Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making, vol. 1

§9.7 The Historical Context
evidence of Jesus' attachment to the synagogue as attesting his own Jewishness
and initial willingness to work with the local religious authorities.
In the past twenty years, however, such assumptions have come under serious
challenge. 219 The basic problem is that archaeology has failed to turn up
clear evidence which would confirm the basis for such a historical reconstruction.
220 In consequence, a substantial body of opinion has emerged that synagöge
in the Gospels should be translated not as 'synagogue', precisely because of the
(now traditional) implications of that term, but as 'assembly' or 'congregation'
(the word's more literal meaning). 221 There is certainly something in this.
219. The most recent discussions on the subject are R. Hachlili, 'The Origin of the Synagogue:
A Re-Assessment', JSJ 28 (1997) 34-47; H. C. Kee and L. H. Cohick, eds., Evolution of
the Synagogue: Problems and Progress (Harrisburg: Trinity, 1999), particularly the essays by
Kee, 'Defining the First-Century CE Synagogue' (7-26, reprinted from NTS 41 [1995] 481-
500), in debate with J. F. Strange, 'Ancient Texts, Archaeology as Text, and the Problem of the
First-Century Synagogue' (27-45), and R. H. Horsley, 'Synagogues in Galilee and the Gospels'
(46-69, a reworking of ch. 10 of his Galilee and ch. 6 of his Archaeology); S. Fine, ed., Jews,
Christians, and Polytheists in the Ancient Synagogue: Cultural Interaction during the Greco-
Roman Period (London: Routledge, 1999), particularly the essays by E. P. Sanders, 'Common
Judaism and the Synagogue in the First Century' (1-17), and P. W. van der Horst, 'Was the Synagogue
a Place of Sabbath Worship before 70 CE?' (18-43). H. A. McKay, 'Ancient Synagogues:
The Continuing Dialectic between Two Major Views', Currents in Research: Biblical
Studies 6 (1998) 103-142 reviews the data and debate, with extensive bibliography.
220. 'Only three synagogue buildings within Israel/Palestine have been securely dated
to the Second Temple period: Gamla, Masada, and Herodium' (E. M. Meyers, 'Synagogue',
ABD 6.251-60 [here 255]; see further S. Fine and E. M. Meyers, 'Synagogues', OEANE 5.118-
22). In addition, a structure at Magdala or Migdal (on the west shore of Galilee) is sometimes
included, though with dimensions of less than sixty square metres it might at best be described
as a 'mini-synagogue' (M. J. Chiat, 'First-Century Synagogue Architecture: Methodological
Problems', in J. Gutmann, ed., Ancient Synagogues: The State of Research [BJS 22; Chico:
Scholars, 1981] 49-60 [floor plans 112]; R. Hachlili, 'Early Jewish Art and Architecture', ABD
1.447-54 [here 449-50, floor plans 449]; Strange, 'Ancient Texts' 35-45; though on Magdala
see M. Avian, 'Magdala', OEANE 3.399). Magdala would be the only example in Galilee,
though Gamla, like Bethsaida technically in Herod Philip's territory, was evidently in close
communication with Galilee proper. But see also Horsley, Archaeology ch. 6 and those cited by
him on 221 nn. 2-3. On the synagogue in Capernaum, see below (n. 309). Kee has argued strenuously
against a pre-70 date for the famous 'Theodotus inscription' from Jerusalem ('The
Transformation of the Synagogue after 70 CE', NTS 36 [1990] 1-24; also 'Defining'); but see
R. Riesner, 'Synagogues in Jerusalem', in R. Bauckham, ed., The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian
Setting (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995) 179-210 (here 192-200); J. S. Kloppenborg
Verbin, 'Dating Theodotus (CIJ II 1404)', US 51 (2000) 243-80.
221. Kee illustrates the (for him) false assumption which has hitherto been made regarding
the meaning of synagöge by reference to Josephus, Ant. 19.305, where the Greek actually
speaks of the Jews prevented from 'being' (einai) a synagöge and of 'the place of the synagöge'
(en tö tes synagöges topö), where the obvious sense of 'assembly' is obscured by the Loeb
translation ('Defining' 13). It is worth noting that the equivalent word in Christian circles,
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