Environmental Health Criteria 214

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HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT in pollutant concentrations contacted. There is both between- and within-individual variability in people's activities, which has implications for the use of time-activity data in exposure assessment. At one end of the spectrum are aspects of human activity patterns that tend to be highly regular. For instance, many people tend to follow daily routines with respect to how long they sleep and the time they depart for work. In addition, because basic routines are fairly uniform across individuals, diary data from several studies has shown that the distribution of time reported in the microenvironments that comprise the majority of the day (i.e., inside at home and inside at work/school) exhibit relatively little variation from year to year within a given study population or from place to place within the USA (Robinson, 1985; Schwab et al., 1990). The only large time-activity study done in conjunction with a continuous monitoring device was the Denver/Washington, DC study of CO exposures (Akland et al., 1985); this study yielded time-weighted concentrations in specified microenvironments. Analyses of these results suggest that variations in activities or locational attributes (e.g., variations in source strength) that are finer than those captured by these simple microenvironments explain much of the variability in exposure. Although less variability in the concentrations of some other air pollutants may be expected, these results confirm the concerns raised above regarding the ability to predict variations in exposure from the time allocation measures typically collected in diary-type studies. At the other end of the spectrum with respect to consistency in activity patterns are aspects of human behaviour that influence the intensity of contact with contaminated media. By their nature, these activities are highly variable both across individuals and across time for a given person. First, physical and demographic characteristics influence the frequency and duration of activities. For instance, in the case of dermal exposure it may be hypothesized that contamination from lying on a surface (e.g., a lawn to which a weedkiller has recently been applied) will be greater for a heavy person than a lighter person. Similarly, a child's standing and sitting height, in addition to crawling activities, mean that its breathing zone is much closer to the floor than that of an adult, raising the possibility of dust inhalation. Children also choose play locations that typical monitoring studies might ignore, such as stairwells and corners. 5.4 Summary Information on people's activity patterns can be used to identify the determinants of measured exposures, predict unmeasured or unmeasurable exposures, assess relationships between exposure and health status, and identify high risk exposure situations that may be amenable to public health actions. Some of the main activity patterns important for assessing exposures by various media that were discussed in this chapter are summarized in Table 16. The relative cost of field sampling and laboratory analysis for environmental and biological measurements highlights the potential value of time-activity data. Assessments of long-term activity patterns (e.g., lifetime) may only be feasible using time-activity questionnaires. Various methods are used to collect information about human activities, including diaries and questionnaires, mechanical http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm Page 92 of 284 6/1/2007
HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT devices, and observation. Methods have only recently begun to be developed for assessing the role of time-activity patterns on dietary and non-dietary ingestion and dermal exposure pathways. Concerns about the ability of data collection methods to ensure activity representativeness and data validity and about the implications of inter- and intra-person variability in behaviour place limits on the application of time-activity data for human exposure assessment. However, with appropriate quality assurance programmes, information on time use and activity patterns can be very valuable for interpreting and modelling exposures. Table 16. Type of information obtained from time-activity data relevant to specific exposure pathways Personal air Water Food Soil time and location spent outdoors type of indoor location use of sources In the presence of sources: ventilation and filtration of indoor location 6. HUMAN EXPOSURE AND DOSE MODELLING 6.1 Introduction quantity of water consumed direct and indirectly accidental ingestion from swimming (pools, rivers, etc.) dermal contact, time in showering/bathing hand/body washing frequency amount and type of food products consumed preparation methods including cleaning preparation location (e.g., street vendors) storage practices amount of contact time and type of soil (e.g., farm, garden/possible pesticide application) skin surface contact frequency and duration of washing since contact An exposure model is a logical or empirical construct which allows estimation of individual or population exposure parameters from available input data. Such data may be measured or collected for this purpose, or obtained from other sources. Technological, logistic and financial constraints can make it difficult to monitor the exposure of humans to the various environmental agents. It is, therefore, prudent in many situations to use models to assess contaminant exposures. Models provide an analytic structure for combining data of different types collected from disparate studies in a manner that may make more complete use of the existing information on a particular contaminant than is possible from direct study methods (EC, 1997b). Exposure models, if supported by adequate observations, can be used to estimate http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm Page 93 of 284 6/1/2007
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