Environmental Health Criteria 214

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HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT LADD lifetime average daily dose LAL Limulus amoebocyte lysate LOD limit of detection LOQ limit of quantification LWW Lioy-Weisel-Wainman MAD maximum allowable deviations MCS multiple chemical sensitivity MDL method detection limit MEA malt extract agar NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard NHEXAS National Human Exposure Assessment Survey NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NTA nitriloacetic acid OR odds ratio PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic (method) PCB polychlorinated biphenyls PCDD polychlorinated dibenzo- p-dioxin PCP pentachlorophenol PDF probability distribution function PEM personal exposure monitor PM n particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter < n µm PTEAM particle total exposure assessment methodology QA quality assurance QC quality control RAST radioallergosorbent tests RIA radioimmunoassay RSP respirable particulate matter SAM stationary outdoor monitor SBS sick building syndrome SD standard deviation SEM scanning electron microscope SIM stationary indoor monitor SOP standard operating procedure SVOC semivolatile organic compound TCCD 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro dibenzo- p-dioxin TDS US FDA Total Diet Study TEQ TCCD toxic equivalents TSP total suspended particulates TWI tolerable weekly intake UNEP United Nations Environment Programme VOC volatile organic compound XRF X-ray fluorescence FOREWORD The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), launched in 1980, is a joint collaborative programme of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Health Organization (WHO); WHO is the Administrating Organization of the Programme. The two main roles of the IPCS are to establish the scientific health and environmental risk assessment basis for safe use of chemicals (normative function) and to strengthen national capabilities for chemical safety (technical cooperation). In the field of methodology, the work of the IPCS aims at promoting the development, improvement, validation, harmonization and use of generally acceptable, scientifically sound methodologies for the evaluation of risks to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals. The work encompasses the development of http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc214.htm Page 16 of 284 6/1/2007
HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT Environmental Health Criteria monographs on general principles of various areas of risk assessment covering various aspects related to risk assessment such as, in this publication, on exposure assessment. The WHO and the World Meteorological Organization coordinate the assessment of climate, urban air and water pollution, and health status of populations. These measures provide the indicator of trends and status. Until 1995, the basic source for internationally comparable urban air pollution data was the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS/Air) of UNEP and WHO. Started in 1974, shortly after the Stockholm Environment Conference, GEMS had built up a system that collected comparable ambient air pollution data in about 50 cities of 35 countries, varied in geography and income (UNEP/WHO, 1988, 1992). Typically, sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulates (TSP) had been monitored in three stations of each city, one each in industrial, commercial, and residential zones. Later, GEMS also collected monitoring data for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and lead, and made emissions estimates for all five pollutants. The results were published periodically by GEMS, and also often appeared in other periodic international data sets, such as those of the World Bank (World Bank, 1992), the World Resources Institute (World Resources Institute, 1992), the United Nations (UN ESCAP, 1990) and UNEP itself (UNEP, 1991). More recently, WHO created with the Air Management Information System (AMIS) the successor of GEMS/Air. Like GEMS/Air, AMIS provides air quality data for major and megacities. Data on sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, black smoke, suspended particulate matter, PM 10 , lead and others are available. AMIS also includes information on air quality management (WHO, 1997). Much of what is known about contaminants in food, soils, water and air has become available through WHO and UNEP publications. For more than 20 years WHO/UNEP has been promoting an appreciation for improved assessments of human exposures through training sessions, workshops, demonstration projects, and published methodologies and reports. Through a series of WHO-sponsored studies in every populated continent, the principles of human exposure assessment have been illustrated for indoor and outdoor air pollutants, food contamination and water. In 1984, after some background reports (e.g., UNEP/WHO, 1982), WHO and UNEP conducted the Human Exposure Assessment Location (HEAL) Project, which facilitates research and information sharing among 10-15 institutions worldwide concerned with exposure assessment for a limited number of pollutants (Ozolins, 1989). Unfortunately, although providing important functions, the HEAL project has not had the mandate or anything approaching the resources required to actually make comparable international estimates of population exposures. HEAL projects, for the most part, have investigated exposures to conventional inorganic air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and general undifferentiated particle mass where inhalation is the primary route of exposures. However, the HEAL programme does offer examples of lead, cadmium and pesticide studies which illustrate multiple exposure pathways and demonstrate the necessity of extensive analytical training and quality programmes. An analytical quality control programme which involved all participating laboratories enabled reliable international comparisons of exposure despite differences in methodologies applied by the different http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc214.htm Page 17 of 284 6/1/2007
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