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Network logic has coined the term ‘network society’ to describe and analyse this new social structure. 1 In science, the focus on networks began in the 1920s, when ecologists viewed ecosystems as communities of organisms, linked together in network fashion through feeding relations, and used the concept of food webs to describe these ecological communities. As the network concept became more and more prominent in ecology, systemic thinkers began to use network models at all systems levels, viewing organisms as networks of cells, and cells as networks of molecules, just as ecosystems are understood as networks of individual organisms. Correspondingly, the flows of matter and energy through ecosystems were perceived as the continuation of the metabolic pathways through organisms. 2 The ‘Web of Life’ is, of course, an ancient idea, which has been used by poets, philosophers, and mystics throughout the ages to convey their sense of the interwovenness and interdependence of all phenomena. In this essay I shall discuss the fundamental role of networks in the organisation of all living systems, according to complexity theory and other recent developments in the natural and social sciences, and I shall analyse the similarities and differences between biological and social networks in some detail. 3 The nature of life Let us begin with biology and ask: what is the essential nature of life in the realm of plants, animals, and micro-organisms? To understand the nature of life, it is not enough to understand DNA, genes, proteins, and the other molecular structures that are the building blocks of living organisms, because these structures also exist in dead organisms, for instance in a dead piece of wood or bone. The difference between a living organism and a dead organism lies in the basic process of life – in what sages and poets throughout the ages have called the ‘breath of life’. In modern scientific language, this process of life is called metabolism. It is the ceaseless flow of energy and matter through a network of chemical reactions, which enables a living organism to continually generate, repair and perpetuate itself. 26 Demos
Living networks There are two basic aspects to the understanding of metabolism. One is the continuous flow of energy and matter. All living systems need energy and food to sustain themselves; and all living systems produce waste. But life has evolved in such a way that organisms form ecological communities, or ecosystems, in which the waste of one species is food for the next, so that matter cycles continually through the ecosystem’s food webs. The second aspect of metabolism is the network of chemical reactions that process the food and form the biochemical basis of all biological structures, functions and behaviour. The emphasis here is on ‘network’. One of the most important insights of the new understanding of life that is now emerging at the forefront of science is the recognition that the network is a pattern that is common to all life. Wherever we see life, we see networks. Self-generation It is important to realise that these living networks are not material structures, like a fishing net or a spider’s web. They are functional networks, networks of relationships between various processes. In a cell, these processes are chemical reactions between the cell’s molecules. In a food web, the processes are processes of feeding, of organisms eating one another. In both cases the network is a nonmaterial pattern of relationships. Closer examination of these living networks has shown that their key characteristic is that they are self-generating. In a cell, for example, all the biological structures – the proteins, enzymes, the DNA, the cell membrane, and so on – are continually produced, repaired and regenerated by the cellular network. 4 Similarly, at the level of a multicellular organism, the bodily cells are continually regenerated and recycled by the organism’s metabolic network. Living networks are self-generating. They continually create or recreate themselves by transforming or replacing their components. In this way they undergo continual structural changes while preserving their web-like patterns of organisation. Demos 27
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women’s networking movement. This
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Old boys and new girls practices. I
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Power does not reside in institutio
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