Insect Control: Biological and Synthetic Agents - Index of

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Figure 20 Important pest insects targeted by neonicotinoid insecticides. (a) Sweet-potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci; (b) Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata; (c) green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. 3.4.2. Agricultural Uses Due to their high systemicity, diverse ways of application are feasible and these methods have been introduced into practice. Soil treatments can be done by incorporation of granules, injection, application with irrigation water, spraying, and use of tablets. Plants or plant parts can be treated by seed dressing, pelleting, implantation, dipping, injection, and painting. These methods have led to a more economic and environmentally friendly use of these products, fitting well into various integrated pest management (IPM) programmes. In this section, imidacloprid has been chosen as an example of a neonicotinoid, and a few examples of its use in various crops is given. Such uses include treatments Table 4 Insecticidal efficacy of imidacloprid after foliar application against a variety of pest insects under laboratory conditions Pest species 3: Neonicotinoid Insecticides 81 Developmental stage LC95, rounded (ppm) Homoptera Aphis fabae Mixed 8 Aphis gossypii Mixed 1.6 Aphis pomi Mixed 8 Brevicoryne brassicae Mixed 40 Myzus persicae Mixed 1.6 Myzus persicae (tobacco) Mixed 8 Phorodon humuli Mixed 0.32 Laodelphax striatellus Third instar 1.6 Nephotettix cincticeps Third instar 0.32 Nilaparvata lugens Third instar 1.6 Sogatella furcifera Third instar 1.6 Pseudococcus comstocki Larvae 1.6 Bemisia tabaci Second instar 8 Trialeurodes vaporariorum Adult 40 Hercinothrips femoralis Coleoptera Mixed 1.6 Leptinotarsa decemlineata Second instar 40 Lema oryzae Adult 8 Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Adult 40 Phaedon cochleariae Lepidoptera Second instar 40 Chilo suppressalis First instar 8 Helicoverpa armigera Second instar 200 Plutella xylostella Second instar 200 Heliothis virescens Egg 40 Spodoptera frugiperda Second instar 200 for rice in Japan, cotton in the mid-south of the USA, vegetables in Mexico, and cereals in France. In these crops the neonicotinoid insecticides targets mainly early-season pests. 3.4.2.1. Rice In Japan, nursery box application of insecticides is a standard procedure, and it is currently used in 50% of the rice-growing area. This type of treatment is directed against early-season pests like Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (rice water weevil) and Lema oryzae (rice leaf beetle). In contrast to commercially available products like carbosulfan, benfuracarb, and propoxur, which control mainly rice water weevil and rice leaf beetle, imidacloprid covers the whole spectrum of early-season pests
82 3: Neonicotinoid Insecticides including N. cincticeps (green rice leafhopper), Laodelphax striatellus (smaller brown planthopper), and also mid- and late-season hopper species, like Sogatella furcifera (white-backed planthopper) and Nilaparvata lugens (brown planthopper). Benefits of such nursery box applications include, reduced labor input, longer residual effect, and reduced side effects against nontarget organisms when compared to surface treatments. Based on 5-year field trials, a use pattern for imidacloprid against the main rice pests has been established. When applied as a granule, 2 granular GR with 1 g a.i. per nursery box (¼ 200 g a.i. ha 1 ) 0–3 days before transplanting, the product gives full protection for 50–90 days against different hoppers species. By controlling L. striatellus, a 91% reduction of the rice stripe virus was observed. An excellent residual effect was detected up to 50 days after transplanting against L. oryzophilus, and up to 60 days against L. oryzae. Apart from the seedling box application, imidacloprid can be used as a granule for water surface application, as a wettable powder (WP) or as a dust formulation for foliar treatment, and also as a seed dressing to control the above mentioned pests on rice. Under field conditions of such use, no apparent effects from imidacloprid treatments were observed against populations of the spiders Pardosa pseudoannulata and Tetragnatha vermiformis. Therefore, imidacloprid can be regarded very effective against rice insects and flexible to use, but it is most efficient in nursery box application. It outperforms other conventional insecticides due to its broader efficacy and lower dose rates. Virus diseases are suppressed through effective vector control, and low toxicity has been observed against important beneficials in rice. 3.4.2.2. Cotton The main cotton pests in the mid South of the USA are Thrips tabaci, Lygus lineolaris (tarnished plant bug), Neurocolpus nubilis (clouded plant bug), Anthonomus grandis (boll weevil), Heliothis virescens (tobacco budworm), and Helicoverpa zea (bollworm). Other pests such as Pseudatomoscelis seriatus (cotton fleahopper), Aphis gossypii (cotton aphid), Spodoptera exigua (beet armyworm) and S. frugiperda (fall armyworm) are of lesser importance in this region. Thrips tabaci attacks the terminal bud and two to four true leaves. The plant is damaged by a reduced stand, retarding growth, killed buds, and delayed fruiting, with significant yield reduction. Lygus lineolaris damages by feeding on pinhead squares, which causes young squares to shed. Terminal bud injury leads to multiple branched plants (‘‘crazy cotton’’). Symptoms caused by N. nubilis are similar to those of L. lineolaris. It is thus evident that damage caused by earlyseason pests, such as thrips and bugs, can be very important. Loss of first-position squares can have detrimental effects on the yield potential of the plant. If normal fruiting of cotton plants is prevented, this can cause a delay in maturity, which in turn necessitates additional late-season insecticidal applications to control bollworms, tobacco budworms, and boll weevils. A 480 FS formulation (Gaucho Õ ) is applied for seed dressing, against early infestations of thrips and aphids, at 250 g a.i. per 100 kg cotton seed (37 g a.i. ha 1 ). Against bugs and later attack of aphids, three foliar split applications at low dose rates are recommended (Provado Õ 1.6 F, 3 15 g a.i. ha 1 (Table 4). These should be done as band sprays at intervals of 7–10 days. The first application starts 30 days after emergence of the five leaf stage, subsequent to the Gaucho Õ protection period. The Heliothis–Helicoverpa complex is controlled by conventional insecticides in mid-season, whereas boll weevil and armyworms are controlled by azinphos-methyl or cyfluthrin, respectively. 3.4.2.3. Vegetables Virus diseases have been the main factors affecting the tomato and chilli production in Mexico during the past 20 years, and these diseases have led to significant yield reductions in many regions. These crops are grown on approximately 160 000 ha with constant virus infestation in 30–35% of the fields, with persistent viruses being the most important in Mexican agriculture. In tomato crops, viruses can infest up to 100% of the crop. The damage depends on the type of virus, the population density of vectors, and the developmental stage of the crop. Protection by conventional insecticide treatments under plastic covered greenhouses, however, has not given satisfactory results (Elbert and Nauen, 2004). 3.4.2.4. Cereals The traditional method in controlling virus vectors in Europe is regular monitoring of aphid attack of young wheat and barley plants after emergence in autumn. If the threshold of 10% infested plants with at least one aphid per plant has been surpassed, usually a pyrethroid will be sprayed. Monitoring has to be continued, because the residual effect of the treatment may be insufficient for vector control. Depending on climatic conditions and the duration of the aphid attack, a second or a third application may be required. This rather time consuming and difficult procedure can be avoided by a seed treatment with imidacloprid.
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INSECT CONTROL BIOLOGICAL AND SYNTH
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INSECT CONTROL BIOLOGICAL AND SYNTH
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CONTENTS Preface vii Contributors i
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PREFACE When Elsevier published the
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J T Andaloro E. I. Du Pont de Nemou
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1 Pyrethroids B P S Khambay and P J
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activity. In contrast to most other
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Figure 1 Commercial and novel pyret
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Figure 2 Pyrethroids referred to in
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4-position result in almost complet
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and their primary site of action is
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Figure 4 Folded and extended confor
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aromatic rings or methyl groups by
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pyrethroids) and consequently a sec
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1998), although the precise mechani
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polymorphisms in the protein. Of th
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observed resistance to pyrethroids,
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propoxur against Culex quinquefasci
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esistance in house fly. Insect Bioc
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Shan, G.M., Hammock, B.D., 2001. De
Page 42 and 43: A1.4. Resistance The increasing num
Page 44 and 45: B A IIS4-S5 linker, IIS5 helix and
Page 46 and 47: 2 Indoxacarb and the Sodium Channel
Page 48 and 49: Figure 2 Structures of pyrazoline-l
Page 50 and 51: observed that both indoxacarb and i
Page 52 and 53: deflections resulting from stresses
Page 54 and 55: Figure 8 Dihydropyrazole block appe
Page 56 and 57: potential conduction in the CNS of
Page 58 and 59: known to affect blocker affinity, w
Page 60 and 61: Figure 13 Diagrammatic representati
Page 62 and 63: that the probable mechanism of ovil
Page 64 and 65: conventional chemistries and spinos
Page 66 and 67: Clare, J.J., Tate, S.N., Nobbs, M.,
Page 68 and 69: Tsurubuchi, Y., Karasawa, A., Nagat
Page 70 and 71: R1 N N O N H indoxacarb. Thus, whil
Page 72 and 73: 3 Neonicotinoid Insecticides P Jesc
Page 74 and 75: esidues, like the pyrid-3-ylmethyl
Page 76 and 77: containing neonicotinoids, and neon
Page 78 and 79: Studies were also done using compar
Page 80 and 81: Becke, 1988; Klamt, 1995) level of
Page 82 and 83: sampling using forcefield methods (
Page 84 and 85: Figure 9 Stable conformations and p
Page 86 and 87: Figure 13 Binding to putative catio
Page 88 and 89: Figure 14 Systemicity of neonicotin
Page 90 and 91: site (Kayser et al., 2002). Clothia
Page 94 and 95: Barley yellow dwarf virus vectors s
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Page 102 and 103: 3.8.1. Safety Profile The introduct
Page 104 and 105: Table 7 Environmental profile of co
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Page 112 and 113: Figure 25 Flea control achieved wit
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Page 116 and 117: Brown, J.K., Perring, T.M., Cooper,
Page 118 and 119: In: Ishaaya, I. (Ed.), Biochemical
Page 120 and 121: Léna, C., Changeux, J.-P., 1993. A
Page 122 and 123: patterns in Colorado potato beetle
Page 124 and 125: nach Saatgutbeizung. Pflanzenschutz
Page 126 and 127: Today, photoaffinity labeling (e.g.
Page 128 and 129: for control of stinkbugs in soybean
Page 130 and 131: Biochem. Physiol., doi: 10.1016/j.p
Page 132 and 133: 4 Insect Growth- and Development-Di
Page 134 and 135: The molting process is initiated by
Page 136 and 137: Table 1 Bisacylhydrazine insecticid
Page 138 and 139: 4.2.2. Bisacylhydrazines as Tools o
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of action of ecdysone agonists was
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thus inducing effects and symptomol
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and microsomes. Subsequently, Willi
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dipteran insects, like the midge, C
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eetle (Exomala orientalis) when app
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metabolic fate studies showed the i
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y specific proteins in signaling pa
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their reduced risk for the environm
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can be reversed by applying JH. JH
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door for a more rational approach t
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apparent that it was a bHLH-PAS and
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Table 9 Continued Bemisia tabaci (s
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Table 11 Insect control with some a
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Table 13 Ecotoxicological profile o
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Flucycloxuron Nonsystemic acaricide
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The discovery of diflubenzuron spaw
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Table 15 Environmental effects of s
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ecessive (R male S female) manner,
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esistance management programs due t
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IPS Paraconfusus lanier (Coleoptera
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larvae parasitized by Microplitis r
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Kostyukovsky, M., Chen, B., Atsmi,
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Three-dimensional quantitative stru
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Riddiford, L.M., 1994. Cellular and
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characterization of resistant clone
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Biological Approaches to Pest Contr
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M389 L308 M272 T304 T393 V404 L420
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5 Azadirachtin, a Natural Product i
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and Hemiptera and was related to ef
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eported, but this is rather nonspec
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important source of pest control at
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effects with physiological effects
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eing associated with an accumulatio
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et al., 1992). Salehzadeh et al. (2
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ehavior of Spodoptera littoralis (p
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indica A. Juss. IBH Publishing Comp
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Smith, S.L., Mitchell, M.J., 1988.
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which interact directly with azadir
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6 The Spinosyns: Chemistry, Biochem
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Table 1 Structures of the spinosyns
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Table 2 Biological activity of spin
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A large synthetic effort has gone i
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216 6: The Spinosyns: Chemistry, Bi
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Figure 4 Spinosad metabolism in avi
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A6 Addendum: The Spinosyns T C Spar
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246 A6: Addendum Scott, 2008) and i
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248 7: Bacillus thuringiensis: Mech
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A7 Addendum: Bacillus thuringiensis
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280 A7: Addendum toxins is magnitud
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Table 1 Comparative properties of s
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286 8: Mosquitocidal B. sphaericus:
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Table 4 Characteristics of various
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A8 Addendum: Bacillus sphaericus Ta
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310 A8: Addendum essential to devel
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314 9: Insecticidal Toxins from Pho
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A9 Addendum: Recent Advances in Pho
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330 A9: Addendum Lee, S.C., Stoilov
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332 10: Genetically Modified Baculo
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384 A10: Addendum cysteine protease
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388 11: Entomopathogenic Fungi and
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Zare, R., Gams, W., Culham, A., 200
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434 A11: Addendum although a number
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436 A11: Addendum Examination of ge
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440 12: Insect Transformation for U
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448 A12: Addendum genetic transform
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452 Subject Index Aphis gossypii (c
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454 Subject Index Bisacylhydrazine
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456 Subject Index Cry toxins (conti
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458 Subject Index Entomopathogenic
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460 Subject Index Homoptera molting
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462 Subject Index Kinoprene (ENSTAR
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464 Subject Index Muscle(s) sodium
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466 Subject Index Photorhabdus (con
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468 Subject Index Sodium channel bl
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470 Subject Index Toxocara cati, im
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