Environmental Health Criteria 214

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HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT assessment. Table 1. Different aspects of the contact between people and pollution that are potentially important in exposure analysis (Sexton et al., 1995b) Agent(s) biological, chemical, physical, single agent, multiple agents, mixtures Source(s) anthropogenic/non-anthropogenic, area/point, stationary/mobile, indoor/outdoor Transport/carrier medium air, water, soil, dust, food, product/item Exposure pathways(s) eating contaminated food, breathing contaminated workplace air touching residential surface Exposure concentration mg/kg (food), mg/litre (water), µg/m 3 (air), µg/cm 2 contaminated surface), % by weight, fibres/m 3 (air) Exposure route(s) inhalation, dermal contact, ingestion, multiple routes Exposure duration seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, lifetime Exposure frequency continuous, intermittent, cyclic, random, rare Exposure setting(s) occupational/non-occupational, residential/non-residential, indoors/outdoors Exposed population general population, population subgroups, individuals Geographic scope site/source specific, local, regional, national, international, global Time frame past, present, future, trends 1.2.1 Exposure and exposure concentration Exposure, as defined earlier, is the contact of a biological, chemical, or physical agent with the outer part of the human body, such as the skin, mouth or nostrils. Although there are many instances where contact occurs with an undiluted chemical (e.g., use of degreasing chemicals for cleaning hands), contact more often occurs with a carrier medium (air, water, food, dust or soil) that contains dilute amounts of the agent. "Exposure concentration" (e.g., mg/litre, mg/kg, µg/m 3 ) is defined as the concentration of an environmental agent in the carrier medium at the point of contact with the body. 1.2.2 Exposure estimation by integration and averaging A minimal description of exposure for a particular route must http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm Page 22 of 284 6/1/2007
HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT include exposure concentration and the duration of contact. If the exposure concentration is integrated over the duration of contact (Table 2), the area under the resulting curve is the magnitude of the exposure in units of concentration multiplied by time (e.g., mg/litreÊday, mg/kgÊday, µg/m 3 Êh). This is the method of choice to describe and estimate short-term doses, where integration times are of the order of minutes, hours or days. Over periods of months, years or decades, exposures to most environmental agents occur intermittently rather than continuously. Yet long-term health effects, such as cancer, are customarily evaluated based on an average dose over the period of interest (typically years), rather than as a series of intermittent exposures. Consequently, long-term doses are usually estimated by summing doses across discrete exposure episodes and then calculating an average dose for the period of interest (e.g., year, lifetime). Although the integration approach can also be used to estimate long-term exposures or doses, its application to time periods longer than about a week is usually difficult and inconvenient. 1.2.3 Exposure measurements and models Direct measurements are the only way to establish unequivocally whether and to what extent individuals are exposed to specific environmental agents. But it is neither affordable nor technically feasible to measure exposures for everyone in all populations of interest. Models, which are mathematical abstractions of physical reality, may obviate the need for such extensive monitoring programmes by providing estimates of population exposures (and doses) that are based on a smaller number of representative measurements (Fig. 1). The challenge is to develop appropriate and robust models that allow for extrapolation from relatively few measurements to estimates of exposures and doses for a much larger population (US NRC, 1991b). For relatively small groups, measurements or estimates can be made for some or all of the individuals separately, and then combined as necessary to estimate the exposure (or dose) distribution. For larger groups, exposure models and statistics can sometimes be used to derive an estimate of the distribution of population exposures, depending on the quantity and quality of existing data. Monte Carlo and other statistical techniques are increasingly being used to generate and analyse exposure distributions for large groups (US EPA, 1992a). 1.2.4 Exposure in the context of an environmental health paradigm The presence of hazardous substances in our environment does not necessarily imply a risk to human health or to the ecosystem. Exposure is an integral and necessary component in a sequence of events having potential health consequences. An expanded and more detailed version http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm Page 23 of 284 6/1/2007
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Environmental Health Criteria 214

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