Chapter 2. Prehension

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Chapter 7 - Opposition Space Phases 297 Somatic Motor System Autonomic Motor Systen /. (mechanoreceptors J / I CONTA COMPLIANCE fl DEFORMATION FRICTION ADHESION FRICTION HEAT to/ Is\ slip slip too much lubrication dry and smooth good grip boundary lubrication Figure 7.5 In using an opposition space, the hand generates appropriate forces along the opposition vector@) for grasping and manipulative stability, using the muscles (somatically innervated sensorimotor system) in parallel with the eccrine sweat glands (autonomically innervated sudomotor system). There is a complex interplay between the muscles, mechanoreceptors (joint, muscle, skin), and sweat glands (likely vasodilators also). Healthy sweating provides boundary lubrication of the palmar surface of the hand, adhesion, and good grip. With contact, the skin is deformed, activating mechanoreceptors, and creating heat through friction. Both of these may lead to secretions by the sweat glands.
298 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION characteristics, such as surface texture, hardness, temperature, object size and shape, to be explored. Since the visual system supplied only an approximation of many of these (e.g., spatial density, weight, size, shape), active touch makes available more accurate information for the ensuing phases. When the desired placement of the hand surfaces is achieved, the force-generating muscles begin their second function, that of ‘generating the forces’ against the object. If holding the object is part of the task, then a stable grasp must be effected. The contacting surfaces of the hand must support the weight of the object. Therefore, the muscles must be set to lengths that generate the necessary forces without undue strain on themselves as well as on the bones, joint capsules, and tendons. Using the frictional components of skin, such as the epidermal ridges, fatty pads and sweat glands, the amount of active force needed can be reduced, as long as the pads are placed correctly. From the experiments and computational models put forth in Chapter 6, the underlying hypotheses are made explicit for the reader’s further evaluation and research: 1. Perturbations can occur during contact. To compute a new opposition space while using an opposition space would take time. To deal with perturbations that fit within constraints of chosen opposition space wouldn’t take much extra time (Paulignan, MacKenzie, Marteniuk, & Jeannerod, 199 1; Paulignan, Jeannerod, MacKenzie, 8z Marteniuk, 199 1). 2. During contact, haptic perturbations will be more powerful than visual perturbations. 3. The highest goal in a hierarchy of goals will tune others. 4. If the goal is to place an object on a support surface, and the support surface is moving, this will affect grasp. 6. Knowledge of task mechanics is used to predict the behavior of the object as the hand makes contact and mes to establish a stable grasp (Mason, 1986; Rosenbaum et al., 1990). 7. A stable grasp is not always formed before manipulation begins. 8. There are subphases to using an opposition space (Johansson & Westling, 1984, 1987, 1990). 9. Analogous control processes and organizational principles apply to the fovea of the eye and the pads of the fingers. 10. The cone of friction creates a ballpark for placement of the grasping surface patch of a virtual finger.
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ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 104 Editors:
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NORTH-HOLLAND ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V.
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emphasis on Grasp emphasis on secur
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350 Appendices Anterior (ventral):
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352 Appendices =!- / Scapula Acromi
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354 A pp e n dices Table A.l Degree
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356 Appendices Table A.l Degrees of
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358 Appendices Flexion: to bend or
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360 A pp e n dic e s Table A.2 Join
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362 A pp e It dices Elbow flex ext
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364 A pp e n dices Table A.2 Joints
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366 A pp e n dic e s Table A.3 Inne
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370 Appendices Table B.l Prehensile
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372 Appendices ...... ........... t
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374 Appendices features of the huma
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376 Appendices fingers (Kamakura et
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378 Appendices Table B.3 Postures c
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380 Appendices opposition, is Napie
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382 A pp e n dic e s relationships
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384 A pp e n dic e s C.2 Artificial
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388 A pp e n dices processing. This
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394 A pp e It d ic e s training set
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396 A pp e It dic e s units. Also,
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398 Appendices only sense is vision
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400 A pp e n dices of computations
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402 A pp e n dic e s satisfy active
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404 Appendices biceps, and shoulder
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406 Appendices Table D.l Commercial
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408 Appendices Table D.2 Commercial
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410 Appendices Sears et al., 1989).
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412 A ppe It dic e s are active, wh
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414 A ppen die es automatic lock wh
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416 A pp e n dices between the thum
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418 Appendices D.3.1 Stanford/JPL h
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420 A pp e n dices D.3.3 Belgrade/U
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424 THE GRASPING HAND Arbib, M.A. (
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426 THE GRASPING HAND Bullock, D.,
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428 THE GRASPING HAND Cutkosky, M.R
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430 THE GRASPING HAND Focillon, H.
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432 THE GRASPING HAND Gordon, A.M.,
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434 THE GRASPING HAND Hollerbach, J
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436 THE GRASPING HAND Jeannerod, M.
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438 THE GRASPING HAND Kamakura, N.,
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440 THE GRASPING HAND Landsmeer, J.
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442 THE GRASPING HAND MacKenzie, C.
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444 THE GRASPING HAND Moore, D.F. (
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446 THE GRASPING HAND Phillips, C.G
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448 THE GRASPING HAND Rumelhart, D.
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450 THE GRASPING HAND disconnection
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452 THE GRASPING HAND Weir, P.L. (1
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456 THE GRASPING HAND Childress, D.
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458 THE GRASPING HAND Johansson, R.
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460 THE GRASPING HAND Proteau, L.,
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464 THE GRASPING HAND level, of map
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466 THE GRASPING HAND a h Generaliz
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468 THE GRASPING HAND Forces. Force
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470 THE GRASPING HAND han& Robotics
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472 THE GRASPING HAND and force coo
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474 THE GRASPING HAND and task requ
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476 THE GRASPING HAND Pen, as grasp
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478 THE GRASPING HAND Screwdriver,
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480 THE GRASPING HAND and oppositio
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482 THE GRASPING HAND and grasping,
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Chapter 2. Prehension

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