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Billig concurs with this, stating:
There is a growing body of opinion that nation-states are declining. Nationalism, or
so it is said, is no longer a major force: globalization is the order of the day. But a
reminder is necessary. Nationhood is still being reproduced: it can still call for
ultimate sacrifices; and, daily, its symbols and assumptions are flagged. (1995, p. 8)
A view of nationhood is outlined by Wodak et al. as belonging to “…two conceptions of the
nation…the political ‘national by an act of will’ (the German Willensnation) and the nation
defined by culture (Kulturnation) which is often linguistically defined and ethnically based”
(1999, p. 18). Their work can be consulted for a more detailed investigation of the myriad
definitions and understandings that exist regarding the concept of ‘nation’ and ‘national
identity’. The role history has, and continues to play, in representing the nation-state cannot
be underestimated, as Evans writes, “history is important…in constructing national identity”
(2002, p. 12). Identity, when discussing the symbolic relationship citizens have to the nation
state, can be couched in terms of a collective, rather than individual, identity. It is relevant to
note, that by asserting the existence of a collective identity this is not to say that people do
not hold their own individual identity. Instead, what it refers to, for the purposes of this
project, is a “…framework of the theoretical interpretations within which it… [is]…located”
(Berger and Luckmann, 1966, p. 175). The representations of British heritages and
Indigenous representations in History curriculum documents invariably construct these
exemplars as part of a collective identity.
2.7.2 Linking national identity with cultural identity and citizenship in school
curriculum.
Building on the collectiveness of individuals identifying as part of a broad nationalism, this
research takes the view as held by, amongst others, Ireland (2000), Giroux (1998), Wodak et
al. (1999), and Billig (1995) that nationalism and national identity is seen as part of a broader
‘cultural identity’ and debates in schooling contexts are concerned with “…the nature of
national ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ (Husbands, 1996, p. 130). Giroux, in writing of the
importance of identifying and acknowledging nationalism, states:
At stake here is the need to acknowledge the existence of the nation-state and
nationalism as primary forces in shaping collective identities while simultaneously
addressing how the relationship between national identity and culture can be
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