Environmental Health Criteria 214

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
n-Octane 5.8 3.9 1.0 4.3 0.7 1
n-Decane 5.8 3.0 0.8 3.5 0.7 0
n-Undecane 5.2 2.2 0.6 4.2 1.0 0
n-Dodecane 2.5 0.7 0.2 2.1 0.7 0
alpha-Pinene 4.1 0.8 1.5 6.5 0.5 1
Styrene 3.6 3.8 0.9 1.8 no data n
Chloroform 1.9 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.3 0
a Average of arithmetic means of day and night 12-h samples (µg/m 3 ).
b Arithmetic mean.
Table 41. Results of lead HEAL exposure pilot studies in Bangkok,
Thailand; Beijing, China; Stockholm, Sweden and Zagreb,
Croatia
Sample Unit Thailand China Sweden Croatia a
(n = 24) (n = 10) (n = 15) (n = 17)
Breathing zone µg/m 3 0.117 0.116 0.064 0.412
Food µg/day 89.72 46.0 26.0 15.0
Faeces µg/day 60.57 42.0 23.0 49.0
Blood µg/dl 8.83 7.3 2.9 5.0
gastrointestinal tract. Inhalation was found to account for a few
percent of the total exposures of cadmium. Inhalation contributed more
than 70% of total lead exposure. On the other hand, where air lead
levels were high, as in Zagreb, Croatia, inhalation contributed twice
as much to total exposure as the ingestion route (see Fig. 45).
These pilot studies illustrated that without thorough analytical
QC it was not possible to compare results between countries. The pilot
study, although expensive, identified problems in collection and
analysis. The need to exchange standards in the various media and
training in analytical methods and procedures were important
components for the success of the studies.
In a study conducted on Swedish women the bioavailability of
dietary cadmium was contrasted for different diets. Dietary intake and
uptake of cadmium were studied in non-smoking women, 20-50 years of
age, consuming a mixed diet low in shellfish ( n = 34), or with
shellfish once a week or more ( n = 17), or a vegetarian diet rich in
fibre ( n = 23) (Berglund et al., 1994b; Vahter et al., 1996). The
objectives were to identify important factors, dietary and other,
influencing cadmium exposure and dose.
Duplicate portions and corresponding faeces (using a coloured
marker to indicate start and end of duplicate portion collection) were
collected for four consecutive days (including weekdays and weekends),
for the determination of cadmium intake. Blood and 24-h urine samples
were collected for determination of total cadmium exposure. The women
kept detailed dietary records for identification of significant
sources.
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