Chapter 2. Prehension

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Shape obiect Chapter 2 - Prehension 43 Task Apply forces Impart motion characteristics Gather sensory information Size Prehension in I Prehension in Taxonomv terms Qppos ition mace te rma Power grasp Opposition state variables Addwted thumb number of oppositions Cylindrical grasp type of oppositions Spherical grasp mapping Precision grasp W state variables Precision handling Tripod Virtual Finger state variables DyMmic Tripod length Lateral pinch orientation Addudion grip width Gravity-dependent grasp grasping surface patch orientation Hook available force Platform available sensory information Antenna Figure 2.10. Mapping between Object, Task, and Prehensile behav- iors. Specific object properties affect the chosen posture. Task requirements of applying forces, imparting motions, and gathering sensory information can be matched by the functional capabilities of the hand. Prehensile postures can be described either in opposition space terms or according to the classifications. In pad opposition, the hand can exert small forces, impart fine motions, and gather precise sensory information to match the accuracy and manipulation requirements of the task. Landsmeer’s extension to Napier’s classification made clear this dynamic component of preci-
44 WHAT IS PREHENSION? sion; i.e., imparting motion to the object by the fingers. A combined case of pad and side opposition occurs when the thumb opposes the index and middle fingers. The unique relationship between the thumb, index, and middle fingers creates a powerful tripod, much like a three- jaw chuck of a drill, for both stabilizing an object and manipulating it. For longer objects, resting the object against the cleft of the finger adds a fourth surface for counteracting task torques. This in effect is a third virtual finger, because it is not opposing another virtual finger. In palm opposition, the hand can match or create larger anticipated forces while still ensuring a stable grasp, using the arm and wrist to provide grosser motions. Two aspects to note for palm opposition that have caused much speculation in taxonomies are the thumb position and the shape of hand. In terms of position, the thumb can either contribute to the opposition (Napier’s coal hammer grasp) or act as an antenna (Schlesinger’s closed fist with adducted thumb). In terms of hand shaping, the palm and fingers can wrap around objects symmet- rical about an axis (Cutkosky’s prismatic grasps and Schlesinger’s cylindrical grasp) or the palm can arch around objects with radial symmetry (spherical or circular grasp). In side opposition, the thumb pad is brought against the object in opposition to the radial side of a finger. As a bridge between power and precision grasps, this posture offers a medium range of forces while still offering some availability of sensory information due to the thumb pad being in contact with the object and some ability to impart motions to the object (as in turning a key). Mentioned by a majority of the classifiers, the functionality of side opposition again rests in the anatomy of the hand: pronation and supination at the wrist can be used to rotate the object being held in a secure grip by the thumb and radial side of the index finger. A special case of side opposition is seen in the adduction grip that allows the same object manipulation (pronation and supination of the wrist) at the expense of applying forces and gathering sensory information (no distal pads or extrinsic hand mus- cles are used to create the oppositional force). However, motion can actually be imparted to the object, since finger flexion and extension can be used. A third virtual finger can apply a force against gravity, can impart motion mostly with the arm or wrist, and can gather sensory information using sensors in the hand surfaces to determine the state of the object. Most taxonomists mention the hook grasp, but others like Kapandji and Cutkosky generalize the hook to the notion of gravity- dependent grasps. Extending a finger (usually the index) as an antenna is an excellent way to enhance the availability of sensory infor-
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306 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES Table 8.
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350 Appendices Anterior (ventral):
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352 Appendices =!- / Scapula Acromi
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354 A pp e n dices Table A.l Degree
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356 Appendices Table A.l Degrees of
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358 Appendices Flexion: to bend or
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360 A pp e n dic e s Table A.2 Join
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362 A pp e It dices Elbow flex ext
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364 A pp e n dices Table A.2 Joints
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366 A pp e n dic e s Table A.3 Inne
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370 Appendices Table B.l Prehensile
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372 Appendices ...... ........... t
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374 Appendices features of the huma
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376 Appendices fingers (Kamakura et
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378 Appendices Table B.3 Postures c
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380 Appendices opposition, is Napie
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382 A pp e n dic e s relationships
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384 A pp e n dic e s C.2 Artificial
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396 A pp e It dic e s units. Also,
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398 Appendices only sense is vision
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400 A pp e n dices of computations
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402 A pp e n dic e s satisfy active
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404 Appendices biceps, and shoulder
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406 Appendices Table D.l Commercial
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408 Appendices Table D.2 Commercial
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410 Appendices Sears et al., 1989).
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412 A ppe It dic e s are active, wh
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414 A ppen die es automatic lock wh
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416 A pp e n dices between the thum
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418 Appendices D.3.1 Stanford/JPL h
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420 A pp e n dices D.3.3 Belgrade/U
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424 THE GRASPING HAND Arbib, M.A. (
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426 THE GRASPING HAND Bullock, D.,
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428 THE GRASPING HAND Cutkosky, M.R
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430 THE GRASPING HAND Focillon, H.
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432 THE GRASPING HAND Gordon, A.M.,
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434 THE GRASPING HAND Hollerbach, J
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436 THE GRASPING HAND Jeannerod, M.
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438 THE GRASPING HAND Kamakura, N.,
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440 THE GRASPING HAND Landsmeer, J.
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442 THE GRASPING HAND MacKenzie, C.
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444 THE GRASPING HAND Moore, D.F. (
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446 THE GRASPING HAND Phillips, C.G
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448 THE GRASPING HAND Rumelhart, D.
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450 THE GRASPING HAND disconnection
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452 THE GRASPING HAND Weir, P.L. (1
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456 THE GRASPING HAND Childress, D.
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458 THE GRASPING HAND Johansson, R.
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460 THE GRASPING HAND Proteau, L.,
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464 THE GRASPING HAND level, of map
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466 THE GRASPING HAND a h Generaliz
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468 THE GRASPING HAND Forces. Force
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470 THE GRASPING HAND han& Robotics
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472 THE GRASPING HAND and force coo
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474 THE GRASPING HAND and task requ
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476 THE GRASPING HAND Pen, as grasp
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478 THE GRASPING HAND Screwdriver,
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480 THE GRASPING HAND and oppositio
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482 THE GRASPING HAND and grasping,
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