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the problem of providing suitable writing materials, resulting in a variety of widely different, yet equally effective,
solutions (Gaur, 1979).
Long before European colonists arrived with their own record-keeping systems based on European paper, many
countries outside Europe had developed advanced writing systems. However, such p aper does not survive well
outside temperate climates. Climatically well proven systems for ‘memorising’ data were put aside as not suitable
for ‘European’ administrations. In some cultures both systems cohabitated, the European one providing core data,
‘facts’, the indigenous one providing circumstantial evidence of some importance for understanding local traditions
relating, for example, to religion or to culture, or providing other kinds of information (Hoeven et al., 1996).
Knowledge of these specific writing materials is essential for any serious conservator. According to Petherbridge
one can learn a lot from other cultures, in terms of different approaches, or new ways of thinking. He does not want
to restrict himself to technical solutions, but also wants to engage in historical and sociological study, and research
the materials he works on (Giese, 1995).
3.2.1 Palm-leaf
In India, and the countries of Southeast Asia which came under Ind ian influence, palm-leaves have always been the
most popular among the leaf writing materials. Large collections of palm-leaf manuscripts are in the custody of
many Asian libraries, temples, monasteries, learned institutions and in Asian collections elsewhere. Usually several
types of palm-leaves were used for writing, depending on date and origin, and their preparation differs from country
to country. The palm-leaves could either be incised with a stylus or written on with brush and ink. The question
arises whether palm-leaves lend themselves better than paper to the tropical climate (Noerlund et al., 199 1).
For more literature on palm-leaf manuscripts see:
General: Hunter, 1978
India: Das et al., 1991; Diskalkar, 1979; Losty, 1982; Suri, 1947; Swarnakamal, 1975
Indonesia: Ginarsa, 1975 and 1976; Grader et al., 1941: Hinzler, 1993; Hooijkaas, 1963; Rubenstein, 1992
Thailand: Schuyler, 1908
For more on the conservation of palm-leaf manuscripts see:
Asia: Bartelt, 1975; Crowley, 1969; Curach, 1995; Dean, 1999b; Florian et al., 1992; Lawson, 1988; Samuel, 1994b;
Sandy et al., 2000
India: Agrawal, 1975, 1981b, 1982a and 1984; Anonymous, 1991; Bhattacharyya, 1947a and 1947b; Bhowmik,
1966; Das, 1987; Gupta, 1974; Joshi, 1993; Kishore, 1961; K umar, 1963; Nair, 1 985; Pa dhi, 1974 ; Samuel,
1994a; Swarnakamal, 1975; Suryawanshi et al., 1992 and 1994; Swarnakamal, 1975
Indonesia: Augustini, 1994; Hooijkaas, 1972 and 1979
Myanmar: Bartelt, 1972; Raghavan, 1979
Sri Lanka: Titley, 1963
3.2.2 Bark
Another material that, like palm-leaves, needs only a moderate degree of processing is the inner bark of trees. In
India two varieties have been used for writing purposes: birch bark in the northwest and aloe bark in the northeast.
An interesting variation of aloe can still be found on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. A slightly different type of
birch bark has been widely used by the North American Indians, in one case as a writing material. Beaten bark, socalled
barkcloth o r tapa, is principally kno wn as an ethno graphic textile (Bell, 1992a) but on the Indonesian island
of Java and in Middle America, people used to write up on barkclo th.
For further literature on bark manuscripts and their conservation see:
General: Anonymous, 1995a; Bell, 1992a; Diskalkar, 1979; Florian et al., 1992; Gaur, 1979; Hunter, 1978
India: Agrawal, 1975 and 1984; Agrawal et al., 1981; A grawal et al., 1984a; Agrawal et al., 198 4b; Agrawal et al.,
1987; Batton, 2001a and 2001b; Felliozat, 1947; Kumar, 1963; Kumar, 1988; Losty, 1982; Lyall, 1980;
Majumdar et al., 1966; Rymar, 1978; Suryawanshi, 2000
Indonesia: Teygeler, 1993, 1995 and 1998; Teygeler et al., 1995
Middle America: Bell, 1992a; Bockwitz, 1949; Christensen, 1972; Godenne, 1960; Hagen, 1999; Hunter, 1927;
Lenz, 1961; Rodgers Albro, 1993; Sandstrom, 1986
North America: Dewdney, 1975; Gilberg, 1986; Gilberg et al., 1983 and 1986; Hoffmann, 1998; Selick, 1987
3.2.3 Paper
Finally we come to paper, another triumph of traditional technology. Many factors led to the invention of paper. The
place of origin is China, whose inhabitants were able to make excellent paper in a very short time after its invention
in the 2nd century BC (Before Christ). From there it spread to the rest of East Asia and via Central Asia and the
Middle East and slowly found its way to Europe which it reached eleven hundred years later. Much has been written
about the paper history of Europe, and it is a subject that should be of interest to all archivists, librarians and curators
working in the tropics, because much of the manuscript, printed and archival matter is on western paper.
The father of paper history is the American Dard Hunter (1883-1966). He is best known as the paper historian
whose writings form the cornerstone of our knowledge about the world of handmad e paper: its history, technology,
and materials. In order to gather firsthand knowledge about the manufacture of paper, he travelled the world
collecting tools, equipment, raw materials and paper samples. Through his Mountain House Press, he p ublished his
knowledge of world papermaking in a number of important, limited edition, handmade volumes. Some o f his
publications have been reprinted like the invaluable Paperm aking. Th e history an d techniq ue of an ancient craft,
a book that should never be absent from the bookshelves of any serious paper historian (Hunter, 1978). The other
volumes are more difficult to obtain, but nevertheless form an important starting point for the study of any paper