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6.5 Category 2: Frontier Conflicts Arguably, one of the most controversial topics in Australian history is the conflicts between former convicts, early squatters (farmers), government officers and Indigenous Australians in the period from the mid-19 th century to the early-20 th century. These acts of violence, although not generally connected with one another, are broadly classified under the term Frontier Conflicts, and have had a significant role to play in the history/culture wars, with various debates held about the accuracy of the conflicts reported in recent history publications and extent to which there were violent conflicts between Indigenous and non- Indigenous people. These debates are outlined in Appendix A: Contexts. It is now commonplace to hear of the Frontier Conflicts between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians in the early stages of Australia’s history of colonisation both in school and public contexts. This rise in profile of past conflicts can be attributed to Australian historians such as Henry Reynolds (1987, 1995) whose research on Indigenous Australians has highlighted brutality and violence committed by the early colonists and has also examined examples of resistance by Indigenous Australians. His perspectives are counteracted by fellow-historian Keith Windschuttle (2002) whose research disputes that of H. Reynolds, claiming, in part, that deaths as a result of conflicts have been exaggerated and in some instances fabricated. So, whilst knowledge of these events is now widespread, and forms part of the current optional Queensland Senior School Modern History curriculum; during this era, it was uncommon for specific and collective terminology to be given to the violent clashes that form what is now referred to as the Frontier Conflicts. In the main, three specific conflicts are included in Social Science and History textbooks during this era, being: the decimation of Tasmania’s aboriginals; the Myall Creek massacre; and the Whyte brothers’ murder of local Indigenous people. They are included for analysis here as representative of the violence committed against Indigenous Australians in Australia’s early colonial history. 6.5.1 Discourses of conflict origins. General conflicts, outside of noted and major ones, between Indigenous Australians and early squatters are included in The first hundred years (Palmer & McLeod, 1954/1964). Here, the authors construct a descriptive narrative that seeks to explain the origins of the conflicts that arose between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. However, even though the concept of “invasion” (Palmer & McLeod, 1954/1964, p. 59) is attributed to introduced herd 232
livestock, there is no deeper explanation provided of the original source of the conflicts between the two groups, and does not make problematic or offer any critique of the decision of non-Indigenous Australians to migrate to areas under traditional land guardianship of Indigenous tribes. Instead, a reason provided for conflict between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Australians is attributed to scarcity of resources. Conflict is thus justified as a arising as a consequence of lack of natural resources (see Source 6.20). Source 6.20. “Conflict between the advancing squatters and the aborigines” extract from The first hundred years (Palmer and McLeod, 1954/1964, p. 59) Landmarks (Blackmore et al., 1969) includes the following passage as the second of two narratives on the Frontier Conflicts: Between 1926 and 1934 a series of incidents stirred the public conscience. In 1928, for example, Aborigines killed a dingo shooter. An expedition of white men shot thirty-two Aboriginal men and women in retaliation. The court of enquiry held that the shootings were justified. (Blackmore et al., 1969, p. 165) Information is not provided how this “stirred the public conscience” (Blackmore et al., 1969, p. 165), as no consequence or outcome of the impact of the decision handed down by the court that declared 32 Indigenous Australians were shot as a result of the death, even if it was murder, of one non-Indigenous person. There seems to be a theme of the Wild West running through this narrative whereby if you happen to be of the same demographic as someone else accused of a crime, then you are vulnerable to prosecution. How the decision was made to declare the “shootings were justified” (Blackmore et al., 1969, p. 165) is not made explicit to students. 233
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livestock, there is no deeper explanation provided <strong>of</strong> the original source <strong>of</strong> the conflicts<br />
between the two groups, and does not make problematic or <strong>of</strong>fer any critique <strong>of</strong> the decision<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-Indigenous Australians to migrate to areas under traditional land guardianship <strong>of</strong><br />
Indigenous tribes. Instead, a reason provided for conflict between Indigenous and non-<br />
Indigenous Australians is attributed to scarcity <strong>of</strong> resources. Conflict is thus justified as a<br />
arising as a consequence <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> natural resources (see Source 6.20).<br />
Source 6.20. “Conflict between the advancing squatters and the aborigines” extract<br />
from The first hundred years (Palmer and McLeod, 1954/1964, p. 59)<br />
Landmarks (Blackmore et al., 1969) includes the following passage as the second <strong>of</strong> two<br />
narratives on the Frontier Conflicts:<br />
Between 1926 and 1934 a series <strong>of</strong> incidents stirred the public conscience. In 1928,<br />
for example, Aborigines killed a dingo shooter. An expedition <strong>of</strong> white men shot<br />
thirty-two Aboriginal men and women in retaliation. The court <strong>of</strong> enquiry held that<br />
the shootings were justified. (Blackmore et al., 1969, p. 165)<br />
Information is not provided how this “stirred the public conscience” (Blackmore et al., 1969,<br />
p. 165), as no consequence or outcome <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> the decision handed down by the<br />
court that declared 32 Indigenous Australians were shot as a result <strong>of</strong> the death, even if it was<br />
murder, <strong>of</strong> one non-Indigenous person. There seems to be a theme <strong>of</strong> the Wild West running<br />
through this narrative whereby if you happen to be <strong>of</strong> the same demographic as someone else<br />
accused <strong>of</strong> a crime, then you are vulnerable to prosecution. How the decision was made to<br />
declare the “shootings were justified” (Blackmore et al., 1969, p. 165) is not made explicit to<br />
students.<br />
233