just as in the terrestr
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To develop chronic AWQC, acceptable
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for the binding of free-metal ion a
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partition in sediment between acid-
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AX7.2.1.5 Metal Mixtures As discuss
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varies from 4:1 in rural streams to
Page 877 and 878:
Organic compounds in surface waters
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solution phase, complexation with c
Page 881 and 882:
The NAWQA dataset was chosen over o
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Lead Distributions Generated from t
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AX7-128 Figure AX7-2.2.3. Spatial d
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AX7-130 Figure AX7-2.2.5. Spatial d
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AX7-132 ` Figure AX7-2.2.7. Spatial
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Figure AX7-2.2.8. Frequency distrib
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Table AX7-2.2.4. Summary Statistics
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Table AX7-2.2.5. Comparison of NCBP
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AX7-140 Figure AX7-2.2.13. Spatial
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calculations indicate that only a s
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from municipal sewage, storm runoff
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AX7.2.3 Aquatic Species Response/Mo
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aquatic plants and insects and on t
Page 907 and 908:
designed to model uptake, MINTEQ pr
Page 909 and 910:
sequestering to organ tissues). The
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AbdAllah and Moustafa (2002) studie
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Summary of Detoxifiction Processes
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1.1 µg/L Cd, 12 µg/L Cu, 55 µg/L
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Studies have identified ALAD in fis
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metals over nonessential metals. Th
Page 921 and 922:
In summary, relationships between a
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potential toxic effects in other or
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esulted in 91.7% survival (Horne an
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carbon sources (including glucose),
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separate concentration-effects mode
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1994. mSQGQs are useful to risk ass
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Algae The 1986 Lead AQCD (U.S. Envi
Page 935 and 936:
observed in Selenastrum capricornut
Page 937 and 938:
Nitrate uptake reported after 48, 7
Page 939 and 940:
1997). The most sensitive primary p
Page 941 and 942:
Freshwater Invertebrates Acute and
Page 943 and 944:
AX7-186 Amphipod (Hyalella azteca)
Page 945 and 946:
concentrations of
Page 947 and 948:
AX7-190 Freshwater Species Chemical
Page 949 and 950:
AX7-192 Species Chemical Frogs (Ran
Page 951 and 952:
studied using Spirodela polyrhiza,
Page 953 and 954:
However, in other cases multivariat
Page 955 and 956:
species was observed. Similar, sign
Page 957 and 958:
AX7-200 Table AX7-2.5.2. Essential
Page 959 and 960:
AX7-202 Table AX7-2.5.2 (cont’d).
Page 961 and 962:
variables, it does not imply causat
Page 963 and 964:
Poulton et al. (1995), the effects
Page 965 and 966:
metal levels. Furthermore, although
Page 967 and 968:
environment through bioaccumulation
Page 969 and 970:
Angle, C. R.; McIntire, M. S.; Colu
Page 971 and 972:
Black, M. C.; Ferrell, J. R.; Horni
Page 973 and 974:
Clements, W. H. (1994) Benthic inve
Page 975 and 976:
Ekenler, M.; Tabatabai, M. (2002) E
Page 977 and 978:
Getz, L. L.; Haney, A. W.; Larimore
Page 979 and 980:
Houlton, B. Z.; Driscoll, C. T.; Fa
Page 981 and 982:
Krüger, F.; Gröngröft, A. (2003)
Page 983 and 984:
Manceau, A.; Lanson, B.; Schlegel,
Page 985 and 986:
Niyogi, S.; Wood, C. M. (2003) Effe
Page 987 and 988:
Rand, G. M.; Wells, P. G.; McCarty,
Page 989 and 990:
Scherer, E.; McNicol, R. E. (1998)
Page 991 and 992:
Sturges, W. T.; Barrie, L. A. (1987
Page 993 and 994:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agenc
Page 995 and 996:
Zenk, M. H. (1996) Heavy metal deto
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