Insect Control: Biological and Synthetic Agents - Index of

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11: Entomopathogenic Fungi and their Role in Regulation of Insect Populations 411 found to be the critical factor in epizootics caused by C. punctatus (Apperson et al., 1992). Pillai (1971) sampled over 400 pools in New Zealand and detected C. opifexi in only 21. When pools that had both mosquito and copepod hosts were intentionally inoculated, disease levels persisted for over 2 years, but disease incidence remained low (mean
412 11: Entomopathogenic Fungi and their Role in Regulation of Insect Populations In most temperate countries, greenhouses are the only place where inundative biological control of crops with entomophthoralean fungi could be recommended at present. Preparations of P. neoaphidis could be tested against aphids in greenhouses and may, due to some horizontal transmission effects afterwards, prove to have some advantages over other biological control agents used, including Lecanicillium lecanii. For some of the greenhouse pest–pathogen systems mentioned in Section 11.7, there could also be some prospects in inundation. Whatever the environment, a most promising release strategy could be a combination: an inundation with some immediate effect but including a significant inoculative effect. 11.6.1. Mass Production The success of any commercial microbial control agent depends largely on the ability to produce adequate supplies of the agent to economically manage the target pest or pests. Entomopathogenic fungi produce different types of spores, depending on the growth environment. Aerial conidia are produced on the surface of cadavers, while blastospores, sometimes referred to as ‘‘hyphal bodies’’ or protoplasts, are produced in the host’s hemocoel. Consequently, the fermentation medium and method will also dictate the type of spore that will be obtained. In submerged culture, primarily mycelia and blastospores are produced while aerial conidia are produced on the surface of liquid media or on solid substrates. Efficient mass production methods are mostly lacking for entomophthoralean fungi as is knowledge on their formulation. Despite the development of methods for mass producing several species, to date, there are no commercialized products based on entomophthoralean fungi. Due to the short-lived nature of entomophthoralean conidia, attempts at mass production have targeted primarily mycelia or resting spores (Pell et al., 2001). Many insect cadavers killed by fungi can be found in the environment in a dehydrated state; often, transfer of these cadavers to conditions of high humidity results in massive conidiogenesis and spore release (e.g., Tyrrell, 1988). This phenomenon has spurred the development of ‘‘dried mycelia’’ as a potential way of mass producing and using entomopathogenic fungi (McCabe and Soper, 1985). Mycelia are mass produced in deep fermentation, air dried in the presence of a sugar desiccant protectant, granulated, and stored dehydrated under low temperature. Upon rehydration, the fungus sporulates on the granule surface. This method is suitable both for entomophthoralean and hyphomycetous fungi. Despite some successful field demonstrations using dried mycelia against several insect pests (e.g., Pereira and Roberts, 1991; Krueger et al., 1992; Krueger and Roberts, 1997; Booth et al., 2000; Shah et al., 2000), this method has not yet been adopted commercially. Some entomopathogenic fungi produce conidia or resting spores in submerged culture. Examples are resting spores of the entomophthoraleans, Conidiobolus obscurus (Latgé, 1980) and E. maimaiga (Kogan and Hajek, 2000), and conidia of the hyphomycetous fungi Culicinomyces clavisporus (Cooper and Sweeney, 1986) and M. anisopliae var. acridum (Jenkins and Prior, 1993). Submerged conidia of some species perform as well as aerially produced ones (e.g., M. anisopliae var. acridum; Jenkins and Thomas, 1996). For other species this is not so, e.g., submerged conidia of C. clavisporus performed worse than aerial conidia (Cooper and Sweeney, 1986). To date, there are no commercialized products based on conidia or resting spores produced in submerged culture. Most Hyphomycetes produce blastospores in submerged culture, but for the most part, these are thin walled and short lived, and with few exceptions, are used primarily to produce starter batches for use in inoculation of aerial culture (see Section 11.6.2). In some cases, blastospores are more virulent than aerial conidia (e.g., Jackson et al., 1997; Lacey et al., 1999), and several commercial products consist of blastospores produced in submerged culture (e.g., L. lecanii and P. fumosoroseus; see below). Solid state fermentation is used for production of aerial conidia of a number of commercially produced Hyphomycetes (see below). The solid substrates can be either nutritive, such as bran, cereals, or rice, or nonnutritive, such as vermiculite, clay, or sponge. Production of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae on rice is widely practiced in South America (Alves et al., 2003), Africa (Cherry et al., 1999), and China (Feng et al., 1994). More details on the production of entomopathogenic fungi can be found in Bartlett and Jaronski (1988), Jenkins and Goettel (1997), Jenkins et al. (1998), and Wraight et al. (2001). 11.6.2. Commercialized Products There are many commercial products available worldwide, most based on fungi from six to seven species from Hyphomycetes (Shah and Goettel, 1999; Copping, 2001; Wraight et al., 2001; Alves et al., 2003). Hyphomycetes are very well suited for commercialization due to their relatively wider host ranges, ease of production, shelf life, persistence, and ease of application.
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INSECT CONTROL BIOLOGICAL AND SYNTH
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INSECT CONTROL BIOLOGICAL AND SYNTH
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CONTENTS Preface vii Contributors i
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PREFACE When Elsevier published the
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J T Andaloro E. I. Du Pont de Nemou
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1 Pyrethroids B P S Khambay and P J
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activity. In contrast to most other
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Figure 1 Commercial and novel pyret
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Figure 2 Pyrethroids referred to in
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4-position result in almost complet
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and their primary site of action is
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Figure 4 Folded and extended confor
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aromatic rings or methyl groups by
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pyrethroids) and consequently a sec
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1998), although the precise mechani
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polymorphisms in the protein. Of th
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observed resistance to pyrethroids,
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propoxur against Culex quinquefasci
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esistance in house fly. Insect Bioc
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Shan, G.M., Hammock, B.D., 2001. De
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A1.4. Resistance The increasing num
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B A IIS4-S5 linker, IIS5 helix and
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2 Indoxacarb and the Sodium Channel
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Figure 2 Structures of pyrazoline-l
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observed that both indoxacarb and i
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deflections resulting from stresses
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Figure 8 Dihydropyrazole block appe
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potential conduction in the CNS of
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known to affect blocker affinity, w
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Figure 13 Diagrammatic representati
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that the probable mechanism of ovil
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conventional chemistries and spinos
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Clare, J.J., Tate, S.N., Nobbs, M.,
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Tsurubuchi, Y., Karasawa, A., Nagat
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R1 N N O N H indoxacarb. Thus, whil
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3 Neonicotinoid Insecticides P Jesc
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esidues, like the pyrid-3-ylmethyl
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containing neonicotinoids, and neon
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Studies were also done using compar
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Becke, 1988; Klamt, 1995) level of
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sampling using forcefield methods (
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Figure 9 Stable conformations and p
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Figure 13 Binding to putative catio
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Figure 14 Systemicity of neonicotin
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site (Kayser et al., 2002). Clothia
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Figure 20 Important pest insects ta
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Barley yellow dwarf virus vectors s
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investigate the mode of action of n
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within the desensitized state over
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the accumulation of this acid in th
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3.8.1. Safety Profile The introduct
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Table 7 Environmental profile of co
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substance is bound irreversibly to
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imidacloprid conferring a high leve
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nAChR are comparable to the efficac
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Figure 25 Flea control achieved wit
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and the resolution of FAD was teste
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Brown, J.K., Perring, T.M., Cooper,
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In: Ishaaya, I. (Ed.), Biochemical
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Léna, C., Changeux, J.-P., 1993. A
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patterns in Colorado potato beetle
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nach Saatgutbeizung. Pflanzenschutz
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Today, photoaffinity labeling (e.g.
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for control of stinkbugs in soybean
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Biochem. Physiol., doi: 10.1016/j.p
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4 Insect Growth- and Development-Di
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The molting process is initiated by
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Table 1 Bisacylhydrazine insecticid
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4.2.2. Bisacylhydrazines as Tools o
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to the three EcRs with either muris
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of action of ecdysone agonists was
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thus inducing effects and symptomol
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and microsomes. Subsequently, Willi
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dipteran insects, like the midge, C
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eetle (Exomala orientalis) when app
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metabolic fate studies showed the i
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y specific proteins in signaling pa
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their reduced risk for the environm
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can be reversed by applying JH. JH
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door for a more rational approach t
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apparent that it was a bHLH-PAS and
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Table 9 Continued Bemisia tabaci (s
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Table 11 Insect control with some a
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Table 13 Ecotoxicological profile o
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Flucycloxuron Nonsystemic acaricide
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The discovery of diflubenzuron spaw
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Table 15 Environmental effects of s
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ecessive (R male S female) manner,
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esistance management programs due t
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IPS Paraconfusus lanier (Coleoptera
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larvae parasitized by Microplitis r
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Kostyukovsky, M., Chen, B., Atsmi,
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Three-dimensional quantitative stru
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Riddiford, L.M., 1994. Cellular and
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characterization of resistant clone
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Biological Approaches to Pest Contr
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M389 L308 M272 T304 T393 V404 L420
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5 Azadirachtin, a Natural Product i
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and Hemiptera and was related to ef
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eported, but this is rather nonspec
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important source of pest control at
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effects with physiological effects
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eing associated with an accumulatio
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et al., 1992). Salehzadeh et al. (2
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ehavior of Spodoptera littoralis (p
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indica A. Juss. IBH Publishing Comp
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Smith, S.L., Mitchell, M.J., 1988.
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which interact directly with azadir
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6 The Spinosyns: Chemistry, Biochem
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Table 1 Structures of the spinosyns
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Table 2 Biological activity of spin
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A large synthetic effort has gone i
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216 6: The Spinosyns: Chemistry, Bi
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Figure 4 Spinosad metabolism in avi
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A6 Addendum: The Spinosyns T C Spar
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246 A6: Addendum Scott, 2008) and i
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248 7: Bacillus thuringiensis: Mech
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A7 Addendum: Bacillus thuringiensis
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280 A7: Addendum toxins is magnitud
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Table 1 Comparative properties of s
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286 8: Mosquitocidal B. sphaericus:
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Table 4 Characteristics of various
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A8 Addendum: Bacillus sphaericus Ta
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310 A8: Addendum essential to devel
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314 9: Insecticidal Toxins from Pho
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A9 Addendum: Recent Advances in Pho
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330 A9: Addendum Lee, S.C., Stoilov
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332 10: Genetically Modified Baculo
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Page 371 and 372: 360 10: Genetically Modified Baculo
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Page 399 and 400: 388 11: Entomopathogenic Fungi and
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Page 463 and 464: 452 Subject Index Aphis gossypii (c
Page 465 and 466: 454 Subject Index Bisacylhydrazine
Page 467 and 468: 456 Subject Index Cry toxins (conti
Page 469 and 470: 458 Subject Index Entomopathogenic
Page 471 and 472: 460 Subject Index Homoptera molting
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462 Subject Index Kinoprene (ENSTAR
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464 Subject Index Muscle(s) sodium
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466 Subject Index Photorhabdus (con
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468 Subject Index Sodium channel bl
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470 Subject Index Toxocara cati, im
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