Chapter 2. Prehension

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Appendix B - Taxonomies of Prehension 377 B.2 Prehensile Classifications for Infants Descriptions of emergent prehesile behavior have been developed for infants. For example, Halverson (1931) developed a taxonomy of grasps after studying infants from 16 to 52 weeks of age. According to Halverson, infants start making contact and primitive squeezes at around 20 weeks old. The first time they exhibit an actual grasp, the squeeze grasp, is at around 24 weeks old. It is in the palm grasp, at 28 weeks old, where infants first actively use their thumb in opposition to the fingers. Table B.2 has a limited summary of some of the research into developmental prehension. Interested readers are encouraged to read the literature cited in the table, as well as recent work by Forssberg, Kinoshita, Eliasson, Johansson, Westling, & Gordon (1992) and von Hofsten & Ronnqvist (1988). B.3 Postures as Combinations of Oppositions Figure B.l has summarized the postures developed in prehensile classifications for the last century. It shows that prehensile postures can be viewed as either pad, palm, or side opposition. In addition, it shows that some postures are combinations of these oppositions, and that a VF3 can be used to counteract task forces or torques or sense the state of the object. In Chapter 2, we discussed how palm, pad, and side oppositions can be used in combinations to hold one or more objects. Using this opposition space approach, prehensile postures can be described, as shown in Table B.3. Shown are the opposition types and virtual finger mappings for one, two, and three oppositions in grasps. There are eight possible combinations of pad, palm, and/or side oppositions (e.g., palm alone, pad alone, palm and pad, etc). For each combination, there are differing possible virtual finger mappings. For palm opposition, the palm is used as VF1. For pad opposition, the thumb is used as VF1. For side opposition, the thumb is usually used, however, in the adduction grasp, the index finger is used. For VF2, one or more fingers can be used. Fingers not being used in VF1 and VF2 can be used in VF3, as seen in the last column of the table. Fingers can be used alone as gravity dependent grasps or finger touches. Table B.3 can be examined for the symbolic postures listed in Table B.l. For example, grasp 2 in Table B.3, consisting of one
378 Appendices Table B.3 Postures consisting of combinations of oppositions. For each virtual finger, one or more real fingers or the palm are used. When fingers are not being used in one of these oppositions, they may be used as aVF3 alone or in tandem with the oppositions. P=palm, T=thumb, kindex finger, M=middle finger, R=ring finger, L=little finger - (adapted from Iberall et al., 1988 and Iberall et al., 181) jcontinued) ID Omosition 1 VF3 OPP"VF1 VF2 (optional) One opposition postures I 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 11 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. III 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PALM PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD PAD SIDE SIDE SIDE SIDE SIDE SIDE SIDE P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T I I-M-R-L T-I-M-R-L I-M-R T-I-M-R M-R-L T-M-R-L I-M T-I-M M-R R-L I T-I M R L T I-M-R-L I-M-R M-R-L I-M M-R R-L I M R L I I-M I-M-R I-M-R-L M-R-L R-L M T T, L L T, 1 I T, R-L R-L T, I, L T, I-M T, M-R-L M-R-L T, I, R-L T, I-M, L T,I-M-R I-M-R-L L I R-L, radial P I, L I-M M-R-L I, R-L I-M, L I-M-R M-R-L R-L L I I-M T,R-L
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ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 104 Editors:
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NORTH-HOLLAND ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V.
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vi THE GRASPING HAND including comp
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viii THE GRASPING HAND Finally, all
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X THE GRASPING HAND 4.2 Task Plans
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xii THE GRASPING HAND Part I11 CONS
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xiv Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.
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XVi THE GRASPING HAND Figure 6.12 F
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4 WHAT IS PREHENSION? The hand itse
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6 WHAT IS PREHENSION? continue in t
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8 WHAT IS PREHENSION? movement. Dom
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10 WHAT IS PREHENSION? Today, with
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12 WHAT IS PREHENSION? prehensile b
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16 WHAT IS PREHENSION? (1988) refer
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18 WHAT IS PREHENSION? in Table 2.1
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20 WHAT IS PREHENSION? Table 2.1 Pr
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22 WHAT IS PREHENSION? Schlesinger
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24 WHAT IS PREHENSION? A. POWER GRA
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emphasis on Grasp emphasis on secur
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28 WHAT IS PREHENSION? (screwing on
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30 WHAT IS PREHENSION? suggested th
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Figure 2.5 Prehensile postures cons
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Figure 2.7 Oppositions can be descr
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36 WHAT IS PREHENSION? Many posture
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38 WHAT IS PREHENSION? and unwieldy
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40 WHAT IS PREHENSION? d Figure 2.9
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42 WHAT IS PREHENSION? quired oppos
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44 WHAT IS PREHENSION? sion; i.e.,
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46 WHAT IS PREHENSION? impossible t
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50 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION V cm/s
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52 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION - 0 200
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- Computed activation of arm muscle
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160 50 1 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION 1
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- Velocity - Acceleration s-L 1400
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174 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION grasp
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176 AREA 7 (IPS) THE PHASES OF PREH
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178 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION books
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182 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION A B C
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184 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION (1982b
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230 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION (see C
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240 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION 6.3.2
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242 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION equati
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246 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION graspi
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248 A THE PHASES OF PREHENSION Figu
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250 z J 2 0 c .- Q el X A THE PHASE
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Table 6.6 Elliott & Connolly (1984)
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aie3 INTRINSIC - mughnesn aspect of
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290 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
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292 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION Fitts
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306 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES Table 8.
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308 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES the inde
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310 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES While th
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312 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES for a gi
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318 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES spent in
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z I l l I 0 Y "K ' ,------ Sensorim
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322 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES componen
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324 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES and the
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Page 369 and 370: 350 Appendices Anterior (ventral):
Page 371 and 372: 352 Appendices =!- / Scapula Acromi
Page 373 and 374: 354 A pp e n dices Table A.l Degree
Page 375 and 376: 356 Appendices Table A.l Degrees of
Page 377 and 378: 358 Appendices Flexion: to bend or
Page 379 and 380: 360 A pp e n dic e s Table A.2 Join
Page 381 and 382: 362 A pp e It dices Elbow flex ext
Page 383 and 384: 364 A pp e n dices Table A.2 Joints
Page 385 and 386: 366 A pp e n dic e s Table A.3 Inne
Page 389 and 390: 370 Appendices Table B.l Prehensile
Page 391 and 392: 372 Appendices ...... ........... t
Page 393 and 394: 374 Appendices features of the huma
Page 395: 376 Appendices fingers (Kamakura et
Page 399 and 400: 380 Appendices opposition, is Napie
Page 401 and 402: 382 A pp e n dic e s relationships
Page 403 and 404: 384 A pp e n dic e s C.2 Artificial
Page 405 and 406: 386 A pp e n dic e s thresholding f
Page 407 and 408: 388 A pp e n dices processing. This
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Page 411 and 412: 392 A pp e n dic e s where q is a s
Page 413 and 414: 394 A pp e It d ic e s training set
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Page 417 and 418: 398 Appendices only sense is vision
Page 419 and 420: 400 A pp e n dices of computations
Page 421 and 422: 402 A pp e n dic e s satisfy active
Page 423 and 424: 404 Appendices biceps, and shoulder
Page 425 and 426: 406 Appendices Table D.l Commercial
Page 427 and 428: 408 Appendices Table D.2 Commercial
Page 429 and 430: 410 Appendices Sears et al., 1989).
Page 431 and 432: 412 A ppe It dic e s are active, wh
Page 433 and 434: 414 A ppen die es automatic lock wh
Page 435 and 436: 416 A pp e n dices between the thum
Page 437 and 438: 418 Appendices D.3.1 Stanford/JPL h
Page 439 and 440: 420 A pp e n dices D.3.3 Belgrade/U
Page 443 and 444: 424 THE GRASPING HAND Arbib, M.A. (
Page 445 and 446: 426 THE GRASPING HAND Bullock, D.,
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428 THE GRASPING HAND Cutkosky, M.R
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430 THE GRASPING HAND Focillon, H.
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432 THE GRASPING HAND Gordon, A.M.,
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434 THE GRASPING HAND Hollerbach, J
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436 THE GRASPING HAND Jeannerod, M.
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438 THE GRASPING HAND Kamakura, N.,
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440 THE GRASPING HAND Landsmeer, J.
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442 THE GRASPING HAND MacKenzie, C.
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444 THE GRASPING HAND Moore, D.F. (
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446 THE GRASPING HAND Phillips, C.G
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448 THE GRASPING HAND Rumelhart, D.
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450 THE GRASPING HAND disconnection
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452 THE GRASPING HAND Weir, P.L. (1
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456 THE GRASPING HAND Childress, D.
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458 THE GRASPING HAND Johansson, R.
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460 THE GRASPING HAND Proteau, L.,
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464 THE GRASPING HAND level, of map
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466 THE GRASPING HAND a h Generaliz
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468 THE GRASPING HAND Forces. Force
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470 THE GRASPING HAND han& Robotics
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472 THE GRASPING HAND and force coo
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474 THE GRASPING HAND and task requ
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476 THE GRASPING HAND Pen, as grasp
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478 THE GRASPING HAND Screwdriver,
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480 THE GRASPING HAND and oppositio
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482 THE GRASPING HAND and grasping,
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Chapter 2. Prehension

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