Environmental Health Criteria 214

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HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT disposing of any human biological samples. All personnel must be trained for the proper handling of biological samples and protocols must include instructions for this. 10.6 Media available for use Numerous biological media are available for use in environmental exposure assessment. Selection of sampling media depends on the contaminant of interest, the pattern of exposure, the timing of exposure, the population studied, ease of collection and storage and participant burden. Biological monitoring is frequently considered invasive; however, several media are available for exposure assessment that can be collected in a non-invasive manner. For occupationally used chemicals, biological exposure indices and monitoring protocols are available (Lauwerys, 1983; ACGIH, 1991; Que Hee, 1993); these may be regarded as starting points for biological sampling in environmental studies. Historically, blood and urine have been the primary media for biological exposure markers. Blood and urine, as well as exhaled breath and saliva, can be used to document recent exposures; past exposure can be evaluated using blood and urine as well as keratinized tissues (hair and nails), ossified tissue (teeth and bone), adipose tissue and breast milk. Adipose tissue and bone can also represent future sources of internal exposure. Other media available for biomarker studies include faeces, nasal lavage, tears, sputum, semen, cord blood and buccal cells, which can be feasible means for population exposure monitoring. Other media from cadaver or biopsy specimens (e.g., liver and kidney samples) have been collected in select populations but these cannot be used for exposure assessment of healthy individuals. Table 35 summarizes the media available for use in biological monitoring in environmental settings. 10.6.1 Blood Blood has been frequently used for biological monitoring, especially in clinical settings such as occupational medicine. Blood can integrate all sources of exposure, including internal sources, and provide an indication of current internal dose. Since blood transports all agents throughout the organism, it represents an opportunity to sample all types of contaminants, such as gases, solvents, metals and fat-soluble compounds. Both specific (e.g., blood lead) and non-specific (e.g., sister chromatid exchange) analyses can be performed. Components of blood available for sampling are whole blood, red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, serum and blood proteins, primarily haemoglobin and albumin. * Whole blood consists of all the blood components and is preferable when the distribution of the analyte between plasma and cellular elements is unknown (Que Hee, 1993). * Red blood cells make up a large portion of blood and their primary role is to transport oxygen via haemoglobin throughout the body. Mature red blood cells contain no nucleus and therefore no DNA, and have a 120-day lifetime. Chemicals that interact with haemoglobin, such as carbon monoxide, are found in red blood cells. Table 35. Biological media available for sampling http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm Page 178 of 284 6/1/2007
HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT Media Chemicals Type of samples Collection Storag (examples) Adipose lipophilic surgical specimens, invasive, minor fat sa tissue chemicals, fat biopsies surgical procedure archiv pesticides, PCBs Blood gases, metals, whole blood, red invasive, quick, for us pesticides, blood cells, white requires trained sample semivolatile blood cells, plasma, phlebotomist frozen organics, VOCs protein sample Bone metals (lead) cortical bone, non-invasive, not ap trabecular bone 30-60 min collection (X-ray fluorescent time spectra) Breast lipophilic fat and aqueous non-invasive sample milk compounds phases stored refrig Breath gases, mixed air, alveolar non-invasive, quick, sample semivolatile air requires air analys organics, sampling apparatus collec volatile organics easily Table 35. (continued) Media Chemicals Type of samples Collection Storag (examples) Faeces high molecular faeces non-invasive, poor weight organic compliance by compounds, subjects lipophilic substances, metals Page 179 of 284 Hair cotinine, scalp, pubic hair non-invasive, sample metals, PCBs important to and ar standardize collection location Saliva metals, mixed saliva non-invasive, easy sample pesticides, for participant stored semivolatile temper organics Teeth metals shed deciduous teeth non-invasive sample and ar http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc<strong>214</strong>.htm 6/1/2007
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Environmental Health Criteria 214

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