The whole publication in PDF - Culture in Development

As with other natural disasters, there are many websites on the internet on forest fires. The National Interagency
Fire Center (NIFC) and the National Fire Plan websites are both US-based organisations and give a lot of useful
information on wildland fire in general.
Hirsch and his colleagues compiled a bibliographic listing of about 2200 wildland-urban interface resource
materials. They provide information on a diverse spectrum of topics related to fire management in the wildlandurban
interface ranging from building materials and hazard reduction techniques to disaster management, politics,
and sociological issues (Hirsch et al., n.d.).
For further reading on forest fires see Dudley , 1997; E berlee, 1998; Go ld Coast C ouncil, 19 98; Joh nson et al.,
2001; Mansanet Terol, 1987; McCann et al., 1995; McKaige et al., 1997; Trinkley, 1993a and 2001; Whittall, 1992;
Zweck, 1983.
6.3.4 Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden, rapid motion of the earth caused by the breaking and shifting of rock beneath the earth
surface. At any time of the year and at any time of the day or the night an earthquake can occur. Smaller
earthquakes, the aftershocks, can follow the main shock. Aftershocks can occur in the first hours, days, weeks or
even months after the quake. Throughout the world 70 to 75 damaging earthquakes occur each year. The strength
of an earthquake can be measured by magnitude or intensity. The Richter scale measures the magnitude and the
modified Mercalli scale measures the intensity. W here earthquakes have occurred in the past, they will happen again
(CDERA website).
It is possible to predict earthquakes but the residents have only several hours leeway. Advance preparation for
the eventuality of an earthquake is much better than to start preparations after the warning (F ox, 1999). Earth
scientists began recording earthquakes about 1880, but it was not until the 1940s that instruments were installed in
buildings to measure their response to earthquakes. The number of instruments installed in structures increased in
the 1950s and 1960s (Celebi et al., 1995a).
Today, many institutions and organisations are watching out for earthquakes. One of them is the US-based
National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC). It operates a 24-hour-a-day service to determine the location and
magnitude of significant earthquakes in the United States and around the world as rapidly and accurately as possible.
Every day the systems become more sophisticated and are readjusted when necessary. One of those systems is the
Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Programm e (GSH AP) that was launched in 1992 b y the International
Lithosphere Programme (ILP) with the support of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The
GSHAP project, which was terminated in 1999, can still be accessed through the NEIC website, and gives maps and
technical information on earthquakes worldwide (see McGruire et al., 1995).
Earthquake related haza rds include: collapsing buildings and bridges, flying glass, disrupted utility services,
fires, landslides, flash floods, falling rocks in the mountains and in low-lying coastal areas tsunamis, i.e. huge
destructive ocean waves (CDERA website). The damage or collapse of buildings, as well as other structures causes
the majority of deaths and injuries from earthquakes. These losses can be reduced through documenting and
understanding how structures respond to earthquakes. Gaining such knowledge requires a long-term commitment
because large devastating earthquakes occur at irregular and often long intervals. By monitoring how structures
respond to earthquakes and applying the knowledge gained, scientists and engineers are improving the ability of
structures to survive major earthquakes. This has led to many revisions and improvements in building codes. One
of the results of seismological research was the flexible roof design (Celebi et al., 1995b). Another fact to emerge
from the growing body of such records is that the movement close to an earthquake’s source is much stronger than
once thought (Celebi et al., 1995a).
First when planning an archives building, it is imperative to determine a site that is safe. Identifying the
geological structure of the grounds before building is advised, as well as checking if the location is a potential
landslide hazard. When building in an area that is prone to earthquakes it is necessary to use a construction that is
seismic resistant, following the local seismic building standards and safe land use codes, if available. It is important
to realise that when we cannot prevent an earthquake then the least we can do is learn from them in order to reduce
future damage (see Anonymous, 1989c; Geis, 1988 and Joice, 2001).
Many adaptations to conventional buildings are possible to reduce the effects of an earthquake. H owever, it is
not possible to b uild earthquake-proo f constructions (Anony-mo us, n.d., a). Adherence to building codes can reduce
losses caused by an earthqua ke since they are the public's first line of d efence against the effects of earthquakes
(Celebi et al., 1995a). All parts of a building, situated in an earthquake prone area, should, in essence, be attached
to each other. The whole building should be bolted to the foundation, as it is less likely to be severely damaged. The
building must be designed to be flexible and should hold together when it is shaken from side to side, and up and
down (Fortson, 1992).
Timber structures are considered the most earthquake resistant among traditional forms of architecture, provided
their joints are sound and insects or fungi do not attack the timber. H owever, timb er buildings are vulnerable to fires,
which often follow earthquakes (Feilden, 1987). The Incas traditionally built their homes with very thick tapered
walls. These structures could resist the worst of earthquakes and landslide s. They also built a drainage system that
stabilised the slopes against landslides (Fo x, 1999). It is not necessarily expensive to build an earthquake-safe
edifice. For example, the Anglo-Indian architect Laurie Baker chiefly uses local building materials, and cost and
energy effective techniques to build shock safe dwellings (Hochschild, 200 0; Kremp, 2001). Thus architectural
decisions concerning site planning, building configuration, and other construction practices are crucial determinants
in the overall performance of a building during an earthquake (AIA, 1992).
An older building may have later additions, which may be weaker than the original areas. The foundation must
be checked for possible damage by termites. Buildings that are retrofitted and prepared for a possible earthquake
and regularly maintained, are much more likely to survive with minimal damage (Nelson, 1991). Straps, cables and
centre rods minimise the possibility of collapse while having a minimal impact on the historic building fabric (Tolles
et al., 1996, 2000 a and 2000 b).