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Friday Morning Papers 22–28 of Arizona—We examined whether figure–ground segregation can occur without attention. On each trial, participants performed a demanding change-detection task on a small target matrix at fixation. The matrix was presented on a task-irrelevant scene of alternating regions organized into figures and grounds by convexity. Independent of any change in the target, the figure–ground organization of the scene backdrop could also change or remain the same on each trial. Change/no change in scene organization produced congruency effects upon speed and accuracy for the target-change task. This effect arose even though, when probed with surprise questions, participants could report neither the figure–ground status of the region on which the target appeared in the preceding frame or whether the figure–ground organization of the scene had changed on the preceding trial. When attending to the scene backdrop, participants could make these reports highly accurately. These results suggest that figure–ground segregation can occur under inattention. 9:40–9:55 (22) Emotional Cues Improve and Impair Visual Perception. RENÉ ZEELENBERG & BRUNO R. BOCANEGRA, Erasmus University Rotterdam—Although previous studies have demonstrated enhanced identification of emotional stimuli, the mechanisms underlying this perceptual enhancement remain unclear. In the present study, rather than investigating perception of an emotional target stimulus we investigated the influence of an emotional cue on the visual identification of a subsequent neutral stimulus. By manipulating cue–target intervals and cue visibility we were able to show both perceptual improvements and impairments due to the emotional status of the cue. These results provide direct behavioral evidence for a two-fold effect of emotion on visual perception: (1) a general enhancement in the efficiency of processing emotional stimuli that carries over to neutral stimuli, and (2) a stimulus-specific enhancement through which emotional stimuli attain prioritized capacity-limited processing. The latter mechanism results in enhanced identification of emotional stimuli at the expense of impaired identification of neutral stimuli. Brain and Language Processing Seaview, Friday Morning, 8:00–9:20 Chaired by Joseph Dien, University of Kansas 8:00–8:15 (23) Neural Correlates of Sentence Priming: Convergent ERP and fMRI Findings. JOSEPH DIEN & AMINDA J. O’HARE, University of Kansas, & CARY R. SAVAGE, University of Kansas Medical Center—In Dien, Frishkoff, Cerbone, and Tucker (2003), event-related potential data from a sentence priming experiment yielded, in addition to the N400, a frontal P400 component that correlated with cloze probability and a 216-msec Recognition Potential (RP) effect that correlated with unexpectedness of the sentence ending. In the present report, this experiment was replicated with 11 participants in a 3T scanner. Sentences were presented at the rate of one word per second, with half the endings being incongruent, while being read for comprehension. The frontal P400 was found to correspond to a left premotor region effect and the RP effect was found to correspond to a left parahippocampal gyrus effect. These findings suggest that different levels of the system represent expectancies differently, with one level (the RP) maintaining a range of activations and another level (the P400) representing just a single primary activation. 8:20–8:35 (24) Reading With Two Hemispheres. ORNA PELEG & ZOHAR EVI- ATAR, Haifa University (sponsored by Zohar Eviatar)—We examined the relative contribution of phonological, lexical, and contextual sources of information to word reading in the two cerebral hemispheres. Using heterophonic and homophonic homographs in Hebrew, we show different timelines of meaning activation in the two visual fields (VFs). In the LVF(RH) both dominant and subordinate mean- 4 ings of homographs are facilitated in both early (150-msec) and later (250-msec) SOAs. In the RVF(LH), both meanings of homophones are facilitated in the two SOAs, whereas for heterophones, facilitation for related meanings is delayed (only in the 250-msec SOA). We show that meaning activation is differentially sensitive to lexical and contextual sources of information in the VFs, and that phonological codes provide early sources of constraints only in the RVF(LH). Our results suggest that in the LH meaning activation lags behind phonological processing. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for models of reading and hemispheric contribution to this process. 8:40–8:55 (25) The Metaphorical Brain: From Hemispheric Asymmetry to Hemispheric Dynamics. MIRIAM FAUST, Bar-Ilan University—Previous research has lead to conflicting findings regarding the involvement of the right hemisphere (RH) in metaphor comprehension. The present research project used convergent experimental techniques, including behavioral, imaging, ERPs, and TMS, to explore the role of the left and right hemispheres in metaphor comprehension behavior. The stimuli in all studies were two-word expressions denoting literal, conventional metaphoric, and novel metaphoric meaning, as well as unrelated word pairs and the task was semantic judgment. The findings indicate that both hemispheres work in concert in a complex dynamical pattern during literal and figurative language comprehension. However, during the comprehension of novel metaphors there are some stages of considerable RH involvement, mainly of posterior superior temporal areas. 9:00–9:15 (26) Mental Grammar, Implicit Learning, and Subcortical Region. DEZSO NEMETH, PETER KLIVENYI, GABRIELLA GARDIAN, TAMAS SEFCSIK, & LASZLO VECSEI, University of Szeged (sponsored by Alan D. Baddeley)—Numerous theories claim that the motor and procedural systems are the cognitive background of mental grammar and sentence processing. The main purpose of our studies is to map the relationship between implicit learning and mental grammar, and the role of subcortical brain regions. In a dual-task experiment the healthy subjects’ implicit learning was measured by a serial reaction time task, and at the same time subjects were tested on sentence processing, word processing, and mathematical tasks. The results show that implicit learning was significantly worse when the parallel task was sentence processing than when it was controls. In our second study concerning patients with basal ganglia degeneration (Huntington’s disease), results show that production of complex morphology and implicit learning are impaired. The implication of the results is that there is relationship between implicit learning and sentence processing, more precisely the operation of mental grammar. Skill Acquisition Shoreline, Friday Morning, 8:00–9:40 Chaired by Timothy C. Rickard, University of California, San Diego 8:00–8:15 (27) Spaced Practice and the Sleep Enhancement Effect in Motor Skill Learning. TIMOTHY C. RICKARD, DENISE J. CAI, CORY RIETH, COLIN ARD, & JASON J. JONES, University of California, San Diego—It is widely believed that sleep consolidation enhances skilled performance. Our investigation of this topic, however, has identified three characteristics of prior studies that appear to explain the performance enhancement without recourse to sleep consolidation: time-ofday confounds, data averaging, and massed practice. When all three factors are corrected, the sleep enhancement effect is eliminated. Massed practice results in fatigue that dissipates between sessions. The data distinguish between performance- and learning-based fatigue accounts, with implications for optimization of training. 8:20–8:35 (28) Abstracting Concepts and Patterns: Is Spacing the “Enemy of In-
Papers 29–34 Friday Morning duction”? NATE KORNELL & ROBERT A. BJORK, UCLA (read by Robert A. Bjork)—Learning about a new concept or category by observing examples—that is, inductive learning—happens constantly, from a baby learning a new word to a doctor classifying x-rays. What influence, though, does the spacing of such exemplars have on the efficiency of induction? We designed two experiments to test Ernst Z. Rothkopf’s assertion that “spacing is the friend of recall, but the enemy of induction.” In both experiments participants studied paintings by 12 different artists. A given artist’s paintings were presented either consecutively (massed) or interleaved with other artists’ paintings (spaced). Memory was tested using a cued-recall task in Experiment 1 and a recognition task in Experiment 2. To our surprise, inducing artists’ styles profited from spacing, not massing. Massed practice, however, apparently created a sense of fluent induction: Participants rated massing as more effective than spacing for learning an artist’s style even after their own test performance had demonstrated the opposite. 8:40–8:55 (29) Learning Algebra by Exploration. ANGELA BRUNSTEIN & JOHN R. ANDERSON, Carnegie Mellon University—A major component of learning a skill like algebra is knowing which operators are appropriate for what situations. This study investigated learning to solve algebra-isomorphic problems either by exploration or by a stepby-step instruction. Instructed participants performed better on early problems, whereas explorers performed better on solving related problems later on. Explorers were less likely to acquire shallow operators that only applied in the original learning situation. Exploring problems on their own also enhanced participants’ capabilities for debugging and acquiring new operators. More importantly, exploration also changed the way they perceived new situations: Although these situations were new to all participants, explorers were better able to focus on task relevant aspects. Therefore, they were more likely to choose the correct operators in new situations. 9:00–9:15 (30) What Does It Take to Link a Cue With a Behavior in Human Skill Acquisition? HAL PASHLER, University of California, San Diego, EDWARD VUL, MIT, & TIMOTHY C. RICKARD, University of California, San Diego—Much has been learned about when mental linkages are (and are not) formed in Pavlovian conditioning and in contingency judgments, but far less is known about what principles govern the acquisition of cue–behavior linkages in human skill acquisition. In several experiments, we had subjects make speeded responses based upon an instructed stimulus–response mapping. Additional redundant cues were also presented at certain times within each training trial, reliably predicting the appropriate response. In some cases these cues did not appear until it was too late to use them. The results (assessed in various types of transfer-test blocks) shed light upon whether acquisition of cue–behavior linkages requires (1) actual experience using the cue to select a response during training, (2) perceiving the cue prior to selecting the response on the training trial, or (3) merely having the cue appear, correlated with the response, even if it was not useful or timely. 9:20–9:35 (31) How Conceptualizing Music Affects Novice Trumpeters’ First Sound Attempts. MATTHEW STEINFELD, MICHAEL F. SCHOBER, & MICHELLE F. LEVINE, New School for Social Research (read by Michael F. Schober)—To what extent do novice musicians need to conceptualize music as they acquire musical skill? We tested novice trumpeters (individuals who could not read written music and who had never played a wind instrument before) in their first encounter with a trumpet, under three different conditions: (1) simply following fingered instructions; (2) hearing the to-be-achieved pitches before following the fingered instructions; and (3) hearing and singing the tobe-achieved pitches before following the fingered instructions. If conceptualizing the music and hearing it internally matter, as McPher- 5 son (2005) has proposed, then novice trumpeters who hear and sing the pitches should be able to play the desired pitches more often and more accurately than when they simply follow fingered instructions. The results reflect this pattern, and are consistent with a model of musical production that suggests working from internally represented sound to action is more effective than acting without musical conceptualization. SYMPOSIUM: Mechanisms of Cognitive Development: Domain-General Learning or Domain-Specific Constraints? Regency ABC, Friday Morning, 9:40–12:00 Chaired by Vladimir M. Sloutsky, Ohio State University 9:40–9:55 (32) Mechanisms of Cognitive Development: Domain-General Learning or Domain-Specific Constraints? VLADIMIR M. SLOUTSKY, Ohio State University—How do children come to acquire language, to individuate objects, to navigate in space, to use numbers, and to have concepts? For the past two decades, the prevailing answer has been that the environmental input is fundamentally indeterminate and therefore learning is organized by a set of innate domain-specific constraints. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that the input is more systematic than previously believed and that there are powerful domain-general learning mechanisms capable of exploiting these regularities and building sophisticated domain-specific knowledge. Although no single comprehensive learning account of cognitive development has been offered yet, there are accounts of how infants and children extract regularities from the input, to acquire language, to learn to navigate in space, and to form concepts. This symposium will focus on domain-general learning and its role in language learning (Christiansen, Smith), conceptual development (McClelland, Sloutsky), and spatial navigation (Newcombe). Successes and limitations of the domain-general learning account will be discussed (Goldstone). 10:00–10:15 (33) Self-Organizing “Constraints” on Word Learning. LINDA B. SMITH, Indiana University, & HANAKO YOSHIDA, University of Houston—Growing evidence suggests that children learn how to learn language, creating language learning mechanisms that fit the learning task, as they proceed. One line of evidence supporting this view concerns cross-linguistic differences—not just in what children know about their language, but in the very processes and strategies they use to learn language. This talk will present evidence on the developmental emergence of cross-linguistic differences in language learning in 12- to 36-month-old children learning Japanese or English as their first and only language. The evidence shows emerging differences in strategies of noun learning, verb learning, and in such important distinctions as animate and inanimate. 10:20–10:35 (34) Statistical Learning and Language: In Search of Underlying Neural Constraints. MORTEN H. CHRISTIANSEN, Cornell University, CHRISTOPHER M. CONWAY, Indiana University, & LUCA ONNIS, Cornell University—Over the past decade, statistical learning—the discovery of structure by way of statistical properties of the input— has emerged as an important paradigm for studying domain-general constraints on language acquisition. The basic assumption of this research is that statistical learning and language are subserved by the same mechanisms, an assumption for which there is little neural evidence. We therefore used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the distribution of brain activity while adults performed (1) a natural language reading task and (2) a statistical learning task involving sequenced stimuli. The same positive ERP deflection, the P600 effect, typically linked to difficult or ungrammatical syntactic processing, was found for structural incongruencies in both natural language as well as statistical learning and had similar topographical distributions. These results suggest that the same neural mechanisms are recruited
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