Analytical Chemistry Chemical Cytometry Quantitates Superoxide
Analytical Chemistry Chemical Cytometry Quantitates Superoxide
Analytical Chemistry Chemical Cytometry Quantitates Superoxide
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Anal. Chem. 2010, 82, 6933–6939<br />
Difference between Ultramicroelectrodes and<br />
Microelectrodes: Influence of Natural Convection<br />
Christian Amatore,* Cécile Pebay, Laurent Thouin,* Aifang Wang, and J-S. Warkocz<br />
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Département de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 “Pasteur”, 24 rue Lhomond,<br />
F-75231 Paris Cedex 05, France<br />
Natural convection in macroscopically immobile solutions<br />
may still alter electrochemical experiments performed<br />
with electrodes of micrometric dimensions. A model<br />
accounting for the influence of natural convection allowed<br />
delineating conditions under which it interferes with mass<br />
transport. Several electrochemical behaviors may be<br />
observed according to the time scale of the experiment,<br />
electrode dimensions, and intensity of natural convection.<br />
The range of parameters in which ultramicrelectrodes<br />
behave under a true diffusional steady state was identified.<br />
Mapping of concentration profiles was performed experimentally<br />
by scanning electrochemical microscopy in the<br />
vicinity of microelectrodes of various radii. The results<br />
validated remarkably the predictions of the model, evidencing<br />
in particular the alteration of the diffusional<br />
steady state by natural convection.<br />
Microelectrodes are versatile tools for the study of electrochemical<br />
processes of mechanistic and/or analytical interest. Their<br />
advantageous properties stem from their small size. Microelectrodes<br />
may be used in highly resistive environments and in very<br />
small sample volumes. They enable the detection of very small<br />
amounts of material and allow short time responses. 1-9 However,<br />
the definition of a microelectrode is still nowadays ambiguous.<br />
Actually, the notion of a microelectrode differs greatly according<br />
to the particular origin of electrochemists, i.e., electroanalytical<br />
chemists or molecular electrochemists. The term microelectrode<br />
may then encompass electrodes of either millimetric or micrometric<br />
dimensions. Electrodes of smaller sizes are referred to as<br />
ultramicroelectrodes. Such definitions, based mainly on historical<br />
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: christian.amatore@<br />
ens.fr (C.A.); laurent.thouin@ens.fr.<br />
(1) Fleischmann, M.; Pons, S.; Rolison, D. R. Ultramicroelectrodes; Datatech<br />
Systems, Inc.: Morgantown, NC, 1987.<br />
(2) Bond, A. M.; Oldham, K. B.; Zoski, C. G. Anal. Chim. Acta 1989, 216,<br />
177–230.<br />
(3) Wightman, R. M.; Wipf, D. O. Electroanalytical <strong>Chemistry</strong>; Marcel Dekker:<br />
New York, 1989; Vol. 15, pp 267-353.<br />
(4) Montenegro, M. I.; Queiros, M. A.; Daschbach, J. L. Microelectrodes: Theory<br />
and Applications; Kluwer Academic Press: Dordrecht, The Netherlands,<br />
1991; Vol. 197.<br />
(5) Aoki, K. Electroanalysis 1993, 5, 627–639.<br />
(6) Heinze, J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 1993, 32, 1268–1288.<br />
(7) Amatore, C. Electrochemistry at ultramicroelectrodes. In Physical Electrochemistry;<br />
Rubinstein, I., Ed.; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1995.<br />
(8) Stulik, K.; Amatore, C.; Holub, K.; Marecek, V.; Kutner, W. Pure Appl. Chem.<br />
2000, 72, 1483–1492.<br />
(9) Forster, R. J. Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry; John Wiley & Sons: New<br />
York, 2003; Vol. 3, pp 160-195.<br />
criteria, may appear useless since they better define the origin of<br />
the users than the object itself. A better classification of these<br />
electrodes would be obtained if it were based on their particular<br />
properties. Since electrochemical reactions are interfacial reactions,<br />
mass transport is one of the key processes to consider. 10<br />
In a liquid, elementary contributions in the mass transport are<br />
diffusion, migration, and convection. Under most circumstances,<br />
migration is suppressed by adding a large excess of dissociated<br />
inert salt or supporting electrolyte. Convection is often neglected<br />
at electrodes of micrometric dimensions in macroscopically still<br />
solutions. Indeed, convection originates from movement of fluid<br />
packets of micrometric size. 11 It necessarily vanishes close to the<br />
electrode interface over distances where concentrations differ<br />
significantly from their bulk values. 12,13 In such a case, only<br />
diffusion is assumed to govern the final approach of an electroactive<br />
molecule toward the electrode. However, according to the<br />
size of these electrodes and time scale of the experiments,<br />
convective fluxes due to natural convection may still compete with<br />
diffusional fluxes in motionless solutions. This may occur even<br />
in the absence of any density gradients 14 or effects induced by a<br />
magnetic field. 15 These situations arise as soon as the thickness<br />
of the diffusion layer becomes comparable to the thickness of the<br />
convection-free domain. 7 Under such conditions, the responses<br />
do not follow the classical relationships given for currents in<br />
dynamic and steady-state regimes. Therefore, under given experimental<br />
conditions, it is of importance to decide the largest<br />
size of an electrode for eliminating any influence of natural<br />
convection. 16,17 Such a criterion may then allow distinguishing<br />
properties of ultramicroelectrodes from those of other electrodes<br />
of micrometric sizes.<br />
To assess the conditions of convection-free regimes at electrodes<br />
of micrometric dimensions, we investigated in some<br />
previous studies the current responses of micrometric disk<br />
(10) Bard, A. J.; Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemical Methods, 2nd ed.; John Wiley &<br />
Sons: New York, 2001.<br />
(11) Moreau, M.; Turq, P. <strong>Chemical</strong> Reactivity in Liquids: Fundamental Aspects;<br />
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press: New York, 1988; pp 561-606.<br />
(12) Levich, V. G. Physicochemical Hydrodynamics; Prentice Hall: Englewoods<br />
Cliffs, NJ, 1962.<br />
(13) Davies, J. E. Turbulence Phenomena; Academic Press: New York, 1972.<br />
(14) Li, Q. G.; White, H. S. Anal. Chem. 1995, 67, 561–569.<br />
(15) Grant, K. M.; Hemmert, J. W.; White, H. S. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2001,<br />
500, 95–99.<br />
(16) Hapiot, P.; Lagrost, C. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 2238–2264.<br />
(17) Molina, A.; Gonzalez, J.; Martinez-Ortiz, F.; Compton, R. G. J. Phys. Chem.<br />
C 2010, 114, 4093–4099.<br />
10.1021/ac101210r © 2010 American <strong>Chemical</strong> Society 6933<br />
<strong>Analytical</strong> <strong>Chemistry</strong>, Vol. 82, No. 16, August 15, 2010<br />
Published on Web 07/26/2010