introduction - Ministry of Environment and Forests

Foreword 

Preface 

CONTENTS 

Introduction 1 

Inventory of wetlands 

Andhra Pradesh 10 

Arunachal Pradesh 14 

Assam 15 

Bihar 18 

Goa 21 

Gujarat 22 

Haryana 30 

Himachal Pradesh 31 

Jammu & Kashmir 32 

Jharkand 35 

Karnataka 36 

Kerala 46 

Madhya Pradesh 49 

Maharashtra 54 

Manipur 63 

Meghalaya 64 

Nagaland 65 

Orissa 66 

Punjab 69 

Rajasthan 72 

Sikkim 77 

Tamil Nadu 78 

Tripura 154 

Uttar Pradesh 155 

Uttarakhand 163 

West Bengal 164 

Andaman & Nicobar 168 

Chandigarh 169 

Lakshadweep 170 

New Delhi 171 

Pondicherry 172 

Detailed Description of Site 

Andhra Pradesh 173 

Kolleru Lake 

Pakhal Lake 

Neelapattu Tank 

Perali Poguru Bapatla Wetland 

Krishna Mangroves 

Jeedimetla Lake (Fox Sagar) 

Manjira Barrage 

Contd…..

Hussain Sagar Lake 

Lower Manair Reservoir 

Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary 

Kadam Reservoir 

Mid-Pennar Reservoir 

Musi Reservoir 

Singur Reservoir 

Wyra Reservoir 

Somasila Reservoir 

Srisailam Reservoir 

Arunachal Pradesh 189 

Wetlands in Namdapha National Park 

Wetlands in Mahao (Mehao) Sanctuary 

Wetlands in Lali Sanctuary 

Assam 192 

Deepor Beel 

Beels of Assam 

Sareswar Beel 

Dibru Floodplain 

Sone Lake 

Wetlands in Kaziranga National Park 

Bihar 206 

Kawar Lake 

Khabartal Lake 

Masanjore Reservoir 

Reservoirs of Chota Nagpur Plateau 

Chaurs of North Bihar And West Bengal 

Goa 213 

Chorao Island 

Carambolim Lake 

Mandovi – Zuari Estuarine Complex 

Gujarat 216 

Great Rann of Kachchh 

Nalsarovar Lake and Surendranagar Reservoirs 

Little Rann of Kachchh 

Southern Gulf of Kachchh 

Wetlands of Kachchh Peninusla 

Nanda Island 

Gulf of Khambhat 

Khijadia Lakes 

Kankavati and Sapda Dams 

Pariej and Kaneval Reservoirs 

Ajwa, Vadhwanda and Pavagadh Lakes 

Wetlands of Sabarkanta and Banaskanta District 

Wetlands of Central and Eastern Saurashtra 

Contd…..

Haryana 238 

Sultanpur Jheels 

Himachal Pradesh 240 

Renuka Wetland 

Pandoh Reservoir 

Chamera Reservoir 

Chandertal Lake 

Pong Dam Lake 

Jammu & Kashmir 256 

Wular Lake 

Dal Lake 

Anchar Lake 

Surinsar-Mansar Lakes 

Mirgund Lake 

Pangong Tso 

Hokera Wetland 

Tsomoriri 

Chushul Marshes 

Shallabugh Lake and Marshes 

Some Typical Wetlands of Kashmir 

Haigam Rakh 

Tso Kar Basin 

Ahansar and Waskursar Lakes 

Karnataka 285 

Byramangala Reservoir 

Markonahalli Reservoir 

Linganamakki Reservoir 

Ranganthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary 

Maddur Lake 

Kerala 290 

Ashtamudi Wetland 

Parambikulam Dam 

Sasthamkotta Lake 

Vembanad-Kol Wetland 

Azhinhillam Wetland 

Kuttanad Wetland 

Periyar Lake 

Kumarakom Mangrove 

Veli-Aukulam Lake 

Kuttiadi Lake 

Mangalavanam Mangrove 

Pudu Vyppu Mangrove Forest 

Peechi Dam Reservoir 

Contd…..

Madhya Pradesh 312 

Bhoj Wetland 

Dihaila Jheel 

Gopalpura Tank 

Chiklod Lake 

Chandpata Lake 

Bargi Reservoir 

Barna Reservoir 

Dahod Reservoir 

Gandhisagar Reservoir 

Halali Reservoir 

Kolar Reservoir 

Kerwa Reservoir 

Ravishankar Sagar Reservoir 

Sampna Reservoir 

Sagar Lake 

Tawa Reservoir 

Sarni Reservoir 

Shahpura Lake 

Maharashtra 338 

Bhategaon Dam 

Jagatunga Samudra Reservoir 

Panzara Dam 

Jayakawadi Reservoir 

Siddhewadi Reservoir 

Ped Reservoir 

Dhom Reservoir 

Ambedkar Tank 

Ekruk Reservoir 

Rankala Lake 

Hingni Reservoir 

Hadi Mangrove Wetland 

Jawalgaon Reservoir 

Shambhu Lake 

Yamai Lake 

Ujjini Reservoir 

Nathsagar Reservoir 

Wadali Lake 

Yeldari Reservoir 

Nandur Madhameshwar 

Pune-Sholapur Reservoirs 

Ratnagiri Mangroves 

Manipur 355 

Loktak Lake 

Sanapat Lake 

Keibul Lamjao National Park 

Phumlen, Kharung, and Ikop Lakes 

Contd…..

Meghalaya 362 

Ward’s Lake 

Umiam Reservoir 

Orissa 365 

Bhitarkanika Mangrove 

Chilka Lake 

Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary 

Hirakud Reservoir 

Chitrakonda Dam 

Rengali Dam 

Upper Kolab Dam 

Punjab 380 

Ropar Reservoir 

Januari Reservoir 

Dholbaha Reservoir 

Harike Lake 

Kanjli 

Rajasthan 403 

Sambhar Lake 

Phulera, and Didwana Salt Lakes 

Jaisamand Lake 

Keoladeo National Park 

Gambhiri Reservoir 

Jawai Reservoir 

Sardar Samand Reservoir 

Kothari Reservoir 

Khari Reservoir 

Nandsamand Reservoir 

Som Kamla Amba Reservoir 

Orai Reservoir 

Udaisagar Reservoir 

West Banas Reservoir 

Sikkim 424 

Sacred Khechopalri Lake 

Tamil Nadu 425 

Muthupet Mangrove 

Pulicat Lake 

Pichavaram Mangrove 

Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary 

Chembarambakam Tank 

Kaliveli Tank 

Sathanur Reservoir 

Adyar Estuary 

Bhavanisagar Reservoir 

Contd…..

Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park 

Wetlands of Nilgiri District 

Siruthavur Tank 

Vedanthangal and Karikili Tanks 

Vettakudi-Karavetti Reservoir 

Wetland in Madurai Agricultural College and Research Institute Campus 

Vettangudi Tanks 

Karungulam and Sengulam Tanks 

Puthupalli Alam Swamp 

Tripura 468 

Rudrasagar Lake 

Uttar Pradesh 471 

Manjhira Impoundment at Girija Barrage 

Pyagpur and Sitadwar Jheels 

Nawabgani Priyadarshani Bird Sanctuary 

Dahar and Sauj (Soj) Jheels 

Chhata Lakes 

Jheels in the Vicinity of Haidergarh 

Nainital Lake 

Baghla Reservoir 

Surha Wetland 

Matatilla Reservoir 

Wetlands of Eastern Uttar Pradesh 

Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch) 

West Bengal 488 

Sundarbans Mangrove 

East Calcutta Wetlands 

Brace Bridge Wetlands 

Wetlands of Hugli District 

Wetlands of Haora District 

Purbasthali Lake 

Wetlands in Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary 

Andaman & Nicobar 516 

Mangrove Wetlands of Middle Andaman 

New Delhi 517 

Jamuna River near Delhi 

Pondicherry 519 

Ousteri Lake 

References 524

W 

INTRODUCTION 

etlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, 

comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. They are repositories of 

diverse species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fishes and 

mammals. The ideal climate, landscape (topology), geology, movement and 

abundance of water help the flora and fauna inhabiting the wetland ecosystems. 

Wetlands are “biological supermarkets”, which provide immense food that attracts 

many animal species for completion of their life-cycle. The decaying dead plants and 

animals in the wetlands are converted by bacteria into organic matter (detritus) that 

are fed by many small aquatic insects, shellfishes and small fishes that are food for 

larger predatory fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals. 

What are Wetlands? 

Wetlands are transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the 

water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. 

‘Wetland’ is a generic term for water bodies of various types, and include diverse 

hydrological entities, namely, lakes, marshes, swamps, estuaries, tidal flats, river 

flood plains, peatlands, shallow ponds, etc. Wetlands must have one or more of the 

three attributes viz. atleast periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; 

the substrate has predominantly undrained hydric soil; and the substrate is non soil, 

saturated with water or covered by shallow water at sometime during the growing 

season of each year. 

Definitions of Wetlands 

The definitions, by Cowardin et al. (1979), are widely accepted by wetland scientists 

of United States and are also used in India (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). According 

to Cowardin et al. (1979), wetlands are zones (lands) where saturation with water is 

the key factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and 

animal communities living in the soil and on its surface. Wetlands differ widely, 

regionally with different soils types, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, 

vegetation and other factors including human disturbance. 

About wetlands, it is very relevant to quote R. Brown in “Encyclopedia of Life 

Science”, 1996 which reads, “The word wetlands seems to contradict itself. How can 

something that is wet really be considered land? Why is wetlands, simply not a lake or 

a stream? Wetlands are the places where the two great natural components that cover 

our Earth-land and water- wet and mingle to support life forms that are often different 

from those that dwell only on land or only in water”. 

The World Book Encyclopedia (1996), USA, defines “Wetlands is an area of land 

where the water level remains near or above the surface of the ground for most of the 

year”. The term “Aquatic”, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 

(Encyclopedia Edition, 1992) refers to plants and animals, etc. growing or living in or 

near water: The Chambers Dictionary (New Edition, 1993) adopts the same 

definition. Both these dictionaries refer to marshy areas as wetland (a marsh being 

defined as low lying wetland, swamp or fen). Ralph A. Luken (1976) in “Preservation 

versus Development”, defines “The term wetland is synonymous with bay lands and 

includes submerged land, tide land, swamp and over-flow land”.

As such, it seems, the experts do not specifically define wetlands as a very distinct 

ecosystem and consider such land synonymous with aquatic substratum or in other 

words ‘The Wetland Ecology’ is therefore synonymous with ‘Aquatic Ecology.’ 

Mitsch and Gosselink (1986) the frontline wetland scientists observe, “A precise 

wetland definition that is satisfactory to all users has not yet been developed, because 

the definition of wetland depends on the objectives and field of interest of the users. 

Different definitions can result from the geologist, soil scientist, hydrologist, 

biologist, ecologist, sociologist, economist, political scientist and public health 

scientist.” 

Wetland as special niche of the landscape caught the eyes of the ecologists and 

biologists only in late 1960s. The Ramsar Convention (1971), the first global 

Conservation Convention brought this subject to the international arena and framed 

universally accepted wetlands, which reads: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, 

whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water i.e., static or flowing, 

fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide 

does not exceed six meters”. As such it becomes different to clacify other aquatic 

bodies in to wetland group. In order to prepare a status of wetlands in United States, 

the United State Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Authority, 

however, adopted the definitions of Cowardin (1979) which is given under: 

“The wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the 

water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.” 

Moreover, this definition includes several attributes which are: 

• At least periodically the land must support predominantly hydrophytes. 

• The substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil. 

• The substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow 

water sometime during the growing season of each year. 

This definition emphasises three key attributes of wetlands: (i) hydrology –the degree 

of flooding or soil saturation: (ii) wetland vegetation (hydrophytes); and (iii) hydric 

soils. This definition has been broadly followed as it specifies various attributes of 

wetlands. This definition does not contradict IUCN’s definition but only specifies the 

parameters to be used for identification. 

The Ministry of Environment & Forests (Govt. of India) has adopted the definition of 

Wetlands which is given by the Convention on wetlands of International Importance 

(Ramsar). 

Classification of Wetlands by IUCN 

IUCN identified a total of 39 categories of wetlands of which 30 are natural wetlands 

and nine man-made. In it there are seven landscape units viz., estuaries, open coasts, 

flood plains, freshwater marshes, lakes, peatlands and swamp forests. Freshwater 

wetlands are haors, beels, jheels, oxbow lakes and flood plains. The table below 

shows the classification of wetlands. 

Wetlands Classification (Dugon 1990) 

Salt Water 

Marine 1. Subtidal (i) Permanent unvegetated shallow waters less than 

6m deph at low tide, including sea bays, straits.

(ii) Subtidal aquatic vegetation including kelp beds, 

sea grasses, tropical marine meadows. 

(iii) Coral reefs. 

2. Intertidal (i) Rocky marine shores, including cliffs and rocky 

shores. 

(ii) Shores of mobile stones and shingle. 

(iii) Intertidal mobile unvegetated mud, sand or salt 

flats. 

(iv) Intertidal vegetated sediments, including salt 

marshes and mangroves, or sheltered coasts. 

Estuarine 1. Subtidal (i) Estuarine waters; permanent waters of estuaries 

and estuarine systems of deltas. 

2. Intertidal (i) Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats, with limited 

vegetation. 

(ii) Intertidal marshes, including salt marshes, salt 

meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes, tidal 

brackish and freshwater marshes. 

(iii) Intertidal forested wetlands, including mangrove 

swamp, Nypa swamp, tidal freshwater swamp 

forest. 

Lagoon (i) Brackish to saline lagoons with one or more 

relatively narrow connections with the sea. 

Salt Lake (i) Permanent and seasonal, brackish, saline or 

alkaline lakes, flats and marshes. 

Freshwater 

Riverine Perennial (i) Permanent rivers and streams, including 

waterfalls. 

(ii) Inland deltas. 

Temporary (i) Seasonal and irregular rivers and streams. 

(ii) Riverine floodplains, including river flats, 

flooded river basins, seasonally flooded 

grassland. 

Lacustrine Permanent (i) Permanent freshwater lakes (>8 ha), including 

shores subject to seasonal or irregular 

inundation. 

(ii) Permanent freshwater ponds (8 ha), including 

floodplain lakes. 

Palustrine Emergent (i) Permanent freshwater marshes andswamps on 

inorganic soils, with emergent vegetation whose

ases lie below the water table for at least most 

of the growing season. 

(ii) Permanent peat-forming freshwater swamps, 

including tropical upland valley swamps 

dominated by Papyrus or Typha. 

(iii) Seasonal freshwater marshes on inorganic soil, 

including sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded 

meadows, sedge marshes, and dambos. 

(iv) Peatlands, including acidophilous, 

ombrogenous, or soligenous mires covered by 

moss, herbs of dwarf shrub vegetation, and fens 

of all types. 

(v) Alpine and polar wetlands, including seasonally 

flooded meadows moistened by temporary 

waters from snowmelt. 

(vi) Freshwater springs and oases with surrounding 

vegetation. 

(vii) Volcanic fumaroles continually moistened by 

emerging and condensing water vapour. 

Forested (i) Shrub swamps, including shrub-dominated 

freshwater marsh, shrub carr and thickets, on 

inorganic soils. 

Man-Made Wetlands 

(ii) Freshwater swamp forest, including seasonally 

flooded forest, wooded swamps on inorganic 

soils. 

(iii) Forested peatlands, including peat swamp 

forest. 

Aquaculture/Mariculture (i) Aquaculture ponds, including fish ponds and 

shrimp ponds. 

Agriculture (i) Ponds, including farm ponds, stock ponds, 

small tanks. 

(ii) Irrigated land and irrigation channels, including 

fields, canals and ditches. 

(iii) Seasonally flooded arable land. 

Salt Exploitation (i) Salt pans and salines 

Urban/Industrial (i) Excavations, including gravel pits, borrow pits 

and mining pools. 

(ii) Wastewater treatment areas, including sewage 

farms, settling ponds and oxidation basins.

Water-Storage Areas (i) Reservoirs holding water for irrigation and/or 

human consumption with a pattern of gradual, 

seasonal, draw down of water level. 

Role of Wetlands 

(ii) Hydro-dams with regular fluctuations in water 

level on a weekly or monthly basis. 

Wetlands directly or indirectly have an enormous ecological, economic, commercial 

and socio-economic importance and values. Such lands constitute very rich 

biodiversity of flora and fauna of important local, natural and regional significance. 

Two significant parameters identified by various wetlands scientists are - (i) 

Functions and (ii) Values. 

The principal functions are – ground water recharge and discharge, storage of water, 

storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization, erosion control, sediment trapping, 

nutrient retention and removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat 

for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport, 

bio-diversity preservation and microclimate stabilization. 

Coastal wetlands play a positive role in recovering phosphates and nitrates from 

estuarine water and release oxygen; consequently it reduces nutrient load and 

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of coastal water. These wetlands act as natural 

protection zone for densely habitated inland region; specially the wetland vegetation 

can be a positive buffer against cyclonic storm. 

Wetlands in India 

The wetlands are increasingly facing several anthropogenic pressures, due to rapidly 

expanding human population, large scale changes in land use/land cover and 

burgeoning development projects and improper use of watersheds have all caused a 

substantial decline of wetland resources of the country. Absence of reliable and 

updated information and data on extent of wetlands, their conservation values and 

socioeconomic importance has greatly hampered for development of policy, 

legislation and administrative interventions by the state. 

For long-term conservation planning of wetlands, spatial data and information are 

required for any intervention. Wetland ecosystem in India constitutes an integral part 

of cultural and biodiversity landscape. It is estimated that 3.5 million hectares of 

wetlands exist in the country according to 1992-1993 study by the Space Application 

Centre. However, this information pertains to wetlands above 56 ha in size. Previous 

research works on wetland conservation in the country has shown conclusively that 

micro wetlands or satellite wetlands around a bigger wetland act as a constellation of 

habitat mosaic for resident and migratory waterfowl. This is of special importance for 

inland wetland habitats in the flyways of migratory birds in the Indo-Gangetic plains 

and in Deccan Peninsula. Often, the size of these micro wetlands is much smaller than 

50ha. Therefore, there is a great need to map wetlands of smaller size less than 50ha. 

Spatial information on wetland resources is a critical and an urgently needed for an 

effective conservation of the important ecosystem. 

For a country like India, with its vast biological and cultural diversity, a 

comprehensive use of remote sensing, GIS and other related technologies will be of 

great use in conservation. Classifying and mapping wetlands based on 

geomorphology, water quality and other biological attributes can lead to qualitative

assessment. Results obtained could be used in planning, inventorying and monitoring 

wetlands in the country. 

Wetland resources exhibit significant ecological diversity, primarily because of 

variability in climatic conditions and changing topography. Unfortunately, many such 

areas have been converted for agriculture, industry or settlements. A great number of 

wetlands have been affected by industrial effluents, discharge of sewage, household 

wastes and sedimentation due to ecological degradation in catchment areas. 

Realising the crucial role of the wetland ecosystems in flood control, recharging of 

aquifers, regulating water quality, reducing sediment load and pollution abatement, its 

potential for aquaculture and as breeding ground for waterfowls, the Ministry of 

Environment and Forest (Govt. of India) constituted an Expert Group in 1983 for 

compiling information on the ecological status of wetlands in the country. Earlier to 

this in 1972, a survey had been initiated to collect some basic information which was 

subsequently updated. Based on the analysis of the responses, the Directory of 

wetlands in India was published in 1990 by the Ministry of Environment & Forests. 

The present directory is updated mainly based on the information collected from 

various sources on the distribution and their status of wetlands in India. 

This directory covers Inland and Coastal water bodies like lakes, tanks, reservoirs, 

marshes, swamps, etc. The detailed information of wetland site (geographical 

coordinates, general location of the site, nearest village, district and state); total area 

(ha); ecological category; abiotic and biotic factors; land tenure; land use; 

conservation measures taken; socio-economic values; disturbance and threats; 

pollution status are given in the State/ Union Territory-wise. In addition, detailed 

information available on few wetland ecosystems and measures taken by the 

Government of India for conservation of wetlands are also included. 

Based on the available information, the details of about 2,211 major and minor 

wetlands have been given in the present directory. Efforts are also taken to collect 

more information and update the data which will be presented in the subsequent 

editions of the directory.

ANDHRA PRADESH 

S.No. Name of the Wetland Name of the 

Nearest 

Village/Town 

Name of the 

District 

1 2 3 4 

NATURAL WETLANDS 

1 Araniar Reservoir - Chitoor 

2 Interu Swamps Bintumalli Krishna and West 

Godavari 

3 Kajam Reservoir Nimal Adilabad 

4 Kolleru Eluru Krishna & West 

Godavari 

5 *Kondakarla Lake Anakapalli Visakhapatnam 

6 Neelapattu Lake Neelapattu Nellore 

7 Nizamapatnam Nizamapatnam Guntur 

8 Pakhal Lake Ashok Nagar Warangal 

9 *Perali Poguru Bapatla Vijayawada, Guntur 

MAN-MADE WETLANDS 

10 *Athvelly Cheruvu Secundarabad - 

11 Badvel Tank Badvel - 

12 *Bibinagar Tank Bibinagar Hyderabad 

13 *Coringa Wildlife Rajahmundry - 

Sanctuary 

14 *Dabilpur Cheruvu Secundarabad - 

15 *Dhulapally Cheruvu Secundarabad - 

16 *Edulabad Reservoir - - 

17 *Gambhiramgedda Visakhapatnam - 

18 *Gundla Cheruvu Secundarabad - 

19 *Hussain Sagar Lake - Ranga Reddy 

20 *Indravati National Park 

(Wetlands in) 

Pusnar - 

21 *Jeedimetla Lake Hyderabad Hyderabad 

(Fox Sagar) 

22 Jusi Reservoir Suryapet Kurnool 

23 *Kadam Reservoir Adilabad - 

24 *Kaziranga National park - Gauhati 

1. Total Geographical Area : 

2,75,06,800 ha. 

2. Forest Area 

ha. (23.20%) 

: 63,82,100

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

13° 16’ 79° 40’ 200.00 Freshwater 

16° 20’ 81° 15’ 2,651.00 Brackishwater 

19° 10’ 78° 43’ 25,000.00 Freshwater 

16° 32’ 81° 05’ 90,000.00 Freshwater 

17° 35’ 82° 59’ 650.00 Freshwater 

13° 45’ 80° 00’ 453.00 Brackishwater 


17° 40’ 79° 55’ 2,400.00 Freshwater 


17° 39’ 78° 29’ 28.00 Freshwater 

14° 40’ 79° 00’ 610.00 Freshwater 

17° 38’ 78° 46’ - Freshwater 

16° 27’ 82° 01 23,570.00 Brackishwater 

17° 40’ 78° 30’ 75.00 Freshwater 

17° 32’ 78° 27’ 26.00 Freshwater 

- - 244.31 Freshwater 

- - - Freshwater 

17° 31’ 78° 29’ 30.00 Freshwater 

17° 20’ 78° 30’ 710.00 Freshwater 

19° 00’ 81° 00’ - Freshwater 

18° 30’ 77° 30’ 4,700.00 Freshwater 

17° 10’ 79° 26’ 533.00 Freshwater 

19° 18’ - 2,474.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

25 *Krishna Mangrove Krishna Guntur 

26 Lower maniar Dam Karimnagar - 

27 *Madhapur Botanical Hyderabad Hyderabad 

Garden Lake 

28 *Manas National Park - Gauhati 

29 *Manjira Barrage Hyderabad Hyderabad 

30 *Manjiri Sanctuary - - 

31 *Medchal Pedda Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 

32 *Mehadrigedda Visakhapatnam

33 *Medchal Voora Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 

34 Mid-Pennar Reservoir Anantapur - 

35 *Minor Reservoir Shaikpet Hyderabad 

36 Mudasarlova Visakhapatnam - 

37 Musi Reservoir Nalgonda - 

38 *Nagarjuna Sagar Mandi Gonda Nalgonda 

39 Nuthankal Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 

40 Pocharam Reservoir - Medak 

41 Poli Tank Rajampet - 

42 Porumamilla Porumamilla - 

43 Railapur Cheruvu Secundarabad Nalgonda 

44 Rendli Pakale Rendli Cuddapah 

45 *Saroornagar Lake - Hyderabad 

46 Singur Reservoir Medak - 

47 *Shathamraj Shaikpet - 

48 *Srisailam Reservoir Srisailam Cuddapah 

49 Somasila Reservoir Nellore Nellore 

50 Surla Devi Chaur Hazugudam Cuddapah 

51 *Tungabhadra Reservoir - - 

52 Ura Chaur Burugadda Karimnagar 

53 Wyra Reservoir Khamman - 

54 *Yerrakalva Reservoir - West Godavari 

5 6 7 8 


18° 15’ 78° 32’ 8,105.00 Freshwater 


- - 27,000.00 Freshwater 

17° 38’ 78° 05’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

17°40’ 77°00’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 

17° 35’ 78° 29’ 24.00 Freshwater 


17° 35’ 78° 29’ 14.00 Freshwater 

14° 52’ - 1,703.00 Freshwater 



17° 14’ - 2,507.00 Freshwater 

16° 34’ 79° 10’ 28,474.00 Freshwater


18° 8’ 78° 10’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 

14° 10’ 79° 10’ 120.00 Freshwater 

15° 00’ 79° 00’ 750.00 Freshwater 

17° 37’ 78° 26’ 26.00 Freshwater 


17°22’ 78°22’ 41.00 Freshwater 

17° 45’ - 16,534.00 Freshwater 


16° 50’ 78° 00’ 61,404.00 Freshwater 

14° 29’ - 21,349.00 Freshwater 




17° 11’ - 1,626.00 Freshwater 

17°5’22’’ 81°15’22’’ 1,138.76 Freshwater

ARUNACHAL PRADESH 

ASSAM 

Name of the Wetland Name 

of the 

Nearest 

Village/ 

Town 


Pakhui (Kameng & 

Pakke River System 

Name 


Distri 

ct 

2 3 4 

Rangap 

ara 

North/T 

ejpur 

Kame 

ng 

Talley Valley Hapoli Suban 

siri 


*Lali Sanctuary 


*Mahao (Mehao) 

Sanctuary (Wetlands 

in) 

*Namdapha National 

Park (Wetlands in) 


Wetland 


Pasigha 

t 

Balipar 

a 

Dibruga 

rh 

Name of 

the Nearest 

Village/To 

wn 

East 

Siang 

Diban 

g 

Valley 

Tirap 

Name 


District 

2 3 4

Amreng Beel Diphu Karbi 

Anglon 

g 

Andheri Beel Chatgano Kamru 

p 

Arimora Kohara Sibsaga 

r 


83,74,300 ha. 


ha. (61.55%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longit 

ude 

(E) 

Ar 

ea 

(ha 

.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

26° 50’ 92° 

00’ 

28° 30’ 94° 

00’ 

27° 53’ 95° 

23’ 

28° 05’ 95° 

40’ 

27° 23’ 96° 

15’ 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longit 

ude 

(E) 

20, 

000 

.00 

200 

.00 

Ar 

ea 

(ha 

: 51,54,000 

Freshwater 

Freshwater 

- Freshwater 

- Freshwater 

- Freshwater 


78,43,800 ha. 


ha. (34.21%) 

: 26,83,200 

Ecological 

Category

.) 

5 6 7 8 

25° 50’ 93° 

25’ 

26° 00’ 91° 

40’ 

26° 40’ 93° 

25’ 

150 

.00 

200 

.00 

168 

.00 

Brackishwater 

Freshwater 

Freshwater

Assam 

1 2 3 4 

4 Baguri Bor Baguri Sibsagar 

5 Chand Dubi Beel Pabsabari Kamrup 

6 Chandakhal Beel Dhubri Goalpara 

7 Dalani Beel Calanta Para Goalpara 

8 Daldali Swamps Diphu Karbi Anglong 

9 *Deepar Beel Mukalana Kamrup 

10 Dewan Beel Guwahti Kamrup 

11 Dhir Beel Chappar Goalpara 

12 Disama Beel Diphu Karbi Anglong 

13 Hahilia Beel Goal Para Goalpara 

14 Joysagar Silghat Naogaon 

15 Kanara Beel Haripani Goalpara 

16 Kumri Beel Kumri Goalpara 

17 Kaziranga Swamps - Naogaon 

18 Ladkhowa Ghats Saikhowa Dibrugarh 

(Swamps) 

19 Laothari Swamps Diphu Kamrup 

20 Medo Beel Majadar Hat Goalpara 

21 Sareswar Beel Gauri Pur Goalpara 

22 Tamaranga Beel Hari Pani Goalpara 

23 Urpad Beel Solmari 


24 *Bordoibam Dhemaji Dhemaji 

25 *Dibru Floodplain Dibrugarh - 

26 Kaziranga National Park Bokaghat Nowgong & 


Sibsagar 

27 *Khandong Reservoir Jayantia Hills - 

28 Laokhawa, Orang,& Brahmaputra - 

Sonai Rupai Sanctuaries 


valley 

29 Manas National Park Barpeta Guwahati, 


Barpeta, 

Kokrajhar 

30 *Sone Lake - Karimganj 

31 *Tropical Floodplain 

Lake 

- Dhemaji 

32 *Umrang North Cachar 

Hills 

- 

5 6 7 8 

26° 30’ 93° 15’ 110.00 Freshwater 

26° 25’ 91° 25’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 

26° 00’ 89° 55’ 250.00 Freshwater

26° 15’ 90° 35’ 200.00 Freshwater 


26° 05’ 91° 36’ 4,000.00 Freshwater 

26° 05’ 91° 30’ 100.00 Freshwater 

26° 15’ 90° 25’ 450.00 Freshwater 


26° 10’ 20° 35’ 400.00 Freshwater 

26° 35’ 92° 55’ 173.00 Freshwater 

26° 17’ 90° 40’ 450.00 Freshwater 

26° 16’ 90° 35’ 100.00 Freshwater 

26° 30’ 93° 05’ 28,500.00 Freshwater 

26° 27’ 92° 35’ 2,800.00 Freshwater 

26° 20’ 92° 25’ 260.00 Freshwater 

26° 00’ 90° 05’ 300.00 Freshwater 

26° 55’ 90° 05’ 1,700.00 Freshwater 

26° 17’ 90° 40’ 500.00 Freshwater 

26° 15’ 90° 40’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

27° 32’ 94° 45’ 1,100.00 Freshwater 

27°30’ 94°55’ - Freshwater 

26° 35’ 93° 05’ 31,000.00 Freshwater 



26° 37’ 90°15’ - Freshwater 


26°75’ 94°56’ 54.00 Freshwater 

- - 991.00 Freshwater

BIHAR 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Ahiya Rona Vaishali 

2 Bhagwa Chaur Balur Bazar Saharsa 

3 Bharthua Chaur Bharthua Muzaffarpur 

4 Bhusara Mann Bhausara Muzaffarpur 

5 Bora Charu Kharka-Talwa Saharsa 

6 Brahmaputra River - - 

Valley 

7 Brahmpura Mann Muzaffarpur Muzaffarpur 

8 Chatia Chaur Piparapakari Champaran (West) 

9 Ekpira Dhar Kishan Pur Saharsa 

10 Fatehpur,Naimallia & 

Paintia Chaurs 

Hajipur Vaishali 

11 Hardia Chaur Akilpur Saran 

12 Khabartal (Kanwar) Manjhaul Begusarai 

lake 

13 Kahara Dhuseshwar Darbhanga Darbhanga 

14 Kanhar Bandh Baradih Palamau 

15 Kauda Lauhar Kauda Lauhar Sahrasa 

16 Kesaria Chaur Motihari Champaran 

17 Khetar Sarotar Champaran 

18 Manshi Dubey Cahur Phulia Champaran (West) 

Khar 

19 Murdapur Chaur Murdapur Saharsa 

20 Parbamurli Chaur Kumarganj Saharsa 

21 Raghupur Diara Hajipur Vaishali 

22 Ratanpura Phulkaha Kumarganj Saharsa 

23 Rora Lake - Chaibasa 

24 Tal Bahaila Mehnar Muzaffarpur 

25 Topchanchi Lake Dhanbad Dhanbad 

26 Udaipur Lake - Champaran (West) 


94,16,400 ha. 


ha. (6.87%) 

: 6,47,300

Latitud 

e 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

25° 55’ 85° 10’ 150.00 Freshwater 

26° 20’’ 86° 25’ 200.00 Freshwater 

26° 15’ 83° 30’ 125.00 Freshwater 

26° 08’ 85° 40’ 125.00 Freshwater 

25° 50’ 86° 30 500.00 Freshwater 

25°45’ 89°50’ - Freshwater 

26° 05’ 85° 22’ 130.00 Freshwater 


25° 25’ 85° 50’ 200.00 Freshwater 

25° 40’ 85° 10’ 11,400.00 Freshwater 

25° 45’ 85° 00’ 10,000.00 Freshwater 

25° 30’ 86° 05’ 6,737.00 Freshwater 

26° 10’ 85° 54’ 12,141.00 Freshwater 

24° 20’ 83° 25’ 5,000.00 Freshwater 

25° 50’ 86° 25’ 200.00 Freshwater 

26° 45’ 85° 00’ 500.00 Freshwater 

26° 45’ 84° 45’ 350.00 Freshwater 


25° 45’ 86° 00’ 125.00 Freshwater 

25° 45’ 86° 45’ 100.00 Freshwater 

25° 30’ 85° 20’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

25° 45 87° 00’ 100.00 Freshwater 

22° 34’ 85° 45’ 240.00 Freshwater 

25° 35’ 85° 25’ 300.00 Freshwater 

23° 50’ 86° 06’ 12,823.00 Freshwater 

26° 50’ 84° 30’ 657.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 


27 Canal Dam Reservoir Akilpur Santhal Pargana 

28 Chadan Reservoir - Dumka 

29 *Chaurs of North 

Bihar and West Bengal 

Bagaha - 

30 Gadua Reservori Riji Khorbha Bhagalpur 

31 *Goabeel Minihari Katihar 

32 Konar Reservoir Chota Nagpur 

plateau 

Hazaribagh 

33 *Laluchack Bhagalpur -

34 *Maithon Chota Nagpur Dhanbad & 

plateau 

Hazaribagh 

35 *Masanjore Reservoir Dumka Santhal Pargana 

36 Nalkari Reservoir Patratu Chhotanagpur 

37 Panchet Hill Reservoir Chota Nagpur 

plateau 

Dhanbad 

38 *Tilaiya Reservoir Chota Nagpur Dhanbad & 

plateau 

Hazaribagh 

CHHATTISGARH 

S.No 

. 

Name of the Wetland Name of the 

Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Dudhawa - - 

2 *Khudia - - 

3 *Ravishankar Sagar 

Reservoir 

- Raipur 

4 *Sondur - - 

5 6 7 8 

24° 15’ 85° 00’ 10,000.00 Freshwater 

24° 40’ 86° 50’ 1,080.00 Freshwater 

25°15’-27°00’ 84°10’-88°10’ - Freshwater 



23° 55’ 85° 45’ 2,590.00 Freshwater 

25° 14’ 86° 58’ 50.00 Freshwater 

22° 00’-25° 3’ 85° 47’- 87° 50’ 10,619.00 Freshwater 

23°40’ 86°28’ 6,993.00 Freshwater 


23° 40’ 86° 24’ 15,300.00 Freshwater

22° 00’-25° 3’ 85° 47’- 87° 50’ 5,957.00 Freshwater 


1,35,19,000 ha. 


59,77,200 ha. (33.06%) 

GOA 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 



20°34’ 81°34’ 9,540.00 Freshwater 


S.No. Name of the 

Wetland 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Chorao Panaji Goa 

2 Karamboli Karamboli Goa 

3 *Mandovi - Zuari 

Estuarine Complex 

Dona Paula Goa 

4 *Goa Mangroves Panji - 


5 *Carambolim Lake Panaji Goa 

6 *Madkai Ponda Goa 

7 *Mangeshi Ponda Goa 

:


3,70,200 ha. 


1,22,400 ha. (33.06%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


15° 23’ 73° 50’ 100.00 Freshwater 

15°30’ 73°50’ 1,800.00 Brackishwater 

15° 22’ 73° 45’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

15°23’ 73°50’ 72.00 Freshwater 



:

GUJARAT 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Aliabet Matiad Borach 

2 Chaman Bai Lake Khralu Mehsana 

3 *Great Rann of Kutch Nekhetrana Kutch 

4 *Gulf of Khambhat Talaja Gulf at Khambhat 

5 Harni Pond (I&II) Vadodara Vadodara 

6 *Little Rann of Kutch Thorial Kajarda Kutch 

7 Mokariran Porbandar Junagarh 

8 *Nalsarovar Nalsarovar and Ahmedabad and 

Kayala Surinder Nagar 

9 *Nanda Island Adesar Kachchh district 

10 Salt Marshes of 

Bhavanagar & Amreli and 

Saurashtra 

Jafarabad Ahmedabad 

11 *Southern Gulf of 

Kachchh 

Saurashtra - 


12 *Aaji - Saurashtra 

13 *Aji II Reservoir - Rajkot 

14 *Ajwa Vadodara - 

15 *Alansagar - Saurashtra 

16 *Amipur Reservoir - Junagadh 

17 *Babiya Dam - Saurashtra 

18 Balamdi Dalawas Jamnagar 

19 *Bhandar Reservoir - Rajkot 

20 *Bordi Tank - Kheda 

21 *Brahmi Reservoir - Surendranagar 

22 Chandrasan Tank Kadi Mehsana 

23 *Changada - Kheda 

24 *Chhari Dhandh - Saurashtra 

25 *Daman Ganga Reservoir - Valsad 

26 *Dantiwada Reservoir Dantiwada Banaskantha 

10. Total Geographical Area 


: 1,96,02,400 ha.

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


23° 56’ 72° 37’ 800.00 Freshwater 



22° 18 73° 15 225.00 Freshwater 

23° 10’ 70°45’ 495,300.00 Brackishwater 





22° 15’ 69°00’ 735,000.00 Brackishwater 



22° 24’ 73° 24’ 300.00 Freshwater 




22° 10’ 70° 23’ 160.00 Freshwater 




23° 15’ 72° 20’ 700.00 Freshwater 




24° 20’ 72° 20’ 4,047.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

27 *Dedarda 

- 

Kheda 

28 *Demi II Reservoir - Rajkot 

29 *Deo Reservoir - Panchmahals 

30 *Devakivansol - Kheda 

31 *Dharoi Reservoir Palandur Mehsana 

32 *Fadvel Tank Bilimoria Valsad 

33 *Falzar Dam - Rajkot 

34 Fatehgarh Fatehgarh Kutch 

35 Fulzar Khambaliya Jamnagar

36 Gadhatad Gadhatad Kutch 

37 Gajan Sar Gajan Sar Kutch 

38 Gajod Gajod Kutch 

39 *Garmala - Kheda 

40 *Gavier Lake Gavier/ Surat - 

41 Ghee Khambaliya Jamnagar 

42 *Ghogha/Kharghoda - Saurashtra 

43 *Guhai Reservoir - Sabarkantha 

44 *Hamirsar Tank Bhuj Kachchh 

45 *Hargovind - Saurashtra 

46 Hatadi Bhadreshwar Kutch 

47 Hatmati Reservoir Himatnagar Sabarkantha 

48 *Herenj 

- 

Kheda 

49 Hiran Reservoir Sasan (Gir) Jamnagar 

50 Kadana (Mahi Stage-II Kadana Panchamahal 

Reservoir (Major part in MP) 

51 Kaila Reservoir Zura Kutch 

52 *Kakrapar Reservoir - Surat 

53 Kalaghogha Kalaghoga Kutch 

54 *Kalindri Reservoir Ishvriya Porbandar 

55 *Kaneval Reservoir Kheda - 

56 Kankavati Mothala Kutch 

57 *Kankavati Dam - Jamnagar 

58 *Karjan Reservoir - Banaskantha 

59 Kaswati Lodali Kutch 

60 *Khijadia lakes Jamnagar Jamnagar 

61 Khokhalia Tank Chansha Mehsana 

62 *Lalpari - Saurashtra 

63 *Lingada - Kheda 

64 *Machhu I Reservoir - Rajkot 

65 *Machhu II Reservoir - Rajkot 

66 *Mal-Sarovar - Saurashtra 

67 *Mandvi - Saurashtra 

68 *Mazam Reservoir - Sabarkantha 

5 6 7 8 

- 

- 4.00 Freshwater 




24° 00’ 72° 50’ 10,700.00 Freshwater 


21° 91’ 70° 16’ 290.00 Freshwater 

23° 39’ 70° 47’ 254.00 Freshwater 

22° 14’ 70° 17’ 410.00 Freshwater 

23° 38’ 68° 34’ 355.00 Freshwater 

23° 30’ 69° 35’ 147.00 Freshwater 

23° 01’ 69° 34’ 281.00 Freshwater 



22° 10’ 69° 37’ 425.00 Freshwater



23° 15’ 69° 40’ - Freshwater 


22° 50’ 69° 50’ 120.00 Freshwater 

23° 42’ 73° 13’ 3,340.00 Freshwater 

- 


21° 10’ 70° 35’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

23° 20’ 73° 50’ 16,600.00 Freshwater 

23° 20’ 69° 35’ 232.00 Freshwater 


22° 55’ 69° 41’ 117.00 Freshwater 


22° 33’ 72° 38’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 

23° 00’ 69° 08’ 354.00 Freshwater 

21°21’-21°23’ 70°10’-70° 13’ 435.00 Freshwater 


23° 20’ 69° 53’ 196.00 Freshwater 


23° 30’ 72° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater 








1 2 3 4 

69 Meshwar Reservoir Shamlaji Sabar Kantha 

70 *Meshwo Reservoir - Sabarkantha 

71 *Moj Reservoir - Rajkot 

72 *Muli - Saurashtra 

73 *Nadiad 

- 

Kheda 

74 *Nagarma 

- 

Kheda 

75 Nara Reservoir Nara Kutch 

76 *Ningal Tank - Saurashtra 

77 Nirvana Nirvana Kutch 

78 *Nyari - Saurashtra 

79 *Panam Reservoir - Panchmahals 

80 Pariaj Tank Pariaj Kheda 

81 *Pariej Reservoir Kheda - 

82 *Parmaria Bhagol - Kheda 

83 *Patak - - 

84 *Pavagadh Vadodara - 

85 *Phophal Reservoir - Rajkot 

86 Puna Jamnagar Jamnagar 

87 *Ramdarda - Saurashtra 

88 *Ramdhari - Saurashtra 

89 *Ranghola Reservoir - Bhavanagar

90 *Rani Tank Khanpur - 

91 *Ratheshwar - Kheda 

92 Rudramata Reservoir Bhuj Kutch 

93 Sanandhro Pannandhro Kutch 

94 *Sani Reservoir - Jamnagar 

95 *Sankroli Reservoir - Amreli 

96 Sapada Jamnagar Jamnagar 

97 *Sapda Dam - Jamnagar 

98 Sasoi Jamnagar Jamnagar 

99 *Sayala - Saurashtra 

100 *Shankar Talao - Saurashtra 

101 *Shetrunji Reservoir - Bhavnagar 

102 Sher Talaw Kalol Mehsana 

103 *Singach - Saurashtra 

104 *Sipu Reservoir - Banaskantha 

105 *Sojitra Pond - Kheda 

106 *Sukhbhandar Reservoir - Bhavanagar 

107 *Sukhi Reservoir - Vadodara 

108 Suvi Suvi Kutch 

109 *Tapar Reservoir - Kachchh 

110 *Tarapur - Kheda 

111 Thor Reservoir Kadi Mehsana 

5 6 7 8 

23° 41’ 73° 26’ 1,784.00 Freshwater 



- 

- 

- - Freshwater 

- 



30° 34’ 60° 03’ 1,214.00 Freshwater 


23° 24’ 69° 29’ 380.00 Freshwater 



22° 05’ 72° 25’ 616.00 Freshwater 

22° 33’ 72° 38’ 500.00 Freshwater 



22° 29’ 73° 22’ 100.00 Freshwater 


22° 88’ 69° 39’ 400.00 Freshwater 






23° 18’ 69° 40’ 850.00 Freshwater 

23° 35’ 68° 47’ 318.00 Freshwater 


- - 3,285.00 Freshwater

22° 23’ 70° 10’ 225.00 Freshwater 

21°21’-21°23’ 70°10’-70°13’ 193.00 Freshwater 

22° 20 69° 25’ 1,300.00 Freshwater 




23° 10’ 72° 25’ 400.00 Freshwater 






23° 37’ 70° 29’ 310.00 Freshwater 



23° 15’ 72° 20’ 700.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

112 *Tranga - Kheda 

113 Ukai Reservoir Fort Sonegarh Surat 

114 *Uni Reservoir - Jamnagar 

115 *Vadhwana Vadodara - 

116 *Valavad - Saurashtra 

117 *Vallabhsagar Reservoir - Surat 

118 *Vanakbori Reservoir 

- 

Kheda 

119 Vartu Bhanvad Jamnagar 

120 *Vatrak Reservoir - Sabarkantha 

121 *Veri - Saurashtra 

122 Vetrak Reservoir Ubhan Sabar Kantha 

123 Vijarakhi Jamnagar Jamnagar 

124 Vijasagar NA Kutch 

125 Vijaysagar Dam - Saurashtra 

126 *Village Tank Vaghasi - 

127 *Village Tank Lamhavel - 

128 *Village Tank Dharmaj - 

129 *Village Tank Morgi - 

130 *Village Tank Ras - 

131 *Village Tank Dantali - 

132 *Village Tank Morak - 

133 *Watrak Reservoir - Sabarkantha 

HARIYANA


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Bibipur Jheel Bibipur Kurukshetra 

2 Dobeta Jheel Dobeta Kurukshetra 

3 Kotla Lake Nuh and Sohna Gurgaon 

4 Sultanpur Jheel Gurgaon Gurgaon 

5 6 7 8 


21° 10’ 73° 55 60,100.00 Freshwater 


22° 11’ 73° 29’ 400.00 Freshwater 



- 

- 2,086.00 Freshwater 

20° 00’ 69° 50’ 325.00 Freshwater 



23° 20’ 73° 22’ 1,763.00 Freshwater 

22° 23’ 70° 13’ 300.00 Freshwater 

22° 50’ 69° 20’ 425.00 Freshwater 











44,21,200 ha. 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

:

29° 45’ 77° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater 

29° 07’ 76° 51’ 150.00 Freshwater 

27° 59’ 76° 56’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

28° 26’ 76° 53’ 13,727.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

5 Ujina Lake Ujina Gurgaon 


6 *Badkhal Reservoir Fridabad Fridabad 

7 *Bhim Tal - Chandigarh 

8 Damdama Sohna Gurgaon 

9 *Draupti Tal - Chandigarh 

10 Lav Kush Tirath Karna - 

11 Ottu Jheel - Hissar 

12 *Peacock Reservoir Fridabad Fridabad 

13 *Ranganthittoo Bird 

Sanctuary 

- - 

14 Raoli Jheel Firozepur Gurgaon 

HIMACHAL PRADESH 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Renuka Lake Dadahu Simaur 


2 *Chamera Reservoir Chowrah Chamba 

3 *Chandertal Lake Kunzam Lahaul and Spiti 

4 Gobind Sagar Reservoir Bilaspur Bilaspur 

5 *Pandoh Reservoir Mandi Mandi 

6 *Pong Dam Lake Dehra-Talwara 

& Dadasiba 

Kangra 

7 *Rewalsar Lak - Mandi 

8 *Suraj Tal Lake Lahaul-spiti 

valley 

- 

5 6 7 8

28° 00’ 77° 05 800.00 Brackish water 

28°45’ 77°25’ 22.80 Freshwater 

28°25’ 76°30’ 16.80 Freshwater 

28° 10’ 77° 00’ 200.00 Freshwater 

28°25’ 76°30’ 7.08 Freshwater 

29° 55’ 76° 00’ 8.00 freshwater 

29° 30’ 74° 55’ 340.00 Brackish water 

28°45’ 77°30’ 10.86 Freshwater 

12°30’ 75°45’ 67.00 Freshwater 

27° 43’ 76° 58’ 400.00 Freshwater 


55,78,000 ha. 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

31° 36’35’’ 77° 27’10’’ 20.00 Fresh water 

- 

32° 29’ 

- 

77° 36’ 

900.00 

49.00 

Fresh water 

Fresh water 

31° 15’ 76° 25’ 16,867.00 Fresh water 

- - 200.00 Fresh water 

32°01' 76°05' 24,629.00 Fresh water 

30°37’30’’ 76°49’ - Fresh water 

32°45’ 77°25’ 2.76 Fresh water 

:

JAMMU & KASHMIR 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Anchar Lake Sauora Srinagar 

2 *Dal Lake Hazratbal- 

Srinagar 

Srinagar 

3 Hanle River Marshes Hanle Ladakh 

4 Hokarsar Srinagar Badgam 

5 *Hokera Zainakote Srinagar and 

Industrial 

Estate 

Badgam 

6 Hygam Lake Sopore Baramulla 

7 Indus River Thicksey Ladakh 

8 Mirgund Lake Mirgund Srinagar and 

Badgam 

9 *Surinsar-Mansar lakes - Udhampur 

10 Wular Lake Sopore- 

Bandipora 

Baramulla 


11 Ahansar Lake Srinagar Baramulla 

12 Chushul Marshes Chushul - 

13 *Gilsaar and Khushalsar Srinagar Srinagar 

Lakes 

14 Haigam Rakh Kashmir Valley Baramullah 

15 *Kranchu Srinagar - 

16 *Malangpora Srinagar - 

17 *Malgam Srinagar - 

18 *Manasbal Lake - Srinagar 

19 *Narkora Srinagar - 

20 Naranbagh Lake Srinagar Baramulla 

21 *Nowgam Srinagar - 

22 Pangong Tso Leh - 

23 *Salal Reservoir - Udhampur 


2,22,23,600 ha. 


20,23,000 ha. (9.10%) 

:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

34° 20’ 74° 82’ 680.00 Freshwater 

34° 06’ 74° 52’ 

1,670.00 

Freshwater 

32°55’ 78°55’ - Freshwater 

34°08’ 74°43’ 1,300.00 Freshwater 

34° 05’ 74° 05’ 1,375.00 Freshwater 

34° 10’ 74° 10 900.00 Freshwater 

34°10’ 77°80’ - Freshwater 

34° 08’ 74° 38’ 

300.00 

Freshwater 

32° 45’ 75° 05’ 350.00 Freshwater 

34° 16’ 74° 33’ 18,900.00 Freshwater 

34° 18’ 74° 39’ 17.00 Freshwater 



34° 15’ 74° 31’ 1,400.00 Freshwater 




34°15’ 74°40’ 0.16 Freshwater 


34° 12’ 74° 41’ 24.30 Freshwater 



30°08’ 74°50’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

24 Shallabugh Lake and Kashmir Valley 

- 

Marshes 

25 Shey Marshes Leh - 

26 *Tso morari Leh - 

27 *Tullamulla Srinagar - 

28 Surinsar Lake Jammu - 

29 Tso Kar Basin - - 

30 Waskursar Lakes Srinagar Baramulla

JHARKHAND 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *An raj - Garhwa 

2 *Aratad - Palamu & Latehar 

3 *Bachra - Palamu & Latehar 

4 *Baghi - Palamu & Latehar 

5 *Balha - Garhwa 

6 *Bankheta - Palamu & Latehar 

7 *Banutikar - Palamu & Latehar 

8 *Baradavi - Palamu & Latehar 

9 *Bareni - Palamu & Latehar 

10 *Barhi - Hazaribagh 

11 *Bariatu - Ranchi 

12 *Barkol - Palamu & Latehar 

13 *Batane - Palamu & Latehar 

14 *Buchauopa Dam - Ranchi 

15 *Canal Dam - Dumka & Jamtara 

16 *Caura Nala - Palamu & Latehar 

17 *Chandwa - Palamu & Latehar 

18 *Chatran - Palamu & Latehar 

5 6 7 8 

34° 10’ 74° 42’ 750.00 Freshwater 

34° 10’ 77° 90’ - Freshwater 



75° 02’ 32° 46’ 20.40 Freshwater 

33° 05’ 78° 05’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 

34° 18’ 74° 39’ 38.00 Freshwater 


79,70,000 ha. 


23,60,500 ha. (29.61%) 

:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 



















1 2 3 4 

19 *Chandil Dam - West Singhbhum 

20 *Chauna - Palamu & Latehar 

21 *Chaurasi - Palamu & Latehar 

22 *Chauria - Palamu & Latehar 

23 *Chhat pond - Dhanbad 

24 *Chuhianala - Palamu & Latehar 

25 *Dhanraita - Palamu & Latehar 

26 *Farakka Bandh - Garhwa 

27 *Garga Dam - Dhanbad 

28 *Getalsud Dam - Ranchi 

29 *Gonda Dam - Hazaribagh 

30 *Hatia Dam - Ranchi 

31 *Jamunia - Hazaribagh 

32 *Jdaipura - Palamu & Latehar 

33 *Jhabarkund - Palamu & Latehar 

34 *Jharia - Palamu & Latehar 

35 *Kahualahana Ratu - Ranchi 

36 *Kalkari - Ranchi 

37 *Kanaldah - Palamu & Latehar

38 *Kanke Dam - Ranchi 

39 *Kans - Ranchi 

40 *Karma, Chotopur - Palamu & Latehar 

41 *Kasna - Palamu & Latehar 

42 *Khajuri - Palamu & Latehar 

43 *Kharkhota - Palamu & Latehar 

44 *Khikharia Par - Palamu & Latehar 

45 *Komar - Palamu & Latehar 

46 *Konar Dam - Hazaribagh 

47 *Ladhuksenha, Chandwa - Palamu & Latehar 

48 *Lali - Palamu & Latehar 

49 *Lalmatia - Godda 

50 *Lapung - Ranchi 

51 *Latratu - Giridih 

52 *Latratu Dam - Ranchi 

53 *Lohrahinda - Palamu & Latehar 

54 *Lokha - Palamu & Latehar 

55 *Madhigawan - Palamu & Latehar 

56 *Mainamar - Palamu & Latehar 

57 *Maithon Dam - Dhanbad 

58 *Maityon Dam - Dhanbad 

59 *Majuraha - Palamu & Latehar 

60 *Maloya - Palamu & Latehar 

61 *Mandal Dam - Palamu & Latehar 

5 6 7 8 












































1 2 3 4 

62 *Manpur - Palamu & Latehar 

63 *Masanjore - Dumka and Jamtara 

64 *Mayurakshi Dam - Hazaribagh 

65 *Motia - Palamu & Latehar 

66 *Nahwa Sarai - Palamu & Latehar 

67 *Nakti Jalasay - West Singhbhum and 

Saraikela Kharsawan 

68 *Nandini Irrigation - Lohardagga 

69 *Nisunia - Palamu & Latehar 

70 *Palna - West Singhbhum & 


71 *Panchet Dam - Dhanbad 

72 *Patratu (Latehar) - Palamu & Latehar 

73 *Patria - Palamu & Latehar 

74 *Phangerha - Palamu & Latehar 

75 *Piartad - Palamu & Latehar 

76 *Piklawal Dam - Ranchi 

77 *Pindrahi - Palamu & Latehar 

78 *Piprahi - Palamu & Latehar 

79 *Raghunathpur Dam - Ranchi 

80 *Rajbandh - East Singhbhum 

81 *Rakshinala - Palamu & Latehar 

82 *Rani pond - Dhanbad 

83 *Reghana, Bhandaria - Palamu & Latehar 

84 *Saraidih - Palamu & Latehar 

85 *Sempat Bandh - Palamu & Latehar 

86 *Seobandh - Palamu & Latehar 

87 *Sirnia - Palamu & Latehar 

88 *Sitarampur - East Singhbhum 

89 *Sohbaria - Palamu & Latehar 

90 *Sonua - West Singhbhum &


91 *Sufri - Palamu & Latehar 

92 *Sundar Jalasay - Godda 

93 *Tarfe - Palamu & Latehar 

94 *Tatisilli - Ranchi 

95 *Tenughat - Giridih 

96 *Tilaiya Dam - Hazaribagh 

97 *Tudev - Palamu & Latehar 

98 *Tulbul - Palamu & Latehar 

99 *Turidih - Palamu & Latehar 

100 *Udaipura - Palamu & Latehar 

101 *Zatratu, Karrah - Ranchi 

5 6 7 8 









































KARNATAKA 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Kallambella Sira Tumkur 

2 Sharavathi-Valley 

(Talakalale-Jog Falls) 

Kargalli Shimoga 


3 *Agaram Tank Agaram Bengaluru 

4 *Alahalli Tank Alahalli Bengaluru 

5 Almati Reservoir Almati Bijapur 

6 *Amani Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 

7 *Amruthahalli Tank Bengaluru - 

8 *Anjanapur Reservoir - - 

9 *Annappana-kere Yelchenahalli Bengaluru 

10 *Attiveri Reservoir Mundgod Uttar Kannada 

11 *Ayyanakere Tank Harapanahalli Davangere 

12 *Bachanki Reservoir Mundgod Uttar Kannada 

13 *Bannergatta Tank Bannergata Bengaluru 

National park 

14 *Basavanapura Tank - Bengaluru 

15 *Belikere Lake Mysore - 

16 Bhadra Reservoir Lakkavalli Chikmangalur 

17 *Boranakanive Reservoir - - 

18 *Bovi Basappanakere University Bengaluru 

Malathhalli 

Campus 

19 *Byramangala Reservoir Bengaluru Bengaluru 

20 *Challakere Tank Chalakere Bengaluru 

21 *Chakra Reservoir - - 

22 Chamaraja Sagar Bengaluru Bengaluru 

23 *Channapana-halli Tank Varthur Bengaluru 

24 *Chandravalli Tank Chitradurga - 

25 *Chickbanavara Tank Chickbanavara Bengaluru 

26 *Chickbetta-halli Tank Chickbetta-halli Bengaluru 


1,91,79,100 ha. 


38,28,400 ha. (19.96%) 

18. Total Wetland Area 

:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

13° 35’ 76° 55’ 113.00 Freshwater 

14° 05’ 74° 25’ 800.00 Freshwater 



16° 35’ 76° 89’ 79,000.00 Freshwater 

13°20’58” 77°06’22” 184.49 Freshwater 




13°52’ 74°05’ - Freshwater 

14°78’ 76°6’ 27.79 Freshwater 





13° 40’ 75° 36’ 11,700.00 Freshwater 











1 2 3 4 

27 *Chickkalasandra Tank Banashankari III Bengaluru 

stage layout 

28 *Chilur Pond Honnali Davangere 

29 *Chokkasandra Tank Dasarahalli Bengaluru 

30 Chuklinava Reservoir Basava Kalyan Bidar 

31 *Chunchu-ghatta Tank Kanakapura and Bengaluru 

32 *Doddabommasandra 

Tank 

Bannergatta road 

Bengaluru Bengaluru

33 *Doddakere Bagalkunte Bagalkunte Bengaluru 

34 *Doddakere Hosakerehalli Hosakerehalli Bengaluru 

35 *Dorekere Uttarahalli Uttarahalli Bengaluru 

36 Dhuptal Lake Kotbdgi Shirodar Belgaum 

37 *Dyavasandra Adjoining Madras Bengaluru 

Railway line 

38 *Garebhavi-palya Hosur road Bengaluru 

39 *Gayatri Reservoir - - 

40 Ghataprabha Ghataprabha Belgaum 

41 *Govindanai-kana Kere 

Jaraganahalli 

Jaraganahalli Bengaluru 

42 *Gramadakere 

Allalasandra 

Yelahanks Satellite Bengaluru 

43 *Gudavi wetland Gudavi Shimoga 

44 Hagribommanahali Hagribomanahalli Bellary 

45 *Halakere Nayandahalli Nayandahalli Bengaluru 

Railway station 

46 *Harangi Reservoir - - 

47 *Harpahalli Harpahalli Bellary 

48 *Hebbal Tank Bengaluru 

49 *Hemavathy Reservoir Gorur Hassan 

50 *Hennur Tank Hennur Bengaluru 

51 *Hosakere 

Nallakadrenahalli 

Nallakadrenhalli Bengaluru 

52 *Hesarghatta Lake - Bengaluru 

53 *Ittamadu Tank Banashankari III 

stage layout 

Bengaluru 

54 *Jambadahalla Reservoir - - 

55 *Janardhana-kere Vasanthapura Bengaluru 

Vasanthapura 

56 *K.R. Puram Tank K.R. Puram Bengaluru 

57 Kabini Reservoir - Mysore 

58 *Kacharakana-Halli Tank Kacharakana-halli Bengaluru 

59 *Kaggadasa-pura Tank Kaggadasapura Bengaluru 

5 6 7 8 




17° 56’ 77° 81’ 565.00 Freshwater 






16° 10’ 74° 45’ 130.00 Freshwater 

- - 5.81 Freshwater



16° 74° 30’ 6,837.00 Freshwater 



14°24’59” 75°6’43” 33.00 Freshwater 

15° 16’ 76° 21’ 116.00 Freshwater 


12°40’ - 1,909.00 Freshwater 

14° 77’ 75° 49’ 102.00 Freshwater 

75.00 Freshwater 

12°40’ 76°30’ 8,502.00 Freshwater 








11° 57’ 76° 10’ 6,100.00 Freshwater 



1 2 3 4 

60 *Kaikondana Tank Sarjapura Road Bengaluru 

61 *Kamagondanahalli Tank HMT ancillary Bengaluru 

industries 

62 *Kamakshipalya Tank Bengaluru - 

63 *Kanva Reservoir - - 

64 Karanjia Bidar Bidar 

65 *Kasavanahalli Tank Sarjapura road Bengaluru 

66 *Konenakunte Tank Kanakapura Bengaluru 

67 *Kasimkhananakere Gublal Gublal Bengaluru 

68 *Kelaginakere Amblipura Sarjapura road Bengaluru 

69 *Kelaginakere Byrasandra HAL industrial area Bengaluru 

70 *Kelaginkere Valgerahalli Kengeri Satellite Bengaluru 

71 *Kodagikere Shingasandra Shingasandra Bengaluru 

72 *Kothnur Tank Kanakapura and Bengaluru 

Bannergatta road 

73 *Kowdenahalli Tank I.T.I colony Bengaluru 

74 *Krishnaraja sagar Mysore Mandya 

75 *Kundalahalli Tank Varthur road Bengaluru 

76 *Kunthur and Kallur Lakes Kollegal Chamaraja 

nagar 

77 *Linganamakki Reservoir - -

78 *Lingambudhi Lake Mysore Mysore 

79 *Maddur Lake Maddur Mandya 

80 *Madivala Lake Bengaluru - 

81 *Machikere Doddakalasandra Kanakapura Bengaluru 

82 Manchanbele Manchanbele Bengaluru 

83 Manjra Reservoir Kushnoor Bidar 

84 Malaprabha Reservoir - - 

85 *Markonahalli Reservoir - Tumkur 

86 *Melinakere Amblipura Agaram Bengaluru 

87 *Melinakere Byrasandra Bengaluru 

88 *Mogakere Uttarahalli Uttarahalli Bengaluru 

89 *Mylasandra Tank Kengeri Bengaluru 

90 *Nagavara Tank Nagavara Bengaluru 

91 Nagora Reservoir Kadwad Bidar 

92 *Nugu Reservoir - - 

93 *Narasappana-kere Kari- Nallakadrenahalli Bengaluru 

Obanahalli 

94 *Narasipura Tank Jalahalli Bengaluru 

95 *Narayanapura Tank B. Narayanapura Bengaluru 

96 Narayanpur Reservoir Sidjapur Bijapur 

97 *Narihala Sarovar Ettnahatti Bellary 

98 *Narasambudhi Lake Nanjangud Mysore 

5 6 7 8 





17° 53’ 77° 19’ 5,261.00 Freshwater 















12°40’ 77°10’ 4,220.00 Freshwater 

12°52’ 77°38’ 115.00 Freshwater 



18° 87’ 77° 19’ 2,833.00 Freshwater

15°45’ - 13,578.00 Freshwater 

12°55’0” 76°55” 1,337.00 Freshwater 






17° 48’ 77° 28’ 660.00 Freshwater 

11°58’ - 1,398.00 Freshwater 







1 2 3 4 

99 *Nelligudda Reservoir Bengaluru - 

100 *Puttanahalli Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 

101 *Ramasamudra Tank Karkal Dakshina 

Kannada 

102 *Ranganthittoo Wildlife 

Sanctuary 

Mysore Mandya 

103 *Sankey Tank Malleswaram and Bengaluru 

Sadashivanagar 

104 *Shanthinagar Pond Shanthinagar Shimoga 

105 *Shingasandra Tank Shingasandra Bengaluru 

106 *Srigandha-kaval Tank Magadi road Bengaluru 

107 *Subbaraya-nakere 

Doddakalasandra 

- Bengaluru 

108 *Tank between Hulimavu & Hulimavu & Bengaluru 

Arakere 

Arakere 

109 *Tank north of Doresanipalya West of 

Bannergatta Road 

Bengaluru 

110 *Tank of east Benniganahalli Salem Railway line Bengaluru 

111 *Tank north west of 

Nayandahalli 

Pantharapalya Bengaluru 

112 *Tank of east Haralur Sarjapur road Bengaluru 

113 *Tank of east Ibblur Sarjapura road Bengaluru 

114 *Tank of east Parappana 

Agrahara 

New Central Jail Bengaluru 

115 *Tank of south Bilaakanahalli Bannergatta road Bengaluru 

116 *Tank of south 

Mangammanapalya 

Hosur road Bengaluru 

117 *Tank of West 

Doddanakkundi 

Doddanakkundi Bengaluru 

118 *Tank west of Nagarbhavi Bengaluru Bengaluru 

University Campus 

119 Thungabhadra Dam Hospet Bellary and 

Raichur

120 *Talapady Lagoon Mangalore - 

121 *Tinnalu Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 

122 Tungabhadra River Ele 

Bichalli Point 

- Raichur 

123 *Tunga Reservoir - - 

124 Upper Mullamar Reservoir Kherda Bidar 

125 *Ulsoor Tank Bengaluru Bengaluru 

126 *Urumundina-kere 

Vibhuthipura 

HAL industrial area Bengaluru 

127 *Varthur Bengaluru Bengaluru 

5 6 7 8 



13° 13’ 74°55’ - Freshwater 

12°25’ 76°45’ 67.00 Freshwater 


13°27’ 74°38’ 2.02 Freshwater 















15° 15’ 79° 20’ 37,800.00 Freshwater 

12° 47’ 74° 51’ 20.00 Brackish water 


16°21’ 77°21’ - Freshwater 


17° 42’ 77° 81’ 2,800.00 Freshwater




1 2 3 4 

128 *Varahi Reservoir - - 

129 *Venkappana-kere 

Uttarahalli Bengaluru 

Uttarahalli 

130 *Vijinapura Tank East of Bellary road Bengaluru 

131 *Votehole Reservoir - - 

132 *VV Sagar Reservoir - - 

133 *Yediyur Tank Jayanagar Bengaluru 

134 *Yennehole lake Mysore - 

KERALA 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Ashtamudi Kollam Kollam 

2 Cochin backwaters Cochin - 

3 Kadinakulam Trivandrum Trivandrum 

4 Karinilam Lake Aroor, Thuravoor Alleppey 

5 Kottampalli Swamps Kottampalli Cannanore 

6 *Kadalundy Estuary Kozhikod Kozhikod 

7 Madyi Swamps Palayangadi Cannanore 

8 Padasekharms Alleppey Alleppery 

9 Parambikulam Dam Palghat Wayanad 

10 Parravoor Mayyanad Kollam 

11 Peruvatipallom Pollachi Palghat 

12 *Sasthamkotta Lake Sasthamkotta Kollam 

13 *Vembanad-Kol Alappuzha, Kochi 

and Thrissur 

Alappuzha, 

Ernakulam and 

Thrissur 


14 Ambalamugam tank Ernakulam Ernakulam 

5 6 7 8 





13°51’ - 8,759.00 Freshwater 




38,86,300 ha. 


ha. (28.99%) 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

08°57' 76°35' 61,400.00 Brackishwater 





11°05’ 75°51’ 28.48 Brackishwater 



10° 20’ 76° 37’ 2,122.00 Freshwater 



09° 03’ 76° 36’ 373.00 Freshwater 


09° 09’ 76° 04’ 124.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

15 *Azhinhillam Malappuram Malappuram 

16 Anayirangal Munnar Idukki 

Reservoir 

: 11,26,500 

17 Chuliar Reservoir Kollamgode Palghat 

18 Idukki Vazhathope Idukki 

19 Kakki Reservoir Pathanamthitta Pathanamthitta 

20 Kanhirapuzha Manjeri Malapuram

21 *Kumarakom 

Mangrove 

Kottayam - 

22 Kundala Mattupetty 

Reservoir 

Munnar Idukki 

23 *Kuttanad - - 

24 *Kuttiadi Lake Peruvannamuzhi Kozhikode 

25 Mangalam Alattu Palghat 

26 *Mangalavanam 

Mangrove 

Cochin - 

27 *Meenkara Reservoir - - 

28 Neyyar Reservoir Kattakkada Trivandrum 

29 Pampa Reservoir Vandipariyar Thitta 

30 Peechi Dam 

Reservoir 

- Trichur 

31 *Peppara Dam Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvanantha 

Reservoir 

puram 

32 Peringal Kuthu 

Reservoir 

Chalakudi Trichur 

33 *Periyar Lake Kumuli Idukki 

34 Ponmudi Reservoir Nedukandam Idukki 

35 *Pookot Lake Vythiri Wynad 

36 Pothundi Reservoir Nemmara Palghat 

37 *Puduvyppu 

Mangrove 

- Eranakulam 

38 Sholai Reservori Sholayar Trichur 

39 Vazhani Reservori Vadkanlherri Trichur 

40 *Veli-Aukulam lake Thiruvandrum Thiruvandrum 

41 *Vellayani Lake Thiruvandrum - 

42 Walayar Reservoir Chullimada Palghat 

5 6 7 8 


10° 00’ 77° 13’ 433.00 Freshwater 

10° 35’ 76° 45’ 316.00 Freshwater 

09° 49’ 76° 55’ 6,000.00 Freshwater 

09° 19’ 77° 05’ 753.00 Freshwater 

11° 20’ 76° 10’ 100.00 Freshwater 


10° 09’ 77° 13’ 323.00 Freshwater 

09° 8’ 76°19’ - Brackishwater 


10° 35’ 76° 32’ 399.00 Freshwater 



08° 35’ 77° 10’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 

09° 30’ 77° 05’ 323.00 Freshwater 

10°30’ 76°15’ 1,578.30 Freshwater 

08°7’ 

76°40’ - Freshwater 

10° 15’ 76° 15’ 263.00 Freshwater 

09° 34’ 76° 40’ 2,600.00 Freshwater 

10° 00’ 77° 00’ 280.00 Freshwater 

11°34’24” 76°1’24” 750.00 Freshwater 

10° 35’ 76° 35’ 363.00 Freshwater 

9°58’ 76°10’ 100.00 Freshwater 

10° 10 76° 09’ 870.00 Freshwater 

10° 33’ 76° 18’ 255.00 Freshwater 

8°31’30” 76°54’39” - Brackishwater 

8°24’90” 76°59’08” 550.00 Freshwater 

10° 45’ 76° 52’ 259.00 Freshwater

MADHYA PRADESH 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Devanand Lake Chirmiri Surguja 

2 Mandleshwar Lake Mandleshwar East Nimar 

3 Upper Lake - Bhopal 


4 Alwasa Tank Khachrod Ujjain 

5 *Ataria - - 

6 *Bargi Reservoir Mankhedi Jabalpur 

7 Barna Bari Raisen 

8 *Barnoo Reservoir - - 

9 *Basania - - 

10 *Beda Upper - - 

11 *Bhoj Tal (Upper & Lower) Bhopal Bhopal 

12 Budhwadah Budha Shahdole 

13 *Chandpata Lake Shivpuri Shivpuri 

14 Charoda Tank Charoda Raipur 

15 *Chhota Tawa - - 

16 *Chiklod Lake - Bhopal 

17 *Chunabhatti Lake - Bhopal 

18 *Dahod Reservoir - Raisen 

19 Dhali Tank Dhali Dewas 

20 *Dhobatoria - - 

21 *Dobdia Pond West Nimar - 

22 *Dihaila Jheel Karera Shivpuri 

23 *Dudhi - - 

24 *Dulhara Tank Bilaspur Bilaspur 

25 *Gandhisagar Reservoir - Mandsaur 

26 Ganga Talao Kari Kasba East Nimar 

27 *Gantal - - 

28 *Gopalpura Tank Guna Guna 

29 *Govindgarh Lake - Rewa 


: 3,08,14,400 ha. 


94,68,900 ha. (30.72%) 


:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

23° 10’ 82° 20’ 150.00 Freshwater 

22° 10’ 75° 05 100.00 Freshwater 

23°16’ 77°25’ 3,800.00 Freshwater 

23° 25’ 75° 15’ 190.00 Freshwater 


22°56’30” 79°56’30” 27,296.00 Freshwater 

23° 00’ 77° 55’ 7,705.00 Freshwater 




23° 16’ 77° 25’ 3,201.00 Freshwater 

24° 05’ 81° 25’ 900.00 Freshwater 

25° 26’ 77°42’ 300.00 Freshwater 

21° 35’ 82° 25’ 100.00 Freshwater 


77°42’ 23°7’ 250.00 Freshwater 

23°18’ 77°27’ - Freshwater 

23°02’ 77°29’30” 820.00 Freshwater 

22° 33’ 76° 48’ 150.00 Freshwater 


22° 10’ 74° 54’ 9.60 Freshwater 

25°35’ 78°05’ 370.00 Freshwater 


22°1’2” 82°5’32” 77.00 Freshwater 

24°44’ 75°33’ 66,000.00 Freshwater 

22° 15’ 75° 45’ 195.00 Freshwater 


23°90’ 76°85’ 600.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

30 Gwal Sagar - Tikamargh 

31 *Halali Reservoir - Raisen/Vidisha 

32 *Halon - - 

33 Harsi - Gwalior 

34 *Indira Sagar - - 

35 *Jagat Sagar Pond Cggatarpur- Rewa 

Jhasituated 

36 Jastakhedi Tank Karohan Ujjain 

37 *Jobat - -

38 *Kaliasaut Reservoir Bhopal Bhopal 

39 *Kerwa Reservoir Bhopal Bhopal 

40 Kharkhara Tank Lohara Durg 

41 *Khnop Reservoir Chhatarpur Chhatarpur 

42 Khudia Tanks (Maniar) Khudia Bilaspur 

43 Khunta Ghat - Bilaspur 

44 *Kolar reservoir Lawakheri Sehore 

45 *Loni Reservoir - Rewa 

46 *Lower Gol - - 

47 *Machna Annicut Dam Vivekanand Betul 

Nagar 

48 *Machrawa - - 

49 Madan Sagar - Tikamargh 

50 *Maheshwar - - 

51 *Makroda Reservoir Guna Guna 

52 *Man - - 

53 Maramsili Reservoir Rudri Raipur 

54 *Morand - - 

55 Nagda Reservoir Pichhore Shivpuri 

56 *Nani Barwani Pond Barwani - 

57 *Omkareshwar - - 

58 Padlia Tank Basin Padlia Ujjain 

59 *Panchana Reservoir - - 

60 *Raghavpur - - 

61 Rampur Tank Rampur Guna 

62 *Ranital Chhatarpur - 

63 *Rosra - - 

64 *Sagar Lake Sagar - 

65 *Sampna Reservoir - Betul 

66 *Sardar Sarovar - - 

67 *Sarni Reservoir - Betul 

68 *Shahpura Lake Bhopal Bhopal 

69 *Shakkar - - 

70 *Sher - - 

5 6 7 8 

23° 02’ 75° 00’ 280.00 Freshwater 

23°30’ 77°30’ 7,712.00 Freshwater 




25°01’ 79°29’ 307.38 Freshwater 

23° 04’ 75° 47’ 120.00 Freshwater 



22°58’ 77°21’ 482.00 Freshwater 

22° 45’ 81°00’ 2,816.00 Freshwater 

24°58’15” 79°38’15” 250.00 Freshwater 

22° 45’ 84° 2,525.00 Freshwater 

22° 11’ 82° 12’ 3,807.00 Freshwater

22°58’ 77°21’ 2,380.00 Freshwater 

25°7’ 81°30’ 202.00 Freshwater 


21°55’ 77°54’ - Freshwater 


23° 30’ 75° 00’ 444.00 Freshwater 


24°43’30” 77°16’0” 6,516.00 Freshwater 


28° 29’ 81° 39’ 2,529.00 Freshwater 


25° 01’ 78° 01’ 

358.00 Freshwater 

22° 35’ 74° 52’ 7.00 Freshwater 


23° 35’ 75° 05’ 151.00 Freshwater 



22° 45’ 77° 10’ 100.00 Freshwater 

26° 20’ 78° 59’ - Freshwater 


23°50’ 78°45’ 82.00 Freshwater 



22°8’30” 77°11’ 1,012.00 Freshwater 

23°18’ 77°27’ 260.00 Freshwater 



1 2 3 4 

71 *Shivpuri National Park - - 

(Madhav) 

72 Silar Khedi Tank Silarkhedi Ujjain 

73 *Sitarewa - - 

74 *Sukta - - 

75 Tandhula Tank Tanhula Balod Durg 

76 *Tawa Reservoir - Hoshanghabad 

77 *Tekanpur Reservoir Gwalior Gwalior 

78 *Undasa Tank Undasa Ujjain 

79 *Upper Narmada - - 

80 Upper Burhner - - 

81 *Waghyanala Reservoir - Chhindwara 

82 Yeshwant Sagar - Indore 

MAHARASHTRA


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Bhategaon Dam - Parbhani 


2 *Adgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 

3 *Ambedkar Tank Kolhapur - 

4 Aner Reservoir Chopra Kolhapur 

5 Ashti Tank Ashti Sholapur 

6 Atapadi Talao Atapadi Sangli 

7 Balwadi Tank Balwadi Sangli 

8 *Belkheda Reservoir - Parbhani 

9 Bendsura Tank Pali Beed 

10 Bhohehal Tank Bhohehal Sholapur 

11 *Bhosi Reservoir - Parbhani 

5 6 7 8 

25°45’ 77°40’ 156,150.00 Freshwater 

23° 05’ 75° 50’ 240.00 Freshwater 



20° 40’ 81° 10’ 400.00 Freshwater 

22°30’40” 77°58’30” 20,055.00 Freshwater 

- 78.18° - Freshwater 

23° 00’ 75° 00’ 192.00 Freshwater 



21°42’ 78.47’ 293.50 Freshwater 

22° 43’ 75° 42’ 1,025.00 Freshwater 


3,07,71,300 ha. 


ha. (20.13%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

: 61,93,900 

Ecological 

Category

5 6 7 8 

19°25’ 77°25’ 46.94 Freshwater 


16°42’ 74°14’ 1.20 Freshwater 


17° 50’ 75° 20’ 1,168.00 Freshwater 

17° 25’ 74° 55’ 177.00 Freshwater 

17° 10’ 74° 27’ 1,278.00 Freshwater 


18° 55’ 74° 45’ 215.00 Freshwater 

17° 25’ 75° 10’ 661.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

12 Bordharan Tank Hingni Thane 

13 *Bori Reservoir Naldurg Osmanabad 

14 *Bothi Reservoir - Parbhani 

15 Chandni Jheel (Tank) Pimpalwadi Osmanabad 

16 *Charthana Reservoir - Parbhani 

17 Chhatri Tank Amravati Amravati 

18 *Chincholi Reservoir - Parbhani 

19 *Devgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 

20 Dhane-Gaon Sarovar Manjar Beed 

21 *Dhegaon Reservoir - Parbhani 

22 *Dhom Reservoir Dhom Satara 

23 *Ekruk Reservoir - Solapur 

24 Gadchiroli Lake Gadchiroli Gadchiroli 

25 *Gangapur Dam - Nashik 

26 Ghirni Reservoir - Osmanabad 

27 *Girna Reservoir Malegaon Nashik 

28 *Hadi Mangrove Hadi - 

29 *Hangarga Reservoir - Osmanabad 

30 *Haranbaree Dam - - 

31 Harmi (Tank) Katgaon Osmanabad 

32 *Hartala Lake Jalgaon Jalgaon 

33 *Hingni Reservoir - Solapur 

34 Holgi Tank Holgi Sholapur 

35 Isapur Reservoir Isapur Yavatmal 

36 Itiadoh Reservoir Gothan Gaon Bhandara 

37 *Jagatunga Samudra - Nanded 

Reservoir 

38 *Jawalgaon Reservoir Tuljapur Solapur 

39 *Jayakawadi Reservori - Aurangabad 

40 *Jogwada Reservoir - Parbhani 

41 Junoni Tank Junoni Sholapur 

42 Kada Tank Nimboli Beed 

43 Kamthikhairy Dam Kamthikhairy Nagpur

44 Kanholi Dam Wuna Nagpur 

45 *Karpara Reservoir - Parbhani 

46 Karwand Reservoir Sangui Dhule 

47 Karwati Reservoir Shirpur Dhule 

48 *Kas lake Satara Satara 

49 Kharbav Lake Kharbav Thane 

50 *Khatijapur Tank Achalpur Amravati 

51 Kaurli Tank Dhanora Beed 

52 Kewda Reservoir - Parbhani 

53 Khadakvasla Khadakvasla Pune 

5 6 7 8 

20° 50’ 78° 40’ 300.00 Freshwater 



18° 10’ 75° 40’ 900.00 Freshwater 


22° 55’ 75° 40’ 126.00 Freshwater 





17°50’ 73°33’ 2,021.00 Freshwater 




18° 20’ 76° 45’ 948.00 Freshwater 


16°08’38” 73°28’36” - Brackishwater 


- 74°11’23” - Freshwater 

18° 00’ 76° 00’ 368.00 Freshwater 



17° 40’ 75° 50’ 319.00 Freshwater 


20° 50’ 79° 30’ 6,350.00 Freshwater 

18°15’ 77°40’ - Freshwater 


19° 30’ 75° 20’ 40,000.00 Freshwater 


18° 10’ 75° 111.00 Freshwater 

18° 56’ 76° 26’ 222.00 Freshwater 


21° 00’ 78° 05’ 333.00 Freshwater 


21° 27’ 74° 55’ 555.00 Freshwater 

21° 20’ 74° 50’ 487.00 Freshwater 


- - - Freshwater

21°50’ 78°44’ 3.50 Freshwater 

18° 56’ 75° 40’ 126.00 Freshwater 


18° 28’ 73° 51’ 1,554.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

54 Khandala Talao Khandala Pune 

55 *Khan Lake Sangli - 

56 Khasapur Tank Khasapur Osmanabad 

57 Khehal Reservoir - Parbhani 

58 Khodasi Weir - Satara 

59 *Kodri Reservoir - Parbhani 

60 *Kotiteerth Reservoir - - 

61 Koyna Reservoir Deshmukhwadi Satara 

62 Kurnoor Tank Naldurg Osmanabad 

63 Larna Dam 

Nandgaon Nasik 

(Lake Beale) 

64 *Lonar Lake - Buldhana 

65 Laxmi Reservoir Radhangari Kolhapur 

66 Mahasagri Mahasagri Beed 

67 Majalgaon Reservoir Majalgaon Beed 

68 Malangaon Kondai Bari Dhule 

69 Malkhed Tank Malkhed Bascapur Amravati 

70 *Mandvi Reservoir - Parbhani 

71 Mangi Tank Mangi Sholapur 

72 *Manjara Dam Kaij Beed 

73 Mangrool Tank Polyachtwadi Nanded 

74 *Mannath Reservoir - Parbhani 

75 *Marsul Reservoir - Parbhani 

76 *Masoli Reservoir - Parbhani 

77 *Masunda Lake Thane Thane 

78 *Medha Reservoir Satara Satara 

79 Mehekri Tank Pimpelgaon Beed 

80 Mukti Tank Dhulia City Dhule 

81 Mula Dam Rahuri Ahmednagar 

82 Mulshi Lake Mulshi Pune 

83 *Nakhatwadi 

Reservoir 

- Parbhani 

84 Nandur 

Nasik Nasik 

Madhameshwar 

85 *Nathsagar Reservoir - Paithan, 

Aurangabad 

86 Nirguna Chordhi Akola 

87 *Palas-Nilegaon Bhabulgaon Osmanabad 

Reservoir 

88 *Panshet Dam Pune - 

89 *Panzara Dam Pimpalner Dhule 

90 Pathari Tank Pathari Sholapur 

91 *Pathri Reservoir - Solapur 

5 6 7 8 

18° 00’ 73° 23’ 106.00 Freshwater


18° 15’ 75° 25’ 524.00 Freshwater 


17° 10’ 74° 10’ 8,195.00 Freshwater 



17° 25’ 73° 55’ 11,535.00 Freshwater 

17° 45’ 76° 15’ 666.00 Freshwater 

19° 45’ 73° 40’ 3,467.00 Freshwater 

19°58’45” 76°34’00” - Freshwater 

16° 20’ 74° 00’ 1,936.00 Freshwater 

18° 48’ 75° 28 220.00 Freshwater 

19° 10 75° 55’ 8,080.00 Freshwater 

21° 05’ 74° 05’ 223.00 Freshwater 

20° 45’ 77° 50’ 233.00 Freshwater 


18° 20’ 75° 10’ 395.00 Freshwater 

18°25’ 75°15’ 1,490.00 Freshwater 







18° 52’ 75° 00’ 357.00 Freshwater 

20° 50’ 74° 55’ 238.00 Freshwater 

19° 12’ 74° 25’ 5,358.00 Freshwater 

18° 30’ 75° 25’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 


20°01’ 74°07’ 10,012.73 Freshwater 


20° 30’ 76° 10’ 430.00 Freshwater 



20°55’1’’ 74° 05’30’’ 6,478.00 Freshwater 

18° 10’ 75° 40’ 274.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

90 *Pawashi Tank Pawashi Sindhudurga 

91 Pawna Dam Maval Nagpur 

92 *Ped Reservoir Ped Sangli 

93 *Pedgaon Reservoir - Parbhani 

94 *Pethwadaj Dam* Kallali Nanded 

95 *Powai Lake East Mumbai - 

96 Puramapala & Kutha Arvi Dhule

97 

Tanks 

Pus Reservoir Wanwana Yavatmal 

98 Radhangiri Dam Radhangiri Kolhapur 

99 *Ramdara Reservoir - Osmanabad 

100 *Rankala Lake Kolhapar-Goa road - 

101 *Ranisavargaon Reservoir - Parbhani 

102 *Ratnagiri Mangrove - Ratnagiri 

103 *Rishi Lake - Washim 

104 Rukadi Tank Kolhapura Kolhapur 

105 Ruti-Tank Ruti Beed 

106 *Salim Ali Lake Aurangabad - 

107 *Shambhu Lake Dahivadi Satara 

108 Shelpada Tank Nawhar Thane 

109 Siddeshwar Reservoir Siddeshwar Parbhani 

110 *Siddhewadi Reservoir Ped Sangli 

111 Sindphana Tank Higewadi Beed 

112 Sirpiraji Rao Tank Mursud Kolhapur 

113 *Sirur Dam Sirur Nanded 

114 Spatne Tank Spatne Sholapur 

115 *Suki Dam - Jalgaon 

116 Talwar Tank Devigaon Beed 

117 *Talalwadi Reservoir - Parbhani 

118 Tanaji Sagar Panshet Pune 

119 Thirna Tank Thirna Osmanabad 

120 Totleadoh Dam (Pench Ramtek Nagpur 

Project) 

121 *Ujani Reservoir - Solapur 

122 Velhala Lake Velhala Jalgaon 

123 *Wadali Lake Amravati - 

124 Waghadi Reservoir Waghadi Yavatmal 

125 Warna Reservoir Warna Sangli 

126 Wau Tank Pimpelgaon Beed 

127 *Yamai Lake Khatav Satara 

128 *Yedshi Lake Yedshi Washim 

129 *Yeldari Reservoir Sangavi Parbhani 

130 *Yesaji Sagar Bhor (Taluka) Pune 

5 6 7 8 

16°02’ 70°42’ 1,049.00 Freshwater 


16°46’ 73°42’ 33.20 Freshwater 



19° 8’ 72° 54’ 210.00 Freshwater 

20° 40’ 74° 40’ 353.00 Freshwater 

19° 54’ 77° 40’ 800.00 Freshwater 

16° 24’ 73° 58’ 1,800.00 Freshwater 


16°42’ 74°14’ 690.00 Freshwater 



20° 29’ 77° 29’ - Freshwater 

18° 40’ 74° 10’ 100.00 Freshwater 

18° 48’ 75° 18’ 249.00 Freshwater 


17°59’ 74°53’ 16.18 Freshwater 

19° 50’ 73° 10’ 125.00 Freshwater 

19° 00’ 76° 40’ 3,400.00 Freshwater 

16°46’ 73°42’ 200.48 Freshwater 

19° 00’ 75° 23’ 294.00 Freshwater 

16° 40’ 74° 10’ 120.00 Freshwater 


18° 00’ 75° 25’ 129.00 Freshwater 

21°18’ 75°54’30” Freshwater 

18° 45’ 75° 10’ 145.00 Freshwater 


18° 18’ 73° 40’ 1,500.00 Freshwater 

18° 20’ 76° 05’ 640.00 Freshwater 


18° 03’ 74° 38’ 35,000.00 Freshwater 

20° 55’ 75° 50’ 0.50 Freshwater 

20°55’ 77°48’ - Freshwater 

21° 10’ 73° 40’ 658.00 Freshwater 

16° 38’ 74° 35’ 2,900.00 Freshwater 

18° 52’ 76° 25’ 346.00 Freshwater 

17°33’ 74°23’ - Freshwater 

20°22’ 77°14’ - Freshwater 

18° 43’ 76° 43’ 10,200.00 Freshwater 

18° 10’ 73° 50’ 3,800.00 Freshwater

MANIPUR 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Kharung Pat Sekmaijin Bishnupur 

2 Loktak Lake Moirange Bishnupur 

3 *Naorem 00pat Nambol Bishnupur 

4 Pumplen Pat Ithai Bishnupur 

5 Takmu Lake Thanga Bishnupur 


6 *Alongbikhok Pat - Thoubal 

7 *Heingang Pat - Imphal East 

8 *Ikop lake Imphal Thoubal 

9 Keibul Lamjao National Imphal - 

Park 

10 Kharung Lake Imphal Thoubal 

11 *Karam Pat - Thoubal 

12 *Loushi Pat - Thoubal 

13 Phumlen Lake Imphal Thoubal 

14 *Poirom Pat Imphal East 

15 *Sana Pat Lake - Bishnupur 

16 *Utra Pat - Bishnupur 

17 *Ushooipokpi Pat - Thoubal 

18 *Waithuou Pat, Punem Pat - Thoubal 

19 *Yankha Pat - Imphal East 


: 22,32,700 ha. 


: 17,41,800 ha. (78.01%) 

24. Total Wetland Area

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


24° 26’ 93° 49’ 26,600.00 Freshwater 






24° 31’ 93° 52’ 1,350.00 Freshwater 

24° 40’ 93° 57’ 2,160.00 Freshwater 

24° 15’- 25° 30’ 94° 00’-94° 15’ 2,557.50 Freshwater 



24° 15’- 25° 30’ 94° 00’-94° 15’ 3,188.00 Freshwater 


24°40’ 93°51’ 282.00 Freshwater 



24°41’ 93°58’ 455.00 Freshwater 


MEGHALAYA 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Umiam Lake - East Khasi Hill 


2 *Khandong Jayantia Hills - 

3 *Umiam Reservoir - Ri-Bhoi 

4 *Ward’s Lake Shillong Khasi Hills 

NAGALAND 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Baghty Makolkla and Akok Dokha 

2 Pimla & Dhansari Dimapur Kohima 


: 22,42,900 ha. 


9,49,600 ha. (42.34%) 


:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

25° 05’ 91° 09’ 400.00 Freshwater 


25°39’30” 91°43’51” 500.00 Freshwater 

25º 34’ 91º 32’ 2.88 Freshwater 


16,57,900 ha. 


9,22,200 ha. (55.62%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 



:

ORISSA 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Bhitarkanika mangrove - Kendrapara 

2 *Chilka Lake Balugaon Ganjam and Puri 

3 Dagara Chanda Dagara Balasore 

4 Kharasaha Kharashapur Balasore 

5 Musabila Bhamargaon Balasore 


6 Badjore Tank Bethati Mayurbhanj 

7 Balimela (Chitrakonda) Chitrakonda Koraput 

8 Bhanja Nagar Reservoir Bhanja Nagar Ganjam 

9 Bhaskal Reservoir Umer Kote Koraput 

10 *Chitrakonda Dam - - 

11 Dadraghati Rangathali Dhenkanal 

12 Daha Indagada Ganjam 

13 Daya-Ghargavi - Puri 

14 Derjanga Reservoir Angul Dhenkanal 

15 Dhanei Talao Chirkipada Ganjam 

16 Dumerbahl - Kalahandi 

17 Godahado - Ganjam 

18 *Hirakud Reservoir Sambalpur - 

19 Kalo Chuinpost Mayurbhanj 

20 Kanjhari - Keonjhar 

21 Kathjudi-Kushabhadra- 

Doab 

- Cuttack 

22 Khadkei Suleipur Mayurbhanj 

23 Kushabhadra-Bhargavi- 

Doab 

Renapur Puri 

24 Luna-Birupa-Brahmani- 

Doab 

- Cuttack 

25 Luna-Chitrotpale-Doab Nagaspur Cuttack 

26 Machakund Jalaput Koraput 


: 1,55,70,700 ha. 


58,13,600 ha. (58.14%) 


:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 





21° 45’ 87° 10’ 400.00 Freshwater 

21° 40’ 86° 50’ 173.00 Freshwater 

18° 02’ 82° 08’ 17,180.00 Freshwater 

14° 57’ 84° 35’ 300.00 Freshwater 

19° 43’ 82° 08’ 2,420.00 Freshwater 


21° 03’ 85° 17’ 759.00 Freshwater 

19° 50’ 84° 28’ 552.00 Freshwater 

20° 00 80° 20’ 5,800.00 Freshwater 

20° 51’ 85° 21’ 943.00 Freshwater 

19° 47’ 84° 35’ 687.00 Freshwater 

20° 51’ 82° 41’ 756.00 Freshwater 

19° 17’ 84° 37’ 243.00 Freshwater 

21°32’ 83°52’ 74,300.00 Freshwater 

21° 31’ 86° 27’ 534.00 Freshwater 

21° 35’ 85° 43’ 534.00 Freshwater 

20° 00’ 86° 20’ 32,175.00 Freshwater 

22° 08’ 86° 14’ 980.00 Freshwater 


20° 00’ 86° 20’ 1,450.00 Freshwater 

20° 00’ 86° 20’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

18° 27’ 02° 32’ 9,118.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

27 Mahanadi Delta - Cuttack 

28 Nesa Heragan Mayurbhanj 

29 Potteru Surulila-lampeta Koraput 

30 Ramiala Budhibil Dhenkanal 

31 Ramsagar/ Sitasagar Parlakhamandi Ganjam 

32 Remal - Keonjhar 

33 Rengali Dam - Dhenkanal 

34 Rengali Reservoir Rengali Dhenkanal 

35 Saipala Nawapara Kalahandi

36 Salandi Hagarh Balasore 

37 *Satkoshia Gorge 

Sanctuary 

Cuttack - 

38 Sundar Lampta Kalahandi 

39 Sunei Salchua Mayurbhanj 

40 *Upper Kolab Dam Koranga - 

41 West of Daya - Puri 

PUNJAB 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Aliwal Kotli - Amritsar 

2 Chamb Guroittnwali Ferozepur Ferozepur 

3 Chhangali Talao Changli Ferozepur 

4 Chhangli Chhamb Ferozepur Ferozepur 

5 *Dahdn-De-Chhamb Nawanshehar Jullunder 

6 Gaunspur Chamb Dasuya Hoshiarpur 

7 Jand wal Chhamb Jandwal Hoshiarpur 

8 *Jastibwal Jheel Ajnala Amritsar 

9 *Kahnuwan Chhamb Gurdaspur Gurudaspur 

10 *Keshpurmiani Jheel Gurdaspur Gurudaspur 

5 6 7 8 

20 ° 00’ 86° 20’ 5,000.00 Brackishwater 

22° 24’ 86° 08’ 169.00 Freshwater 

18° 12’ 82° 01’ 150.00 Freshwater 

21° 06’ 85° 35’ 1,669.00 Freshwater 

18° 45’ 84° 00’ 870.00 Freshwater 

21° 10’ 85° 56’ 198.00 Freshwater 

21°17’ 85°02’ 41,400.00 Freshwater 

22° 16’ 85° 02’ 35,300.00 Freshwater 

20° 48’ 82° 40’ 544.00 Freshwater 

21° 17’ 86° 17’ 3,182.00 Freshwater 

20° 33’ 84° 50’ - Freshwater 

20° 35’ 82° 35’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

21° 27’ 86° 27’ 682.00 Freshwater

18°47’ 82°27’ 15,380.00 Freshwater 



50,36,200 ha. 


ha. (6.12%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

: 3,08,400 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


30° 55’ 74° 35’ 100.00 Freshwater 

30° 55’ 74° 45’ 140.00 Freshwater 

30° 55’ 74° 35’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

31° 00’ 76° 05’ 300.00 Freshwater 

31° 45’ 75° 35’ 200.00 Freshwater 


31° 50’ 74° 45’ 55.00 Freshwater 

32° 00’ 75° 00’ 128.00 Freshwater 

32° 00’ 75° 20’ 408.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

11 Mand-Area-Beas River Budho-Barket Hoshiarpur 

12 *Mandbharthala Bharthala Nawanshehar 

13 Narayangarh Terkiana - Hoshiarpur 

14 Sita-Sagar Mansar Hoshiarpur 


15 *Bareta - Mansa 

16 Bhupinder Sagar Samana Patiala 

17 *Chohal Reservoir - - 

18 *Dholbaha Dam - Hoshiarpur 

19 *Dholbaha Reservoir Hoshiarpur - 

20 *Gobindgarh Khokhar - Sangrur 

21 Harike Lake Amritsar Amritsar 

22 *Hussainiwala Reservoir - Ferozepur 

23 *Januari Reservoir Hoshiarpur - 

24 *Kanjli Kanjli Kapurthala 

25 *Lahail Kalan - Sangrur 

26 *Lobana - Patiala 

27 *Malli Dam - Hoshiarpur 

28 *Mangrowal Dam - Hoshiarpur

29 Nangal Lake - Ropar 

30 *Rababsar - Kapurthala 

31 *Ranjit Sagar - Gurdaspur 

32 *Ropar Lake - Ropar 

5 6 7 8 

31° 40’ 75° 30’ 400.00 Freshwater 





30° 05’ 76° 10’ 1,280.00 Brackish water 



31° 5’ 77°0’ 57.00 Freshwater 


31° 13’ 75° 12’ 4,100.00 Freshwater 


31° 5’ 77°0’ 18.00 Freshwater 

31°25’ 75°22’ 183.00 Freshwater 








30° 55’ 76° 26’ 1,365.00 Freshwater

RAJASTHAN 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Didwana Salt Lake Didwana Nagaur 

2 *Phulera Salt Lake Jaipur - 

3 Rann Khar Bhawatra Jalore 

4 *Sambhar Lake Jaipur Jaipur 


5 Amarchand - - 

6 Ajgara Talao Ajgara Ajmer 

7 Anasagar Ajgara Ajmer 

8 Baghela Tank Udaipur Udaipur 

9 *Baghdara Lake - Udaipur 

10 Bankia Talao Bankia Chittorgarh 

11 Barda Kota Kota 

12 *Baretha Reservoir - - 

13 *Bharda - - 

14 Bhatemar Tank Bhatemar Udaipur 

15 Bheronpuri Lake Bheronpura Bundi 

16 Bhupal Sagar - Chittorgarh 

17 Borda Talao Borda Chittorgarh 

18 Buchara Kotputli Jaipur 

19 Chhaparwara Chhaparwara Jaipur 

20 Dingoli Talao Dingoli Chittorgarh 

21 Girdharpura Talao Girdharpura Kota 

22 Dugari Tank Dugari Bundi 

23 Foyssagar Ajgara Ajmer 

24 Gadola Talao Gadola Chittorgarh 

25 Gadri Reservoir Gangapur Bhilwara 

26 *Gambhiri Reservoir Chittorgarh Chittorgarh 

27 Gambvheri Talao Amia Joshi Chittorgarh 

28 *Gandhi Sagar lake Bhilwara - 

29 Govta Talao Ghangapur Bhilwara 


3,42,23,600 ha. 


32,48,800 ha. (9.3%) 


:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


27° 12’ 74°34’ 600.00 Brackishwater 




26° 00’ 75° 05’ 1,000.00 Freshwater 

26° 25’ 74° 35’ 384.00 Freshwater 

24° 45’ 74° 43’ 100.00 Freshwater 

24°40’ 73°86’ 180.00 Freshwater 

24° 54’ 74° 30’ 202.00 Freshwater 

25° 10’ 75° 58’ 480.00 Freshwater 



24° 35’ 74° 00’ 387.00 Freshwater 

25° 28’ 75° 36’ 100.00 Freshwater 

24° 25’ 74° 11’ 552.00 Freshwater 

24° 59’ 74° 34’ 202.00 Freshwater 

27° 32’ 75° 58’ 233.00 Freshwater 

26° 36’ 75° 15’ 4,888.00 Freshwater 

24° 59’ 73° 23’ 250.00 Freshwater 

24° 58’ 75° 48’ 300.00 Freshwater 

25° 40’ 75° 45’ 200.00 Freshwater 

26° 25’ 74° 35’ 128.00 Freshwater 

24° 35’ 74° 37’ 138.00 Freshwater 

25° 12’ 74° 06’ 1,001.00 Freshwater 

24°-42’ 74°-43’ 2,336.00 Freshwater 

24° 42’ 73° 43’ 1,308.00 Freshwater 

5°26’55’’ 74°38’00’’ - Freshwater 

25° 15’ 74° 03’ 1,213.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

30 Gund Talao Kishangarh Ajmer 

31 Hamir Kishanagarh - 

32 *Harike Lake - Chandigarh 

33 Hindoli Tank Hindoli Bundi 

34 *Jaisamand Lake - Udaipur 

35 Jakham Reservoir Haldu Khera Chittorgarh 

36 *Jawai Reservoir - Pali 

37 Kailana Jheel (Pratap & 

Takhat Sagar) 

Jodhpur Jodhpur

38 Kalakh Kalakh Jaipur 

39 *Kalian Lake - Jodhpur 

40 Kalkhoi Dansa Jaipur 

41 Kapasan Tank Kapasan 

42 *Khanpura Lake - 

43 *Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur 

44 *Kothari Reservoir Trivani Bhilwara 

45 *Khari Reservoir Asind Bhilwara 

46 *Lakhotia Lake Pali - 

47 Madhosagar Sikhari Jaipur 

48 Meja Reservoir Asind Bhilwara 

49 Mandal Talao Mandal Bhilwara 

50 Mansagar Jaipur Jaipur 

51 Murlia Talao Murlia Chittorgarh 

52 *Nandsamand Reservoir Nathwara Rajsamand 

53 Nahar Sagar Shahpura Bhilwara 

54 Net Sagar Bundi Bundi 

55 *Orai Reservoir Gopal Pur Chittorgarh 

56 *Perennial Pond Kolayatji Bikaner 

57 Phool Sagar Bundi Bundi 

58 Pichola Fatehsagar Udaipur Udaipur 

complex 

59 Pushkar-raj Sarovar Pushkar Ajmer 

60 Ramgarh Lake Ramgarh Jaipur 

61 Ranapratap Sagar Kota Kota 

62 *Sareli - - 

63 *Sardar Samand 

Reservoir 

Jodhpur Pali 

64 Sareri Reservoir Sareri Bhilwara 

65 Saropa Tank Saropa Chittorgarh 

66 *Som Kamla Amba Amba Dungarpur 

Reservoir 

67 Soniana Talao - Chittorgarh 

68 Tabiji Tank Tabiji Ajmer 

5 6 7 8 

26° 30’ 74° 55’ 200.00 Freshwater 

26° 00’ 74° 00’ - Freshwater 


25° 40’ 75° 45’ 200.00 Freshwater 

27° 42’ 75° 33’ 7,400.00 Freshwater 

24° 42’ 74° 43’ 10,000.00 Freshwater 

25°-6’ 73°-9’ 2,590.00 Freshwater 

16° 05’ 57° 03’ 1,600.00 Freshwater 

26° 28’ 75° 25’ 562.00 Freshwater 

20°56’5” 72°56’5” 194.25 Freshwater 

26° 28’ 76° 24’ 719.00 Freshwater 

24° 53’ 74° 18’ 331.00 Freshwater 

26°24’ 74°34’ - Freshwater 

27° 07’ 77° 29’ 2,873.00 Freshwater

25°-18’ 75°-0’ 785.00 Freshwater 

20° 42’ 74° 25’ 773.00 Freshwater 

25.08° 73.3° 173.38 Freshwater 

26° 53’ 76° 41’ 711.00 Freshwater 

25° 20’ 74° 38’ 25,894.00 Freshwater 

25° 27’ 74° 30’ 187.00 Freshwater 

26° 55’ 75° 48’ 112.00 Freshwater 

24° 42’ 74° 38’ 322.00 Freshwater 

25° 50’ 75° 47’ 407.00 Freshwater 

25° 50’ 74° 56’ 4976.00 Freshwater 

25° 25’ 75° 35’ 100.00 Freshwater 

25°02’ 74°49’ 640.00 Freshwater 

28°01’N, 73°22’ - Freshwater 

25° 25’ 75° 25’ 150.00 Freshwater 

24° 35’ 73° 49’ 1,480.00 Freshwater 

26° 30’ 74° 34’ 200.00 Freshwater 

27° 01’ 76° 03’ 1,260.00 Freshwater 

25° 05’ 75° 50’ 19,600.00 Freshwater 


25° 09’ 73°05’ 3,641.00 Freshwater 

25° 40’ 74° 45’ 14,161.00 Freshwater 

24° 58’ 74° 29’ 118.00 Freshwater 

23°-56’ 74°-02’ 3,618.00 Freshwater 

25° 38’ 74° 39’ 184.00 Freshwater 

26° 20’ 74° 35’ 128.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

69 Talwas Tank Talwas Bundi 

70 *Udaisagar Reservoir Udaipur Udaipur 

71 Umed Sagar - Bhilwara 

72 Verdha Bandha Vardha Bundi 

73 *West Banas Reservoir - Sirohi 

SIKKIM 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District

1 2 3 4 


1 Gurudengman Tso Yumchho North 


2 *Sacred Khechopalri Lake Sikkim 

Himalaya 

5 6 7 8 

25° 35’ 76° 00’ 100.00 Freshwater 

24°-33’ 73°-47’ 440.00 Freshwater 

25° 34’ 75° 54’ 2,296.00 Freshwater 

25° 31’ 75° 50’ 150.00 Freshwater 

24°-41’ 72°-57’ 940.00 Freshwater 


: 7,09,600 ha. 


: 5,84,100 ha. (82.31%) 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

- 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


27°22’24” 88°12’30” 1,200.00 Freshwater

TAMIL NADU 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Adyar Estuary Chennai - 

2 Chembarabakam Lake Poonthamali - 

3 Dushmandurai Kanchipuram Vellore 

4 Eloroon Mahendrapalli Nagapattinam 

5 Kole (Palakkal Kole and - Trichur 

Aranattukara Kole) 

6 Kovalam Lake - Kanchipuram 

7 Mahendravadi Sarovar Mahendravadi Vellore 

8 *Muthupet mangrove Muthupet Thanjavur & 

Nagapattinam 

9 *Pichavaram mangrove Chidambaram Cuddalore 

10 *Point Calimere Wildlife Nagappattinam Nagappattinam 

and Bird Sanctuary 

11 *Pulicut Lake Ponneri Kanchipuram 

12 Purasi Talao Cheyyar Vellore 

13 Vaigai Andipatti Madurai 

14 Vakkadai Mukkur Hissa Valapandal Vellore 

Tank 

15 Velayathur Tank - Vellore 

16 Vellayaru Nagapatinam Nagapattinam/ 

Tanjavur 

17 *Velachery Lake Velachery - 

18 Yedayanthittu Estuary Marakkanam Villupuram 


19 *Achankulam - Kanyakumari

20 *Acharavakkam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

21 *Achenkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

22 Adanur Tank Adanur Kanchipuram 

23 *Adaviyarkulam - Kanyakumari 

24 *Adayamadakulam - Kanyakumari 

1. Total Geographical Area : 1,30,058 sq.km. 

2. Forest Area : 22,871 sq.km. 

3. Total Wetland Area : ha. 

a. Natural Wetlands Area : 1,05,943.36 ha. 

b. Man-made Wetlands Area : ha. 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

13°00’ 80° 04’ 200.00 Brackishwater 

13° 00’ 80° 05’ 1,770.00 Freshwater 

12° 45’ 79° 30’ 767.00 Freshwater 


10° 20’-10° 76° 6’-76° 11’ 11,000.00 Freshwater 

35’ 


13° 00’ 79° 31’ 293.00 Freshwater 



10° 19' 79° 38' 38,500.00 Brackishwater 


12° 40’ 79° 35’ 182.00 Freshwater 

10° 37’ 70° 35’ 2,420.00 Freshwater 

12° 40’ 79° 35’ 263.00 Freshwater 

12° 40’ 79° 15’ 263.00 Freshwater 









- - 9.37 Freshwater

1 2 3 4 

25 Adiyoor Tank Adiyoor Ramanathapuram 

26 *Agastheeswara 

Mangalam Eri 

Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

27 *Agasthiankulam - Kanyakumari 

28 *Agastriarputhukulam - Kanyakumari 

29 *Akarankulam - Kanyakumari 

30 *Akathakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

31 Akkalur Tank Akkalur Ramanathapuram 

32 *Akkappankulam - Kanyakumari 

33 *Akkarapakham Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 

34 *Akkattukulam - Kanyakumari 

35 *Alamillai 

Thirumangalkulam 

- Kanyakumari 

36 Alagapuri Alagpuri Virudhunagar 

37 *Alamkottukulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

38 *Alamparakulam - Kanyakumari 

39 Alampatty Alampatty Virudhunagar 

40 *Alanganarkulam - Kanyakumari 

41 *Alangulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

42 *Alanjikulam - Kanyakumari 

43 *Alankottukattuvaikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

44 *Alankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

45 *Alankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

46 *Alanvilai 

Ammikkuzhikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

47 *Alanvilai 

Karungaliodamarichankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

48 *Alanvilai 

Odaimarichankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

49 *Alathoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

50 *Alathur Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

51 Alathur Citteri Alathur Vellore 

52 Alathur Hissa Tank Alathur Cuddalore 

53 *Alavankulam - Kanyakumari 

54 Alisoor Peria Eri Alisoor Kanchipuram 

55 Alividaithangi Alividaithangi Vellore 

56 Aliyar Reservoir Perumkundrum 

Malai 

Coimbatore 

57 *Alkyanakulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

58 Allalaperi Allalaperi Virudhunagar 

5 6 7 8 



































1 2 3 4 

59 *Alli Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

60 Alumoor Tank Lumoor Tiruchirapally 

61 Alundhikottai Tank Alundhikottai Ramanathapuram 

62 *Aluvilaikaniyakulam - Kanyakumari 

63 *Alwalkulam - Kanyakumari 

64 *Amanjankulam - Kanyakumari 

65 Amarambedu Tank Amarambedu Kanchipuram 

66 *Amaravathikulam - Kanyakumari 

(2 nos.) 

67 *Ambalathadykulam - Kanyakumari 

68 *Ambattur Eri Saidapet Chengalpattu

69 *Ambilikulam - Kanyakumari 

70 *Ammakulam - Kanyakumari 

71 *Amma Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

72 Ammikudi Tank Therukutheru Madurai 

73 *Amoor Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

74 *Amukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

75 *Amuvathikulam - Kanyakumari 

76 Anaikulam Anaikulam Virudhunagar 

77 *Anajhuvattikulam - Kanyakumari 

78 *Anakulam - Kanyakumari 

79 Anakkavoor Tank Anakkavoor Vellore 

80 *Anamkulam - Kanyakumari 

81 *Anandavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

82 Anandur Tank Anandur Ramanathapuram 

83 Ananoothimangalam Ananoothiman- Ramanathapuram 

Tank 

galam 

84 *Ananthakrishnankulam - Kanyakumari 

85 *Ananthavashikulam - Kanyakumari 

86 Anapathur Tank Anapathur Vellore 

87 *Anathakulam - Kanyakumari 

88 *Andarkulam 

Pillaikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

89 Andiveerar Thangal Eri Andveeran Kanchipuram 

Thangal 

90 Angadimangalam Tank Angadimangalam Madurai 

91 *Anjalkulam - Kanyakumari 

92 Anjukottai Tank Anjukottai Ramanathapuram 

93 *Annamalainagar Chidambram Cuddalore 

Reservoir 

94 Annamangalam Tank Annamangalam Tiruchirapally 

95 *Annikyakulam - Kanyakumari 

96 *Anniyakulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 109.00 Freshwater 









- - 0.21 Freshwater















13° 00’ 80° 06’ 109.00 Freshwater 




11° 24’ 79° 44’ 31.35 Freshwater 




1 2 3 4 

97 *Anoor I & II Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

98 *Annupattikulam - Kanyakumari 

99 Anuppanady Tank Anuppanady Madurai 

100 *Annuvettikulam - Kanyakumari 

101 *Annuvettikulam - Kanyakumari 

102 *Anthiyakulam - Kanyakumari 

103 *Anthuvattikulam - Kanyakumari 

104 *Anumaneri Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

105 *Anumankulam - Kanyakumari 

106 Appaneri Tank Appaneri Virudhunagar 

107 *Appanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

108 *Arappurakulam - Kanyakumari 

109 *Arasakulam - Kanyakumari 

110 Arasalur Tank Arasalur Tiruchirapally 

111 *Arasandakulam - Kanyakumari 

112 *Arasanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

113 *Arasankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

114 *Arasankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

115 Arasapatti Tank Arasapatti Madurai 

116 Arasathur Tank Arasathur Ramanathapuram 

117 Arasur Large Tank Arasur Kanchipuram 

118 *Ariyankadettikulam - Kanyakumari 

119 *Ariyakudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram

120 *Ariyavalamkodettikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

121 Ariyur Big Tank Ariyur Vellore 

122 Aroom Large Tank Aroom Kanchipuram 

123 Arumbarur Small 

Tank 

Arumbarur Tiruchirapally 

124 Arumboor Tank Arumboor Ramanathapuram 

125 *Arumkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

126 Arumugamangalam Arumugamangalam Tirunelveli 

Tank 

Tank 

127 *Arungulam Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

128 *Arunoothukulam - Kanyakumari 

129 Arur Tank Arur Salem 

130 *Athamozhi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

131 *Athanimarkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

132 Athani Tank Svarakottai Ramanathapuram 

133 Athanoor Tank Athanoor Ramanathapuram 

134 *Athichanputhur 

Perunkulam 

Thovalai Kanyakumari 

135 *Athikulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 



















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 108.00 Freshwater 


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 105.00 Freshwater 





13° 00’ 80° 06’ 146.00 Freshwater 














1 2 3 4 

136 *Athimanam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

137 *Athimanjeripet Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

138 Athiyur Tank Athiyur Tiruchirapally 

139 Athur Tank Suganthalai Mela 

Athur 

Sendamangalam 

Athur Kaspa 

Kayal Pattinam 

North 

Tirunelveli 

140 *Attakulam - Kanyakumari 

141 *Atthanimarkulam - Kanyakumari 

142 *Attu - Kanyakumari 

143 *Attukulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

144 Attur Big Tank Attur Kanchipuram 

145 *Avanthakulam - Kanyakumari 

146 *Avathandai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

147 Avaniyapuram Tank Avaniyapuram Madurai 

148 *Avayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

149 *Avinnakulam - Kanyakumari 

150 *Avoor Ponneri Tiruvallur 

151 Ayanallur Large Tank Ayanallur Kanchipuram 

152 Ayyalur Tank Ayyalur Tiruchirapally 

153 *Ayyanallur Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur 

154 *Ayyanarkulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

155 *Ayyanarpudukulam - Kanyakumari 

156 *Ayyanpattikulam - Kanyakumari 

157 Ayyapatti Tank Ayyapatti Ramanathapuram 

158 *Ayyappanarkulam - Kanyakumari 

159 *Azhaganerikulam - Kanyakumari 

160 *Azhagankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

161 *Azhayanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

162 *Azhiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

163 *Bagavatikulam - Kanyakumari 

164 Balyee Ammal Eri T.Pettai Tiruchirapally 

165 *Bambapattaikulam - Kanyakumari

166 *Beemaneri Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

167 Bannavadu Thottam Banavadu Kanchipuram 

Hissa Thangal and 

Banavadu Thottam 

Hisa Managammal Eri 

Thottam 

168 Bhavani Sagar 

Reservoir 

Coimbatore - 

169 *Bhoothakulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 









13° 00’ 80° 06’ 121.00 Freshwater 







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 179.00 Freshwater 
















13° 00’ 80° 06’ 666.00 Freshwater 

11° 28’ 77° 06’ 7,876.00 Freshwater


1 2 3 4 

170 *Bhutharathankulam - Kanyakumari 

171 *Bhuthapandiyan Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

172 Big Tank Adamur Tiruchirapally 

173 *Big Kenikkarai Orani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

174 *Bogalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

175 *Boothapandiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

176 Brahmanapatti Tank Brahmanapatti Ramanathapuram 

177 *Budur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

178 *Chadayankulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

179 *Chadayankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

(2 nos.) 

180 *Chadiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

181 *Chaenthanaserikulam - Kanyakumari 

182 *Chakarivilaimanikulam - Kanyakumari 

183 *Chalapathukulam - Kanyakumari 

184 *Chamanchankulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

185 *Chammankulam - Kanyakumari 

186 *Champakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

187 *Chandrankulam - Kanyakumari 

188 *Chanianeerkulam - Kanyakumari 

189 *Chankanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

190 *Charottukulam - Kanyakumari 

191 *Chemanchikulam - Kanyakumari 

192 *Chemantharkulam - Kanyakumari 

193 *Chembanarakulam - Kanyakumari 

194 *Chembanathukulam - Kanyakumari 

195 *Chemdarikulam - Kanyakumari 

196 *Chemmankulam - Kanyakumari 

197 Chemtarabakkam Lake Pondamalli Kanchipuram 

198 *Chenbagaramanputhoor Thovalai Kanyakumari 

Kulam 

199 *Chenbankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

200 *Chengalpet Tank Chengalpet Kanchipuram 

201 *Chenkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

202 *Chenthancherikulam - Kanyakumari 

203 *Chenthiakulam - Kanyakumari 

204 *Cherikulam - Kanyakumari 

205 *Cherkottkulam - Kanyakumari 

206 *Cherkulam - Kanyakumari 

207 *Chernkottavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

208 *Cheruchettyandarkulam - Kanyakumari 

209 *Cherukottukulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 




























13° 00’ 80° 06’ 2,332.00 Freshwater 













1 2 3 4 

210 *Cherukuzhikonapottakulam - Kanyakumari 

211 *Cheruppankottuvenkulam - Kanyakumari 

212 *Cheruthamarkulam - Kanyakumari 

213 *Chettayarkulam - Kanyakumari 

214 Chettiklurichi Big 

Chettikurichi Virudhunagar 

Tank 

215 *Chettikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

216 *Chettipadukonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

217 *Chettivilaivettithiruthu - Kanyakumari

(3 nos.) 

218 *Chettuvankottpillaikulam - Kanyakumari 

219 *Chettyandarkulam - Kanyakumari 

220 *Chettykulam - Kanyakumari 

221 *Chidambaram Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

222 *Chinambedu Ponneri Tiruvallur 

223 *Chinnakulam - Kanyakumari 

224 *Chinnankulam - Kanyakumari 

225 *Chinna Kollukudi Patti Tirupathur Sivagangai 

Tank 

226 Chinnasalam Tank Chinnasalam Cuddalore 

227 *Chirakulam - Kanyakumari 

228 Chitheri Poolampady Tiruchirapally 

229 *Chitrangudi Tank Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram 

230 Chittar-I Kuzhithurai Virudhunagar 

231 Chittar-II Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari 

232 *Chittarkottai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

233 *Cholavaram (Sholavaram) Ponneri Tiruvallur 

234 *Choorakulam - Kanyakumari 

235 *Coovam Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

236 *Cottukulam - Kanyakumari 

237 *Dakkarakulam - Kanyakumari 

238 *Damal Tank Damal Kanchipuram 

239 *Daniel Mahadwankulam - Kanyakumari 

240 *Deerakeralappanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

241 *Deriyandankulam - Kanyakumari 

242 Devadanam Tank Devadanam Kanchipuram 

243 *Devakulam - Kanyakumari 

244 *Devanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

245 *Deviakulam - Kanyakumari 

246 *Devilankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

247 *Devipattinam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

248 *Devipattinam Pilaiyar Koil 

Oorani 

Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

5 6 7 8 
















10° 07’ 78° 35’ 6.30 Freshwater 




9° 20’ 78° 30’ 60.00 Freshwater 

08° 28’ 77° 19’ 293.00 Freshwater 

08° 26’ 77° 15’ 414.00 Freshwater 







13° 00’ 80° 06’ 1,513.00 Freshwater 




13° 00’ 80° 06’ 302.00 Freshwater 







1 2 3 4 

249 *Devipattinam 

Sudukattu Oorani 


250 Echur Tank Echur Vellore 

251 *Edakkulam - Kanyakumari 

252 *Edakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

253 Edanachi Edanachi Kanchipuram 

254 *Edapathakulam - Kanyakumari 

255 *Edayankulam - Kanyakumari 

256 *Edayarpakkam Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

257 Eguvarpalayam 

Odapperi 

Eguvarpalayam Kanchipuram 

258 *Ekanapuram Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

259 *Ekkadakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

260 Elangadu Tank Elangadu Vellore 

261 *Elanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 

262 Elanthiraikondam Elanthiraikondam 

Virudhunagar 

263 *Elayamparkulam - Kanyakumari 

264 *Eliankonattukulam - Kanyakumari 

265 *Eluppakadattykulam - Kanyakumari 

266 *Elyankulam - Kanyakumari

267 *Endathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

268 Enddur Periya Eri Endur Kanchipuram 

269 *Ennakulam - Kanyakumari 

270 Elur Tank Elur Salem 

271 Eluvankottai Tank Eluvankottai Ramanathapuram 

272 *Erampattikulam - Kanyakumari 

273 *Erankollikulam - Kanyakumari 

274 *Erankottaikulam - Kanyakumari 

275 *Erattakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

276 *Eravikulam - Kanyakumari 

277 *Eriyakulam - Kanyakumari 

278 Eriyur Big Tank Eriyur Ramanathapuram 

279 *Erumbanakulam - Kanyakumari 

280 *Esalipurkulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

281 *Esaloorkulam - Kanyakumari 

282 *Esanai Tank Esanai Tiruchirapally 

283 *Esvankulam - Kanyakumari 

284 *Eswarankulam - Kanyakumari 

285 *Ethamparakulam - Kanyakumari 

286 *Ettivayal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

287 *Eyainainarkulam - Kanyakumari 

288 *Ezhiyoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 





13° 00’ 80° 06’ 304.00 Freshwater 




13° 00’ 80° 06’ 129.00 Freshwater 











13° 00’ 80° 06’ 202.00 Freshwater 




- - 0.58 Freshwater

















1 2 3 4 

289 Gidangal Tank Gidangal Cuddalore 

290 *Gnanambalkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

291 *Gnarakulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

292 *Gnarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

293 *Gnarattuelanjiakulam - Kanyakumari 

294 *Gnarettuvalankenathkulam 

- Kanyakumari 

295 *Gnarottukaniyankulam - Kanyakumari 

296 Gollapatti Periakulam Periagollapatty Virudhunagar 

297 Gomapangi puram New Gomapangipuram Virudhunagar 

Tank 

298 Gomuktmanadhi Kallakurichi Villupuram 

299 Govindamangalam Tank Govindamangalam Ramanathapuram 

300 *Govindavadu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

301 *Gudalur Thangal Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

302 Gudappakkam Tank Gudapppakkam Kanchipuram 

303 *Guduvancheri Eri Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur 

304 Gulf of Mannar Marine Palk bay - 

National Park 

305 Gunduperumbedu Tank Gunduperumbedu Kanchipuram 

306 *Idakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

307 *Idakulam - Kanyakumari 

308 *Idayakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

309 *Idayankulam - Kanyakumari 

310 *Ikiyan - Kanyakumari 

311 *Ilampalakulam - Kanyakumari 

312 *Ilanjambur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

313 *Illanchikulam - Kanyakumari 

314 *Illupakulam - Kanyakumari 

315 *Illupparayarkulam - Kanyakumari 

316 *Ilumichanparaikulam - Kanyakumari 

317 *Immarankulam - Kanyakumari 

318 *Inamkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

319 *Irattakulam - Kanyakumari 

320 Iraviamangalam Tank Iraviamangalam Ramanathapuram 

321 *Irumbedu Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

322 Irundirai Irundirai Virudhunagar 

323 *Iylikottukulam - Kanyakumari 

324 *Iyyankulammukkattu- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

325 Jamberi Tank Vairichettipalayam Tiruchirapally 

326 *Kadamamkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 










11° 47’ 79° 59’ 745.00 Freshwater 




13° 00’ 80° 06’ 664.00 Freshwater 


8° 48’- 78° 10’ 9° 20’-79° 15’ - Brackishwater 

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 143.00 Freshwater 



















- - 4.93 Freshwater



1 2 3 4 

327 *Kadalmangalam Eri I & 

II 

Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

328 *Kadankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

329 *Kadanpathukulam - Kanyakumari 

330 *Kadayanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

331 *Kadettykulam - Kanyakumari 

332 *Kadukallur Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 

333 *Kafukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

334 *Kaithakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

335 *Kaithakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

336 *Kaithottukulam - Kanyakumari 

337 *Kaiyalakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

338 *Kakathankuzhukulam - Kanyakumari 

339 *Kakkandankulam - Kanyakumari 

340 *Kakkalur Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

341 Kalari Kalari Ramanathapuram 

342 Kalathur Tank Kalathur Ramanathapuram 

343 Kalavaneri Kalavaneri Virudhunagar 

344 *Kalavarkulam - Kanyakumari 

345 *Kalavatukulam - Kanyakumari 

346 *Kalayanur Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

347 *Kalaythankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

348 Kalianagari Tank Kalianagari Ramanathapuram 

349 *Kalikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

350 Kalipattu Tank Puthagaram Kanchipuram 

351 Kaliveli Tank Marakkanam - 

352 Kaliyur Big Tank Kaliyur Vellore 

353 *Kalkattu Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

354 *Kalkulam Taluk: - Kanyakumari 

355 *Kalkulam (2 nos) - Kanyakumari 

356 *Kalladichankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

357 *Kallamparakulam - Kanyakumari 

358 *Kallankozhikulam - Kanyakumari 

359 *Kallikattukulam - Kanyakumari 

360 *Kallipattu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

361 *Kallupattakulam - Kanyakumari 

362 *Kalpatti Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

363 *Kalpatyakulam - Kanyakumari 

364 *Kalvettankuttinkulam - Kanyakumari 

365 *Kalvettankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

366 *Kalvikulam - Kanyakumari 

367 *Kamankottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

368 *Kamathiyoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 
























13° 00’ 80° 06’ 1,394.00 Freshwater 



















1 2 3 4 

369 Kambikudi Kambikudi Virudhunagar 

370 *Kamblikulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

371 Kammalampoondy Tank Kammalam- Kanchipuram 

poondy Poondy 

372 Kammapatti Kammapatti Virudhunagar 

373 *Kamudakudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

374 *Kanakulam Chettykulam - Kanyakumari

375 Kanapaddi Tank Kanapaddi Tiruchirapally 

376 *Kanchiyaikulam - Kanyakumari 

377 Kandadevi Tank Kandadevi Ramanathapuram 

378 *Kandamangalam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

379 *Kandanchira Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

380 *Kandankulam - Kanyakumari 

381 *Kandannarayankulam - Kanyakumari 

382 *Kandukirishi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

383 *Kandukondankulam - Kanyakumari 

384 *Kangulam - Kanyakumari 

385 *Kaniyankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

386 Kanjirangulam Tank Mudukulathur Ramanathapuram 

387 *Kanjirankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

388 *Kankulam - Kanyakumari 

389 *Kannamangalamkulam - Kanyakumari 

390 *Kannamangalathukulam - Kanyakumari 

391 *Kannammakuthirchakulam - Kanyakumari 

392 *Kannamparakulam - Kanyakumari 

393 *Kannan 

Pottalodaimarichankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

394 *Kannancherikulam - Kanyakumari 

395 *Kannandankonamponthu- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

396 *Kannankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

397 *Kannanmangalam Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

398 *Kannanparaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

399 *Kannanpathi Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

400 Kannanpottalvettithiruthu- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

401 Kannanvarakulam - Kanyakumari 

402 *Kannapottalmadyalkulam - Kanyakumari 

403 *Kannattukulam - Kanyakumari 

404 Kannavarakulam - Kanyakumari 

405 *Kannigaiper Eri Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 

406 *Kannikannimarkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

407 *Kannimakurdukulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 



13° 00’ 80° 06’ 103.00 Freshwater 















9° 20’ 78° 30’ 62.20 Freshwater 






















1 2 3 4 

408 *Kannimulakundu - Kanyakumari 

409 *Kannottukulam - Kanyakumari 

410 *Kannukulam - Kanyakumari 

411 *Kanukarakulam - Kanyakumari 

412 Kapamea Tank Thevthirlpperi Tirunelveli 

413 Kappalur Tank Kappalur Ramanathapuram 

414 *Kappiyaraputhukulam - Kanyakumari 

415 *Kappiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 

416 *Karaikandarkudikulam - Kanyakumari 

417 *Karakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

418 Karapattu Tank Karapattu Vellore 

419 *Karichakulam - Kanyakumari 

420 *Karikili Tank - Chengleput 

421 *Karikudikulam - Kanyakumari 

422 Karisalkulam Muruganeri Madurai 

423 Karisalkulam Illupaikulam Madurai 

424 Karivalamvan Karivalamvan Tirunelveli 

425 *Karottukulam - Kanyakumari 

426 *Karottunaduvattukulam - Kanyakumari

427 *Karottupendurakulam - Kanyakumari 

428 *Karrakulam - Kanyakumari 

429 *Karumpatturkulam - Kanyakumari 

430 *Karunanikottukulam - Kanyakumari 

431 *Karundikulam - Kanyakumari 

432 Karungulam Karungulam Tirunelveli 

433 Karungulam and Palayankottai Tirunelveli 

Sengulam Tanks 

434 *Karunkulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

435 *Karunkulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

436 Karuppakurichi Tank Karuppakurichi Tirunelveli 

437 *Karuppottukulam - Kanyakumari 

438 *Karyakulam - Kanyakumari 

439 Kasba Sri Moolakerai Tirunelveli 

440 Kasikkuvaithan Kasikkuvaithan Tirunelveli 

441 Kattakulam Kattakulam Madurai 

442 Kattanur Kattanur Virudhunagar 

443 *Kattatukulam - Kanyakumari 

444 Kattavoor Hisa Tank Kattavoor Kanchipuram 

445 *Katteri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

446 *Kattimankuttuezhakulam - Kanyakumari 

447 *Kattivarottukulam - Kanyakumari 

448 *Kattiyodukulam - Kanyakumari 

449 *Kattukulam (9 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 





11° 35’ 79° 00’ 742.00 Freshwater 








12° 32’ 79° 52’ 50.00 Freshwater 


10° 03’ 77° 05’ 261.00 Freshwater 

10° 03’ 77° 05’ 112.00 Freshwater 


















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 181.00 Freshwater 



13° 00’ 80° 06’ 160.00 Freshwater 






1 2 3 4 

450 *Kattupakathkulam - Kanyakumari 

451 *Kattuvakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

452 *Kauerkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

453 *Kavadikulam Thankkuzhi - Kanyakumari 

454 *Kavarkulam - Kanyakumari 

455 *Kavikulam - Kanyakumari 

456 Kavinadu Periakulam Kavinadu Pudukottai 

Melavattam 

457 *Kavookulam - Kanyakumari 

458 *Kavukulam - Kanyakumari 

459 *Kazhuvanparakulam - Kanyakumari 

460 *Kealambar Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

461 *Keelakeelkudi Kanmoi Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 

462 *Keelakodumalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

463 *Keelakottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

464 *Keelaparithiyur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

465 *Keelarakkulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

466 *Keelaramanathu Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

467 Keelaraoakularaman Keelaraoa- Virudhunagar 

kularaman 

468 *Keelasirupodu Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

469 *Keerakulam - Kanyakumari 

470 Keerandy Tank Keerandy Tiruchirapally 

471 Keerpaakkam Tank Keerpakkam Kanchipuram 

472 Keethirambakkam Sanchi 

Tank 

Keethirambakkam Kanchipuram 

473 Keethirambakkam Tank Keethirambakkam Kanchipuram 

474 *Keezapalayanpallath- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

475 *Keezavilaithunnakulam - Kanyakumari 

476 *Keezhakannankulam - Kanyakumari

477 *Keezhamankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

478 *Keezhamavadikulam - Kanyakumari 

479 *Keezhameruthoorperumkulam 

- Kanyakumari 

480 *Keezhapeyodukulam - Kanyakumari 

481 *Keezharkottikulam - Kanyakumari 

482 *Keezhavannankulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

483 *Keezhavannankulam - Kanyakumari 

484 *Keezhpulayanpallanthikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

485 *Kenikkarai Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

5 6 7 8 






















13° 00’ 80° 06’ 146.00 Freshwater 

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 622.00 Freshwater 

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 137.00 Freshwater 








- - 2.81 Freshwater





1 2 3 4 

486 *Keralapuram 

Peruneerkulam 

- Kanyakumari 

487 *Keriyamangalathikulam - Kanyakumari 

488 Kilaravayal Kilaravayal Pudukottai 

489 Kilavaneri Kilavaneri Virudhunagar 

490 Kilumathur Tank Kilumathur Tiruchirapally 

491 Kilvannak Kambadi Tank Kilvannak 

Kambadi 

Madurai 

492 *Kirandai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

493 *Kirayarakulam - Kanyakumari 

494 *Kizhvalam & Kinar Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

495 Kodal Mangalam Tank Kodalmangalam Kanchipuram 

496 *Kodamankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

497 *Kodancherkulam - Kanyakumari 

498 *Kodankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

499 Kodidulam Tank Kodidulam Pudukottai 

500 *Kodupakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

501 *Koduvakarakulam - Kanyakumari 

502 *Koduvayakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

503 *Kokilimedu Kalpakkam Kanchipuram 

504 Kokkalancheri Kokkalancheri Madurai 

505 *Kokkotukulam - Kanyakumari 

506 *Kokkudikulam - Kanyakumari 

507 *Kolakulam - Kanyakumari 

508 Kolar Big Tank Kolathur Kanchipuram 

509 Kolar Large Tank Lolur Kanchipuram 

510 *Kolathur Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

511 *Kolikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

512 *Korapattu Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

513 *Kollakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

514 *Kollamkulam - Kanyakumari 

515 Kollankondam (Imam) Kollankondam Virudhunagar 

516 *Kollankulam - Kanyakumari 

517 *Kollankunathukulam - Kanyakumari 

518 *Kollankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

519 *Kollanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

520 *Kollayikulam - Kanyakumari 

521 *Kollenkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

522 Kollundampattu Tank Kollundampattu Madurai 

523 *Kolur (Big & Small) Ponneri Tiruvallur 

524 *Kompakotukulam - Kanyakumari 

525 Konerikuppan Ponneri Kongaraimam Kanchipuram 

Tank 

Battu

5 6 7 8 










13° 00’ 80° 06’ 140.00 Freshwater 









10° 03’ 77° 05’ 152.00 Freshwater 




13° 00’ 80° 06’ 102.00 Freshwater 

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 200.00 Freshwater 
















13° 00’ 80° 06’ 136.00 Freshwater

1 2 3 4 

526 *Konasamuthiran Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

527 Kongaraimam Battu Tank Kongaraimam 

Battu 

Kanchipuram 

528 *Koonathankattuvilaikuzhi - Kanyakumari 

529 *Koonthakulam Tank - Tirunelveli 

530 Kooram Big Tank Koram 

Chitteri 

Kooram Kanchipuram 

531 *Koothankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

532 *Koozhivahalayyakulam - Kanyakumari 

533 *Korakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

534 Korampallam Korampallam 

Marvan Madam 

Ayyandhapuram 

Mullakadu 

Meelavittan 

Kulayankaraisal 

Tirunelveli 

535 *Korandankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

536 Korkai Korkai Tirunelveli 

537 Korkonam Big Tank Korkonam Vellore 

538 *Kothandasamarkulam - Kanyakumari 

539 Kothandavadi Big 

Tank 

Kothandavadi Vellore 

540 *Kothanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

541 *Kothan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

542 *Kothayarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

543 Kothidal Tank Kothidal Ramanathapuram 

544 *Kottachmakulam - Kanyakumari 

545 Kottairuppu Tank Kottairuppu Ramanathapuram 

546 Kottakachiendal Kottakachiendal Virudhunagar 

547 *Kottankulam - Kanyakumari 

548 *Kottapuzhithanikulam 

(3 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

549 *Kottaramkulam - Kanyakumari 

550 *Kottuparakulam - Kanyakumari 

551 *Kottur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

552 Kovalai Big Tank Kovalai Vellore 

553 *Kovilkulamthamarakulam 

- Kanyakumari 

554 Kovilur Tank Kovilur Vellore 

555 *Kozhiyalam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

556 *Krishnankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

557 *Krishnasamudrarakulam - Kanyakumari 

558 *Krishnasamudram Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

5 6 7 8 


13° 00’ 80° 06’ 104.00 Freshwater 

- - 0.94 Freshwater

8° 28’ 77° 44’ 77.00 Freshwater 

13° 00’ 80° 06’ 246.00 Freshwater 





























1 2 3 4 

559 *Kudapakkam or 

Perumbakkam Eri 

Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

560 *Kudumiyankottuthan- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

561 *Kulapattukulam - Kanyakumari 

562 *Kulatharkulam - Kanyakumari 

563 *Kulavipatti Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

564 Kullur Sandal Madurai - 

565 Kumalur Tank Kumalur Pudukottai 

566 *Kumarakovil Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari

567 Kumaralingapuram Meesalore Virudhunagar 

568 *Kumarankaniyakulam - Kanyakumari 

569 *Kumarankulam - Kanyakumari 

570 *Kumarasakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

571 *Kumaripathukulam - Kanyakumari 

572 *Kumarisalapathukulam - Kanyakumari 

573 *Kumbakenattukulam - Kanyakumari 

574 *Kummukottai Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

575 *Kumppakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

576 Kunamangalam Tank Madaholiramanickam 

and 

Kunamangalam 

Cuddalore 

577 *Kundankulam (25 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

578 *Kunjankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

579 *Kunkuzha 

Akkiyadikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

580 *Kunnanerkuzhiottukulam - Kanyakumari 

581 *Kunnathukulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

582 *Kunnathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

583 Kunnavakkam Large Tank Kunnavakkam Kanchipuram 

584 *Kunttuhukulam - Kanyakumari 

585 *Kurakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

586 *Kuram Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

587 *Kuramarkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

588 *Kurandikulam - Kanyakumari 

589 *Kurangakulam - Kanyakumari 

590 *Kurikkulam - Kanyakumari 

591 *Kurinjikulam - Kanyakumari 

592 *Kurinthancikulam - Kanyakumari 

593 *Kurnikottukattukulam - Kanyakumari 

594 *Kurukuttikulam - Kanyakumari 

595 Kurumavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

596 *Kurumbarai I & II Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

5 6 7 8 






9° 32’ 77° 58’ - Freshwater 



















12° 00’ 80° 06’ 554.00 Freshwater 














1 2 3 4 

597 *Kurunthankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

598 *Kurunthatti Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

599 *Kurunthenkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

600 *Kuruthikulam - Kanyakumari 

601 *Kusavankulam - Kanyakumari 

602 Kuthanoor Big Tank Kuthanoor Vellore 

603 *Kutharakulam - Kanyakumari 

604 *Kuthikulam - Kanyakumari 

605 *Kuthirakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

606 *Kuthirapanchankulam - Kanyakumari 

607 *Kuthiyakulam - Kanyakumari 

608 *Kuttakavakulam - Kanyakumari 

609 *Kuttikulam - Kanyakumari 

610 *Kuttuvankulam - Kanyakumari 

611 *Kuzavankonathukullam - Kanyakumari 

612 *Kuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

613 *Kuzhipallamvadakaikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

614 *Kuzhipallamvadakaio- - Kanyakumari 

daimarichankulam 

615 *Kuzhipanthandalam Eri 

I & II 

Chengalpattu Kanchipuram

616 *Lakshmikulam - Kanyakumari 

617 Landai Landai Ramanathapuram 

618 *Lekshimiputhukulam - Kanyakumari 

619 *Lathoor Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 

620 M.Sengulam Tank M.Sengulam Madurai 

621 *Machakulam - Kanyakumari 

622 *Macherikulam - Kanyakumari 

623 *Machimarkulam - Kanyakumari 

624 *Machukulam - Kanyakumari 

625 *Madaathuvattukulam - Kanyakumari 

626 Madakulam Tank Madakulam Madurai 

627 *Madakulam - Kanyakumari 

628 *Madapurattukulam - Kanyakumari 

629 *Madavilagam Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 

630 *Madhavaram and Chennai Thiruvallur 

Manali Jheel 

631 *Madhavanoor Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

632 *Madhavanoor Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

633 Madiramangan Tank Perumalpatti Tirunelveli 

634 *Madiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 
























10° 03’ 77° 05’ 140.00 Freshwater 

- - 2.91 Freshwater









13° 15’ 80° 00’ 28.33 Freshwater 





1 2 3 4 

635 *Madurai Agricultural 

College and Research 

Institute Campus (Wetland 

in) 

- Madurai 

636 *Madurantakam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

637 *Maduvakulam - Kanyakumari 

638 *Madyaiduvakulam - Kanyakumari 

639 *Magarankulam - Kanyakumari 

640 *Mahadevanpattukulam - Kanyakumari 

641 Maikudy Maikudy Madurai 

642 *Majadikulam - Kanyakumari 

643 *Malamankottuayanarkulam 

- Kanyakumari 

644 *Malamkottathupottakuzhi - Kanyakumari 

645 *Malamvadikulam - Kanyakumari 

646 *Malaranchakuzhi - Kanyakumari 

647 *Malavilanagakulam - Kanyakumari 

648 *Malayankulam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

649 Mallal Mallal Ramanathapuram 

650 *Mallankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

651 *Mallikottukulam - Kanyakumari 

652 *Mambukulam - Kanyakumari 

653 *Manakattuvannankulam - Kanyakumari 

654 *Manakulam - Kanyakumari 

655 *Manakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

656 *Manalacharikulam - Kanyakumari 

657 *Manalikulam - Kanyakumari 

658 *Manaliyarakonam 

Illupakulam 

- Kanyakumari 

659 *Manambakulam - Kanyakumari 

660 *Manamkonathuvanankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

661 *Manamutikulam - Kanyakumari 

662 *Manaththittaikulam - Kanyakumari

663 *Manavoor Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

664 *Manchadikulam - Kanyakumari 

665 *Manchakavikulam - Kanyakumari 

666 *Manchirakulam - Kanyakumari 

667 *Mancottukulam - Kanyakumari 

668 *Mandalamanickam Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 

Kanmoi 

669 Mangalaguidi Tank Mangalaguidi Ramanathapuram 

670 Mangulam Mangulam Virudhunagar 

5 6 7 8 

09° 54’ 78° 54’ 57.40 Freshwater 






10° 03’ 77° 05’ 130.00 Freshwater 






























1 2 3 4 

671 *Manichapathurikulam - Kanyakumari 

672 Manimuktnwdhi Kallakurichi Cuddalore 

673 Maninuthar Aneasanudrar Tirunelveli 

674 *Mankaraichenthamari- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

675 *Mankkaraiputhukulam - Kanyakumari 

676 *Mankulam - Kanyakumari 

677 *Mankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

678 Mannarkottai Mannarkottai Virudhunagar 

679 *Mannimarkuzhi - Kanyakumari 

680 *Mannur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

681 Manoor Big Tank Manoor Tirunelveli 

682 *Manthakulam - Kanyakumari 

683 *Mantharamputhoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

684 Maraiyur Maraiyur Virudhunagar 

685 *Marakavookulam - Kanyakumari 

686 Maramangalam Tank Maramangalam Salem 

687 *Maramparampu - Kanyakumari 

688 *Marankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

689 *Maravoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

690 *Marayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

691 *Marikka Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

692 *Marudham Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

693 *Marungoor Periakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

694 Marungoor Tank Marungoor Ramanathapuram 

695 Maruthadu Tank Maruthadu Vellore 

696 Marutham Periakulam Kalingapatti Tirunelveli 

697 *Maruthankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

698 *Maruthankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

699 *Maruvoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

700 *Maryyankulam - Kanyakumari 

701 *Mathakulam - Kanyakumari 

702 *Matharankulam - Kanyakumari 

703 *Mathirakulam - Kanyakumari 

704 *Mattiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

705 *Mavadikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

706 *Mavazhikulam - Kanyakumari 

707 *Mayakulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

708 *Mecherikulam - Kanyakumari 

709 *Mecottukulam - Kanyakumari 

710 *Medhut Large Tank Ponneri Tiruvallur 

711 *Meelakattukulam - Kanyakumari 

712 *Meelamankuzhi - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 


11° 47’ 79° 50’ 360.00 Freshwater

11° 47’ 79° 59’ 940.00 Freshwater 








































1 2 3 4 

713 *Meelapupradukulam - Kanyakumari 

714 *Mekkarakulam - Kanyakumari 

715 *Mekkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

716 *Melachettikulam - Kanyakumari 

717 *Melakadukkarakulam - Kanyakumari 

718 *Melakannarkulam - Kanyakumari 

719 *Melakarunkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

720 Melakkarandaio Tank Meaakkarandai Tirunelveli

721 *Melakoilarkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

722 *Melakulam - Kanyakumari 

723 Melamadai Melamadai Virudhunagar 

724 *Melamaruthooraperum- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

725 *Melandankulam - Kanyakumari 

726 Melanesaneri Melanesaneri Madurai 

727 *Melapallathukulam - Kanyakumari 

728 Melaparuthiyur Melaparuthiyur Virudhunagar 

729 *Melaramanathi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

730 *Melaseethai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

731 Melaserikulam 

Melaserikulam Sivagangai 

Periakulam 

732 *Melayakudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

733 *Meliyan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

734 Melpadi Small Tank Melpady Vellore 

735 Melpadur Big Tank Melpadur Madurai 

736 *Meniakulam - Kanyakumari 

737 *Menimudarkarkulam - Kanyakumari 

738 *Mennanthi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

739 *Meppanthirthkulam - Kanyakumari 

740 *Mikkamkulam - Kanyakumari 

741 *Minvaliyankulam - Kanyakumari 

742 Mirattur Nilai Periakulam Mirattur Nilai Pudukottai 

743 *Misanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 

744 *Mohanarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

745 *Mookaiyur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

746 *Moolikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

747 *Moral Reservoir - - 

748 *Mottakulam - Kanyakumari 

749 Mudalaikulam Mudalaikulam Madurai 

750 *Mudaliakulam - Kanyakumari 

751 *Mudalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

752 Mudukkanmkulam Mudukkanmkulam Virudhunagar 

753 *Mudukulathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

5 6 7 8 













- - 4.90 Freshwater

10° 03’ 77° 05’ 169.00 Freshwater 























10° 03’ 77° 05’ 100.00 Freshwater 





1 2 3 4 

754 *Mukkalampadu Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

755 *Mukunthankulam - Kanyakumari 

756 *Mulachikulam - Kanyakumari 

757 *Mulikulam - Kanyakumari 

758 *Mullankulam - Kanyakumari 

759 *Mullavelikulam - Kanyakumari 

760 *Mullikulam - Kanyakumari 

761 *Mumgapattukulam - Kanyakumari 

762 *Mundakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

763 *Munian Temple Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

764 *Munnottukulam - Kanyakumari 

765 *Murikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

766 *Murippilakonattukulam - Kanyakumari 

767 *Murukkambattur Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

768 *Murukulam - Kanyakumari 

769 *Murupanakulam - Kanyakumari 

770 *Murvangakottukaniyar- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

771 *Muthaliar Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

772 *Mutharunnikulam - Kanyakumari

773 Muthilthagam Tank Muthilthagam Ramanathapuram 

774 Muthunadu Tank Nadakottai Ramanathapuram 

775 Muthusamypuram Muthusamypuram Virudhunagar 

776 *Muthuvayal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

777 *Myladumaparakulam - Kanyakumari 

778 *Mylakulam - Kanyakumari 

779 *Mylottukulam - Kanyakumari 

780 N.Mukkulam N.Mukkulam Virudhunagar 

781 *Nachikonathikulam - Kanyakumari 

782 *Nachikulam - Kanyakumari 

783 *Nachimarkulam - Kanyakumari 

784 *Nachiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 

785 *Nachiyarpathukulam - Kanyakumari 

(2 nos.) 

786 *Nadachikulam - Kanyakumari 

787 *Nadankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

788 *Naduvathukenathkulam - Kanyakumari 

789 *Naduvoorkurichikulam - Kanyakumari 

790 *Nagakonthuggakulam - Kanyakumari 

791 *Nagakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

792 Naganendal Tank Naganendal Ramanathapuram 

793 *Nagarakulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 

























- - 6.00 Freshwater
















1 2 3 4 

794 *Nagaratharkurihi Chinna 

Kamoi 

Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

795 *Nagaratharkurichi 

Kanmoi 

Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

796 *Nagarkulam 

(Kallarkulam) 

- Kanyakumari 

797 *Nagarkulam 

(Vadaserikulam) 

- Kanyakumari 

798 *Nagatchi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

799 *Nagavathisamudrakulam - Kanyakumari 

800 *Naikulam - Kanyakumari 

801 *Nainarkulam - Kanyakumari 

802 Nalayira Mudayan Kulam Kandasamyruram 

Tirunelveli 

803 Nalur Nalur 

Angamagalam 

Suganthalai 

Virudhunagar 

804 *Nallikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

805 Nallumelakulam Kayalpattinam 

North 

Tirunelveli 

806 Nallur Periya Eri Nallur Vellore 

807 *Nambikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

808 Nambipuram Tank Nambipuram Tirunelveli 

809 *Nanankulam - Kanyakumari 

810 Nandalar Periyaulam Madurai 

811 *Nandankulam - Kanyakumari 

812 *Nandthavanthu 

Thunsankuzhi 

- Kanyakumari 

813 *Nangakulam - Kanyakumari 

814 *Nanganarkulam - Kanyakumari 

815 Nangunerikulam Nanguneri Tirunelveli 

816 *Narakottukulam - Kanyakumari

817 *Nankulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

818 *Narakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

819 *Narasingamarkulam - Kanyakumari 

820 Narayanaerikulam - Kanyakumari 

821 Narikulam - Kanyakumari 

822 Nathampatti Big Tank Nathampatti Virudhunagar 

823 Nathankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

824 Navitankulam - Kanyakumari 

825 Navithankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

826 Navolivettithirthukulam - Kanyakumari 

827 Nayinkulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 

















10° 12’ 77° 30’ 197.00 Freshwater 


















1 2 3 4 

828 Nediyankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

829 Nedumaram Tank Nedumaram Ramanathapuram 

830 *Nedumkulam (12 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

831 *Nedupangankulam - Kanyakumari 

832 *Needuvalakulam - Kanyakumari 

833 *Neelakulam - Kanyakumari 

834 *Neerali (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

835 *Neerazhi (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

836 *Neerazhikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

837 *Neerazhy - Kanyakumari 

838 *Nelamadur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

839 Nellukurichi Nellukurichi Virudhunagar 

840 *Nelpattakulam - Kanyakumari 

841 Nemam Tank Nemam Ramanathapuram 

842 Nemmeni Tank Nemmeni Ramanathapuram 

843 *Neralikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

844 Nerkunnam Nerkunnam Vellore 

845 Nerkuppai Tank Nerkuppai Ramanathapuram 

846 Nerumeni Nerumeni Virudhunagar 

847 *Nesapakkam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

848 *Nettankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

849 *Neyyankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

850 *Nhavathivinayagankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

851 Nilamalagia Mangalam Nilamalagia Ramanathapuram 

Tank 

Mangalam 

852 *Nilayambodi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

853 *Niliyur Tank Niliyur Madurai 

854 *Nimayakulam - Kanyakumari 

855 *Nochili Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

856 *Noyyal River Basin Noyyal Karur 

857 *Nulikulam - Kanyakumari 

858 *Nullikulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

859 *Ochankulam - Kanyakumari 

860 *Odaimarichankulam - Kanyakumari 

861 *Odaparachakarakulam - Kanyakumari 

862 *Odiyakulam - Kanyakumari 

863 *Odupparakoilankulam - Kanyakumari 

864 Ogalur Tank Ogalur Tiruchirapally 

865 *Olakottuchanttidakulam - Kanyakumari 

866 *Olakottuparambukulam - Kanyakumari 

867 *Olluppukonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

868 *Oochankulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8





























10° 12’ 76° 39’ 1,750.00 Freshwater 













1 2 3 4 

869 *Oorankulam - Kanyakumari 

870 *Oorva Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

871 *Oottukulam - Kanyakumari 

872 *Ooty Lake - Nilgiris 

873 Oranda Urappanur Urappanur Madurai 

874 Orasur Big Tank Orasur Ramanathapuram

875 *Orathur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

876 Oriyur Tank Oriyur Ramanathapuram 

877 *Othapanai Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

878 *Othivilagam Eri Cheyur Tiruvallur 

879 *Ottankulam - Kanyakumari 

880 *Ottankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

Ananthavattikulam 

881 *Ottappanaikulam - Kanyakumari 

882 Otteri Tank Otteri Vellore 

883 *Paakkam Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

884 P.Pudupatti P.Pudupatti Virudhunagar 

885 *Padalakulam - Kanyakumari 

886 *Padanatapuli Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

887 *Padappankulam - Kanyakumari 

888 *Paianur Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

889 *Paikulam - Kanyakumari 

890 *Pakkam Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

891 Pakkam Hissa Tank Pakkam Cuddalore 

892 *Pakkam Peria Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

893 *Pakkulam - Kanyakumari 

894 *Palakulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

895 *Palamudarkulam - Kanyakumari 

896 Palar-Porandalar Palani Madurai 

897 Palaya Kanmudi Palaya Pudukottai 

898 Palayamkottai Palayamkottai Cuddalore 

village 

899 *Palayanoor Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

900 *Palchakulam - Kanyakumari 

901 *Palikulam - Kanyakumari 

902 *Palkondankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

903 *Palkulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

904 *Palladikulam - Kanyakumari 

905 *Pallakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

906 *Pallamarthandankulam - Kanyakumari 

907 *Pallankulam - Kanyakumari 

908 *Pallikaranai swamp Saidapet Chengalpattu 

909 *Pallikondarkulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 




11° 18’ 76° 35’ 15.00 Freshwater 

10° 03’ 77° 05’ 185.00 Freshwater 







- - 1.28 Freshwater
















10° 25’ 77° 29’ 518.00 Freshwater 














1 2 3 4 

910 *Palottarakulam - Kanyakumari 

911 *Pambadikulam - Kanyakumari 

912 *Panakulam - Kanyakumari 

913 *Panankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

914 *Panavilagathukulam - Kanyakumari 

915 *Panavilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

916 Pandalam Hissa Tank Pandalam Cuddalore 

917 *Pandarakonathupandarakulam 

- Kanyakumari 

918 *Pandarakonathuputhu- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

919 *Pandarakulam - Kanyakumari 

920 *Pandikanmoi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

921 *Pandiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

922 *Pandoor Eri Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

923 *Pandravedu Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

924 *Pangulam - Kanyakumari 

925 Paniyur Tank Paniyur Madurai

926 *Pannikundukulam - Kanyakumari 

927 *Panuookkonathuodakulam 

- Kanyakumari 

928 *Panyankulam - Kanyakumari 

929 Pappangulam Ladanendal Sivagangai 

930 *Pappankottukulam - Kanyakumari 

931 *Pappankulam - Kanyakumari 

932 *Pappa Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

933 *Paracherykulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

934 *Parai Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

935 *Parakkakulam - Kanyakumari 

936 *Parakkamangalathukulam 

- Kanyakumari 

937 *Parakudykonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

938 *Parakulam - Kanyakumari 

939 Paralachi Paralachi Virudhunagar 

940 *Parandur I & II Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

941 Paranur Tank Paranur Ramanathapuram 

942 Parapalar Palani Madurai 

943 *Paraserikulam - Kanyakumari 

944 Paravai Paravai Madurai 

945 *Parayankulam - Kanyakumari 

946 *Parikulam - Kanyakumari 

947 *Parppanakulam - Kanyakumari 

948 *Parthipanur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

5 6 7 8 





















- - 2.34 Freshwater












10° 25’ 77° 42’ 114.00 Freshwater 


10° 03’ 77° 05’ 134.00 Freshwater 





1 2 3 4 

949 *Parumkalkulam - Kanyakumari 

950 *Paruthaikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

951 *Paruthikuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

952 Paruthipalli Tank Paruthipalli Salem 

953 *Pasupathikulam - Kanyakumari 

954 *Pathirikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

955 *Pathirottukulam - Kanyakumari 

956 *Pathiyakulam - Kanyakumari 

957 *Pathukulam - Kanyakumari 

958 *Pattakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

959 *Pattankonathu Ezhukula - Kanyakumari 

960 *Pattankonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

961 *Pattanvilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

962 *Pattikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

963 *Paulkulam - Kanyakumari 

964 Pavoor Hissa Tank Pavoor Vellore 

965 *Pazhayanoor Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

966 Peakulam - Kanyakumari 

967 *Pechankulam - Kanyakumari 

968 *Pechikulam - Kanyakumari 

969 Pechiparai (Kodayar) Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari 

Reservoir 

970 Peikulam Irurappaputam Tirunelveli 

971 *Perakulam - Kanyakumari 

972 *Peravoor Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

973 *Peria Eri 

974 *Periakalakattur Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

975 *Periakaraumbur Big & 

Small 

Ponneri Tiruvallur 

976 Peria Kollukudi Patti Tirupathur Sivagangai

977 

Tank 

Periakulam Kaliyanoor Tirunelveli 

978 Periakulam 

(Therukukaracheri) 

South Karaseri Tirunelveli 

979 *Periakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

980 *Perianerikulam - Kanyakumari 

981 Periyakanmoi Maruthangadui Madurai 

982 Periyakkalkulam Keelathinivenkatanatha 

puram 

Tirunelveli 

983 Periyakulam Muruganeri Theni 

984 Periyakulam Villur Madurai 

985 Periyakulam Sivagiri 

Vasudevavallur 

Tirunelveli 

5 6 7 8 





















08° 27’ 77° 19’ 1,515.00 Freshwater 






10° 07’ 78° 35’ 13.70 Freshwater 





10° 03’ 77° 05’ 138.00 Freshwater 


10° 03’ 77° 05’ 116.00 Freshwater 

10° 03’ 77° 05’ 148.00 Freshwater 

09° 10’ 77° 70’ 200.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

986 *Periyakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

987 Periyaseval kulam Thennamanallur Madurai 

988 Periyoor Big Tank Perumalpatti Tirunelveli 

989 *Perukulam - Kanyakumari 

990 *Perumakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

991 *Perumal Lake Kullanchawadi Cuddalore 

992 *Perumalpuram Thovalai Kanyakumari 

Periakulam 

993 *Perumankonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

994 *Perumankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

995 *Perumbair Kandigai Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

996 *Perumkottukulam - Kanyakumari 

997 Perumkottur Periakulam Perumkottur Tirunelveli 

998 *Perumkulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

999 *Perunchakulam - Kanyakumari 

1000 *Peruneeliyarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1001 Perungalathur Tank Perungalathur Madurai 

1002 Perungattur Tank Perungattur Vellore 

1003 Perungulam Perungulam Tirunelveli 

1004 *Perunkari Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

1005 Perunoani Reservoir Vagecolil Madurai 

1006 *Peruuilaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

1007 *Peruvayal Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1008 *Peruvilaikulam - Kanyakumari 

1009 *Peunkulam - Kanyakumari 

1010 *Peyottankulam - Kanyakumari 

1011 *Peyottankulam - Kanyakumari 

1012 *Peyottuvakulam - Kanyakumari 

1013 *Pilakodukulam - Kanyakumari 

1014 *Pilakudikulam - Kanyakumari 

1015 Pilani Tank Kalambur Ramanathapuram 

1016 *Pillaiyarkoil Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1017 *Pillaiyarkulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1018 *Pillayaroothukulam - Kanyakumari 

1019 *Pirakal Amkathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1020 *Pirakalkulam - Kanyakumari 

1021 *Pirakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1022 *Piramuttakulam - Kanyakumari 

1023 *Piranthacherikulam - Kanyakumari 

1024 *Piranthinaserikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

1025 *Piranthnrikulam - Kanyakumari 

1026 *Pirathankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari

1027 *Poatnikulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 


10° 03’ 77° 05’ 195.00 Freshwater 


















08° 22’ 77° 22’ 962.00 Freshwater 






















- - 4.05 Freshwater

1 2 3 4 

1028 *Podaturpet Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

1029 *Poigaikulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1030 *Polaiyan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1031 Pollagacherri Tank Pollagacherri Cuddalore 

1032 *Ponamkurikulam - Kanyakumari 

1033 *Pondampuli Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1034 *Ponnagiramzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1035 *Ponnanikulam - Kanyakumari 

1036 *Ponnankulam - Kanyakumari 

1037 Ponneri Kuruvelappankoil Tiruchirapally 

1038 Ponnu SamudramTank Arasiramani Salem 

1039 Ponnur Tank Ponnur Vellore 

1040 *Poochakulam - Kanyakumari 

1041 *Pookulam - Kanyakumari 

1042 *Pookuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1043 *Poolankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1044 *Poolankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1045 *Poonakulam - Kanyakumari 

1046 *Pooncheri + Painur II Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

1047 *Poondi Reservoir Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

1048 *Poonimangadu Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

1049 *Poonkottuvamakulam - Kanyakumari 

1050 *Poothondi Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1051 *Poothondi Oorani Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1052 *Poovilathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1053 *Porumkulam - Kanyakumari 

1054 *Porungankulam - Kanyakumari 

1055 *Porur Eri Saidapet Chengalpattu 

1056 *Pothiakulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1057 *Pothikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1058 Pottaikulam Karungulam Tirunelveli 

1059 Pottaikulam Kulayankarasal Tirunelveli 

1060 *Pottaikulam - Kanyakumari 

1061 *Pottakulam (7 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1062 *Pottakuzhikulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1063 *Pottithaliti Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1064 Poyyallur Tank Poyyallur Ramanathapuram 

1065 *Pthiramangalamputhulam - Kanyakumari 

1066 *Puachalkulam - Kanyakumari 

1067 Pudukottai Pudukottai Virudhunagar 

1068 *Pudukotukulam - Kanyakumari 

1069 *Pudukulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari

1070 *Pudukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 












































1 2 3 4 

1071 Pudur Tank Pudur Ramanathapuram 

1072 *Puduvilaithanikulam - Kanyakumari 

1073 *Pulakudiykulam - Kanyakumari 

1074 *Pulakulam - Kanyakumari

1075 *Pulankulam - Kanyakumari 

1076 *Puliangulam - Kanyakumari 

1077 *Puliankuruchi Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1078 *Pulimpallikulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1079 *Pulimughutenkunja- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

1080 *Pulithikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1081 *Pulivarikulam - Kanyakumari 

1082 *Puliveeramkulam - Kanyakumari 

1083 *Puliyankulam - Kanyakumari 

1084 *Puliyarakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1085 *Puliykatnathkulam - Kanyakumari 

1086 *Puliyoor Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

1087 *Puliyoorkurichikulam - Kanyakumari 

1088 Puliyur Tank Puliyur Ramanathapuram 

1089 *Pullakulam - Kanyakumari 

1090 *Pullancherikulam - Kanyakumari 

1091 *Pullukudi Kanmoi Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 

1092 Pullur Tank Pullur Ramanathapuram 

1093 *Pungarachellan Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

(2 nos.) 

1094 *Punkarichellamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1095 *Punnachakulam - Kanyakumari 

1096 *Punnarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1097 *Punniyakulam - Kanyakumari 

1098 *Purakkal Kulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

1099 Purisai Tank Purisai Vellore 

1100 *Purushothamanerikulam - Kanyakumari 

1101 *Puthali Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

1102 *Puthankulam - Kanyakumari 

1103 *Putharakulam - Kanyakumari 

1104 *Puthenkulam - Kanyakumari 

1105 *Putheri Periakulam - Kanyakumari 

1106 *Putherikulam - Kanyakumari 

1107 *Puthukulam (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1108 *Puthukuzhkulam - Kanyakumari 

1109 Puthupalli Alam Swamp - Thanjavur 

1110 *Puthur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1111 *Puthuvettikulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 







































10° 36’ 79° 48’ 590.00 Freshwater 



1 2 3 4 

1112 *Puyangankulam - Kanyakumari 

1113 *Puzhal Eri (Red Hills) Saidapet Chengalpattu 

1114 *Puzhukolikulam (2 nos) - Kanyakumari 

1115 *Radathattikulam - Kanyakumari 

1116 Radhanur Tank Radhanur Ramanathapuram 

1117 *Raja Singa Mangalam 

Kanmoi 

Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 

1118 *Rajendrakulam - Kanyakumari 

1119 Ramalingapuram Ammapatti Virudhunagar 

1120 *Ramanathapuram Big 

Tank 


1121 *Ramankulam - Kanyakumari 

1122 *Ramanpathoerkulam - Kanyakumari 

1123 *Ramanpudurpandarakulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1124 *Ramanputhoor Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari

1125 *Ramapuram Big & 

Small Tanks 

Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

1126 *Ramapuram Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1127 *Ramasamudramkulam - Kanyakumari 

1128 Ravathanallur Large Tank Ravathanallur Cuddalore 

1129 *Rayankulam - Kanyakumari 

1130 *Remkulam - Kanyakumari 

1131 *Rettai Eri (Madhavaram) Saidapet Chengalpattu 

1132 *S. Kavanur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

1133 *S. Keeraandel Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1134 *S. Thalvaikudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1135 *Sabayarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1136 *Sadayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1137 *Sakiyankottuvannankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1138 Sakkandi Tank Sakkandi Ramanathapuram 

1139 *Sakkarakottai Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1140 *Salavakam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

1141 *Saloor Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

1142 *Sambakulam - Kanyakumari 

1143 *Samiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1144 Samudram Eri Samudram Vellore 

1145 Sarvoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

1146 *Sasthankoilkulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

1147 *Sathankulam - Kanyakumari 

1148 *Sathanparakulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 


















- - 7.14 Freshwater




















1 2 3 4 

1149 Sathanur Reservoir - Tiruvannamali 

1150 *Satharathankulam - Kanyakumari 

1151 *Savar Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1152 *Sayalkudi Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1153 Sayamalai Periakulam Sayamalai Tirunelveli 

1154 Seenankudi Tank Seenankudi Ramanathapuram 

1155 Seerakulam Tank Seerakulam Tirunelveli 

1156 *Seethapalkulam - Kanyakumari 

1157 Seeyamuthu Tank Mattur Ramanathapuram 

1158 *Semanur Big Tank Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1159 *Semanur Small Tank Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1160 *Sembakkam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

1161 Sembanur Tank Sembanur Ramanathapuram 

1162 Sembattur Periakulam Sembattur Pudukottai 

1163 *Sembilankudi Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

1164 Sengulam Sengulam Madurai 

1165 Senjannattar Big Tank S.R. Pattanam Ramanathapuram 

1166 *Serenserykulam - Kanyakumari 

1167 Sethupuram Sethupuram Virudhunagar 

1168 *Sevilimedu Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

1169 *Seyalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1170 Sholavar Reservoir Pollachi Coimbatore 

1171 *Sholinganallur (Velaleri Saidapet Chengalpattu 

& Tamarraikani tanks) 

1172 *Siloorkulam - Kanyakumari 

1173 *Sinianthiruthukulam - Kanyakumari 

1174 Siripuranthan Peria Eri Siripuranthan Tiruchirapally 

1175 Sirunallur Tank Sirunallur Ramanathapuram

1176 Sirupandal Hissa Tank Sirupandal Cuddalore 

1177 Siruthavur Tank - Chengelpettu 

1178 Sivagambivar Tank Sivagambivar Ramanathapuram 

1179 Sivarakottai Tank Sivarakottai Madurai 

1180 *Somacharikulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1181 Somasipadi Tank Somasipadi Vellore 

1182 *Sonaipriyakotaii Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1183 *Soorankudikulam - Kanyakumari 

1184 *Sooratnankulam - Kanyakumari 

1185 *Sottukulam - Kanyakumari 

1186 *Sripandarakonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1187 *Sriperumbudur Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

1188 Srirangarajapurma Srirangarajapurma Vellore 

1189 *Stanley Reservoir - - 

1190 *Suchindrakulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 

12° 20’ 78° 54’ 1,255.00 Freshwater 















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 117.00 Freshwater 













13° 00’ 80° 10’ 7,772.00 Freshwater 


10° 03’ 77° 05’ 182.00 Freshwater 












1 2 3 4 

1191 Sunallur Tank Sunallur Vellore 

1192 *Sundarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1193 *Sundarakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1194 *Sundaranainarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1195 *Suriyanagaram Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

1196 *Suriyandiodai 

Chettikulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1197 *Suvarakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

1198 T.Kalathur Tank T.Kalathur Tiruchirapally 

1199 Tathampatti Big Tank Tathampatti Big Virudhunagar 

Tank 

1200 *Thaattankulam - Kanyakumari 

1201 *Thachankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1202 *Thadakkakulam - Kanyakumari 

1203 *Thalakulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1204 *Thalavedu Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

1205 *Thalayachakulam - Kanyakumari 

1206 Thaliramarungoor Thaliramarun- Ramanathapuram 

goor 

1207 *Thaltankonathkulam - Kanyakumari 

1208 Thaluthalai Tank Thaluthalai Tiruchirapally 

1209 Thamaraikulam Kalakadu Tirunelveli 

1210 *Thamaraikulam (6 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1211 Thamathuvilayanpadiyan- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

1212 *Thandalam Eri Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

1213 Thanalur Tank Thanalur Tirunelveli 

1214 *Thananjayan Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1215 *Thanappiramanamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1216 *Thanarajayankulam - Kanyakumari 

1217 *Thandanayagamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1218 *Thanumalaiyankulam - Kanyakumari 

1219 Thathaneri Tank Thathaneri Madurai 

1220 *Thathiyarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1221 *Thattamvilaiathuvelen- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

1222 *Thattankulam - Kanyakumari 

1223 *Thattanpallakulam - Kanyakumari 

1224 *Thattarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1225 *Thavalikulam - Kanyakumari

1226 Thavamkurichi Big Tank T. Kallupatti Madurai 

1227 *Thavittukulam - Kanyakumari 

1228 *Thazhakudiykulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 





























10° 03’ 77° 05’ 103.00 Freshwater 







10° 03’ 77° 05’ 125.00 Freshwater 



1 2 3 4 

1229 *Thazhakulam Vilavancode Kanyakumari 

1230 *Thazhayankulam - Kanyakumari

1231 

(2 nos.) 

*Theeroallakulam - Kanyakumari 

1232 *Theeyanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1233 *Thellikulam - Kanyakumari 

1234 *Themgaipalam 

Eswarankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1235 *Themmadikonamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1236 Themmapatti Tank Themmapatti Ramanathapuram 

1237 Thengal Tank Thirupparan 

kundram 

Madurai 

1238 *Thengankuzhikulam 

(3 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

1239 *Theniadikonthathuthengadadi 

- Kanyakumari 

1240 Thenkarai Alvarthirunagari Tirunelveli 

1241 Thenkarai Periyakulam Thenkarai Madurai 

Mullipallam 

1242 Thenmathur Tank Thenmathur Vellore 

1243 Thennampattu Thennampattu Vellore 

1244 *Thenneri Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

1245 *Thenpuduvakudi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

Kanmoi 

1246 *Therkkalkulam - Kanyakumari 

1247 *Therkulam - Kanyakumari 

1248 *Therkumettukulam - Kanyakumari 

1249 *Theroor Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1250 *Thettankulam - Kanyakumari 

1251 *Thevarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1252 *Thevijakulam - Kanyakumari 

1253 Theyyar Big Tank Theyyar Vellore 

1254 *Thirichanakulam - Kanyakumari 

1255 *Thirukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1256 *Thirumanthakula - Kanyakumari 

1257 Thirumurthi Reservoir Udumalpet Coimbatore 

1258 *Thirunilai Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 

1259 *Thirupathisaramkulam - Kanyakumari 

1260 Thiruppakkottai Tank Thiruppakkottai Ramanathapuram 

1261 Thiruppalaikudi Tank Thiruppalaikudi Ramanathapuram 

1262 *Thirupulivanam Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

1263 Thiruthervalai Tank Thiruthervalai Ramanathapuram 

1264 *Thiruthukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 






- - 0.53 Freshwater







10° 03’ 77° 05’ 111.00 Freshwater 
























1 2 3 4 

1265 Thiruvariman Tank Thiruvariman Madurai 

1266 Thiruvengadam Thiruvengadam Tirunelveli 

Periakulam 

1267 *Thiruvenganerikulam - Kanyakumari 

1268 Thiruvetriyur Tank Thiruvetriyur Ramanathapuram 

1269 *Thiruvikramaserikulam - Kanyakumari 

1270 Thiruvirundapuram Thiruvirunda- Virudhunagar 

puram 

1271 *Thittamathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1272 Thiumanickam Thiumanickam Madurai 

1273 *Thiyagasoundarikulam - Kanyakumari 

1274 Thiyathur Tank Thiyathur Pudukottai 

1275 *Thodukuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1276 *Tholur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram

1277 Thondamandurai Tank Thondamandurai Tiruchirapally 

1278 *Thondansassambu - Kanyakumari 

1279 Thorappadi Tank Thorappadi Vellore 

1280 Thottakudikulam Perumkotture Tirunelveli 

1281 *Thottakulam - Kanyakumari 

1282 *Thottamangalam Thiruvadanai Ramanathapuram 

Kanmoi 

1283 *Thottipalamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1284 *Thovalai Periakulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1285 *Thudichikulam - Kanyakumari 

1286 *Thudippankulam - Kanyakumari 

1287 Thulakudi Cholapuram Virudhunagar 

1288 *Thulukankulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

1289 *Thumbavilaivivettuthiruthu 

- Kanyakumari 

1290 Thusur Tank Thusur Salem 

1291 *Thuvaramkulam - Kanyakumari 

(2 nos.) 

1292 *Thuvarapallikulam - Kanyakumari 

1293 Tiruchuli Tiruchuli Virudhunagar 

1294 Tirupathur Large Tank Tirupathur Vellore 

1295 Tiruppattur Big Tank Tiruppattur Ramanathapuram 

1296 *Tirurnoorthly - - 

1297 Tnennagarm Tank Tindivavam Cuddalore 

1298 *Tr. Bazaar Lake - Nilgiris 

1299 *Trirporur 

Chengalpattu Kanchipuram 

Chekikadithangal 

1300 Tripramadevi Tank Tripramadevi Salem 

5 6 7 8 








10° 03’ 77° 05’ 183.00 Freshwater 

























12° 07’ 79° 42’ 100.00 Freshwater 

11°18’ 76°35’ 3.00 Freshwater 



1 2 3 4 

1301 *Uachankulam - Kanyakumari 

1302 *Udamboorkulam - Kanyakumari 

1303 *Udanparakulam - Kanyakumari 

1304 *Udappakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1305 Ukkal Tank Ukkal Vellore 

1306 *Ukkikulam - Kanyakumari 

1307 *Ukulam - Kanyakumari 

1308 Ulaganikanmoi Ulagani Madurai 

1309 Ulakudi Ulakudi Virudhunagar 

1310 *Ulankulam - Kanyakumari 

1311 Unjanai Tank Unjanai Ramanathapuram 

1312 *Uppanganerikulam - Kanyakumari 

1313 Uppoor Tank Uppoor Ramanathapuram 

1314 *Urakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1315 *Uralinkulam - Kanyakumari 

1316 Uravayal Tank Uravayal Ramanathapuram 

1317 *Urayikonathuthmara- - Kanyakumari 

kulam 

1318 Uruvatti Tank Uruvatti Ramanathapuram 

1319 *Utharankulam - Kanyakumari 

1320 *Uthiradakulam - Kanyakumari 

1321 *Uthiramerur Eri Uthiramerur Kanchipuram 

1322 Uthrabosamangari Uthrabosamangari Ramanathapuram 

1323 *Uttakulam - Kanyakumari 

1324 *Uttankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1325 *Uttukulam - Kanyakumari

1326 *Vachankulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1327 Vadagarai Vadagarai Madurai 

1328 *Vadakaithanikuzhi 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

1329 Vadakarai Vadakarai Virudhunagar 

1330 Vadakarai Tank Sholavanthan Madurai 

1331 *Vadakkankulam (3 nos) - Kanyakumari 

1332 *Vadamadurai Eri Uthukkottai Tiruvallur 

1333 Vadamavali Tank Vadamavali Ramanathapuram 

1334 *Vadankulam - Kanyakumari 

1335 Vadi Vadi Virudhunagar 

1336 *Vagalkulam - Kanyakumari 

1337 Vaigai Reservoir Periyakulam Madurai 

1338 *Vairavanendal Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1339 *Vairavikonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1340 Vakkadai Hissa Tank Vakkadai Vellore 

1341 Valamvoor Tank Valamvoor Ramanathapuram 

5 6 7 8 








10° 03’ 77° 05’ 102.00 Freshwater 



















10° 03’ 77° 05’ 138.00 Freshwater 



10° 03’ 77° 05’ 303.00 Freshwater







10° 03’ 77° 05’ 2,419.00 Freshwater 





1 2 3 4 

1342 *Valapuram Sriperumbudur Kanchipuram 

1343 *Valasoundarikulam 

(2 nos.) 

- Kanyakumari 

1344 *Valathur Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 

1345 *Valiakulam Puthukulam - Kanyakumari 

1346 *Valiyakulam (2 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1347 Vallakulam Padikaswitham 

Patti 

Virudhunagar 

1348 *Valliambalkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1349 *Vallichirakulam - Kanyakumari 

1350 *Vallikulam - Kanyakumari 

1351 Vallioor Big Vallioor (North) Tirunelveli 

1352 *Valluvapakkam Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

1353 *Valliykonamkulam - Kanyakumari 

1354 *Valukkaikulam Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1355 *Vambiyarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1356 *Vanankulam - Kanyakumari 

1357 Vandinipatti Tank Vandinipatti Ramanathapuram 

1358 *Vaniankulam - Kanyakumari 

1359 *Vaniyakuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1360 Vaniyambadi Tank Vaniyambadi Vellore 

1361 *Vaniyankulam (3 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1362 Vanjivakkam Large Tank Vanjivakkam Kanchipuram 

1363 Vanjivakkam Small Tank Vanjivakkam Kanchipuram 

1364 *Vannankulam (4 nos.) - Kanyakumari 

1365 *Vannankuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1366 *Vannaparambukulam - Kanyakumari 

1367 *Vannikudy Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1368 *Varamarthandanputhukulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1369 *Variarkonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1370 Varichiyur Tank Varichiyur Madurai 

1371 *Variyoor Puthukulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1372 *Vathikonathukulam - Kanyakumari 

1373 *Vattakudi Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1374 Vattanam Tank Vattanam Ramanathapuram 

1375 *Vattarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1376 *Vattiaramankonathukulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1377 Vayakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

1378 *Vayalur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1379 Vayalur Manaanikal 

Tank 

Vayalur Kanchipuram 

5 6 7 8 







































1 2 3 4 

1380 Vayalur Peria Thameria 

Tank 

Vayalur Kanchipuram 

1381 *Vayilakulam - Kanyakumari 

1382 *Vazhimarichankulam - Kanyakumari 

1383 *Vazhottukulam - Kanyakumari 

1384 *Vdayankonathuparayankulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1385 *Vedakulam - Kanyakumari 

1386 Vedal Tank Vedal Kanchipuram 

1387 *Vedankangherykulam - Kanyakumari

1388 *Vedanthangal Tank - Chengleput 

1389 *Vedunkulam - Kanyakumari 

1390 *Veepankulam - Kanyakumari 

1391 Veeracholam Veeracholam Virudhunagar 

1392 *Veerakaraiappan Eri Thovalai Kanyakumari 

Kulam 

1393 *Veerakeralkulam - Kanyakumari 

1394 *Veerakulam - Kanyakumari 

1395 *Veeramangalam Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

1396 *Veeramarthandan Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1397 Veeranam Big Tank Veeranam Tirunelveli 

1398 Veeranam Tank Chidambaram Cuddalore 

1399 *Veerapuli Kulam Thovalai Kanyakumari 

1400 *Veeraulikulam - Kanyakumari 

1401 *Veeravanur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1402 *Veervilaiathkulam - Kanyakumari 

1403 *Veeyankulam - Kanyakumari 

1404 *Velachery Lake Velachery Tiruvallur 

1405 *Velakulam - Kanyakumari 

1406 *Velanjeri Eri Tiruttani Tiruvallur 

1407 *Velankattukulam - Kanyakumari 

1408 *Velankulam - Kanyakumari 

1409 *Velarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1410 *Velayaputhur Eri Madurantakam Chengalpattu 

1411 *Velayankulam - Kanyakumari 

1412 *Velaydankulam - Kanyakumari 

1413 *Veliagaram Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

1414 Vella Vella Ramanathapuram 

1415 *Vellaiyasanthikulam - Kanyakumari 

1416 Vellappan Eri Big Tank Poolankulam Tirunelveli 

1417 *Vellathur Eri Pallipattu Tiruvallur 

1418 *Vellavarakulam - Kanyakumari 

1419 *Vellichandaikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

5 6 7 8 









12° 32’ 79° 52’ 30.00 Freshwater 










11° 20’ 79° 40’ 2,357.00 Freshwater 






















1 2 3 4 

1420 Vellimar Tank Vellimar Ramanathapuram 

1421 Vellur Peria Eri Vellur Pudukottai 

1422 *Vemadikulam - Kanyakumari 

1423 *Vembadykulam - Kanyakumari 

1424 *Vembanur Kulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

1425 Vembakottai Tanks Madurai - 

1426 *Vembakottukulam - Kanyakumari 

1427 *Vembanoorkulam - Kanyakumari 

1428 *Vembedu Ponneri Tiruvallur 

1429 *Vemkuzhikulam - Kanyakumari 

1430 *Vempadipuduthiruthukulam 

- Kanyakumari 

1431 *Vengal Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 

1432 Vengaloor Tank Vengaloor Ramanathapuram 

1433 Venkita samudram Venkita Madurai 

samudram 

1434 *Vennathur Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1435 *Venthoni Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

1436 *Veparavilakikulam - Kanyakumari 

1437 *Veppan Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1438 *Verakadu Eri Gummidipoondi Tiruvallur 

1439 Vethilai Urani Vethilai Urani Virudhunagar

1440 Vettakudi Karavetti 

Reservoir 

Kilapalavoor Tiruchirapalli 

1441 *Vettangudi Tank Tirupathur Sivagangai 

1442 *Vettikonathukattukulam - Kanyakumari 

1443 *Vidarikulam - Kanyakumari 

1444 Vidayanarayam Vidayanarayanam 

Tirunelveli 

1445 Vidur Villupuram Cuddalore 

1446 Vijayappanur Tank Vijayappanur Madurai 

1447 *Vikramanarikulam - Kanyakumari 

1448 *Vilaikannarkulam - Kanyakumari 

1449 *Vilakkanar Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1450 Vilanaur Eri Vilanaur Pudukottai 

1451 Vilangadu Tank Vilangadu Kanchipuram 

1452 *Vilangulathur Kanmoi Mudukulattur Ramanathapuram 

1453 *Vilankakulam - Kanyakumari 

1454 *Vilankulam Kanmoi Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 

1455 *Vilathur Kanmoi Paramakudi Ramanathapuram 

1456 *Villaiyakulam - Kanyakumari 

1457 Villur Ovari Tank Villur Ovari Madurai 

1458 Viragasmudram Watrap Virudhunagar 

5 6 7 8 






9° 20’ 77° 46’ - Freshwater 








10° 03’ 77° 05’ 118.00 Freshwater 







10° 30’ 78° 30’ 8,630.00 Freshwater 

10° 07’ 78° 35’ 18.40 Freshwater 




12° 35’ 79° 35’ 798.00 Freshwater 












10° 03’ 77° 05’ 236.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

1459 *Vishupurattukulam - Kanyakumari 

1460 *Voyila Kulam Agasteeswaram Kanyakumari 

1461 *Vumbatharkulam - Kanyakumari 

1462 Watrap Big Tank Watrap Virudhunagar 

1463 *Wdaancharikulam - Kanyakumari 

1464 *Zillikulam Kalkulam Kanyakumari 

TRIPURA 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Harijala Kakmaban South Tripura 

2 Khaurabil Kailashahar North Tripura 

3 *Rudra Sagar Lake Sonamura West Tripura 


4 Gomti Reservoir Jatanbari and 

Tirthamukh 

South Tripura

5 6 7 8 








10,49,200 ha. 


6,29,400 ha. (60.02%) 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

23° 28’ 91° 25’ 180.00 Freshwater 

24° 22’ 92° 00’ 145.00 Freshwater 

23° 29’ 90° 01’ 240.00 Freshwater 

23° 25’ 91° 52’ 4,833.00 Freshwater 

:

UTTAR PRADESH 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Alwar Jheel Shahpur Allahabad 

2 Aranga Nawabganj Gonda 

3 Badur Tal Maskanwa Gonda 

4 *Chandu Tal Kishorganj Basti 

5 Dahre Jheel Adampur Hardoi 

6 Dhanari Jheel Dhannari Bareily 

7 Dudhwa National Park Nepalese - 


border 

8 Garha Tal Ratanpur Balia 

9 *Gujar Tal Khetsarai Jaunpur 

10 Gulari Tal - Gorakhpur 

11 Hathiawa Tal Dashrathpur Gorakhpur 

12 Joghra-Joghri Balrampur Gonda 

13 Kaisarganj Swamps Kaisarganj Bahraich 

14 Kitham Lake - - 

15 Kodia Tal Mahulaina Gorakhpur 

16 *Macpherson Lake Niwan Allahabad 

17 *Naukuchiatal - Nainitol 

18 *Soraon Lake - Faizabad 

19 Kakraha-Samrai Marshes 

(winthin Dudhwa 

National Park) 

Samrai Kheri 

(Lakhimpur) 

20 *Khurpatal - Nainitol 

21 Nalkiyon Tal Hardwar Bijnore 

22 Nohojeel Noh Mathura 

23 Noorpur Jheel Noorpur Budaun 

24 *Pahunj Reservoir - Jhansi 

25 Pakri Tal Pakri Bazurg Azamgarh 

26 Paragpur Tal Pragpur Gorakhpur/ 

Anandnagar 


2,38,56,600 ha. 


16,79,600 ha. (6.97%) 


:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

25° 25’ 81° 15’ 54.00 Freshwater 

26° 58’ 82° 05’ 320.00 Freshwater 

26° 57’ 82° 10’ 320.00 Freshwater 

26° 15’ 84° 10’ 230.00 Freshwater 

27° 15’ 70° 15’ 210.00 Freshwater 

28° 12’ 78° 18’ 107.00 Freshwater 

28° 21’- 80°30’- - Freshwater 

25° 55’ 83° 40’ 170.00 Freshwater 

24° 56’ 81° 14’ 88.00 Freshwater 

27° 21’ 83° 37’ 150.00 Freshwater 

27° 17’ 83° 28’ 250.00 Freshwater 

27° 29’ 82° 06’ 100.00 Freshwater 

27° 15’ 81° 30’ 110.00 Freshwater 

27° 12’ 78° 4’ - Freshwater 

27° 21’ 83° 33’ 100.00 Freshwater 

25° 28’ 81° 50’ 120.00 Freshwater 

29°19’ 79°37’ 45.00 Freshwater 


28° 05’ 80° 45’ 8,000.00 Freshwater 

29°25’ 79°27’ 14.00 Freshwater 

29° 55’ 78° 13’ 250.00 Freshwater 

27° 50’ 77° 35’ 110.00 Freshwater 

28° 03’ 79° 20’ 108.00 Freshwater 

23°8’ 78°11’ 518.00 Freshwater 

26° 05’ 83° 30’ 300.00 Freshwater 

27° 06’ 83° 13’ 255.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

27 Parbati Lake Nawabganj Gonda 

28 Phaphamau-Dara Cant 

Swamps 

- Allahabad 

29 Pipraicha Tal Hata Deoria 

30 Ramgarh Talao Gorakhpur City Gorakhpur 

31 *Ratoi Tal Tatoi Mau 

32 Salona Tal Azamgarh Azamgarh 

33 *Samaspur Lake Sola RaeBareilly 

34 Sardhwa-Pokhrawa Dashrath Pur Gorakhpur 

35 Saruva Tal Gopalpur Gorakhpur

36 Soraon Lake Faizabad - 

37 Suraha Tal Maritar Balia 

38 Thuthari Tal Chauk Gorakhpur 

39 Ukhimath Ukhimath Chamole 


40 Adwa Bandh Ahraura Mirzapur 

41 *Aheerwan - Mainpuri 

42 *Bachhra Reservoir - - 

43 Baghel Tal Baghelkhurd Bahraich 

44 *Baghla Reservoir Barica - 

45 *Bahausi - Farrukhabad 

46 Bahgul Reservoir Kichha Nainital 

47 *Bakhira Lake - Basti 

48 *Bansidah - Sidharthnagar 

49 *Bhadayal - Hardoi 

50 *Bhaghar jheel - Barabanki 

51 *Bhagnaiya - Sidharthnagar 

52 Chander Prabha Sagar Chakiya Varanasi 

53 *Chhata Lakes Chhata - 

54 *Corbett National Park - - 


55 *Dabri jheel - Bareilly 

56 Dadri Reservoir Halia Mirzapur 

57 *Dahar Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 

58 *Dahital - Allahabad 

59 *Devasi Deval - Mau 

60 Dhan Reservoir Manikpur/Gadwari Banda 

61 Dungiabandh Hadupur Mirzapur 

62 *Gagnikhera - Unnao 

63 *Gambhirban - Azamgarh 

64 *Girital Lake Kashipur - 

65 Gulhriya Bandh Deori Allahabad 

66 *Haidergarh Jheel Haidergarh Barabanki 

5 6 7 8 

26° 55’ 82° 08’ 640.00 Freshwater 

26° 28’ 81° 54’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

26° 45’ 83° 30’ 250.00 Freshwater 

27° 23’ 83° 24’ 650.00 Freshwater 

26° 07’ 83° 45’ 800.00 Freshwater 

26° 10’ 83° 25’ 200.00 Freshwater 

27° 05’ 82° 00’ 800.00 Freshwater 

27° 16’ 83° 31’ 200.00 Freshwater 

27° 02’ 83° 13’ 300.00 Freshwater 


25° 48’ 84° 08’ 1,570.00 Freshwater 

27° 19’ 83° 35’ 200.00 Freshwater 

30° 30’ 79° 05’ 200.00 Freshwater 

24° 42’ 82° 15’ 1,667.00 Freshwater



27° 25’ 81° 55’ 140.00 Freshwater 



28° 55’ 79° 40’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

26°52’30’’ 85°5’30’’ 1,583.00 Freshwater 





24° 57’ 83° 10’ 1,656.00 Freshwater 


29°25’- 78°45’- - Freshwater 



27°19’ 79°59’ 500.00 Freshwater 



25° 12’ 81° 05’ 797.00 Freshwater 

24° 56’ 83° 00’ 150.00 Freshwater 




25° 10’ 82° 00’ 240,240.00 Freshwater 

26°35’ 81°15’ 100.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

67 *Khajua Lake Mubarakpur Azamgarh 

68 *Katerniaghat Pashu Vihar Nepalese - 

Sanctuary (Wetlands in) border 

69 *Keetham Lake Agra - 

70 *Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Nepalese - 

Sanctuary (Wetlands in) 

border 

71 *Kuthala - Farrukhabad 

72 *Lakh & Bahosi Indergarh Farrukhabad 

73 *Lohsartal - Pratapgarh 

74 *Madha-ki-jheel Haidergarh Barabanki 

75 *Manjhira Impoundment at Katerniaghat - 

Girija Barrage 

76 *Matatilla Reservoir Matatilla Gorakhpur 

77 *Mohane - Unnao 

78 *Mohri-Sothna Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 

79 *Moosa Khand Reservoir Chakiya Varanasi 

80 *Mundiari - Ballia 

81 *Naraini Tal - RaeBareilly 

82 *Nawabgani Priyadarshani Lucknow - 

Bird Sanctuary 

83 Obra Bandh (Anicut) Obra Mirzapur 

84 *Patna - Etah

85 Pili Reservoir Dhampur Bijnore 

86 *Pyagpur Jheel - Bahraich 

87 *Raini Tal - Pratapgarh 

88 *Ratanpur - Sitapur 

89 *Rewati - Ballia 

90 Rihand Reservoir Pipri Mirzapur 

91 *Rohuatal - Jaunpur 

92 *Salontal - Azamgarh 

93 *Saman jheel - Mainpuri 

94 *Sangara - Barabanki 

95 *Sarsai Nawar Sarsai Etawah 

96 *Sauj (Soj) Jheel - Hardoi and Etawah 

97 *Sheoja and Gaundial - Hardoi and Etawah 

Jheels 

98 Shrinagar (Pawah) Tank Rajdhani Gorakhpur 

99 *Sikandarpur - Basti 

100 Singrahna Tal Mahulaina Gorakhpur 

101 *Sitadwar Jheel - Bahraich 

102 *Sonari - Sitapur 

103 *Surha Lake - Ballia 

104 Trutharia Tank Chauk Gorakhpur 

5 6 7 8 


28° 07’- 81°03’- - Freshwater 

27° 10’ 78° 2’ 311.60 Freshwater 

28° 21’ 80° 20’ - Freshwater 




26°35’ 81°15’ 1,600.00 Freshwater 

28° 18’ 81°04 1,200.00 Freshwater 

25°15’ 78°23’ 13,893.00 Freshwater 


26°56' 79°17' 300.00 Freshwater 

24° 59’ 83° 17’ 1,625.00 Freshwater 



26° 50’ 81°10’ 600.00 Freshwater 

25° 00’ 83° 00’ 1,859.00 Freshwater 


29° 20’ 78° 48’ 200.00 Freshwater 

27°25’ 81°48’ 2,800.00 Freshwater 




23° 55’ 82° 35’ 45,757.00 Freshwater






27°01’ 79°11’ 400.00 Freshwater 

27°05’ 79°11’ 500.00 Freshwater 



27° 21’ 83° 32’ 100.00 Freshwater 

27°25’ 81°48’ 150.00 Freshwater 


25°48’- 84°8’- 3,500.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

105 Utardaha Tank Utardaha Allahabad 

106 *Upper Ganga River 

(Brijghat to Narora 

Stretch) 

Brijghat to Narora - 

UTTARANCHAL 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Arolital - Pauri 

2 *Badhanital - Tehri 

3 *Bhenital - Rudraprayag 

4 *Bhikaltal - Chamoli 

5 *Bhimtal - Nainital 

6 *Brahmatal - Chamoli 

7 *Deoriatal - Chamoli 

8 *Devtal - Chamoli 

9 *Dodital - Uttarkashi 

10 *Gandhisarovar - Chamoli 

11 *Garudtal - Nainital 

12 *Gaurikund - Chamoli

13 *Hatyarital - Nainital 

14 *Hemkund - Chamoli 

15 *Kagbhusandital - Chamoli 

16 *Kedartal - Uttarkashi 

17 *Khurpatal - Nainital 

18 *Mesartal - Tehri 

19 *Nainital - Nainital 

20 *Naukuchiatal - Nainital 

21 *Roopkund - Chamoli 

22 *Sahstrabahu Lake - Uttarkashi 

5 6 7 8 

25° 20’ 82° 10’ 900.00 Freshwater 

28° 33' 78° 12' 26,590.00 Freshwater 


53,56,600 ha. 


34,66,200 ha. (64.79%) 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


















:






1 2 3 4 

23 *Satttal - Nainital 

24 *Shymlatal - Champawat 

25 *Tambakund - Tehri 

26 *Taratal - Pauri 

27 *Vasukital - Chamoli 


28 Aasan - - 

29 Baigul - - 

30 Baur - - 

31 Dhauliganga - - 

32 *Dhaura Reservoir - - 

33 Kalagarh Reservoir (Part 

of Corbet National Park) 

Dhakala Bijnore 

34 Maneri - - 

35 Nanak Sagar Nanakmatta/ Nainital 

Sitaganj 

36 Sarda Sagar Bilauri Plilbhet 

37 *Tehri Garhwal - 

38 Tumaria Reservoir Kashipur Nainital 

WEST BENGAL 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Adh Soi Pachla Malda 

2 Ashi Dob Kasimpur Malda 

3 Balotali-Beel Jatra Danga Malda 

4 Barabila Talao Arai-Danga Malda 

5 Bochamari Bowalia Malda 

6 Buxiganj-Nijiarap Haldibari Cooch-Behar 

5 6 7 8











29° 25’ 70° 05’ 42,000.00 Freshwater 


29° 05’ 79° 56’ 76,000.00 Freshwater 

28° 40’ 80° 10’ 17,000.00 Freshwater 

30° 20’-30° 40’ 78°15’-78° 40’ 4,500.00 Freshwater 

29° 20’ 79° 04’ 3,000.00 Freshwater 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

25° 25’ 88° 00’ 140.00 Freshwater 

25° 35’ 87° 40’ 280.00 Freshwater 

25° 02’ 88° 12’ 120.00 Freshwater 

25° 05’ 87° 55’ 120.00 Freshwater 

25° 15’ 87° 45’ 120.00 Freshwater 

26° 20’ 88° 20’ 1,400.00 Freshwater 

1 2 3 4 

7 Chalua Beel, Pulal Beel 

and Baglai Beel 

Sitagram West-Dinajpur 

8 Goal Bod Bajanna Malda 

9 Haliday Island Namkhana 

(Sunderbans) 

24-Paraganas 

10 Hazar Takia Talao Mobarak Pur Malda

11 Jaula Para Madarihat Jalpaiguri 

12 *Kalyani Lake - Nadia 

13 Kathambari Beel Odlabari Jalpaiguri 

14 Konar Kurpur Ganj Malda 

15 *Langalhata Beel Kirnahar Birbhum 

16 Lothian Namkhana 

(Sunderbans) 

24-Paraganas 

17 Madhai Pur Bheel Malda Towr Malda 

18 Risik Beel Toofan Ganj Cooch-Behar 

19 Sajana Khali Gosaba 24-Paraganas 

(Sunderbans) 

20 *Salt Lakes Swamp Calcutta 24-Paraganas 

21 Sanak Beel Chandipur Malda 

22 Singsar Chandipur Malda 

23 Sundarbans Mangrove - - 

24 Teesta Nadi Makheli Ganj Cooch-Behar 


25 *Adra Lake Adra - 

26 *Bakreswar Bakreswar - 

27 *Ballavpur Bolepur - 

28 *Bansdaha Beel Dantan Midnapore 

29 *Bhaluka Beel Chakmanikya S. Dinajpur 

30 *Bhomra Beel Kastadanga Nadia 

31 Brace Bridge Wetlands Southwestern 

Calcutta 

- 

32 *Churamon moranadi Itahar North Dinajpur 

Beel 

33 *Datindighi Dubrajpur - 

34 *Dhobi - Howrah 

35 Durgapur Barrage - Burdwan 

36 *East Calcutta Wetlands - - 

37 *Gnorsha Rajgram - 

38 *Goldighi Rampurhat - 

39 *Guda Reservoir - - 

40 *Haripur-closed Beel Haripur Maldah 

41 *Haripur-open Beel Haripur Maldah 

42 *Indira Beel Indrabil Bankura & Puruliya 

5 6 7 8 


25° 35’ 87° 50’ 120.00 Freshwater 

21° 41’ 88° 37’ 350.00 Freshwater 

25° 40’ 87° 01’ 140.00 Freshwater 

25° 58’ 89° 00’ 6,096.00 Freshwater 

22°57’ 88°26’ 13.00 Freshwater 

26° 50’ 88° 35’ 136.00 Freshwater 

25° 25’ 88° 10’ 280.00 Freshwater 

23° 45’ 87° 45’ 2,000.00 Freshwater 

21° 25’ 88° 18’ 3,800.00 Freshwater

25° 00’ 88° 11’ 100.00 Freshwater 

26° 30’ 89° 20’ 9,952.00 Freshwater 


22° 30’ 88° 35’ 5,000.00 Freshwater 

25° 35’ 87° 45’ 200.00 Freshwater 

25° 20’ 88° 00’ 140.00 Freshwater 


26° 20’ 88° 55’ 1,800.00 Freshwater 

23° 42’ 87° 01’ 250.00 Freshwater 



21°58’15” - 17.00 Freshwater 

26°10’20” - 35.00 Freshwater 

22°55’15” - 45.00 Freshwater 

22° 31’- 88° 17’- 494.20 Brackishwater 

26°45’15” - 24.00 Freshwater 



23° 28’ 87° 18’ 600.00 Freshwater 

22°25’- 88° 20’ 12,500.00 Brackishwater 




25°12’10” - 21.00 Freshwater 

25°12’10” - 30.00 Freshwater 


1 2 3 4 

43 Jaldapara Wildlife Hasimara Jalpaiguri 

Sanctuary (Wetlands in) 

44 *Jamuna Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and 

Puruliya 

45 Kangsabati Mukutmanipur Bankura 

46 *Karkaria dighi Tarapith - 

47 *Kings - Howrah 

48 *Krishna Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and 

Puruliya 

49 *Kola Beel Bagdah 24-Parganas (N) 

50 *Kole Beel Somra Bazar Hooghly 

51 *Kulaijurir Bankadah Bankura and 

Puruliya 

52 *Mahananda Reservoir Fulbari Darjeeling and 

Jalpaiguri 

53 *Mirik Lake Mirik - 

54 *Lal Bundh Bishnupur Bankura and 

Puruliya

55 *Leeram - Howrah 

56 *Loco Tank Asansol - 

57 *Narathaly lake - Jalpaiguri 

58 *Nehali Beel Raiganj North Dinajpur 

59 *Patari Beel Sukhdevpur S. Dinajpur 

60 *Prain Lake - Howrah 

61 *Protappur Protappur - 

62 *Purbasthali Lake Kasthashali Chupi 

63 *Rabindra Sarovar Lake Southern part - 

of Kolkata 

64 *Rani Bundh Joypur Bankura and 

Puruliya 

65 *Sainthia Beel Sainthia - 

66 *Saheb Bundh Puruliya Bankura and 

Puruliya 

67 *Santragachi Santragachi - 

68 *Sarasanka Beel Dantan Midanpore 

69 *Subhas Sarobar lake East Calcutta - 

70 *Tilpara Barrage Suri - 

71 *Wetlands of Hugli - Hugli 

District 

72 *Wetlands of Haora 

District 

- Haora 

5 6 7 8 

26°45’ 89°20’ - Freshwater 






22°10” - 12.00 Freshwater 

23°7’28” - 70.00 Freshwater 


26°40’ 88°15’ 280.00 Freshwater 

26°54’ 88°26’ 109.00 Freshwater 



23° 41’ 87° 01’ 0.50 Freshwater 

26°55’ 89°55’ 37,585.00 Freshwater 

26°55’10” - 42.00 Freshwater 

26°20’10” - 43.00 Freshwater 

- - - Freshwater



22°34’ 88°23’ 48.20 Freshwater 





21°58’15” - 17.00 Freshwater 

22°34’ 88°24’ 16.00 Freshwater 


22°39’ 87°30’ 179.75 Freshwater 

22°13’ 87°51’ 125.08 Freshwater

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Mangroves of Middle 

Andaman 

2 Wetlands in the Andaman 

Islands and Nicobar Islands 

CHANDIGARH 

Middle Andaman - 

Andaman & 

Nicobar 


Nearest 

Village/Town 

- 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Sukhna Chandigarh Chandigarh 


8,24,900 ha. 


ha. (86.93%) 

: 7,17,100

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


7°00'-15°00' 92°00'-94°00 


: 11,400 ha. 


3,300 ha. (28.95%) 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

115,000.00 Brackishwater 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

30° 45’ 76° 45’ 170.00 Fresh water 

:

LAKSHADWEEP 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Pilli Island Kavaratti - 

2 *Minicoy Lagoon - - 

NEW DELHI 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 *Fatehpursikri Pond Agra - 

2 Jamuna River Eastern outskirts 

of Delhi 

- 


3 *Barhwasni Sonipat - 

4 *Dhindala Joar Dhindala Meerut 

5 *Dhupeta Dhupeta - 

6 *Gohana Pond Gohana - 

7 *Juan Juan - 

8 *Kheri-Dhamkan Sonipat -


: 3,200 ha. 


: - 

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 




1,48,300 ha. 


ha. (5.73%) 


Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

: 8,500 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 


28°30’-28°46’ 77°22’-77°13’ 20,000.00 Freshwater 







1 2 3 4 

9 Purkhaspur Ponds Purkhaspur - 

10 Rithal Gohana - 

11 Rohat (Joar) Sonipat -

PUDUCHERRY 


Nearest 

Village/Town 


District 

1 2 3 4 


1 Dussoudon Lake Puducherry Puducherry 


2 Bahour Lake Puducherry Puducherry 

3 Oustri Tank (Oussudu) Puducherry Puducherry 

5 6 7 8 





49,200 ha. 


- 

:

Latitude 

(N) 

Longitude 

(E) 

Area 

(ha.) 

Ecological 

Category 

5 6 7 8 

11° 55’ 79° 50’ 402.00 Fresh water 

11° 57’ 79° 45’ 431.00 Fresh water 

11° 57’ 79° 45’ 700.00 Fresh water 

(- data not found)

PAKHAL LAKE 

Pakhal lake is a small, freshwater lake situated (17° 57’ N and 80° 00’ E) in 

Warangal, 40 km east of Warangal, Andhra Pradesh; set in rolling hill country with 

good forest cover. The lake was created in the 16th century by the construction of an 

earthen dam which was renovated in 1918; it is fed by numerous ephemeral and semipermanent 

streams. The lake and its environs form the core area of the Pakhal 

Wildlife Sanctuary. Although a relatively small lake (maximum extent 1500 ha), 

Pakhal is of considerable significance as it remains in an undisturbed situation well 

within a sanctuary. Laknavaram Lake (600 ha) is 20 km to the north, and both lakes 

lie some 60 km west of the Godavari river. The entire area was once the hunting 

preserve of the Nizam of Hyderabad. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of l225 

mm and a temperature 

range of 15–45°C. 

Macrophytes: The 

lake supports a 

luxuriant growth of 

• 

PAKHAL LAKE 

aquatic and 

emergent marsh 

vegetation. The 

extensive 

grasslands around 

the lake are composed 

of Apluda mutica, 

Echinochloa 

colonum, 

Eragrostis pilosa, 

E. tenella, 

Source: Google Earth 

Hackelochloa 

granularis, 

Heteropogon contortus and Vetiveria zizanoides. Dominant trees near the lake include 

Barringtonia acutangula and Xeromphis uliginosa. The sanctuary protects extensive 

tropical deciduous forest with a few evergreen species. 

Fishes: Fish species including Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Ophicephalus striatus. 

Birds: The lake is known to support large concentrations of migratory waterfowl 

during the winter months, but no details are available. 

Mammals: The forested areas of the Sanctuary support Tiger Panthera tigris, 

Leopard P. pardus and Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus together with a variety of 

ungulates. 

Land tenure: The lake and surrounding areas are state-owned. 

Land use: Wildlife conservation. There is some livestock grazing and subsistence 

agriculture within the sanctuary. 

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary (86,205 

ha), established in 1952.

Disturbances and threats: Several villages are situated within the sanctuary. 

Grazing by domestic livestock and collection of firewood are significant problems. 

Illegal fires are a frequent disturbance during the dry season. 

Reference: Jain and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993). 

KOLLERU LAKE 

A large, natural, shallow, freshwater lake (16° 30’–16° 45’ N; 81° 05’–81° 20’ E) 

with associated marshes, situated between the Krishna and Godavari rivers, about 55 

km east of Vijayawada and some 25 km northwest of the coastline, Andhra Pradesh. 

Source: http://www.ramsar.org/ 

Geologically, the lake is of recent origin, having been formed by siltation from the 

Krishna and Godavari rivers. The surface area of the lake is entirely dependent on the 

volume of monsoon run-off, and is subject to wide fluctuations as water levels rise 

and fall. At its maximum depth of 3 m during the rainy season, the lake can cover 

some 90,000 ha; at 2 m it covers 67,500 ha, and at 1m only 13,500 ha. Over 30 canals 

and streams enter the lake from the surrounding intensively cultivated farmland. The 

major streams are the Budameru, Thammileru, and Ramileru, the remaining water 

courses being mostly artificial. The lake drains into the Bay of Bengal through the 

Upputeru river, which flows for a distance of 42 km. Although essentially a 

freshwater lake, Kolleru sometimes receives a small amount of seawater through the 

Upputeru river. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Based on limnological properties, the 

lake has been delineated into two aqueous environments, the eastern zone and the 

western zone. The western zone is characterised by relatively high, dissolved oxygen 

content, low pH, high temperature, and low transparency values. As the eastern zone 

is farther from the river drainage points, the water temperature, transparency, and pH 

are not affected so much by river water, but influenced largely by seasonal climatic 

changes. On the whole, the pH varies from 7.2 to 8.2. Surface water temperatures 

range from 24.2°C (December) to 31.6°C (June). There are only slight vertical 

variations in temperature (maximum of 1.0°C), largely because of the abundance of 

aquatic vegetation. The lake shows rather high values of total alkalinity, hardness, and 

nitrates as compared with similar water bodies elsewhere in south India.

Macrophytes: The lake is covered by littoral vegetation, predominantly of 

hydrophytes. It showed variation in different spots with emergent, submerged and free 

floating aquatic macrophytes. The floating vegetation dominated by Ipomea aquatica 

and Eichhornia crassipes occurred throughout the lake and formed dense mats. The 

submerged weeds constituted by Ottelia alismoides, Vallisneria spiralis, 

Ceratophyllum sp. were abundant in deeper parts of the lake and along ferry lines. 

Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Nymphoides hydrophylla and Salvinia cucullata were 

moderately distributed in many parts of the lake. The notable feature of the lake 

vegetation was the presence of extensive stands of Phragmites karka which occur in 

vast stretches in many areas of the lake. Other weeds such as Cyperus sp., 

Paspalidium, Pistia, Alternathera and Typha were present in small patches in many 

parts of the lake. Utricularia, Polygonum and Scirpus sp. were distributed in some 

areas only. 

The following macrophytes can be grouped under emergent vegetation: Phragmites 

karka; Typha angustata Bory et chaub; Cyperus rotandus L; Scirpus articulatus Linn 

and Paspalidium flavidum (retz) Camus. 

Floating leaved Hydrophytes: 

Submerged Hydrophytes: 

Species Name Species Name 

Alternathera sessilia 

N. stellata wild 

(L) R. Br. 

Ipomea aquatica Forak Nymphoides 

hydrophylla (Lour) 

O. Ktze 

Nymphaea nouchali 

Barm. F 


Ceratophyllum sp. Ottelia alismodides 

(L) Pers 

Chara and Nitella Vallisneria spiralie 

Hydrilla verticillata Utricularia sp. 

Free floating Hydrophytes: They occurred in standing or slow flowing waters. 1. 

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) somls; 2. Pistia stratoites L; 3. Salvinia cucullata; 4. 

Mats of Azolla, Spirodella and Lemna. 

Amphibious plants: Polygonum glabrun, Sueda maritima 

Fishes: The Lake supports a rich fish fauna including an endemic sub-species. Sixtytwo 

species of fishes belonging to 27 families have been recorded in commercial 

catches from Kolleru Lake and the Upputeru River. These include


Amblyoharyngodon mols E. suratensis 

Anabas oligolepia Heteropnoustes fossilis 

A. testudinous Hyporhamphus gaimardi 

Anguilla bicolor Kavei cakvasy 

A. nebulosa K. funvruata 

Aplocheilus panchax K. riguta 

Barbus (Puntius) chola Labeo bata 

B. (Puntius) sarana Lates calcarifer 

B. (Puntius) seohore Leiognathus equulus 

B. (Puntius) ticto Liza parsia 

Caranx sexfasciatus Lutjanus jahngarah 

Catla catla Macrognathus aculeatus 

Cerres punctatus Mastacembellus armatus 

Chanda commersonii M. pancalus 

C. name Mugil cephalus 

C. ranga Mystus cavasius 

Channa maruila M. qulio 

C. punctata M. vittatus 

C. striata Nandus nandus 

Chanos chanos Notopterus notopterus 

Chela labuca Ompok bimaculatus 

Cirrhinus mrigala O. pabda 

C. reba Oxygaster clupeoides

Clarias batrachus 55 Raabora daniconius 

Closso obius giuris 56 Rhinomugil corsuls 

Colisa fasciata 57 Rigtei (Osteivrana) citui 

Cynoglossus puncticeps 58 Scatophagus argus 

Danio devario 59 Therapon jarbua 

Elops saurus 60 Wallago attu 

Esomus danricus 61 Xenentodon cancils 

Etroplus maculates 

Birds: The lake harbors a variety of resident and migratory birds. Open build storks 

are sighted from March to May every year near Bhujabalapatnam. The migratory 

birds include Gargeney teals, Mallards, Flamingos, Adjutant storks, etc., and they 

visit the lake from October to March every year. The wild ducks including Mallards, 

Pintails and whistling teals, etc., are very large (more than 50,000) in numbers. The 

importance of this lake remains a very important wetland for both resident and 

migratory waterfowl, although its importance has declined in recent years. Pelecanus 

philippensis formerly bred in large numbers but no longer does so. Kolleru Lake was 

formerly a wintering area for huge numbers of ducks. The flocks of ducks have been 

described as suggesting “smoke from a score of express trains running berserk”. 

Large number of birds still occur in winter; in a partial census of the lake in January 

1988, over 17,000 waterfowl were recorded, including 110 herons and egrets of five 

species, at least 1000 open-bill storks (Anastomus oscitans). 

Land tenure: State-owned 

Land use: Fishing; the lake once supported an inland fishery of major importance, 

but catches have declined drastically in recent years. Huge numbers of ducks were 

once netted and trapped for sale in local markets, and some illegal duck hunting 

continues. Large areas of the lake have been reclaimed for agriculture or converted 

into aquaculture ponds. 

Conservation measures taken: The lake up to +5’ contour has been declared as a 

wild life sanctuary recently with a view to protect the flora, fauna and the ecosystem. 

Conservation measures proposed: Kolleru conservation and management plan has 

been prepared but could not be implemented for want for funding. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threat is the continued expansion of 

agricultural activities in the area. Some 34,000 ha of the lake have been reclaimed for 

agriculture in recent years, and this agricultural encroachment continues. A spurt in 

the volume of agricultural and industrial effluents entering the lake is causing rapid 

eutrophication, and pollution with pesticides is becoming a serious problem. Fish 

ponds are being created in the shallow margins of the lake, and a large volume of 

water is being extracted for irrigation purposes. Water inlets to the lake have been 

bonded, reducing the inflow in summer when water requirements for agriculture are

high and availability is low. As the lake waters recede, exposed sections are 

encroached upon for agriculture, further adding to the silt and pollutant loads. 

Domestic ducks are bred in huge numbers around the lake shore, compounding the 

eutrophication problem. Dissolved oxygen levels can now fall to as low as 5.6 mg per 

litre in the western zone. The rapid intensification of agriculture in the region is also 

resulting in increased rates of sedimentation, and the lake bed is now rising at the rate 

of 2.5cm per year. Waterfowl are still trapped for sale in the markets of Bhimavaram 

and Eluru, even though such hunting is officially prohibited. 

Removal of aquatic vegetation, hunting, collection of birds eggs, over-fishing, 

pollution with pesticides and noise, especially that generated by irrigation pumps, are 

assumed to have caused the disappearance of the large pelican colony in the late 

1960s. The lake was once known to be the largest pelican breeding site in the world 

for the grey or spot billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), but the colonies declined 

through the 1970s and disappeared completely by 1974. The conversion of extensive 

areas (3750 ha in 1984 and steadily increasing since) for pisciculture, the 

simultaneous growth of capture fisheries, establishment of transport facilities and 

resulting anthropogenic pressures are now threatening the very existence of the lake. 

Most of the fish culture tanks are managed by private entrepreneurs. The tanks 

obstruct the free flow of water, especially during the monsoon. Manuring the tanks 

with fertiliser is common, and pesticides are used to combat various diseases. In a 

majority of cases, fertilisers and pesticides used are far in excess of the necessary 

quantity. Waters drained from the tanks are rich in nutrients and are leading to 

eutrophication of the lake, while the large quantities of pesticides (also used in paddy 

fields within the lake area) are eliminating other aquatic life. Uncontrolled expansion 

of capture fisheries is resulting in depletion of natural fish stocks. The introduced 

exotic species Java tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) - a prolific breeder, 

omnivorous, and not easily attacked by predatory fishes - is likely to establish firmly 

in the lake ecosystem, competing with many wild species and even entering fish 

tanks, leading to reduced returns for fish farmers. 

Research and facilities: Environment Protection, Training and Research Institute at 

Hyderabad have taken up some Research activities mainly for the monitoring of lake 

water quality. 

Past and Present status: The lake has been converting into a wetland and in large 

parts, into land-mass, over the years. This natural process hastened by human 

economic activity exploiting and depending on the freshwater of this vast area. Partly 

due to the legal status extended to culture fishing and agricultural activity within and 

around the lake spread in the last fifty years and partly due to the near – inelastic 

demand for freshwater fish besides paddy from the Kolleru, the ecological 

conservation of the area has become more a human than an aesthetic need. 

A lack of regulation of the seaward flow of the Kolleru waters during monsoon is 

progressively increasing the high-flood line, causing major flood problems in the 

surrounding cities of Eluru and Gudivada, besides submerging second-crop paddy 

lands and fish-tanks below the +5 ft. contour of the lake spread area. The lack of 

regulation also causes drying up of the major inlets into the lake during the summer, 

reducing the lake spread to about 10000 acres and that too in patches of shallow, weed 

infested ponds, good mainly for animal washing and basket-fishing. The obstruction 

to free flowing drainage is caused mainly by haphazard raising of culture – fishing 

tank bunds and construction of three major roads within the lake spread, without

adequate cross drainage works. Intermittent floods during the monsoon, occurring 

every four to five years due to the back – up of rainwater and agriculture run-off has 

caused major economic losses. The State Government’s investments in constructing 

upstream regulators to control river discharges, its recurring expenses on internal 

channel works, weed clearance and flood damage works, the losses of submerged 

crops, high water levels in the city of Eluru remaining static over 6 days at a time, 

submersion of fish tanks even with bunds as high as 15 ft. loss of cattle feeding 

grounds, mosquito menance and water borne diseases among the lake – people are 

few of the yet to be quantified economic losses which need to be prevented. 

Conversely, drying up of the lake in the summer due to poor drainage in the inflowing 

systems, also creates the problem of increasing nutrient concentration affecting lake 

water quality, fish and bird life adversely, thus slowly reducing the very basic natural 

interdependence of life forms upon which human economic life relies. The 

eutrophication phenomenon in the lake also affects ground water recharge, directly 

causing drinking water scarcity in the surrounding bed villages, in the summer. 

Finally, tidal inflows have tended to increase after the Upputeru has been widened and 

reduced in length. Increased salinity levels during cyclonic tidal inflows, could 

permanently damage the limnological quality of the Kolleru. 

Surrounding areas: After the development of efficient ponds culture techniques 

resulting in increased yield from fish ponds, marginal areas of the lake have been 

converted into fish ponds. World Bank extended financial assistance to farmers for 

the construction and management of the fish ponds. In the last decade nearly 20,000 

hectare have been converted into fish ponds. This has resulted in the degradation of 

the natural habitat in the lake proper over the years affecting the fishery. The area of 

the lake has diminished and the breeding areas of the many species are affected. 

Reference: Government of India (1987, 1989, 1990); Seshagiri Rao (1990); WWF 

India (1993); Siddiqi and Chandrasekhar, (1996); Ramakrishniah et al. (1996); 

Barman (2004); http://www.ramsar.org/ . 

NEELAPATTU TANK 

Neelapattu Tank is a small tank located 68 km south of Nellore, Andhra Pradesh (13° 

50’ N; 79° 59’ E) and some of 160 ha at maximum flooding studded with 

Barringtonia acutangula trees. The tank dries out completely during the dry season. 

The remainder of the sanctuary comprises scrub forest. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. 

Macrophytes: The tank supports a dense growth of floating aquatics and a reed 

Pseudoraphis aspera, and has large numbers of Barringtonia acutangula growing in 

it. 

Special floral values: The Barringtonia trees are of some interest. 

Birds: The site was created to protect a large breeding colony of spot billed pelicans 

(Pelecanus philippensis). Other breeding species include Anastomus oscitans and 

Threskiornis melanocephalus. 

Land tenure: State owned 

Land use: The tank is used for fishing. 

Conservation measures taken: The tank is protected in the Neelapattu Bird 

Sanctuary (450 ha), established in 1976 by the State Government of Andhra Pradesh.

Disturbances and threats: None known 

Socio-economic values: The breeding colonies of water birds are a popular attraction 

for visitors at weekends, some people coming from far a field to observe the nesting 

birds. 

Reference: Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993). 

PERALI POGURU BAPATLA WETLAND 

The site is situated (15° 49’–15° 53’ N and 80° 27’–80° 40’ E) at the confluence of 

Perali and Nallamada drains along the Bay of Bengal through the coastal mangrove 

forest of the western part of the Krishna delta, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. From 

the confluence to Nizampatnam (80° 32’–80° 40’ E), a creek on either side of the 

mangrove forest is formed with narrow channels. Mudflats are extended near 

Nizampatnam. The total area is about 1500 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Climate is generally hot and humid. Temperature varies from 20°C 

to 44°C.The region receives rainfall from southwest, and northeast monsoons and 

cyclonic storms. The average rainfall is 1000 mm. 

Macrophytes: Mangroves comprise the macrophytes. The common species of 

mangrove are Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, Exocoecaria agallocha, Acanthus 

ilicifolius, Suaeda maritima and Salicornia brachiata. 

Birds: An important area for local and migratory birds. The following species have 

been recorded from this area 


Anas acuta L. ridibundus 

A. crecca Plegadis falcinellus 

Anser indicus Recurvirostra avosetta 

Ardea cinerea Sterna albifrons 

A. purpurea S. aurantia 

Charadrius 

alexandrinus 

S. caspia 

C. dubius Tadorna ferruginea 

Ciconia episcopus Threskiornis 

melanocephalus 

Glareola lactea Tringa glareola 

Larus 

brunnicephalus 

T. hypoleucos

Land tenure: The mangrove area is under the Forest Department, and the 

surrounding area near the seashore is revenue land. 

Land use: Grazing of livestock, agriculture, and prawn farming. 

Disturbances and threats: Cattle grazing, human ingress, poaching of birds, prawn 

culture, and movement of mechanized boats are some of the causes of disturbance. 

Socio-economic values: The mangrove supports an important fishery. 

Reference: WWF India (1993) 

KRISHNA MANGROVES 

The mangroves of Krishna delta, the second largest patch of mangroves in Andhra 

Pradesh, situated (Lat. 15° 45’–16° 10’ N and Long. 80° 45’–81° 10’ E) in the 

Krishna and Guntur districts. These are mostly under reserved forest category 

confined to the marshy areas of the lower coastal plain and the mouth of the river 

Krishna. The total area of the mangroves is about 27,661 ha. The Krishna river 

emerges from the hills at Vijayawada, flows for about 96 kms downstream by forming 

a delta before it eventually empties into the sea. The Hamsaladevi distributary is the 

first to branch out 60 km downstream from Vijayawada near Avanigadda and flows 

northward into the sea near Machilipatnam. Mangroves have been reported to be less 

abundant there. The Gollamattapaya and Nadimeru distributaries branch out 25 km 

down stream from Avanigadda, and flow northward to join the sea. The main Krishna 

channel flows southward to join the sea near False Divi point. The abundance of 

mangroves is also more along the main Krishna river than the other distributaries. 

Mangroves are mainly prevalent around these three distributaries in tidal creeks, 

channels, lagoons, tidal flats and mudflats. A perusal of the satellite imagery reveals a 

number of geomorphic features in the Krishna delta the natural levees, meanders, 

point bars, coastal dunes, beaches, spits, etc. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 34°C and 

minimum of 27°C. The salinity ranged from 23 to 32‰. 

Mangroves and grasses: Mangrove forest dominated by Avicennia alba, A. marina, 

A. officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata and Excoecaria agallocha, with the grasses by 

Porteresia coarctata, Myriostachya wightiana, and Sarcolobus carinatus. 

Agricultural land and Prosopis juliflora in adjacent areas. 

Reptiles: The littoral zone adjoining the mangroves harbours the rookeries of three 

species of marine turtles: Dermochelys coriacea, Eretmochelys imbricata and 

Lepidochelys olivacea. These are thought to be the largest concentrations of marine 

turtles in India south of the Mahanadi river, Orissa. 

Birds: A very important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, supporting 

large concentrations of many species, notably herons and egrets, Mycteria 

leucocephala and Phoenicopterus ruber. Approximately 500 P. ruber visit the area 

each year between June and December. 


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. There are 

several human settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside 

enter the forest to collect wood. Surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for 

rice and pulses.

Conservation measures taken: The mangrove forest has been designated as 

Reserved Forest. Logging was discontinued in 1976, and none has been carried out 

since then. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that the Reserved Forest be 

upgraded to a National Park, and that a vigorous programme of scientific research be 

initiated. Research is required to prescribe the optimal exploitation of the resources so 

that a sustained resource base can be maintained. 

Possible changes in land use: Potential encroachment for salt production. 

Disturbances and threats: The major problem is the dependence of local people on 

mangroves for firewood. Expansion of agriculture in the hinterland is leading to 

increased encroachment on the landward margin of the forests, and overgrazing by 

cattle from neighbouring villages is becoming a problem. The proposed construction 

of a new road from Nagayalanka town to Nagayalanka lighthouse would involve the 

destruction of some of the mangrove forest. Major irrigation projects currently in 

progress or planned in the catchment area of the Krishna River in Maharashtra and 

Karnataka will alter the water regime and thus interfere with the processes of 

sedimentation, primary production and nutrient cycling. 

Socio-economic values: The mangroves are an important breeding and nursery area 

for many fishes and crustaceans of economic importance, and act as a barrier to 

coastal erosion. The area has considerable potential for wildlife tourism; if this could 

be shown to provide an alternative source of income for the local people, further 

destruction of the natural resources might be averted. 

Research and facilities: Some research has been conducted on the mangrove 

ecosystem. 

References: Narendra Prasad (1987); WWF India (1993); Madhyastha et al. (2002); 

Shashikala et al. (2005). 

JEEDIMETLA LAKE (FOX SAGAR) 

Fox Sagar lake commonly known as Jeedimetla tank, situated (18° 30’–18° 20’ N and 

77° 30’–79° 30’ E) 1km west of Hyderabad–Nizamabad road at a distance of 15 km 

from the Hyderabad city, Hyderabad district, Andhra Pradesh. The gross capacity of 

the lake is ten million cubic meters when full and total area of this wetland is 4700 ha. 

The lake holds water throughout the year but the level decreases from the mouth of 

October due to letting out of water for irrigation. Lake is open on all three sides; 

littoral region is shallow and retains water throughout. The catchment area has 

vegetable fields, grape gardens and some agricultural lands cultivating dry crops like 

Jowar, maize, etc. Jeedimath Industrial Estate, one of the fast growing industrial belts 

is coming up with in a kilometer radius and therefore, the suburban growth depends 

for its water requirement on the lake in future. In recent years, the lake margin is 

utilized as dumping ground for the city garbage, and brick making industry, as a result 

of this anthropogenic activity in the lake vicinity, water quality deterioration is 

noticed affecting the biota of the lake ecosystem. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with minimum temperature of 25°C and 

maximum of 45°C. The pH ranged from 7.2 to 9.8. 

Macrophyts: The following species have been recorded from this area. 

Species Name Species Name

Phytoplankton: 

Acanthospermum sp. Cyperus platystylis 

Amarantahus 

spinosus 

Hydrilla veticillata 

Argemone maxicana Jussiea repens 

Blyxa octandra Marselia quadrifolia 

Cassia fistula Paspadidinum 

germinatum 

Ceratophyllum 

Polygonum glabrum 

demusrssum 

Chara sp. Potamogeton crispus 

Croton 

bonplandianum 

Tridax procumbens 


Anabaena 

Melosira sp. 

sphaerica 

Closterium 

Microcystis aeruginosa 

acutum 

C. monoliferum Navicula sp. 

Cosmarium 

Oscillatorca sp. 

auriculatum 

C. striatum Selenastrum 

acuminatum 

Cyclotella sp. Senedesmus 

quadricauda var 

bicaudatus 

Cymbella sp. S. quadricauda var 

longispina 

Euglena acus Spirogyra hyaline 

Euglena sp. S. paludosa 

Fragilaria sp. Spirulina major 

Hydrodictyon 

reticulatum 

Vovox globator 

Lyngbya gracilis Zygnaema sp.

Zooplankton: 

Protozoa - Euglena acus, E. viridis, Arcella gibbosa, Diflugia elegans, Diflugia 

globosa, Paramaecium caudatum, Vorticella companula, Carchesium sp. and 

Epistylis sp.; 

Rotifera - Filinea longiseta, Anuraeopsis fissa, Brachyonus calcyflorus, Brachyonus 

quadricaudatus and Keratella tropica; 

Cladocera - Diaphanasoma sarsi, Moina micrura, Ceriodaphnia vetulus, 

Simocephalus vetulus, Chydorus sphaericus and Alona pulchella; 

Copepoda - Heliodiaptomus viduus and Mesocylops cf. Leucaartii; 

Diptera - Chironomus, Aedes and Culex; 

Odonata - Ischnura elegans, Ichtinogomphus rapax, Brachythemis contaminate, 

Crocothemis servelia servelia, Pantala flavescens and Trithemis pallidinervis; 

Hemiptera: 


Anisops breddini Microneta 

quadristrigata 

A. exigera M. striata 

Corixa heiroglyphica Microvelia 

senghlensis 

Diplonychus 

Notonecta glauca 

annulatum 

D. molestum Plea frontalis 

D. rusticus P. pallescens 

Geris spinolae Ranatra filiformes 

Heliochoris breviceps R. gracilis 

Laccotrephes 

elongates 

L. griseus 

Coleoptera - Hydatian fabricii, Cybister sp. and Rhantaticus. 

Crustacea: Macrobrachium rosenberghii and Cardenia sp. 

R. sordidula 

Mollusca: Bellamya bengalensis, B. crassa, B. dissimilis, Gabbia orcula var 

producta, Lymnaea acuminata, L. luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus. 

Fish: 


Amblypaharyngodon 

Mystus vittatus 

mola 

Channa gachua Notopterus 

notopterus 

C. punctatus Puntius chola 

Chela labuca P. sophore 

Clarias batrachus P. ticto 

Garra malya Rasbora daniconius 

Glossogobius giuris Sarcotherodon 

mosambicus 

Heteropneustes 

Wallago attu 

fossilis 

Lepidocephalichtyes 

guntea 

Amphibia: Bufo laurenti, Bufo melanogaster, Rana limnocharis and Rana 

cyanophlyctis. 

Avifauna: 


Acridotherus tristis Eudynamys 

scolopacea 

Alauda gulgula Galerida cristata 

Alcedo atthis Halcyon smyrnensis 

Ardea alba Himantopus 

himantopus 

A. cinerea Hirundo rustica 

Ardeola grayii Hydrophasianus 

chirurgus 

Athene brama Merops orientalis 

Bubulcus ibis Milvus migrans 

Caprimulgus 

asiaticus 

Motacilla flava 

Centropus sinensis M. maderaspatensis 

Charadrius dubius Mycterrenia


leucocephala 

Chloropsis aurifrons Neophron 

percnopterus 

Clamator jacobinus Phalacrocorax niger 

Coracias 

Podiceps ruficollis 

benghalensis 

Corvus 

Prinia socialis 

macrorhynchos 

C. splendens Psittacula krameri 

Cypsiurus parvus Pycnonotus cafer 

Dendrocitta 

Streptopelia 

vagabunda 

chinensis 

Dicrurus adsimilis S. decaocto 

Dinopium 

benghalenis 

Turdoides affinis 

Egretta garzetta T. caudatus 

E. intermedia Upupa epos 

Eremopterix grisea Vanellus indicus 

Land use: Mainly used for irrigation and fishing. 

Conservation measures taken: Andhra Pradesh State Government 

Disturbance and threats: In recent years has been employed to dump city garbage 

thereby causing deterioration in the water quality, affecting the fauna, flora and 

human health. It was also observed, that a large number of Pariah kites (Milvus 

migrans Boddaert) are hovering over the lake area, because of the abundant supply of 

food from the city garbage piled up in the area, in turn may cause serious damage to 

the air crafts (Airport is at an aerial distance of 3–4 km). 

Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply, the reservoir supports a 

small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed, evolve 

into a readily accessible and important centre for conservation education. 

Reference: Ramakrishna (2000). 

MANJIRA BARRAGE 

Manjira Barrage is a water storage reservoir situated (17° 38’ N and 78° 05’ E) 

50 km northwest of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, formed by a barrage on the Manjira 

river. The lake is about 2000 ha and has a varied shoreline with agricultural land 

(chiefly rice paddies and maize fields) on two sides. There are filter beds behind the 

earthen bund at the eastern end of the lake. Two small islands and extensive marshy 

fringes, together with a variety of aquatic vegetation in the lake, provide considerable 

ecological diversity. The maximum depth at the barrage is 16 m, the average depth

7.5–10.5 m. Parts of the lake are parched during the dry season. Together with Osman 

Sagar, Himayat Sagar, and Nizam Sagar, Manjira Barrage forms part of a complex of 

numerous small lakes west and northwest of Hyderabad. 

Abiotic factors: Rather dry, tropical monsoon climate, with temperatures ranging 

from 10°C to 41°C. The pH value is 8.5 and the alkalinity 184 mg per litre. 

Macrophytes: Extensive, marshy fringes and abundant aquatic vegetation with 

species typical of the region. The islands were originally wooded, but these have 

recently been cleared. The surrounding areas are mainly agricultural land with 

scattered Acacia spp. 

Reptiles: The marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) which occurs at the reservoir is 

the subject of a restocking programme. 

Birds: The lake supports a rich avifauna typical of the undisturbed wetlands in this 

region, and is an important wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Approximately 

1650 waterfowl of 46 species, rather fewer birds than usual, were present in January 

1987. They included 1.00 herons, egrets of seven species, and: 24 Pseudibis 

papillosa, 53 Anser indicus, 450 Tadorna ferruginea, 60 Nettapus coromandelianus, 

510 ducks of 12 other species, 50 Porphyrio porphyrio and 220 Fulica atra and small 

numbers of 12 species of shorebirds. 


Land use: The reservoir provides drinking water for the city of Hyderabad. 

Conservation measures taken: The reservoir is protected as a crocodilian sanctuary 

for the marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). A restocking programme was initiated 

in 1978, and by January 1987, 15 young crocodiles and been released. 

Disturbances and threats: There is relatively little human activity in the area, but 

some illegal hunting has been reported. The felling of trees on the islands has reduced 

the, availability of nesting sites for large waterbirds. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir provides water supply for the surrounding 

areas. 

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987. 

Reference: van der Ven (1987); WWF India (1993). 

LOWER MANAIR RESERVOIR 

The reservoir is situated (18° 24’ N) in the Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh and it was 

constructed in 1986. The total area of the reservoir is about 8,103 ha and maximum 

depth is 21.9 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 680.6 10 6 m 3 and annual inflow is 661 

10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Temperature ranged from 28°C to 32°C 

and pH varies between 8.3 and 9.2. 

Fishes: Catla, Mrigal and Rohu. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing 

Conservation measures taken: None

Disturbances and threats: No information 

Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply. The reservoir supports a 



Reference: Das et al. (2001). 

HUSSAIN SAGAR LAKE 

Hussain sagar is one of the oldest artificial tank situated (17° 20’ N and 78° 30’ E) in 

Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh formed by constructing a bund, in the mid-16th 

century, linking Hyderabad and Secunderabad. This lake is an ideal place for water 

sports. The lake is fed by streams originating from the Musi river, and Faulksagar and 

Kukatpally tanks. Hussain Sagar, which supplies drinking water to the residential 

areas in Hyderabad city, is bounded by the tank bund and Indira Park to the east, 

Sanjivayya Park to the north, Begumpet residential area to the west and the 

secretariat/ commercial complex to the south. The total area of the lake is about 

710ha. and catchment area is about 38,850 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranging from 25°C to 35°C. The water temperature is 

between 24°C and 31°C and pH from 7.4 to 8.7. 

Arthropods: Tendepis sp. 

Molluscs: Bellamya bengalensis, Pila virens, Thiara scabra, Thiara lineata, 

Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus. 

Birds: The lake supports a rich avifauna. The 1991 avifauna count included; 



Anas crecca 

Cypsiurus parvus (160) 

(360) 

A. penelope 

Egretta alba (12) 

(160) 

A. 

E. garzetta (32) 

poecilorhyncha 

(240) 

A. querquedula 

Fulica atra (24) 

(118) 

Ardea cinerea 

Hirundo rustica (280) 

(6) 

Ardeola grayii 

Nettapus 

(56) 

coromandelianus (260) 

Aythya ferina 

Phalacrocorax niger (62) 

(98) 

Ceryle rudis (2) Podiceps ruficollis (420) 

Land use: In addition to being a recreational spot, this lake is also a stock reservoir 

for the State Government’s fish-breeding station, which utilises the lake for fish

culture. The surrounding areas of the lake are being developed for residential and 

commercial buildings. 

Conservation measures taken: Revenue Department 

Disturbance and threats: Extensive human activity on account of water sports 

(sailing and regattas at national level) and fish culture is the cause of disturbance to 

birds. Being located in the heart of the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad, 

the lake receives a huge amount of industrial effluents, municipal sewage, and 

agricultural wastes. Fish kills were observed in May 1975. Subsequently, a study on 

the pollution of the lake revealed that a heavy load of pollutants, containing soluble 

and insoluble salts (nitrates, nitrites and phosphates of calcium), had entered the lake 

prior to the month of May. 

Socio-economic values: The lake is used for recreation by the citizens of the twin 

cities of Hyderabad and Secunderbad. Fish is cultured in the lake. 

Reference: Mishra and Saxena (1992); WWW India (1993); Prasad (1993); 

Chandrasekar (1997); Naga Prapurna and Shashikanth (2002). 

CORINGA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY 

Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is a complex of mangrove swamps and coastal lagoons, 

located in (16° 27’–16° 59’ N and 82° 01’–92° 22’ E) the Godavari Delta, 70 km 

southeast of Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. Most of the Sanctuary consists of 

mangrove swamps, but there are several open shallow lagoons behind the shoreline in 

the south and central sections of the delta. The northernmost part of the delta is the 

northern tip of Godavari Point, a peninsula 20 km in length which encloses Kakinada 

Bay (11,000 ha). The southernmost of the delta’s principal channels links up with the 

Krishna Delta to the south. The total area of mangroves in the two deltas combined 

may now be as little as 10,000 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. During October and November, 

freshwater floods large areas of the delta; the seasonal variation in salinity is thus very 

high, ranging from 20–30 ppt during the hot, dry season (March-May), to less than 10 

ppt during the rainy season. 

Macrophytes: The mangrove forests of the Godavari and Krishna Deltas are unique 

in India because of their stands of Sonneratia apelata and assemblage of Avicennia 

species. Mangroves include species of Rhizophora, Aegiceras, and Excoecaria. The 

grass Myriostachia wightiana is very common in both deltas, but practically unknown 

elsewhere. Two principal halophytic communities occur: those growing on the river 

banks and those growing on the ancient alluvial soils in the interior of the delta. 

Birds: An important area for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl. Species 

known to occur include Pelecanus philippensis, presumably as a non-breeding visitor, 

various species of heron, egret, stork, ibis, and Phoenicopterus ruber, the latter in 

large numbers. 

Reptiles: Attempts are currently being made to re-establish the estuarine crocodile 

(Crocodylus porosus) in the area. Marine turtles occur within the sanctuary, but 

details are lacking. 

Mammals: Mammals include Lutra sp., Felis viverrina, and Canis aureus. 

Land tenure: State-owned

Land use: Fishing; subsistence agriculture on the landward edge of the Sanctuary. 

Conservation measures taken: Protected within the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary 

(23,570 ha), established in July 1978. The Sanctuary was created partly for the reintroduction 

of the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), using animals reared at 

Hyderabad from eggs from the Andaman Islands. Three crocodiles, approximately 1.2 

m in length were released in 1978. The Sanctuary is managed by the Divisional Forest 

Officer, Kakinada. A management plan which has been drafted is now being 

implemented. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal disturbance in the mangrove forest is from 

small-scale fishing operations. Expansion of the human population in the agricultural 

hinterland and encroachment on the land-ward edge of the Sanctuary are continuing to 

cause further problems for the management of the Sanctuary. 

Socio-economic values: No information 

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys of the fauna and flora have been carried 

out, and a management plan has been prepared for the Sanctuary. 

Reference: Groombridge (1982); Kar (1984); Karpowicz (1985); WWW India 

(1993). 

MUSI RESERVOIR 

Musi reservoir situated (Lat. 17° 14’ N) in the Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh and it was 

constructed in 1963. The total area of this reservoir is 2507 ha. and maximum depth 

of the reservoir is 15.3m. The capacity of the reservoir is 130.3 10 6 m 3 and annual 

inflow is 87.7 10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranged from 29.5°C to 

30.0°C. The pH varies from 8.1 to 9.8. 

Zooplankton: The reservoir has a fairly rich crop zooplankton and equally rich 

bottom fauna consisting of larvae of chironomids and other dipterans. 

Prawns: Macrobrachium malcolmsonii 

Fishes: Tilapia and murrels (Channa striatus and C. punctatus) 


Land use: Irrigation and Fishing 

Conservation measures taken: None 





Pollution status: Presently, the reservoir is a polluted by sewage 


KADAM RESERVOIR 

The reservoir is situated in (19° 18’ N) the Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh and constructed 

in 1958. The total area of the reservoir is about 2474 ha. and maximum depth is 28.4 

m. The capacity of the reservoir is 215.3 10 6 m 3 and annual inflow is about 773.1 

10 6 m 3 .

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranged from 28.5°C to 

30.5°C and pH varies from 7.9 to 9.8. 

Fishes: Fishes consists of mostly indigenous fishes which include the Mahseer, Tor 

khudree. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing. 







MID-PENNAR RESERVOIR 

The reservoir is situated (14° 52’ N) in the Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh and was 

constructed in 1964. The total area is about 1703 ha and maximum depth is 30.4 m. 

The capacity of the reservoir is 146.1 10 6 m 3 and annual inflow is 373.8 10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Temperature ranged from 28.8°C to 


Zooplankton: It is rich in zooplankton. 

Fishes: Puntius kolus, Labeo potail, Mystus seenghala were recorded. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and fishing. 







SINGUR RESERVOIR 

The reservoir is situated (17° 45’ N) in the Medak, Andhra Pradesh, and it was 

constructed in 1989. The total area of this wetland is 16,534 ha and maximum depth is 

23.6 m. The capacity of the reservoir is about 849.5 10 6 m 3 and annual inflow is 595.8 

10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranging from 25.5°C to 

29°C. The pH varies from 8.0 to 9.2. 


Fishes: Rohu, Mrigal and other fishes. 


Land use: Water supply to Hyderabad city.

Socio-economic values: It is relatively a new impoundment meant for supply of 

water to Hyderabad city. 


SOMASILA RESERVOIR 

The reservoir is situated in (14° 29’ N) the Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, and it was 

constructed in 1988. The total area of this wetland is about 21,349 ha. and 

maximum depth is 33.5 m. The capacity of the reservoir is 2208.4 10 6 m 3 and annual 

inflow is 2562.5 10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranged from 29°C to 31°C and pH range from 

minimum of 8.1 to 8.5. 

Fauna: Catla and Mrigal show signs of good growth, while that of Rohu is poor. 





Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a 

valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use. 


WETLANDS IN INDRAVATI NATIONAL PARK 

Indravati national park is situated on 19° 00’–29° 30’ N, 81° 00’– 82° 00’ E 

along the Indravati River from Jagdalpur downstream to the region of Pusnar, Andhra 

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The Indravati National Park consists of a broad 

stretch of land along the Indravati River in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and 

Orissa, which has been reclaimed for rehabilitation purposes. Wetland habitats 

include the river itself, spring-fed marshes and numerous tanks and pools in the clay 

deposits in low-lying areas. The area of wetlands are unknown, however, the National 

Park is 125,837 ha within a Tiger Reserve of 208,400ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with the average annual rainfall 

increasing from 1,270 mm in the west to 1,520 mm in the east. Temperatures range 

from 11°C to 40°C. 

Macrophytes: Aquatic plants in and around the tanks include Nelumbo nucifera, 

Nymphaea spp, Trapa natans and Utricularia aurea, Isoetes coromandelina also 

occurs. At Chapka and Jayathgiri, natural springs support a compact, closed swampy 

vegetation with Calamus ratang, Flagellaria indica, Pandanus tectonius, Similax 

prolifera and tall specimens of Equisetum debile. Most of the Park consists of tropical 

mixed deciduous forest interspersed with grassy glades. 

Birds: The wetlands are reported to be rich in water birds, but no details are 

available. 

Mammals: The National Park and Tiger Reserve support a wide variety of large 

mammals including Panthera tigris, P. pardus, Bos gaurus, Cervus unicolor, Axis 

axis, Sus scrofa, Canis lupus and Hyaena hyaena. The reserves contain the most

extensive potential habitat for wild Water Buffalo Bubalus bubalis in India, and 

would be suitable for re-introduction of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli. 

Land tenure: State owned. 

Land use: The area is managed as a nature reserve. 

Conservation measures taken: The wetlands are protected in the Indravati National 

Park (125,837 ha), established in 1978. The Park is incorporated within the Indravati 

Tiger Reserve (208,400 ha), established in 1982 under Project Tiger. 

Conservation measures proposed: The Management Plan under Project Tiger aims 

to relocate villages in central and northern parts of the reserve, develop water 

supplies, and give effective protection against fire and poaching. 

Disturbances and threats: There are some villages in the central and northern parts 

of the Tiger Reserve. 

Economic and social values: No information. 

Research and facilities: Most of the research in the National Park and Tiger Reserve 

has focussed on the larger mammals, and little if any work seems to have been carried 

out on the wetlands. 

Reference: Jam and Sastry (1983); WWF India (1993). 

WYRA RESERVOIR 

The location of the reservoir is Lat. 7° 11’ N, and was constructed in 1930 in the 

Khamman, Andhra Pradesh. The total area of this wetland is about 1626ha. Maximum 

depth is 18.6m. The capacity of the reservoir is 64.7 10 6 m 3 and annual inflow is 193.7 

x 10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with temperature ranging from 29°C to 


Zooplankton: Wyra has a good population of zooplankton and fairly rich bottom 

fauna consisting of Tendepes and other dipteran larvae. 


Fishes: Besides Catla and Rohu, addition of common carp should be considered for 

stocking. 








SRISAILAM RESERVOIR 

It is a largest reservoir situated (16° 50’ N) in the Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. The 

reservoir was constructed in 1984. The total area of this reservoir is about 61,404ha.

and maximum depth is 102.1m. The capacity of the reservoir is 8721 10 6 m 3 and 

annual inflow is 36449.9 10 6 m 3 . 

Abiotic factors: Temperature range from a minimum of 28.5°C and maximum of 


Fishes: Major carps are being exploited in considerable quantities. 





Socio-economic values: Its importance for water supply and supports a small fishery 

supplying local markets. 


POCHARAM RESERVOIR 

Pocharam reservoir is situated on 18° 08’ N, 77° 57’ E on the Manjira River, 85 km 

northwest of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. It is a large water storage reservoir on the 

Manjira River, about 70 km downstream from Manjira Barrage. The reservoir is 

situated in undulating hills with dry deciduous forest and scrub jungle. The lake varies 

in extent from 15,000 to 20,000 ha depending upon the season and fluctuations in 

rainfall. It reaches a maximum depth of about 6–7 m. The total area of the wetland is 

20,000 ha 

• 

POCHARAM RESERVOIR 


Abiotic factors: Rather dry tropical monsoon climate, with temperatures ranging 

from 10–41°C and water is alkaline with a pH of 7.5–8.0. 

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The lake is 

surrounded by cultivation with scrub jungle at 50–200 m from the shoreline.

Birds: The lake is known to support a wide variety of both resident and migratory 

waterfowl, but little information is available. Over 10,000 waterfowl of at least 53 

species were present in January 1987, including: 90 herons and egrets of 7 species; 


Anas acuta (1,400) Aythya ferina (400) 

A. clypeata (760) A. fuligula (840) 

A. crecca (960) A. nyroca (50) 

A. penelope (800) Grus grus (50) 

A. poecilorhynchos 

(1,200) 

Netta rufina (180) 

A. querquedula 

Nettapus 

(700) 

coromandelianus (630) 

A. strepera (300) Platalea leucorodia (100) 

Anastomus oscitans 

(50) 

Rhynchops albicollis (9) 

Anser indicus (620) Tadorna ferruginea (560) 

Anthropoides virgo 

(100) 

Large numbers of shorebirds of at least 14 species were also present, but no count was 

possible. 

Land tenure: The reservoir is state owned. 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. Forestry exploitation and 

agriculture in surrounding areas. 

Conservation measures taken: Part of the reservoir is included in the Pocharam 

Sanctuary (12,964 ha), established in 1952 and managed by the Divisional Forest 

Officer, Madak. 

Disturbances and threats: Forestry activities in the watershed. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir provides an important water supply for the 

surrounding areas. 

Research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl census was carried out in January 

1987. 

Reference: WWF India (1993).

WETLANDS IN MAHAO (MEHAO) SANCTUARY 

Mahao Sanctuary is located (28° 05’–29° 15’ N and 95° 40’–96° 03’ E) around the 

valley of the Dri river, 65 km from Balipara Railway Station and 100 km northeast of 

Dibrugarh, Dibang Valley district, Arunachal Pradesh, which flows almost due south 

from the extreme northeastern corner of India to join the confluence of the Dihang 

and Lohit rivers at 27° 55’ N, 95° 40’ E. Most of the Sanctuary is primary, tropical, 

wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, but there are some areas of grassland and 

seasonally inundated valley floors with riverine formations. The total area of this 

sanctuary is about 28,150 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical to temperate climate, with an average annual rainfall 

of 4,189 mm, most 

of which occurs 

during May– 

September. 

Birds: The 

endangered white- 

• WETLANDS IN MAHAO (MEHAO) SANCTUARY wingedwoodduck (Cairina 

scutulata) still 

lower 

river. 

persists in small 

numbers along the 

course of the Dri 

duvaucelli) inhabits the Sanctuary. 


Land use: No information 

Mammals: The 

swamp deer 

(Cervus 

Conservation measures taken: The Mahao Sanctuary (28,150 ha) was established in 

1980. 



Reference: WWF India (1993). 


WETLANDS IN LALI SANCTUARY 

Lali is a forest sanctuary situated (Lat. 27° 53’–28° 10’ N, 95° 23’– 95° 30’ E) 

16 km southeast of Pasighat and 80 km northeast of Dibrugarh, East Siang district, 

Arunachal Pradesh and the sanctuary is incorporating the lower reaches and 

floodplain of the Dihang river just north of its confluence with the Lohit river. 

Wetland habitats include riverine marshes, seasonally flooded grassland and riparian 

forest. There are several islands in the river, the largest of which is about 500 ha in 

area and the total area of this sanctuary is about 19,000 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate; temperature range from 12°C to 

33°C.

Macrophytes: Tropical, wet, evergreen forest with riverine forest and grasslands in 

the valley bottoms. 

Mammals: Swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) 

utilise the valley floor wetlands. 


Land use: Sanctuary 

Conservation measures taken: The Lali Sanctuary (19,000 ha) was established in 

1978. 

Socio-economic values: The large number of birds visiting this area. 


WETLANDS IN NAMDAPHA NATIONAL PARK 

The Namdapha National Park situated (27° 23’–27° 39’ N and 96° 15’–96° 58’ E) on 

the Burmese border, 90 km from Railway Station and 140 km east of Dibrugarh, 

Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh and the park is incorporates a great diversity of 

ecosystems from riverine forest at the lowest elevations, through tropical, wet, 

evergreen forest, moist evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, and hill evergreen 

formations, to alpine barrens at over 4500m. Wetland habitats include the Miao river, 

its tributaries, and associated marshes and riparian forests. The National Park is about 

180,782 ha, including a core area of 69,500 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical to temperate climate, with an annual rainfall of 

3000–4000 mm. The temperature range varies greatly, depending on altitude. 

Macrophytes: Situated at the junction of three biotic provinces, the Park displays 

very diverse terrestrial vegetation. Particularly relevant are large areas of north Indian, 

tropical, moist deciduous forest on alluvial flats and along rivers and stream banks. 

Extensive riverine formations, particularly along the Miao river, represent some of the 

least spoilt low-land forests in India (73 species of lichens, 59 bryophytes, 112 

pteridophytes, five gymnosperms, 801 angiosprems are only a few of the species 

recorded in 60% of the area of this reserve). 

Special floral values: Several rare and endangered species are found here. Two new 

genera, four new species, four new species, and 14 new distributional records have 

been recorded. There is a high level of endemism. Pinus merkusii and Abier delavavi 

are found only here in India. Mishmi tita, of medicinal value, is also found in the 

reserve. 

Insects: A total of 14 species of beetles have been recorded in the national park 

Molluscs: Five species of mollusk have been recorded. 

Fishes: A total of 5 species of fish were recorded in the national park. 

Amphibians: Three of amphibians have been recorded. 

Reptiles: A total of 90 species of reptiles were recorded. 

Birds: A total of 350 species of birds were recorded. The endangered white-winged 

wood-duck (Cairina scululala) may stil occur along the Miao river at the lowest 

elevations in the Park, although it is not known whether the species was ever truly 

resident here.

Mammals: The fauna of the National Park remains virtually intact; more than 96 

species of mammals. Wetland mammals include the fishing cat (Felis viverrina) and 

common otter (Lutra lutra). It is the only reserve in India that is home to four of the 

large cats: tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, and snow leopard. A new species, the 

Namdapha flying squirrel, was discovered here for the first time in 1983. 


Land use: Managed as a nature reserve 

Conservation measures taken: The National Park (180,782 ha) was established in 

1972 and is a Project Tiger Reserve. 

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to reintroduce the endangered 

White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata into the Park from the Assam Valley 

captive breeding projects. There is a proposal to extend the National Park by 25,000 

ha to the north, into Lohit District. Provision should be made for a sanctuary buffer 

zone of 10,000 ha along the western lowland border. 

Disturbances and threats: The reserve is remote, inaccessible, with difficult terrain. 

These factors prevent biotic pressures on the core and sustain the rich vegetation. 

There are, however, incidents of poaching on the Indo-Burmese border. 

Socio-economic values: Namdapha, a biosphere reserve, has a high biodiversity. The 

area caters to very few tourists. The local Chakma tribals hunt in the reserve on 

traditional and ceremonial occasions, but not on an excessive scale. They live in 

harmony with the forests. 

Reference: Government of India (1993); WWF India (1993).

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER VALLEY 

The Brahmaputra flood plain (25° 45’ N, 89° 50’ E) forms one vast wetland region, 

particularly during years of above average rainfall, for example 1987. The area 

stretches for over 600 kms from the frontier with Bangladesh (25° 45’ N, 89° 50’ E), 

where the valley exceeds 90 km in width, to the point where its two principal 

tributaries, the Lohit and Dibang, unite (27° 50’ N, 95° 40’ E). Here the valley has 

narrowed to less than 50 km in width. 

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER VALLEY 

The river itself already exceeds three km in width at the confluence of the Lohit and 

Dibang, and widens to nearly 10 km at the Bangladesh border. In common with the 

other great north Indian rivers, it changes course frequently, leaving permanent or 

seasonal lakes and marshes in the abandoned channels. There are over 70 such lakes 

of between 100 and 500 ha in area, but only five or six in excess of 500 ha. At several 

points, the valley is significantly constrained by the northward projecting spurs of the 

Naga and Shillong Hills, and it is here that the principal urban areas have become 

established, e.g. Gauhati and Goalpara. The expansion of urban areas, industrial 

activity and the intensification of agriculture are putting great pressure on the wetland 

resources of the Brahmaputra. A number of sanctuaries have been established in the 

valley, but as yet none has been created specifically for its wetland ecosystem. This 

would seem to be an urgent priority. Six of the most important sites within the 

Brahmaputra Valley are treated separately below; i.e. Deepar Bell, Beels of Assam, 

Sareswar Beel, Wetlands in Manas national park and Wetlands in Laokhawa, Orange 

and Sona Rupai sanctuaries. 

DEEPOR BEEL 

Deepor beel (26° 08’ N, 91° 39’ E) is a permanent, freshwater lake, in a former 

channel of the Brahmaputra river, now to the south of the main river south-west of 

Guwahati city, Assam. It is a large natural wetland having great biological and 

environmental importance besides being the only major storm water storage basin for 

the Guwahati city (Deka and Goswami, 1992). Geomorphologically, its origin and 

development are intimately linked with the geologic and tectonic history of the 

region, hydrology and channel dynamics of rivers and pattern and intensity of land 

use in the area. It is commonly believed that the beel together with those adjoining it 

• 

Source: Google earth

epresents an abandoned channel of the Brahmaputra system. The beel is located in a 

broad U-shaped valley rammed between the steep highlands on the north and south. 

The highlands lying immediately to the north and south of the beel are made up of 

gneisses and schist’s of the Archaean age, whereas the beel and its lowland fringe is 

underlain by recent alluvium consisting of clay, silt, sand and pebbles. At maximum 

flooding, it is about four metres deep; during the dry season, the depth drops to about 

one metre. The main sources of water are the Basistha and Kalmani rivers and local 

monsoon run-off between May and September. The beel drains into the Brahmautra 

river 5 km to the north, through the Khonajan channel. About half of the beel dries out 

during the winter months, and at this time, the exposed shores are converted into rice 

paddies to a width of up to one kilometer. The total area of the wetland is about 4,000 

ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with a prolonged monsoon season 

from May to September, a relatively cool, dry winter, and a pre-monsoon period in 

March-May with occasional storms. Temperatures range from 10.6º to 32.0ºC. 

Macrophytes: The dominant aquatic plants include 



Azolla pinnata Nymphaea rubra 

Eichhornia crassipes Ottelia alismoides 

Eleocharis 

plantaginea 

Pistia stratiotes 

Hydrilla verticillata Potamogeton 

crispus 

Ipomoea reptans Sagittaria 

sagittifolia 

Lemna minor Spirodela polyrhiza

Nymphaea albea Vallisneria spiralis 

The giant water lily (Euryale ferox) also grows here. The lake shore vegetation 

includes Eupatorium odoratum, Achyranthes aspera, Cyperus esculoentus Phragmites 

karka, Vitex trifolia, Accium basilium, Saccharum spontaneum, and Imperata 

arundinacea. Dominant tree species in the nearby deciduous forests include Tectona 

grandis, Ficus bengalensis, and Bombax malabaricum. The giant water lilies (Euryale 

ferox) are of considerable botanical interest and economic importance. 

Phytoplankton: Phytoplankton is one of the major components of the lowest level of 

the producers in the Deepor beel ecosystem. Again, the fluctuations of water regime 

during summer and winter also influence the diversity and abundance of the lowest 

level of the food web. The dominant species are represented by Oscillatoria sp. and 

Microcystis sp. A total of 18 genera of phytoplankton are reported only from the core 

area of the Deepor beel ecosystem. The population density of phytoplankton reaches 

fairly high levels during winter season and re-treating monsoon but remain low during 

summer season. 

Zooplankton: Altogether 21 genera of zooplanktons were identified in Deepor beel, 

the dominant species were from the groups of Cladoceran, Copepod, Rotifers and 

Protozoans, such as, Paramecium sp., etc. (Chetry 1999). The beel is rich with high 

zooplankton diversity during the pre-monsoon, monsoon and winter seasons. 

Benthos: The important benthic fauna in the Deepor beel ecosystem includes Tubifex 

sp., Nais sp., Pheritima sp., Dero sp., Limnodrillus sp., Chaoborus sp., Chironomus 

sp., Bellemya sp., Bortia sp., Chaoborous sp., Culicoids sp., Dragon fly larvae, stone 

fly larvae, Cybister larvae, Pyla globosa, Unio sp., etc. 

Fishes: The diversity and concentration of indigenous fresh water fish species is very 

high in Deepor beel area owing to the diverse habitat types and high productivity of 

the wetland. Deepor beel is a permanent deep and shallow water wetland; hence, the 

natural breeding of some of them takes place within the beel itself. According to 

Chetry (1999), Deepor beel supports 50 different fish species under 19 families. The 

rich fish fauna includes 


Notopterus chitolus Botia Dario 

N. notopterus Lepidocephalus guntea 

Gadusia chapra Aorichtys seenghala 

Anabus testudineus Mystus vitatus 

Amblyphraygodon mola M. tengra 

Aspidoporaria morar Ompok pabo 

Puntius sophore Wallago attu

P. ticto Ailia colia 

P. sarana Clarias batrachus 

P. conchonius Heteropneustes fossilis 

Catla catla Xenentodon cancila 

Labeo rohita Monopterus cuchia 

L. calbasu Chanda nama 

L. gonius C. ranga 

L. gonius Glossogobius giuris 

L. diagonelis Colisa fasciata 

Cirrhinus reba Channa punctatus 

C. mrigala C. orientalis 

Ctenopharyngodon idella C. marulius 

Hypophthalmiethys molitrix C. striatus 

Cyprinus carpio var communis C. gachua 

Rasbora daniconius Mastacembalus armatus 

R. bacaila M. aculeatus 

Barilius barila Tetradon cutcutia 

B. bola Lepidocephalus gunted 

Reptiles: There are no comprehensive study reports on Herpeto fauna in Deepor beel, 

however, preliminary survey revealed the presence of at least 20 amphibian, 12 

lizards, 18 snakes and 6 turtle and tortoise species in Deepor beel (Saikia 2000). 

Birds: Deepor beel harbors a large number of terrestrial and aquatic birds, most of 

which are either endemic, threatened and endangered. Altogether 219 bird species 

have been recorded, of which 70 species are waterfowl (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 

1987, Barman at et. 1996 and Saikia 2000 unpublished. Rostratula benghalensia and 

Gallinago solitaria were reported in February 1988. Breeding species include 

Nettapus coromandelianus, Gallicrex cinerea, Porphyrio porphyrio, and Metopidius 

indicus. The species known to occur includes Little grebe– Tachybaptus ruficollis 

(348), Great Crested Grebe–Podiceps cristatus (4), Blacknecked Grebe – P. 

nigricollis (1), Spotbilled pelican – Pelecanus philippensis (5), Large Cormorant –

Phalacrocorax carbo (5), Little Cormorant – P. niger (1056), Indian Shag – P. 

fuscicollis (1), Giant Heron – Ardea goliath (1), Pond Heron – Adreola grayii (261), 

Little Egret–Egretta garzetta (216), Intermediate Egret–Egretta intermedia (195), 

Cattle Egret– Bubulcus ibis (63), Great Egret– Casmerodius albus (86), Purple 

Heron–Ardea purpurea (17), Grey Heron – A. cinerea (3), Black Bittern– Ixobrychus 

flavicollis (1), Cinamon Bittern – I. cinnamomeus (16), Yellow Bittern – 

I. Sinensis (7), Black Crowned Night Heron -Nycticorax nycticorax (17), Asian 

Openbill Stork – Anastomus oscitans (17), Lesser Adjutant Stork–Leptoptilos 

javanicus (24), Greater Adjutant Stork–L. dubius (56), Blacknecked Stork – 

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (1), Barheaded Geese– Anser indicus (11), Large 

Whistling Teal – Dendrocygna bicolor (27), Lesser Whistling Teal – D. javanica 

(3000), Ruddy Shelduck – Tadorna ferruginea (769), Indian Cotton Teal – Nettapus 

coromandelianus (7), Eurasia Wigeon – Anas penelope (27), Gadwall – A. strepera 

(500), Common Teal – A. crecca (1689), Spot billed Duck – A. poecilorhyncha (65), 

Mallard – A. platyrhynchos (35), Northern Pintail – A. acuta (5349), Gargany – A. 

querquedula (317), Northern Shoveler – A. clypeata (914), Red Crested Pochard – 

Netta rufina (7), Common Pochard – Aythya ferina (1000), Baer’s Pochard – A. baeri 

(1018), Ferruginous Duck – A. nyroca (609), Tufted Duck – A. fuligula (175), Water 

Rail – Rallus aquaticus (11), White breasted Waterhen – Amaurornis phoenicurus 

(22), Watercock – Gallicrex cinerea (3), Purple Swamphen – Porphyrio porphyrio 

(60), Common Coot – Fulica atra (95), Pheasant Tail Jacana – Hydrophasianus 

chirurgus (20), Bronze Winged Jacana – Metopidius indicus (90), Painted Snip – 

Rostratula benghalensis (8), Oriental Partincole – Iglareola maldivarum (10), 

Northern Lapwing – Vanellus vanellus (19), Grey-headed lapwing-V. cinereus (24), 

Red-Wattled lapwing – V. indicus (24), Asiatic Golden Plover – Pluvialis dominica 

(235), Little Ringed Plover – Charadrius dubius (150), Spotted redshank – Tringa 

erythropus (305), Marsh Sandpiper – T. stagnatilis (150), Green Shank – T. nebularia 

(10), Green Sandpiper – T. ochropus (10), Wood Sand Piper – T. glareola (20), 

Spoonbilled Sandpiper – Eurynorhynchus pygmeus (1), Common Sand Piper – Actitis 

hypoleucos (65), Solitary Snip – Gallinago solitaria (12), Pintail Snip – G. stenura 

(12), Common Snip – G. gallinago (21), Little Stint – Calidris minuta (22), Black 

Headed Gull – Larus ridibundus (8), Whiskered Tern – Chlidonias hybridus (4), 

Indian River tern – Sterna aurantia (5) and Black bellied Tern – S. acuticauda (1). 

Mammals: Wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) still visit the beel despite its 

proximity to Guwahati. 

Land tenure: The site is owned by the Fishery Department of the Government of 

Assam. The surroundings are in private property, except for the Gorbhanga Reserve 

Forest which is state-owned. 

Land use: The wetland is used for fishery, domestic water supply, collection of 

natural products, fodder and food supply, transport, and recreation. Traditionally, the 

Beel provides fodder to cattle and food to the local people. 

Conservation measures taken: The Government of Assam vides Gazette 

Notification No. FRW.1/80/26 declared 414ha of the beel area as a Sanctuary (Dipor 

Beel Sanctuary). Shooting and bird-trapping are prohibited by law, but enforcement is 

poor. The area is patrolled by the Fishery Department. 

Conservation measures proposed: The newly constructed railway line through the 

southern periphery of Deepor beel is a major threat to the ecosystem, particularly, in 

view of encroachments, forest destruction, erosion, disturbance, etc. Therefore the

following measures should be taken: 

• Halting of trains should be avoided within the boundary of Deepor beel; 

• Land adjacent to the railway line should be kept free from any encroachment; 

• To keep the noise level down, suitable plantations should be raised on either 

side of the line; 

• Any form of settlement should not be allowed within the low-lying parts of 

Deepor beel (all through the Deepor beel) even if private owned land are 

available; 

• Further destruction of adjacent hilly forest should not be allowed (destroyed 

during construction of railway line) and eco-restoration should be initiated 

immediately; 

• The effectiveness of the Deepor beel system as a storm water detention basin 

for Guwahati city should be preserved and the increasing pressure of storm 

runoff from the city to the beel should be lessened through creation of 

additional storage capacity in the naturally depressed areas within the greater 

metropolitan area; 

• Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1987) have proposed that the entire beel be notified 

as a bird sanctuary; 

• Considering the urgency for solution of the water logging problem of the city, 

the use of the Deepor beel system as a storm water reservoir should receive 

high priority and other uses of the beel system should be so planned as to be 

compatible with this overriding objective; 

• The city runoff which includes sewage should be treated before being 

discharged into the Deepor beel system; 

• More area should be covered under Bird sanctuary which includes highland 

within it, and other small naturally depressed areas also should be included 

and proper plantation programme should be initiated to create breeding ground 

of residential waterfowl; 

• Land cutting, brick making factory and industrial development should be 

stopped within and in the surrounding areas of Deepor beel; 

• All forms of government settlements should be stopped immediately and the 

area should be preserved as a natural state. 

• Development of bird related ecotourism for the benefit of local habitants and 

for conservation education. 

Socio-economic values: The wetland is used for fishery, domestic water supply, 

collection of natural products, fodder and food supply, transport, and recreation. 

Traditonally, the Beel provides fodder to cattle and food to the local people. Nymphea 

nuts and flowers are sold on the local markets and they constitute valuable natural 

crops. Ornamental fish, aquarium and medicinal plants are also collected, but they are 

more commercial products. Seeds of Euryale ferox are a major source of income, as 

they are annaully leased by the Government Revenue Department. Several studies 

from the Gauhati University have taken place in the Beel. The surroundings are used 

for settlement, cultivation of paddy, roads and railways, industries, a hospital and

educational institutions. Several natural products such as orchids of commercial value 

and valuable trees (e.g. Shorea robusta) are collected in the neighbouring forests. 

Poor people inhabiting the vicinity of the beel ecosystem, collect their required 

protein in the form of fish and other animal meats. The people of southern boundary 

communicate with the city people through the beel water by country boats. 

Disturbance and threats: Adverse factors threatening the site include intensive 

fishing activities, hunting on waterbirds, wide use of agrochemicals on the adjacent 

lands, and eutrophication of the lake. Uncontrolled fishing practices are harmfull to 

the wetland ecosystem and permanently (day and night) disturbing waterbirds. The 

birds are also under pressure by being hunted and netted illegally. Agrochemicals 

enter the lake by run-off, enhancing its eutrophication and its infestation with 

Eichhornia crassipes. The surroundings are threatened by illegal forestry activities, 

encroachment, and construction projects. In order to supply timber to the saw-mills, 

the forests are being felled illegally resulting in increased erosion and causing rapid 

siltation of the Beel. Settlements and permanent agriculture are steadily encroaching 

the wetland and reducing the extent of the marsh vegetation. Construction projects 

concerning a railway line, industrial development, settlements and a brick making- 

and soil cutting factory are a real threat to the wetland ecosystem. 

Research and facilities: The beel has been studied in some detail by biologists from 

the Animal Ecology Laboratory in the Department of Zoology, Gauhati University. 

Importance: Deepor Beel is one of the largest and most important beels in the 

Brahmaputra valley of lower Assam and is a representative wetland type found within 

the Burma Monsoon Forest biogeographic region. The site supports IUCN red-listed 

species such as the birds Pelecanus philippensis, Aythya baeri, Leptoptilos javanicus, 

Haliaeetus leucogaster, and L. dubius and the mammal Elephas maximus. Deepor 

beel is one of the staging sites on the migratory flyways and some of the largest 

congregations of aquatic birds in Assam can be seen here, particularly in winter. 

Highest number of single day count of waterbirds in Deepor beel recorded is 19,000 

birds. Deepor Beel supports 50 fish species belonging to 19 families. These include 

high concentration and diversity of indigenous freshwater species. Fish depend on the 

wetland for food, spawning and nursery. 

Management authority: Principal Chief Conservator of Forests Assam State, P.O. 

Rehabari Guwahati- 8 (Assam) 

Past and Present status: The intensive fishing activities, prevalent both by day and 

night, causes a considerable disturbance and also there is heavy hunting pressure on 

water birds. Large number of water birds are netted illegally during the winter 

months (December to March) for sale in local markets. Pesticides and fertilizers are 

widely used on adjacent agricultural land, and enter the lake in runoff. The fertilisers 

have accelerated eutrophication, and infestation with Echhornia crassipes is now 

becoming a serious problem. 

Surrounding areas: The forests in the catchment area to the south are often being 

felled illegally to supply timber for the sawmills, resulting in increased erosion, which 

in turns, is causing rapid siltation in the beel. Settlements and permanent agriculture 

are steadily encroaching on the wetland and reducing the extent of the marsh 

vegetation. A government proposal to dig a canal from Guwahati city to the beel to 

dispose of the city’s sewage would, if carried out, have disastrous effects on the 

wetland ecosystem. The major threats are summarized as follows;

• Construction of railway line along the southern boundary of the Deepor beel; 

• Industrial development within the peiphery of the beel; 

• Large scale encroachment and government as well as private settlement within 

the Deepor beel area; 

• Allotting the government vacant land to private party by Government 

settlement department; 

• Brick making factory and soil cutting within the beel ecosystem; 

• Hunting, trapping and killing of wild birds and mammals within and in the 

adjoining areas of Deepor beel; 

• Unplanned fishing practice without controlling mesh size and using water 

pump, etc. 

The newly constructed railway line through the southern periphery of Deepor beel is a 

major threat to the ecosystem, particularly, in view of encroachments, forest 

destruction, erosion, disturbance, etc. 

Reference: Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1987), Sarma et al. (1993), Dutta et al. (1993), 

Boruah et al. (1992), Deka and Goswami (1992), Deka and Goswami (1993), 

Government of Assam, 1990. Assam Pollution Control Board, Guwahati, 1989. 

http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website). 

BEELS OF ASSAM 

Derelict and semi-derelict wetlands constituting apart of the Brahmaputra floodplain, 

the beels are a vitally important fishery resource of Assam. There are about 1392 

beels in the state Assam, the maximum number being in Nagaon district (289), 

followed by Cachar (263), North Lakhimpur (153), and Jorhat (131). Together the 

beels constitute over 80% of Assam’s lentic waters. Beels are of two types: lake-like 

beels, which are wide, shallow, with an irregular shoreline and are connected to 

rivers through channels; and oxbow beels, which are mostly parts of abandoned river 

courses (although some may be connected to the main river system through channels), 

are relatively narrow, long, and have a curved or serpentine shape. Districts North 

Lakhimpur and Nagaon have the maximum number of oxbow beels while lower 

Assam, comprising Goalpara, Dhubri and Kokrajar, has batteries of large, lake-like 

beels with high fisheries potential. Some specific beels are; Tamaranga (57 ha, 

Goalpara district); Dhir (689 ha, Dhubri district); Dipor (4000 ha, Kamrup district - 

see entry on wetland site 70); Sareswar (1700 ha, Dhubri district - see entry on 

wetland site 69); Dighali, Dora, Chandubi, and Salsala (250 ha, 463 ha, 311 ha, and 

21 ha, respectively, Kamrup district). Beel morphometry is affected by incursion of 

river water, degree of precipitation, and nature of catchment. The deposits of decaying 

weeds at the bottom contribute to richness of the bottom soils in beels. The pH ranges 

from 6.0 to 7.6; and water depth from 1m to 5.3 m. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with a prolonged monsoon season 

from May to September. A relatively cool, dry winter and a pre-monsoon period from 

March to May with occasional storms. Temperatures range from 10.6°C to 32°C. 

Macrophytes: The forms of many large beels have favoured extensive development 

of marginal and submerged vegetation dominated by macrophytes. With high values 

of light quality and quantity combined with appropriate temperature regime and total

alkalinity, the submerged macrophytes playa major role in determining plankton 

productivity and primary productivity in beels. Owing to a high rate of accumulation 

of nutrients, macrophytes compete with phytoplankton and, under macrophytedominated 

conditions, phytoplankton do not get enough nutrients for their growth. As 

a result, phytoplankton, in general, is poor in beels. In Dhir beel, phytoplankton is 

dominated by Chlorophyceae (Pediastrum, Spirogyra, Eudorina Mongeotia) and 

Myxophyceae (Microcystis, Anabena, and Oscillatoria). Macrophytes include 

Hydrilla verticillata and Vallisneria spiralis. Other species are Salvinia, Lemna, 

Wolffia, Potamogeton, Najas, and Trapa. A conspicuous feature of the beels is the 

unusually high proportion of detritus. 

Zooplankton: Dominant zooplankton in Dhir beel includes Protozoans followed by 

Copepods, Rotifers and Cladocerans. Due to high decomposition of organic matter at 

the bottom, beels, in general, are rich in benthos. The macrobenthos in Dhir beel is 

dominated by Gastropods (68.14%) and Pelecypods (19%). 

Fishes: Fish fauna, however, have been studied. In beels that maintain connection 

with the river, locally migratory fishes are of considerable significance. The Indian 

major carps, particularly Catla and Rohu, depict such forms with Labeo gonius also 

contributing significantly. Gravid fishes of these species enter the beel every year 

during the monsoon months for spawning. Eutropichthys vacha and Gudusia chapra 

migrate in large numbers to the beels during the monsoon and form a post-monsoon 

fishery of considerable magnitude. Both juveniles and adults of the long-range 

migrant, Hilsa ilisha are found in the beels (e.g. Dhir, Dora, and Son beels). The 

fishery of Dhir beel is dominated by Gudusia chapra and other miscellaneous species 

including minor carps followed by major carps, cat fishes, live fishes, and common 

carp. 

Birds: Not much information is available on the birds of Assam beels. 

Land tenure: Some are state-owned (Departments of Flood Control, Irrigation, 

Agriculture and Fisheries); others are privately owned. 

Land use: The beels are exploited for their fishery resources. 

Conservation measures proposed: At a workshop held on development of beel 

fishery in Assam in April 1987 under the auspices of Assam Agricultural University, 

Guwahati, it was recommended that the beels be managed for their vast fishery 

resources; that no part of any beel be reclaimed for agriculture, housing, and industrial 

purposes, and the wetland character should be maintained; that conservation measures 

banning capture of brood fish and juveniles of prime food be enforced with strict 

rigidity; and that pollution of beels by the release of domestic and industrial effluents 

be prevented. 

Disturbances and threats: Infestation by water hyacinth is a problem. Reclamation 

for agriculture and urbanization, over-exploitation of fishery resources, and pollution 

from domestic and industrial wastes and agricultural run-off are other problems. 

Various government departments involved in the development of beels are unable to 

coordinate their activities to formulate and implement a common strategy for beel 

management. 

Socio-economic values: Valuable for their fishery resources. In contrast to an 

average annual fish production of c.6-7 kg per ha per year from Indian reservoirs, the

overall fish production from Assam beels is more than 100 kg per hectare per year. 

Beel waters are also utilised for irrigation, domestic consumption, and bathing. 

Research and facilities: Detailed environmental status of Assam beels has been 

given by Bhuyan (1987). Biological investigations in Assam beels have been 

undertaken by the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West 

Bengal. Beel fishes have also been researched at the Assam Agricultural University, 

Guwahati. 

Reference: Jhingran (1991); Lahon (1983); Bhuyan (1987); Goswami (1985); Yadav 

and Chaudhury (1984, 1986); Adhikari et al (1986); Yadav (1987); Yadav et al. 

(1981, 1982, 1983). 

SARESWAR BEEL 

Sareswar beel (26° 20’ N, 90° 05’ E) is a shallow, freshwater lake with abundant 

aquatic vegetation on the floodplain to the north of the Brahmaputra river in lower 

Assam. The western edge of the wetland borders on the Rupshi and Bamunijoia 

Reserved Forests. The southern, eastern, and western margins are cultivated, with 

small villages scattered amongst the rice fields. At maximum flooding, the beel is 

about four metres deep; during the dry winter season, the depth falls to about one 

metre, and the exposed shoreline is converted into rice paddies. The total area of the 

beel is about 1700 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate typical of lower Assam 

Macrophytes: The principal aquatic plants are Eichhornia crassipes, Vallisneria 

spiralis, Hydrilla verticillata, Monochoria hastata, Trapa bispinosa, Sagittaria 

sagittifolia and Pistia stratiotes. Forestry plantations to the west include species of 

Shorea, Ficus, Tectona, Albizzia and Lagestroemia. 

Fishes: The rich fish fauna includes 


Anabas testudineus L. rohita 

Channa striatus Mystus seenghala 

C. punctatus M. vitatus 

Clarius batrachus Notopterus chitala 

Heteropneustes 

fossilis 

Ompok bimaculatus 

L abeo ceatatus Puntius puntius 

L. gonius Wallago attu 

Birds: The lake supports a great diversity of resident and migratory waterfowl, and is 

particularly important in winter. Both the lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) and 

greater adjutant (L. dubius) are regular in the winter months. A waterfowl census in 

January 1987 recorded 36 species of waterfowl including: 270 Phalacrocorax niger, 

100 Ardeola grayii, 12 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, 13 Leptoptilos dubius, 7 L.

javanicus, 530 Dendrocygna javanica, 17 D. bicolor, 5 Gallicrex cinerea and 30 

Porphyrio porphyrio and small numbers of eight other species of ducks. 

Land tenure: The Lake and Reserve Forests to the west are State-owned; other 

adjacent areas are privately owned. 

Land use: Fishing, gathering of edible plants and fodder for domestic livestock, and 

cultivation of rice during the dry season. The lake is famous for its large fish. Forestry 

and agriculture in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: The fishery is being over-exploited largely because there 

are no restrictions on mesh size, and this is causing a decrease in fish populations. 

Cultivation of the lake margins during the dry season destroys large areas of aquatic 

vegetation, and there is some poaching of waterfowl. 

Socio-economic values: The beel supports an important fishery and produces fish of 

an unusually large size. 

Reference: WWF, 1993. Directory of Indian wetlands, 263pp. 

WETLANDS IN MANAS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY 

Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (26° 37’–26° 50’N, 90° 15’–91° 15’ E) in the 35 km north 

of Barpeta and 90 km northeast of Gauhati, Barpeta and Kokrajhar Districts, Assam. 

The Wildlife Sanctuary spans the Manas River and is bounded to the north by the 

international border with Bhutan and to the south by the populated region of North 

Kamrup. Uninterrupted forest extends to the northeast and west. Wetland habitats 

include a network of rivers with associated riverine marshes and the adjacent lowerlying 

swampy plains at l00–50 m. The entire area slopes gently from the north and is 

drained by the Manas, Jongrong, Gyati, Ganuchara and other small rivers which flow 

south into the Brahmaputra. Most of the permanent marshes and swamps are found in 

the southernmost terai tract, where the water table is highest. The Wildlife Sanctuary 

is contiguous with the 43,854 ha Manas Wildlife Sanctuary in neighbouring Bhutan. 

The area of wetlands are unknown, however Wildlife Sanctuary is about 39,100 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of 3,000– 

4,500 mm, the great majority of which occurs during the monsoon from May to 

September. The mean maximum summer temperature is 37°C and the mean minimum 

winter temperature is 11°C. 

Macrophytes: The rivers and numerous small pools support a wide variety of aquatic 

plants. There are extensive grasslands in the western part of the sanctuary, with a 

variety of trees and shrubs such as Dillenia pentagyna, Phyllanthus emblica, Bombax 

ceiba and species of lerodendrum, Leea, Grewia, Premna and Mussaeuda. These 

grasslands can be subdivided into wet alluvial and highland savanna. The dominant 

vegetation elsewhere in the park is tropical moist and dry deciduous forests 

characterized by Bombax ceiba, Sterculia villosa, Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna, 

Careya arborea, Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. speciosa, Terminalia bellirica, 

T.chebula, Trewia polycarpa, Gmelina arborea, Oroxylum indicum and Bridelia spp, 

and tropical semi-evergreen forest dominated by species such as Aphanarnixis 

polystachya, Anthocephalus chinensis, Syzygium cumini, S. formosum, S. oblatum, 

Bauhinia purpurea, Ma/lotus philippensis, Cinnamonium tamala and Actinodaphne 

obvata.

Reptiles: The Manas River still supports a small population of the endangered 

Gharial Gavialis gangeticus. 

Birds: The waterfowl of Manas have not been well studied but several uncommon 

species are known to occur including Pelecanus philippensis, Leptoptilos javanicus 

and L. dubius. Common residents include Phalacrocorax carbo, several species of 

herons and egrets, Esacus recurvirostris, Vanellus duvaucelii, Charadrius dubius, 

Sterna aurantia and S. melanogaster. Regular winter visitors include Ciconia nigra, 

Tadorna ferruginea, Mergellus merganser and Ibidorhyncha struthersii. Other 

noteworthy species associated with the wetlands include Pallas's Fish-Eagle, Swamp 

Partridge, Bengal Florican and Crested Kingfisher (Haliaeetus leucoryphus, 

Francolinus gularis, Houbaropsis bengalensis and Ceryle lugubris). There is an 

extremely large winter roost of swallows and martins (Hirundinidae) on the southern 

edge of the Sanctuary. 

Mammals: The Wildlife Sanctuary supports an extremely varied mammal fauna 

including several rare and threatened species. The Tiger Panthera tigris, Asian 

Elephant Elephas maximus and Indian One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis 

are to some extent dependent on the wetlands, and there are several wetland and 

grassland specialists such as Caprolagus hispidus, Lutra perspicillata, Felis viverrina, 

Sus salvanius and Cervus duvaucelli. There is a residual population of the wild Water 

Buffalo Bubalus bubalis, which is of considerable interest genetically. 

Land tenure: State-owned. 

Land use: Managed as a nature reserve. There is a buffer zone in which such 

activities as the collection of firewood and gathering of fodder are permitted. Most 

forestry operations ceased in 1950, and the last timber was extracted in 1964. 

Conservation measures taken: The area was first declared a Reserved Forest in 

1907; it was designated as a Wildlife Sanctuary (39,100 ha) in 1928, and has recently 

been declared a World Heritage Site. The Sanctuary currently constitutes the core 

zone for the Manas Tiger Reserve (283,712 ha), established under Project Tiger in 

1973. In 1971, 2,000 ha were excised from the Sanctuary for a seed farm. 

Conservation measures proposed: Following the recent successful breeding in 

captivity of the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus, there are plans to re-introduce the 

species in all the rivers in the area. 

Disturbances and threats: Poaching, particularly of the rhinoceros population, is a 

major problem within the Sanctuary, and there has been some encroachment by local 

villagers and graziers. Burning in the dry season, hunting and extraction of timber and 

firewood are practiced at a non-sustainable level in the buffer zone. The Kokla Ban 

Seed Farm, run by the National Farm Development Corporation, continues to exist in 

the core area of the Sanctuary. 

Socio-economic values: The Sanctuary is visited by a small number of tourists each 

year. The area has great potential for tourism and would doubtless become a major 

international attraction of considerable economic value if access to Assam were made 

easier. 

Research and facilities: Some research was carried out on the vegetation of Manas 

by the Botanical Survey of India in 1982/83. Surveys of the tiger and elephant 

populations are regularly undertaken by Project Tiger. There are some facilities for 

tourists in the Sanctuary, but in recent years, access to Assam has been difficult for

foreigners. A new hotel is being built on the southern boundary of the sanctuary at the 

Barpeta Road entrance. 

Reference: Jam and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993). 

SONE LAKE 

Sone lake is situated in Karimganj district, Assam. The lake is 12.5 km long and 3.9 

km wide, with a 35.4 km shoreline. The total area of the lake is about 46,104. The 

maximum depth is 5.9 m (mean depth 0.29 m). The catchments of the lake has 

ravines, slopes and hilly terrains, with loamy, sandy or gravelly soil in the plains and 

fine-grained sandstones in the hilly region. The major inflow to the lake is the Singla 

River, which originates from the Mizo Hills and drains a total catchment area of about 

46.104 ha after flowing along a meandering course of about 63 km. The major 

outflow of the lake is the Kachua River out of the northernmost side of the lake, 

which drains the lake water into the Kushiyara River after a torturous path of about 19 

km. The maximum rates of water discharge from the Singla and Kachua Rivers are 

33.91 and 87.03 m 3 /sec. respectively. 

Abiotic factors: Temperature varies from 7.7°C to 37.7°C, and rainfall from 0.0 to 

76.0 mm. 

Fishes: Seventy species belonging to 49 genera under 24 families have been 

recorded. Mostly made up of Puntius chola followed by Labeo rohita, Wallago attu. 

Land tenure: No information 

Land use: The lake is used for fishing 

Conservation measures taken: A hard-line approach to the management and 

conservation of the aquatic resources of Lake Sone is to impose bans or restrictions on 

angling activities such as closing a specific area to fishing, forbidding fishing during a 

particular season, restricting the number of size of fishes caught, restricting the types 

of fishing gear, promoting aquaculture practices, and supporting State and national 

legislations protecting particular endangered species. While imposing restrictions, it is 

essential to be adaptable and take into consideration the full spectrum of users of the 

resource. Concomitant to administrative restrictions, encouraging results could be 

obtained through mass education of the lake-users (particularly the fisher folk) by the 

NGOs regarding harvest and conservation and management of the lake resources. The 

potential health posed to the lake fishes by EUS is to be tackled through regular 

monitoring of the lake environment and fish health, and by adopting quarantine 

measures. 

Socio-economic values: The wetland supports a locally important fishery and reedharvesting 

industry, and provides excellent opportunities for sport hunting and 

scientific research. 

Reference: Kar (1990), Devashish Kar et al. (1996). 

WETLANDS IN LAOKHAWA, ORANG AND SONAI RUPAI SANCTUARIES 

The wetlands are situated on 26° 15’–26° 40’ N, 92° 10’–92° 45’ E in the 

Brahmaputra valley between Gauhati and Tezpur, Assam. Three small wildlife 

sanctuaries on the flood plain of the Brahmaputra River, with areas of riverine swamp 

and seasonally flooded grassland interspersed amongst tropical deciduous and semievergreen 

forests. The area of wetlands are unknown, however, Laokhawa Sanctuary

is about 7,014 ha, Orang Sanctuary is about 7,259 ha and Sonai Rupai Sanctuary is 

17,500 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, typical of the Brahmaputra Valley. 

Macrophytes: Riverine marshes, swampy grassland and tropical deciduous and 

genii-evergreen forest. 

Birds: The wetlands are important for a wide variety of resident and migratory 

waterfowl, but few data area available. In 1967, 36 nests of Leptoptilos javanicus 

were found in Laokhawa Sanctuary. The Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis 

occurs in Orang Sanctuary. 

Mammals: All three sanctuaries support small populations of the endangered Indian 

One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli. 

Land tenure: Presumably state owned. 

Land use: No information. 

Conservation measures taken: All three sites are protected as Sanctuaries 

established in 1979, 1915 and 1934 respectively. 

Disturbances and threats: No information. 

Socio-economic and social values: No information. 


WETLANDS IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK 

Kaziranga national park (26° 35’-26° 45’N, 93° 05’-93° 40’E) is situated between the 

Brahmaputra river and the Mikir Hills in Nowgong and Sibsagar districts, 23 km from 

Bokaghat and 200 km ENE of Guwahati, Assam. 

• 

WETLANDS IN KAZIRANGA 

NATIONAL PARK 


It is the largest unspoiled area on the floodplain of the Brahmaputra river. This river 

forms the northern boundary of the National Park. Numerous smaller rivers and 

streams flow through the alluvial deposits, and relics of older channels remain as 

shallow lakes or beels. There are at least nine such beels, measuring 50–150 ha in 

area, within the Park. These permanent wetlands comprise 6% of the total park area. 

Seasonally inundated grassland is the largest single type of habitat covering 66%. The

southern boundary is formed by the Mora and Diphu rivers, and the eastern boundary 

by seasonal stream beds. The Mikir Hills rise to 1500 m south of National Highway 

37, which cuts through the lower edge of the Park from southwest to northeast. 

Annual flooding has prevented human settlement in the area, but the Park is bounded 

on three sides by cultivation and settlement. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 2500 

mm, most of which falls between April and October. Temperatures range from 10°C– 

30°C. 

Macrophytes: There are three main vegetation types: alluvial inundated grassland, 

tropical wet evergreen forest, and tropical semi-evergreen forest. The grassland 

predominates in the southwest, with tall elephant grasses on the higher ground and 

shorter grassland surrounding the beels. Scattered trees, predominantly Bombax ceiba, 

Dillenia indica, Careya arborea, and Emblica officianlis, are a conspicuous feature of 

the grasslands. Tropical, wet evergreen forest predominates in the Kancharijhuri, 

Panbari, and Tamulipathar sections, whilst semi-evergreen forests occur near Baguri, 

Bimali, and Haldibari. Annual floods inundate the plains from June-October, and lowlying 

areas may be under water well into December. Some 50% of the taller grassland 

is subjected to annual burning. Areas of recent alluvial deposition support extensive 

patches of Saccharum spontaneum and Tamarix spp. Arundo donax and Phragmites 

karka predominate generally, otherwise species of Erianthus are the most common 

grasses. Andropogonous grasses less than a metre tall surround the beels, and form 

the only open areas in the park. The interplay of floods and fires has maintained 

Kaziranga in more or less its present form for thousands of years. 

Mammals: The National Park contains 15 species of India’s threatened mammals, 

and has the largest population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros 

unicornis) in the world. This population increased from only 12 members in 1908 to 

over 1000 in 1982. The animals are concentrated mostly in the central, southern, and 

western parts of the Park. However, the recent upsurge in poaching is causing a rapid 

collapse in this population. The Park also constitutes the best remaining habitat for 

wild water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in India, and supports healthy populations of 

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) (780 in 1978), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) 

and tiger (Panthera tigris). The common otter (Lutra lutra) and Ganges river dolphin 

(Platanista gangetica) are common in the rivers. 

Birds: The numerous water bodies are rich in amphibians, fishes, and invertebrates 

which support a substantial resident and migratory population of waterfowl. The first 

breeding record for India of the greater adjutant stork (Leptoptilos dubius) was 

reported at Kaziranga in 1970, and in 1983, four pairs were nesting. There is a small 

breeding colony of Pelecanus philippensis near Kaziranga village, and Leptoptilos 

javanicus is fairly common. Other residents include Anhinga melanogaster (very 

common), at least eight species of herons and egrets, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, 

Anas poecilorhyncha, Porphyrio porphyrio, Metopidius indicus, Vanellus duvaucelii, 

Sterna aurantia, and S. melanogaster. Winter visitors include Ciconia nigra (up to 

15), Anser indicus (up to 300), several thousand ducks, mainly Anas penelope, A. 

strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, Aythya nyroca and A. fuligula, Vanellus cinereus 

(common), and a wide variety of other shorebirds, mainly Tringa spp. Other 

noteworthy wetland species which still occur in reasonable numbers include the 

eagles Haliaeetus leucoryphus and Ichthyophaga icthyaetus, pied harrier, (Circus

melanoleucos) Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), swamp partidge 

(Francolinus gularis), and Jerdon’s bush chat (Saxicola jerdoni). 

Land use: A wildlife sanctuary and managed nature reserve. 

Conservation measures taken: Kaziranga National Park (42,996 ha) was 

established in 1974 and designated a World Heritage Site at that time. Management 

has been directed primarily toward protection of the rhinoceros populations. A 

management plan is revised periodically. The Forest Department has built a number 

of earthen platforms inside the park as a retreat for animals during floods. 

Disturbances and threats: Poaching, particularly of the now seriously endangered 

Rhinoceros unicornis, is a major problem for the conservation programme: as many 

as 25 rhinoceroses were killed in the first six months of 1984. Lack of a buffer zone 

around the sanctuary has led to conflict, especially over illegal grazing by domestic 

livestock and crop-raiding by animals from the Park. Domestic buffalo have gone 

feral in some localities and are interbreeding with, and thereby threatening the 

survival of, wild populations. Domestic livestock transmit diseases to the wild 

populations. There is a general inadequacy of finance, resulting in a shortage of antipoaching 

controls; the forest guards are poorly paid and there have been cases of staff 

being involved with poaching operations. The Brahmaputra is gradually eroding a 

portion of the northern boundary of the Park. Traffic is increasing every year on 

National Highway 37 running through the southern edge of the Park, and settlement 

on either side of the highway is widening the gap between the Park and the southern 

hills. The greatest threat is the proposed railway running parallel to Highway 37. 

Surveying and mapping are now complete. Following opposition to the railway, the 

original proposal was modified to include the provision of three 30 m wide passes 

under the railway line to allow animals, especially elephants, to continue their 

seasonal migrations. 

Socio-economic values: Kaziranga, one of the most famous wildlife sanctuaries in 

Asia, has long been popular with tourists. The park would doubtless become even 

more important for tourism if some of the restrictions on travel in Assam were 

relaxed. Some 22,000 people visited the Park in 1983–84. 

References: Bradley Martin et al. (1987); Jain and Sastry (1983); Karpowicz (1985); 

WWF India (1993). 

DIBRU FLOODPLAIN 

Dibru floodplain is situated (27° 30’–28° 00’ N, 94° 55’–95° 40’ E) in Assam. A 

complex of wide river channels, sand banks, riverine marshes, oxbow lakes, and 

seasonally flooded grassland and swamp forest on the floodplain of the Brahmaputra 

river downstream from the confluence of the Lohit and Dibang rivers. The Siang river 

enters in the north, and the Dangri, Doom Dooma, and Dibru rivers in the south. The 

whole area is extensively flooded during the monsoon, and there is a good supply of 

water, both surface and subterranean, throughout the year. There are large tracts of 

permanent swamp forest and seasonally flooded forest in the Dibrugarh and Saikhowa 

Reserved Forests between the Brahmaputra and the Dangri/Dibru rivers. Frequent 

changes in the course of the rivers have created a patchwork of transitional wetland 

and forest types, and precluded permanent settlement over much of the area. The total 

area of the floodplain is about more than 100,000 ha of riverine marshes and 

floodplain wetlands in a strip up to 20 km wide along 80 km of river.

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 

4000 mm. The winters are relatively cool and dry. Mean temperatures range from 

10°C in winter to 38°C in summer. 

Macrophytes: A mosaic of swamp vegetation, grassland, swamp forest, and tropical 

deciduous forest. Eichhornia crassipes in some of the ponds and streams. The area 

supports a large variety of orchid species. 

Fishes: The rich fish fauna includes rohu, ari, borali and a species of freshwater 

prawn. The mahseer (Tor sp.) a popular sport fish, is common in some of the 

tributaries. 

Birds: The area is of special importance for the endangered white-winged wood-duck 

(Cairina scutulata). The species seems to have disappeared from the Dibrugarh and 

Saikhowa Reserved Forests in recent years, but still persists in the Doom Dooma 

Reserved Forest to the southeast. A flock of eight C. scutulata has been observed as 

recently as 1985 along the Doom Dooma river bordering the south and southwest side 

of the Reserved Forest. The wetlands are also important for many resident and 

migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae, and a variety of freshwater turtles and 

mammals. 


DIBRU FLOODPLAIN 

Land use: Fishing in the permanent water bodies, and extensive timber operations in 

the forested sections. Adjacent areas are under cultivation, chiefly for rice. 

Conservation measures taken: Most of the forest on the south bank of the 

Brahmaputra is included within the Dibrugarh Reserved Forest (21,000 ha) and 

Saikhowa Reserved Forest. 

Disturbances and threats: Most of the forests have been heavily exploited for 

timber, and little dense forest now remains. Fishing activities cause a considerable 

amount of disturbance, and there is heavy grazing pressure from domestic livestock. 

Peripheral areas are being reclaimed for agriculture, and there has been a considerable 

amount of encroachment at the southwestern end of the Dibrugarh Reserved Forest. 

• 

Source: Google Earth

Much of the Reserved Forest is now under threat because of a natural shift in the 

course of the Brahmaputra river. 

Socio-economic values: The wetland supports a large commercial fishery, and 

provides a reliable source of water throughout the year. Because of its great natural 

beauty and wealth of wildlife, the area has considerable potential for outdoor 

recreation and tourism. 

Reference: MacKenzie (1985)

KHABARTAL LAKE (KAWAR) 

Khabartal lake (25° 35’ N, 86° 10’ E) is the largest freshwater lake in northern Bihar 

and a fine example of the many excellent wetlands to be found in this part of the 

Ganges floodplain. It has been identified as one of the sixteen lakes of the country for 

its conservation and management mainly to protect migratory and non-migratory 

birds. It lies between Burhi Gandak, old Bagmati, and Kare rivers. The nearest village 

is Manjhaul. The lake was formed by a meander of the Gandak river, and is now a 

residual oxbow lake, one of thousands in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In years of high 

rainfall, vast areas of these two states flood; discrete wetlands coalesce to form one 

huge expanse of water, and at such times the wetlands of the Khabartal region may 

cover hundreds of square kilometres. The floods leave behind deposits of sand, silt, 

and clay in layers of varying thickness. In years of average rainfall, Khabartal gets 

connected with Burhi Gandak (a tributary of the Ganga) and, with the nearby Nagri 

Jheel and Bikrampur Chaurs, unite to form a lake of about 7400 ha. By late summer, 

however, the water is confined to the deeper depressions, and only about 300–400 ha 

of Khabartal remain flooded and cut off from the adjacent floodplains (chaurs). As the 

water level recedes, over 2800 ha of the exposed mudflats are converted into rice 

paddies. In 1951, a drainage channel was excavated to expose additional areas for 

agricultural purposes, but the channel silted up in a few years, and the lake reverted to 

its former condition. In recent years, further siltation of the overflow channel has 

resulted in a slight increase in water levels throughout the lake. There is a permanent 

island (Jaimanglagarh) of about 130 ha in the southeast corner of the lake. The soil is 

sandy loam, and rich in humus. Water depth varies from 30 cm-400 cm. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the middle Ganges plain, with 

an a verge annual rainfall of 1100mm concentrated in the period July-September. 

Temperatures range from 5°C to 45°C. 

Macrophytes: The lake supports a rich and diverse aquatic flora. These include 

submerged Macrophytes; floating Macrophytes; emergent Macrophytes. These are 

follows; 


Hydrilla verticillata 

Paspalum 

Royle 

scrobiculatum L. 

Vallisneria spiralis L. Grangea 

maderaspatana (L.) 

Poir. 

Caldesia oligococca 

Xanthium 

Buch. 

strumarium L. 

Polygonum plebejum R. 

Nicotiana 

Br 

plumbaginifolia Viv. 

Peristrophae 

bicaliculata 

N. tabacum L. 

Cyanodon dactylon Phyla nodiflora (L.) 

Hygroryza aristata Nees 

ex Wt. 

Grume 

Alternanthera 

philoxeroides

Grisebach. 

Phragmites vallatoria 

A. sessiles R. Br. 

(L.) Veld. 

Najas minor Allioni Cannabis sativa 

Aeschynomene aspera 

Nymphaea nouchali 

L. 

Burm. 

Ipomoea aquatica 

Nymphaea 

Forss. 

pubescens willd. 

Nymphoides indica (L.) 

Ludwiga adsendens 

Kurz. 

Hara 

Nymphoides 

hydrophylla (Lour.) 

Kurz. 

Abutilon indica 

Oryza rufipogon Griff. Nelumbo nucifera 

Gaerthen 

Utricularia aurea Lour Eichhorria crassipes 

Solm-Laub. 

Utricularia exoleta R. 

Br. 

Pistia stratiodes 

Aponogeton natans (L.) 

Spirodella polyrhiza 

Engl ex Krause. 

(L.) Schl. 

Ottelia alismoides (L.) 

Pers. 

Coccinia indica 

Polygonum barbatum L. Eclipta alba (L.) 

Hassk. 

Leersia hexandra Sw. Spilanthus calva A. 

P. decandole 

Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) 

Chenopodium album 

Nash 

L. 

Saccharum spontaneum 

Commelina diffusa 

L. 

Burman. 

Pseudographis 

Fimbristylis 

brunoniana 

dichotoma Vahl. 

Hymenachne 

acutigluma (Steud.) 

Gilliland. 

Potamogeton crispus 

Hygrophylla spinosa 

Andr. 

P. nodosus 

Limnophila indica (L.) 

Azolla bipinnata R. 

Druce 

Br. 

Cyperus platylis R. Br. 

Ceratophyllum 

demersum L. 

Salvinia natans (L.) 

Allione 

Large areas of the lake surface have been invaded by Eichhornia crassipes. There are 

many species of algae of the Cyanophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Vegetation is poorly 

developed around the wetland area. The shoreline supports stands of Acacia arabica, 

Borassus flabellifer and Cassia occidentalis. The common tree species include

Barringtona acutagula, Acacia nilotica, and Delbergia sissoo which provide an 

excellent nesting and roosting site for avifauna. 

Zooplankton: Brancionus calyciflarus and Naupliius larvae are the dominant 

zooplanktons. 

Molluscs: The edible mollusc Pila globosa is particularly common. 

Insects: Insects belonging to three orders Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Diptera are 

found. 

Benthic fauna: The benthic fauna consists of Bellamya bengalensis, Lamellidans 

marginalis, etc. 

Fishes: The ichthyofauna of the lake is represented by Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus 

mrigala, C. reba, Catla catla, Channa striatus, Channa punctatus, Heteropneustes 

fossilis, Colisa fasciatus, Notopterus notopterus, and Anabas testudineus. 

Birds: Khabartal is one of the most important wetlands for waterfowl in the Gangetic 

plain, supporting huge numbers of migratory ducks and coots throughout the northern 

winter as well as large concentrations of many resident species such as dabchick, 

various herons and egrets, openbill stork, black ibis, whistling duck, cotton teal and 

purple moorhen, little grebe, grey pelican, greylag goose, golden plover, and common 

snipe. No comprehensive censuses have been carried out, but the fact that the local 

duck-trappers were able to net at least 135,000 birds in one season (1984-85) gives 

some indication of the large numbers of birds present. An analysis of 33,954 birds 

trapped in the 1983-84 season revealed that 22.3% of the kill were Fulica atra, 16.5% 

Anas acuta, 13.8% A. Crecca, 9.0% Porphyrio porphyrio, 5.4% Netta rufina, 4.6% 

Aythya ferina, 4.2% Anas strepera, 3.9% A. clypeata, 0.05% Podiceps cristatus (168 

birds). The remaining 19.8% (6700 birds) were listed as “other species” and 

presumably included some Anas querquedula and Aythya nyroca, both reported to be 

common at the lake. In January 1987, a partial census recorded: 100 Anastomus 

oscitans, 50-60 Dendrocygna bicolor, 500 Anas crecca, 1500 A. acuta, 1000 A. 

querquedula, 150 Netta rufina, 500 Aythya nyroca, 250 Porphyria porphyrio. Over 29 

species of commercially valuable fish have been recorded. 

Land tenure: State-owned; other areas are private-owned. It has been declared as a 

protected area under section 37 of the Wild Life Protection Act 1972 by the 

Government of Bihar and National Bird Sanctuary in 1989 by the Government of 

India. 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic purposes; fishing for major and 

minor carps, and air-breathing fishes; grazing by livestock; navigation; some illegal 

netting of migratory waterfowl for sale in local markets; harvesting of wild fruits and 

wild rice; gathering of the edible mollusc Pila globosa. Some 2800 ha of the lake bed 

are cultivated for rice during the dry season. 

Conservation measures taken: The shooting and trapping of wild birds has been 

prohibited by the State Wildlife Department since 1986. The wetland has been 

declared a prohibited zone. Fishing is also banned in some zones of the lake. 

Eradication of Eichhornia crassipes has commenced, but the results are as yet 

unknown. 

Conservation measures proposed: Implementation of the Wildlife Protection Act 

(1972) would prohibit the trapping of birds by the Sahnis. A socio-economic survey

has been undertaken by the State Forest Department in order to ascertain their degree 

of dependence upon the birds of Khabartal. It was concluded that the uncontrolled 

trapping of birds should be stopped. Rehabilitation of trappers should be undertaken 

by the Forest Department as follows: 

1. A multiple resource utilization programme should be developed whereby 

fishing,duck-farming, and the harvesting of crustaceans, molluscs and plants can be 

thoroughly organized and sustained at a commercially viable level. 

2. Netting equipment used by the 490 Sahni families engaged in bird-trapping should 

be purchased by the Government. 

3. Some of the adjoining ponds should be developed for pisciculture. 

4. Any employment generated by these projects should be reserved exclusively for the 

Sahnis. 

5. Existing rice cultivation should be maintained unless it is patently inimical to the 

birds’ ecological needs. 

6. Any surplus land should be distributed among the Sahnis. 

7. Local handicrafts and expertise should be identified and encouraged. 

8. A dairy co-operative should be established nearby. 

9. An integrated regional development programme should be initiated to benefit all 

the local people. 

The Forest Department survey also concluded that for the time being at least, no 

further drainage should be undertaken at the lake. 

Disturbances and threats: In spite of the government’s prohibitory measures, many 

of the wetland’s natural resources are being heavily over-exploited. Shahi (1982) 

estimated that 70,000 ducks, coots, and other waterfowl were netted at Khabartal in 

the winter of 1981-82 and sold in the Manjhaul market. A State Forest Department 

survey estimated that about 40,000 birds were trapped in the winter of 1983-84 (early 

December to early March 1984), and at least 135,000 in the winter of 1984-85 (a 

"good year"). There are fears that this ruthless exploitation in the past is now having a 

deterimental effect on the waterfowl populations. Demands for water for irrigation are 

increasing, the lake is over-fished, and the aquatic vegetation is heavily grazed by 

domestic livestock. There is some contamination with pesticides and fertilisers used 

by farmers in and around the lake, and infestation with Eichhornia crassipes has 

become a serious problem in recent years. There are constant disputes between 

farmers and fishermen over land use.. The drainage outlet of the Burhi Gandak river 

has been blocked for the past few years, resulting in an increase in the water depth 

throughout. A drainage scheme in the early 1950s failed because of rapid siltation at 

the mouth of the drainage canal. However, the Drainage Division, Manjhaul, has 

recently proposed another drainage scheme which would accelerate run-off after the 

monsoon and make available a further 2630 ha of the lake bed for agricultural 

purposes. This drainage scheme is still awaiting administrative approval. Expansion 

of agriculture and cattle grazing is proving to be a serious problem. Natural habitats of 

migratory birds have been adversely affected by human pressures. 

Possible changes in land use: If the proposed conservation measures are 

implemented, there would be an overall reduction in the exploitation of the natural 

resources in an effort to achieve a sustainable level of resource utilization.

Socio-economic values: The lake is very important for its fisheries production during 

the wet season and rice production during the dry season. A large proportion of the 

inhabitants of the 15 villages around the lake are dependent on the wetland resources 

for their livelihood. In particular, Khabartal played a significant role in the lives of 

over 1300 Sahni families (7400 individuals) engaged in fishing. For about 490 of 

these Sahnis, duck-trapping was the primary dry season occupation. The average 

earnings from duck- trapping have been estimated at about Rs. 1500 per family per 

year. The small island of Jaimanglagarh in the southeast corner of the lake is of 

historical importance and is visited by pilgrims from all over India. Local people 

depend on the area for cattle fodder. 

Management authority: The Bihar State Government declared the area as a 

protected zone in 1986 under section 37 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It was 

declared a bird sanctuary in 1989 by the Government of India. 

Research and facilities: The State Forest Department has made a preliminary study 

of the lake ecosystem and has carried out a detailed socio-economic survey of the 

Sahnis (Mishra and Negi, 1985). Shahi (1982) and the Forest Department have 

attempted to assess the numbers of birds taken by the bird-trappers. A field study 

team from the Bombay Natural History Society has initiated an ecological 

investigation involving a bird ringing programme, and the State Government has 

agreed to fund a long term research programme. 

Reference: WWF India (1993); Mohammad Ali (1994); Nandan and Singh (2004). 

MASANJORE RESERVOIR 

Masanjore reservoir is situated (23° 40’–25° 18’ N, 86° 28’–87° 57’ E) in 30 km 

away from Dumka (divisional headquarter of santal pargana) south Bihar. Masanjore 

reservoir is one of the biggest and important freshwater reservoirs of India. This 

reservoir is constructed across the Mayurakshi river at Masanjore of Santal Parganas. 

The Mayurakshi river is the life-line of tribal dominated area of Santal Pargana which 

originates from Trikuti hill range (Deoghar) and meandering over 1860 km in Bihar 

and Bengal joins the Ganges at Murshidabad (West Bengal). Except monsoon, the 

river does not carry and appreciable amount of water. Therefore, a storage i.e. 

Masanjore reservoir, was considered to be the only means to conserve the water and 

use it for irrigation throughout the year. Masanjore, where the river passes through a 

narrow valley, was found to be an ideal site for a dam. Thus, a big dam (2150 feet 

long) was built in 1956 by the munificence and technical co-operation of Canada and 

so it is also called “Canada Dam”. The total area of the reservoir is 27 sq.miles. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 30.6°C 

and minimum of 19.2°C and pH varies from 7.3 to 8.2. 



Agmenellum sp. Lemna sp. 

Anabena sp. Microspora sp.

Ankistrodesmus sp. Mongeota sp. 

Arthrospira sp. Navicula sp. 

Azolla sp. Nechamandra sp. 

Ceratophyllum sp. Nitella sp. 

Chaetophora sp. Nostoc sp. 

Chara sp. Nymphia sp. 

Chlorosarcina sp. Pediastrum sp. 

Cladophora sp. Phormidium sp. 

Closteriopus sp. Pinnularia sp. 

Closterum sp. Pistia sp. 

Commelina sp. Potamogeton sp. 

Cosmarium sp. Protococcus sp. 

Cylindrospermum sp. Rumex sp. 

Cymbella sp. Scenedesmus sp. 

Cyperus sp. Scirpus sp. 

Dentella sp. Sphaerocystis sp. 

Diatoma sp. Spirogyra sp. 

Diatomella sp. Staurastrum sp. 

Eichhornia sp. Synedra sp. 

Eleocharis sp. Ulothrix sp. 

Epithemia sp. Utricularis sp. 

Fragilaria sp. Vallisneria sp. 

Gomphasphaeria sp. Volvox sp. 

Hydrilla sp. Wolfia sp. 

Hydroryza sp. Xanthium sp.

Ipomoea sp. Zygnema sp. 

Zooplankton: Keretella sp., Filinia sp., Testudinella sp., Brachionus forficula, B. 

angularis, B. calyciflorus, Asplanchna sp., Polyarthra sp., Cyclop sp., Mesocyclop 

sp., Moina sp., Cypris sp. and Diaptomus sp. 

Macroinvertebrate: 


Amphiops sp. Laccophilus sp. 

Anisops sp. Laccotrephes sp. 

Baetis sp. Lestes sp. 

Berosus sp. Lithocerus sp. 

Canthydrus sp. Macrobranchium 

Eretes sp. 

Cordulegaster sp. Mesogomphus sp. 

Corixa sp. Mesovelia sp. 

Cybister sp. Micronecta sp. 

Dinentus sp. Orectochilus sp. 

Enallagma sp. Pantala sp. 

Enochurs sp. Paratelphusa sp. 

Guignotus sp. Plea sp. 

Hydacticus sp. Potamorcha sp. 

Hydrocoptus sp. Ranatra sp. 

Hydrometra sp. Rhantaticus sp. 

Hydrophilus sp. Sandracothes sp. 

Hyphydrus sp. Zyxomma petiolatum 

Ioschnura sp. 

Mollusca: Pila sp., Lymnaea sp., Gabbia sp., Indoplanorbis sp. and Gyraulus sp.

Fishes: 



Barilius sp. Macrognathus sp. 

Botia sp. Mastacembalus sp. 

Catla sp. Monopterus sp. 

Chanda sp. Mystus sp. 

Channa sp. Nandus sp. 

Cirrhina sp. Neomacheilus sp. 

Clarias sp. Notopterus sp. 

Colisa sp. Ompak sp. 

Gadusia sp. Oxygaster sp. 

Glassogobius sp. Pseudoxygaster sp. 

Goniolosa sp. Puntius sp. 

Heteropneustes sp. Rasbora sp. 

Labeo sp. Wallago sp. 

Land use: Now-a-days, this reservoir is also used for hydroelectricity generating 

centre. 

Conservation measure taken: No information 


small fishery supplying local markets and also used for hydroelectricity generating 

centre. 

Reference: Arvind Kumar and Singh (1998). 

RESERVOIRS OF CHOTA NAGPUR PLATEAU 

The reservoirs situated on Lat. 22° 00’–25° 3’ N and Long. 85° 47’– 87° 50’ E in 

Dhanbad and Hazaribagh districts, on the Chota Nagpur plateau, Bihar. The four 

important reservoirs on the Damodar river constitute a part of the Damodar Valley 

Corporation (DVC) Multipurpose Project. The drainage area of the reservoirs/dam is: 

Tilaiya: 98420 ha; Konar: 99210 ha; Maithon: approcimately 600,000 ha; and

Panchet: approcimately 100,000 ha the total area of these reservoir are Tilaiya 5957 

ha; Konar 2590 ha; Maithon 10619 ha and Panchet 15281 ha. 

• 

RESERVOIRS OF CHOTA NAGPUR 

PLATEAU 


Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall is about 

1163 mm. 

Macrophytes: Wide range of phytoplankton species is reported. 

Birds: A large number of migratory birds such as ducks and coots visit these 

reservoirs, and several species of resident birds have also been observed. No 

waterfowl censuses seem to have been conducted. 

Land tenure: The reservoirs are stone-owned. 

Land use: The reservoirs are used for fishing, power generation, irrigation and flood 

control. 

Conservation measures taken: The Damodar Valley Corporation has undertaken 

programmes for mechanical destination, and afforestation for preventing soil erosion. 

Disturbances and threats: All the four reservoirs are seriously threatened by 

siltation. Brick manufacturing units located in the catchment of Tilaiya dam are 

contributing to increased sedimentation of the reservoir. These problems are feared to 

pose a threat to the vegetation. 

Socio-economic values: Valuable for their fishery resources, power generation, 

irrigation and flood control. 

Research and facilities: Several water management, reservoir conservation, and 

hydro-engineering research studies have been carried out on the reservoirs. 

Reference: Bannerjee (1990); Jain, Naegamvala and Sahasrabudhe (1973) 

CHAURS OF NORTH BIHAR AND WEST BENGAL 

The wetlands of this extensive region of northern India are dependent upon six major 

tributaries of the Ganges flowing from the central Himalaya to the plains between the 

Nepalese border and the Ganges itself. From the Great Gandak river in the west to the 

Mahananda river in the east, the northern part of the Ganges plain is studded with

innumerable, small, freshwater lakes or “chaurs” with a profuse growth of aquatic 

vegetation. The vast majority are oxbow lakes, marking the historical courses of the 

Baya Nadi, Burhi Gandak, Sapt Kosi, and Mahananda rivers. Most are between 100 

ha and 200 ha in area, but some are much larger and a few exceed 1000 ha. The 

chaurs are inundated by overflow from the rivers and local monsoon run-off. 

Typically, they have a maximum depth of 1.5m during the monsoon and dry out 

completely during summer (March-June). Chaurs are particularly abundant in the 

southeast of the region, around Khabartal (site 64), and there are more than 14,000 ha 

of these wetlands in Darbhanga district alone. Some of the main chaurs in the 

Khabartal region are Nagri Jheel, Bikrampur Chaur, Rajakpur Chaur, Chalki Chaur, 

the Chakka/Matihari chaurs, the Malipur/Brahampur chaurs, Rajor Chaur, the 

Dasin/Turki chaurs, the Korai Sajanpur Chaurs, and the Dunhi Chaurs. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of about 

1000 mm and temperatures in the range 5–45° C. Most of the rain falls during the 

monsoon in July-October. The pH values range from 7.6 to 7.9. 

Macrophytes: During the wet season, the chaurs support a great abundance of 

aquatic vegetation. The emergent vegetation is dominated by Cyperus rotundus with 

Hygroryza sp., Oryza sativa, scirpus articulatus, S. littoralis, and Paspalidium 

geminatum. Free-floating plants include Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, 

Lemna minor, spirodela polyrhiza, Azolla pinnata, and Trapa bispinosa. Rootedfloating 

plants include Ipomoea aquatica, I. rubens, Enhydra fluctuans, Eclipta 

prostata, Jussiaa repens, Nymphaea sp., Euryale ferox, and Bacopa monieri. 

Submergent species include Potamogeton crispus, Hydrilla verticillata, 

Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas graminea. Rai and Datta 

Munshi (1982) recorded 80 species of phytoplankton representing Cyanophyceae, 

Chlorophyceae, and Bacillariophyceae. As the chaurs dry out, the exposed mud 

becomes covered with several creeper grasses. Surrounding areas are almost entirely 

under cultivation for rice and other crops. 

Birds: The area is known to be extremely important for waterfowl, particularly 

wintering Anatidae, but no census data are available. Whilst individually none of the 

chaurs may be especially important, taken together they are critital to the survival of 

hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of ducks throughout the northern winter. 


Conservation measures taken: No information 

Land use: This region of Bihar has become the centre of waterfowl netting in India. 

The Sahnis, traditionally a landless group of fishermen, have taken up waterfowl 

trapping on a massive scale to supplement their income during the dry season. The 

ducks, coots, and other waterfowl are trapped at night with fine nylon nets. The 

practice is particularly common in the Darbhanga, Parnea, and Saharsa region around 

Khabartal. 

Disturbances and threats: Hunting pressure is extremely heavy in some areas, and 

it is possible that the large harvests are having a detrimental effect on waterfowl 

populations. Shahi (1982) has estimated that about 50% of the ducks visiting the 

Manjhaul area each winter are taken by the duck-trappers. 

Socio-economic values: The annual harvest of waterfowl provides a valuable source 

of food and income for a large number of local people. The maintenance of this rich 

renewable resource will be dependent on the implementation of adequate controls on

harvesting levels. Most of the smaller chaurs have little, if any, value for agriculture 

or pisciculture. 

Research and facilities: The ecological characteristics of the chaurs of North Bihar 

have been studied by Rai and Datta Munshi (1982). 

References: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Rai and Datta Munshi (1982); Shahi 

(1982).

RAVISHANKAR SAGAR RESERVOIR 

Ravishankar Sagar reservoir (20° 34’ N, 81° 34’ E), named after Late Pandit 

Ravishankar Shukla, former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, came into being as a 

result of damming the river Mahanadi, originating in Pharsia village in Southeastern 

corner of Raipur district of Madhya Pradesh. The reservoir has a total catchment area 

of 3670 sq.km and is the largest reservoir in Chhattisgarh. It has a gross storage 

capacity of 909.3 mcm. The reservoir water level fluctuates between FRL of 348.70 

m and DSL of 336.21 m. The maximum and mean depths of the reservoir at FRL are 

32.0 m and 10.0 m respectively. It has water spread area of 9540 ha. The shoreline 

and shore development of reservoir are 102.4 km and 2.96 respectively. The volume 

development of reservoir being less than 1 (0.94) indicates convex shape of the basin. 

The reservoir extends 25 km in length and 15 km in breadth. The erection of Gangrel 

dam was initiated in 1973 and consequently the Mahanadi was impounded in 1978 to 

emerge out as Ravishankar Sagar reservoir. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varies from 19 to 35°C 

in atmosphere and 21 to 29.5°C in water. The pH values ranged between 7.6 and 8.4. 


• 

RAVISHANKAR SAGAR RESERVOIR 



Actidesmium Melosira 

Actinastrum Meridian 

Amphora Merismopedia 

Anabaena Microcystis 

Ankistrodesmus Microspora 

Basicladia Navicula

Zooplankton: 

Ceratium Nitzschia 

Chroccoccus Nostoc 

Closterium Oscillatoria 

Cocconeis Pandorina 

Coelastrum Pediastrum 

Coelosphaerium Peridinium 

Cosmarium Phormidium 

Crucigenia Pinnularia 

Cyclotella Rhopalodia 

Cymbella Spirogyra 

Desmidium Spirulina 

Diploneis Staurastrum 

Fragilaria Surirella 

Gomphonema Synedra 

Gomphosphaeria Treubaria 

Gonatozygon Ulothrix 

Gyrosigma Volvox 


Copepods Filinia 

Cyclops Hexarthra 

Diaptomus Keratella 

Nauplii Lecane 

Cladocerans Monostyla 

Acroperus Mytilina

Fishes: 

Bosmina Notholca 

Ceriodaphnia Ployarthra 

Chydorus Synchaeta 

Daphnia Trichocerca 

Diaphanosoma Protozoans 

Macrothrix Arcella 

Moina Centropyxis 

Sida Difflugia 

Rotifers Euglena 

Asplanchna Euglypha 

Brachionus Trinema 

Colurella Urostyla 

Conochilus Anostracans 

Diplois Eubranchipus 

Epiphanes Pristicephalus 


Amblypharyngodon 

Lepidocephalus 

mola 

guntea 

Aorichthys aor Macrognathus 

pancalus 

A. seenghala Mastaccembelus 

armatus 

Aspidoparia morar Mystus bleekeri 

Barilius barila M. cavasius 

B. bendelisis M. vittatus 

Catla catla Nandus nandus 

Chanda nama Nemacheilus sp. 

Channa sp. Notopterus 

notopterus 

C. striatus Ompok bimaculatus 

Chela laubuca Osteobrama cotio 

cotio 

Cirrhinus mrigala O. vigorsii 

C. reba Parluciosoma


daniconius 

Clupisoma sp. Pseudambassis 

ranga 

Danio devario Puntius ambassis 

Esomus danricus P. phutunio 

Garra gotyla gotyla P. sarana sarana 

Glossogobius giuris P. sophore 

Gudusia chapra P. ticto 

Labeo bata Rhinomugil corsula 

L. calbasu Salmostoma bacaila 

L. fimbriatus S. phulo 

L. gonius Wallago attu 

L. rohita Xenentodon cancila 

Land use: The main purpose of constructing the reservoir was irrigation and 

partially hydel but presently the reservoir water is also being used for drinking 

purpose and to meet out the demand of Bhilai Steel Plant, located nearby in district 

Durg. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir is used by the local people for irrigation, 

fishing, and the water is used for drinking and hydel purpose. 

Reference: Desai and Shrivastava (2004).

MANDOVI - ZUARI ESTUARINE COMPLEX 

Mandovi - Zuari Estuarine Complex is situated (15° 30’ N, 73° 50’ E) on the north 

shore of Dona Paula Bay, Goa. A large estuarine complex on the west coast of 

peninsular India, comprising the Zuari and Mandovi rivers, their tributaries, and the 

inter connecting Cambarjua canal. They contain 90% of the mangroves of Goa. The 

remaining mangroves are along Chapora, Talpona, Galgibag, and Tiracol estuaries. 

The estuaries are divided by extensive intertidal mudflats and adjacent rice paddies. 

Panjim and Old Goa are situated within this complex. 

• 

MANDOVI-ZUARI ESTUARINE COMPLEX 


The estuarine complex is a central part of the coastal ecosystem of Goa. Mandovi and 

Zuari are perennial rivers which rise from the Western Ghats, traverse a distance of 61 

km and 66 km, respectively, before joining the Arabian Sea at the Aguada and 

Marmagao Bays. The drainage of the rivers is predominantly northwest and northnorthwest, 

following the regional trend, and eastwest, coinciding with major faults; 

fractures, or joints. The system is influenced by inflow of seawater to a considerable 

distance inland. Salinity varies with the seasons: during the monsoons the inflow of 

fresh water increases. Zuari is the largest estuary, containing 9 ha of mangroves. The 

upstream region is narrow (0.5 km) and subjected to intense wave action. Mandovi 

estuary and Cambarjua canal have 7 ha and 2 ha of mangroves, respectively, 

occurring along the banks. Mandovi has greater freshwater influence than the other 

estuaries. Chorao Island, which has now been declared a reserved forest and bird 

sanctuary, is situated in the Mandovi estuary. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate. Average annual rainfall is about 

3000 mm. Temperatures vary from 21°C to 34°C. 

Macrophytes: About 20 species of mangrove, predominant ones being Rhizophora 

mucronata, Sonneratia alba, and Avicennia officinalis. Other dominant species are R. 

apiculata, S. caseolaris, Kandelia rheedii, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B. parviflora, 

Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Derris heterophylla, and Acanthus 

illicifolius. Some species such as K. candel and S. caseolaris are becoming rare on the 

west coast. 

Fishes: The estuary is an important spawning ground for various crustaceans and 

molluscs, together with many species of fish, the major ones being Meretrix sp.,

Crassostrea sp., Penaeus sp., Scylla serrata, and Mugil cephalus. The commonly 

cultivated species are Penaeus monodon, P. indicus, and Metapenaeus monoceros. 

Birds: The site is also an important staging and wintering area for migratory ducks 

and shorebirds. Anas acuta occurs in particularly large numbers, e.g. over 30,000 

were present in January 1987. The ducks roost on the estuary during the day and feed 

in surrounding rice paddies at night. Other waterfowl present in January 1987 in 

cluded: 100 Egretta gularis, 100 7 E. garzetta, 25 E. alba, 150 Tringa totanus, 30 T. 

nebularia, 50 Actitis hypoleucos. 

Land tenure: Partly government-owned and partly under private ownership. 

Land use: Traditional methods of utilisation are for fishing, fish farming, fodder 

collection, timber, and medicines. 

Conservation measures taken: A mangrove afforestation programme has been 

started by the Forest Department. 

Possible changes in land use: The Konkan Railway, which is being constructed 

through coastal Goa, will be cutting across the estuarine complex. This is likely to 

impact the coastal wetland ecosystems of Goa. 

Disturbances and threats: Contamination from industries upstream, city wastes, and 

sewage is increasingly threatening the estuary. Mining activities are causing silting of 

the estuaries. The mangroves are being cut for fuel and green manure. 

Socio-economic values: The region’s large inshore fishery is partially dependent 

upon Mandovi estuary as a spawning and nursery ground for many commercially 

important fishes. 

Research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl census was carried out in January 

1987. The National Institute of Oceanography, Goa (NIO), is undertaking extensive 

research on mangroves. Hydrobiological observations of the fisheries were made in 

1968-69 by Dehadrai. WWF INDIA has undertaken an environmental impact 

assessment of the Konkan Railway alignment through coastal Goa. 

Reference: WWF India (1992; 1993). 

CHORAO ISLAND 

Chorao Island is located (15°30’N, 73°50’E) at the confluence of the Mapusa river 

flowing in from the north, and the Mandovi river from the south, Goa. The low-lying 

areas of the island support mangrove swamps. The central part of the island is hilly, 

the altitude ranging from 20 m to 93 m. A road runs some distance into the island. A 

ferry connects the island to the mainland. The total area of the island is 250ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate. The average annual rainfall is 

about 2500 mm, mostly occurring during June and September. The salinity varies 

from 0.94–29‰. 

Mangroves: Common mangrove species include Rhizophora apiculata, R. 

mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Kandelia candel, Avicennia marina, and A. officinalis. 

Birds: The avifauna include migratory and residential species, such as lesser adjutant 

stork, painted stork, pintail, common teal, cotton teal, garganey, spotbill, shoveller, 

little grebe, white-necked stork, black-necked stork, egrets, herons, bittern, and 

fishing eagle. Other fauna include bats, jackals, water snakes, marsh crocodiles, etc.

Fishes: Common fish species are Mugil cephalus, M.persica, Chanos chanos, and 

Lates calcifer. 


Conservation measures taken: The island has been declared a bird sanctuary which 

is named after the late Dr. Salim Ali. Afforestation work is being undertaken. 

Land use: Some areas are being brought under fish culture. 

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: About 24 ha of 

the island are to be converted into a fish farm. 

Disturbances and threats: Some poaching of birds has been reported. Fish culture 

operations are to commence. 

Socio-economic values: The island is a tourist attraction. 

Special floral values: The mangrove species Kandelia candel, which is on the brink 

of extinction elsewhere, is found here in abundance. 

Research and facilities: The National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, 

has been conducting extensive research on the mangroves of Chorao Island. 


CARAMBOLIM LAKE 

Carambolim lake is a quadrilateral-shaped lake, situated (15° 23’ N, 73° 50’ E) 

Tiswadi (Ilhas) Taluka, 12 km west of Panaji, Goa. The lake is an occupying an area 

of 72 ha of which the centra 140 ha are water-laden and the surrounding 30 ha is 

lateritic soil, supporting grassland used for grazing cattle. Grass cover is extensive, 

particularly towards its northern end. Situated about 5–10 m above sea level, the lake 

lies between the estuarine zone of the Mandovi and Zuari rivers. The water depth is 

1.5–3 m, depending on the season. The lake has undergone rapid siltation over the 

years. The effect of tidal variations is absent since the lake is 10 km inland from the 

estuaries. The lake is very significant from the scientific and natural history aspects. It 

is a wintering area for the Coccilellid predator which preys on pests of the rice crop 

grown around the wetland. In the rainy season, the lake gets filled up through drains, 

emptying into it. Just before the rains, sluice gates which bund the water at the 

southern end are opened to drain the water out of the lake, thereby facilitating fishing 

operations. 

Abiotic factors: Temperature ranges from 20°C to 33°C. Annual average rainfall is 

about 2500 mm; water temperature is between 15° and 20°C. 

Macrophytes: Wild varieties of rice, along with other monocots and dicots, are 

cultivated around the lake. Several species of algae, such as Euglena, 

Chlamydomonas, Phormidium, Oscillatoria, Anabana, Nitzschia, Pinnularia, and 

Spirogyra, are found in the lake. Most of these species are detoxifiers of regular 

pesticides which are of chlorinated hydrocarbon origin. Species of Chlorella and 

Euglena play an important role in sewage treatment. Chlorella is also a rich source of 

Vitamin B and is consumed by local people. The wetland is enclosed by an 

embankment on which coconut, jackfruit, mango, cashew nut, and teak are grown. 

Lateritic soil around the wetland is ideal for the growth of several varieties of 

graminae and herbs.

Special floral values: Nympheaceae are abundant. The lack of mosquitoes in the 

lake and its vicinity is believed to be due to the abundant growth of the algae-Chara 

sp., (Chlorophyceae). Research has proved Chara to be a natural pest controller. 

Insects: The abundance of insect fauna around the wetland makes it a natural field 

insectory. 

Birds: About 120 species of bird (migratory and local) have been reported to be seen. 

Some of these are: small-green barbet, crimson-breasted barbet, golden-backed 

woodpecker, wire-tailed swallow, red-rumped swallow, house swallow, golden oriole, 

black drongo, common myna, jungle myna, Indian tree pie, house crow, jungle crow, 

common iora, goldfronted chloropsis, goldmantled chloropsis, red-whiskered bulbul, 

red-vented bulbul, white-cheeked bulbul, jungle babbler, flycatcher, paradise 

flycatcher, crowned leaf warbler, magpie robin, Indian robin, pied bush chat, stone 

curlew, yellowcheeked tit, Indian tree pipit, paddy field pipit, yellow wagtail, grey 

wagtail, large pied wagtail, pied wagtail, Tickell’s flower pecker, plaincoloured 

flower pecker, purplerumped sunbird, house sparrow, baya, blackheaded bunting, 

shoveler, brahminy duck, pond heron, steppe eagle, buzzard, dab chick. Nearly eight 

species of fish are found in the lake. 

Land tenure: Formerly “Comunidade” property governed by Comunidade Code of 

1961. This was later superceded by The Land Tenure Act, 1964. At present, the 

surrounding area is governed by the Agricultural Tenancy Rules, 1975. 

Conservation measures taken: Since 1991, the lake is under the Forest Department 

for providing special protection to the migratory birds arriving here from Siberia and 

Kashmir. Two forest guards are posted during this season to keep off poachers. 

Land use: Fishing in the lake; agriculture, and grazing in the surrounding area. 

Disturbances and threats: A major threat to this lake is the proposed Konkan 

Railway line which, according to the construction plan, will cut across Carambolim 

Lake. The noise produced by the moving trains may affect the behaviour of migratory 

birds which visit the lake, though there is still some doubt among scientific authorities 

about the precise conditions spelling this danger and the extent to which the birds 

would be thwarted. Moreover, organic and other wastes generated by the railway 

infrastructure and resultant human activity, as well as run-off from the railway 

embankment, will increase siltation and eutrophication of the water body. Another 

threat is the proposed construction of a highway in the vicinity of the lake. 

Socio-economic values: The lake is inhabited by about 5-6 species of freshwater fish 

and several crustacean species. The waters are annually auctioned for fishing in the 

month of April. Nympheaceae flowers are picked for sale. 

Reference: WWF India (1993); Shanbhag et al. (2001).

GREAT RANN OF KACHCHH 

The Great Rann is a vast saline plain stretching eastwards from the eastern edge of the 

Indus delta, 340 km to longitude 71° 15’ E. Isolated hill ranges within the salt waste 

rise to over 500m elevation. India's frontier with Pakistan passes through the northern 

edge of the Rann; its western boundary is the Arabian Sea; to the south lies the 

peninsula of Kachchh, and to the north and east the great Thar Desert. It is linked by a 

narrow channel to the Little Rann which, in turn, is linked to the Gulf of Khambhat 

through the marshy depression in which Nalsarovar survives as a freshwater remnant 

of the sea that once covered all three sites. The Arabian Sea formerly isolated present 

day Saurashtra and Kachchh into islands; a combination of tectonic uplift, silt 

deposition by the southerly water courses of the Indus, and aeolian input has caused 

the marine recession. The total area of the wetland is about 700,000 ha. 

The modern Great Rann is now flooded only between May and October when sea 

water, driven by high winds and tides from the Arabian Sea and monsoon run-off 

from the hills of Gujarat and Rajasthan, mix together over the plains. For the 

remainder of the year, the Rann is a vast expanse of sun-baked mud and sand with 

halite and gypsum efflorescences. During years with low rainfall or drought no 

freshwater, or very little, enters the Great Rann and the tidal sea water has high 

salinity. In such years water starts evaporating and seeping underground quite fast, 

leaving the surface dry sooner than in other years. Vegetation is more or less confined 

to the “bets”, areas of relatively salt-free land a few metres higher than the plains and 

several hundred hectares in extent. These become true islands during the monsoon 

and support grasses and a few shrubby bushes. At its western extremity, the Rann 

merges into the southern part of the Indus Delta, a region of numerous low-lying 

muddy islands, tidal creeks, mangrove swamps, and extensive intertidal mudflats. 

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 

less than 300 mm concentrated in July, August, and September. Temperatures range 

from about 7°C in winter to well over 40°C in summer. 

Macrophytes: Areas with low salinity support grassland with many grass species, 

notably Dichanthium annulatum, Sehima nervosum, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus 

and Panicum antidotale, and the occasional Acacia nilotica, and Capparis sp. In the 

more saline areas, Salvadora persica and Tamarix dioica are widespread. 

Mangroves: The mangroves in the coastal zone are mostly poor and disturbed; the 

dominant species is Avicennia alba. Peripheral to the Rann, the climax vegetation was 

probably a low xerophytic scrub dominated by stunted Acacia spp., and Euphorbia 

spp., together with the introduced Prosopis juliflora. 

Fishes: The small fish Cyprinodon dispar is very common in the Rann. 

Birds: The Asian population of the lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) is 

centred on the Great Rann of Kachchh. Very little information is available on the 

numbers, movements, and breeding of the population. One estimate suggests that a 

few tens of thousands of birds are involved. Large numbers of young immature birds 

are frequently reported, and it is assumed that the breeding colony of the greater 

flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) in Indian territory was at Pachham Island in the 

centre of the Great Rann. Numbers have declined drastically this century; the 

population was estimted at some 200,000 adults in 1945 and 400,000 in 1960, but 

only 18,000 breeding pairs were located in 1970, and the Pachham site has since been 

abandoned. It is likely that the birds still breed somewhere in the Rann, but the precise

location of the colony is unknown. Pelecanus onocrotalus and Recurvirostra avosetta 

have also been found breeding in the past, and may still do so. The Rann is an 

important staging area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae and shorebirds, 

during their southward passage into the peninula of India in autumn. Large numbers 

of birds remain throughout the winter when conditions permit, e.g. during a brief visit 

to the Rann in late February 1980, de Block recorded: 1200 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 

600 Phalacrocorax carbo, 10 Ciconia nigra, 6000 Phoenicopterus ruber, 300 Anas 

acuta, 8000 Fulica atra. 

The coastal mudflats and mangroves swamps in the west support breeding colonies of 

Ardeola grayii, Egretta gularis, E. alba, and Ardea cinerea, and are known to be of 

great importance for shorebirds, gulls, and terns, but no census data are available. In 

years of low rainfall or drought, no birds visit the area due to high water salinity. 

Mammals: The Great Rann is a critically important refuge for the Indian wild ass 

(Equus hemionus khur); a threatened subspecies of the Asiatic wild ass. Other 

mammals include the chinkara gazelle (Gazella dorcas) and wolf (Canis lupus). 


Land use: The grasslands are extensively grazed by domestic livestock. There is a 

permanent military presence on both sides of the international frontier. 


Conservation measures proposed: A proposal was made for the establishment of a 

Flamingo Sanctuary to protect the breeding colony of flamingos at Pachham Island 

(Flamingo City), but the site has been abandoned by the birds. 

Disturbance and threats: There is excessive grazing by camels in the salt marshes 

and mangrove swamps. The pressure of military personnel and equipment on the 

northern edge of the Great Rann is having an adverse effect on several wildlife 

species, and hunting of the larger species has become a major problem. Prosopis 

julifora, an introduction from Mexico, has been planted extensively and may well 

pose a serious threat to the indigenous flora. Wild asses (Equus hemionus khur) 

occasionally graze in peripheral croplands. 


Research and facilities: Occasional visits have been made to the flamingo colony, 

and the Wild Asses have received considerable attention, but much of the area 

remains difficult of access and is poorly known. 

Reference: WWF India (1987); WWF India (1993). 

NALSAROVAR LAKE AND SURENDRANAGAR RESERVOIRS 

Nalsarovar lake (22° 47’ N, 72° 03’ E) and Surendranagar reservoirs (22° 30’–23° 

12’ N, 71° 25’–72° 05’ E) is situated in Surendranagar and Ahmedabad districts, 60 

km southwest of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Saurashtra is separated from the mainland of 

Gujarat by a narrow depression which links the Gulf of Khambhat with the Little 

Rann of Kachchh. Tectonic uplift, increased sedimentation, and aeolian infill have 

reduced this former estuary to a series of saline flats and a large freshwater lake, 

Nalsarovar, with extensive marshes. The terrain is uniformly flat, and the lake very 

shallow. Nalsarovar is unique in Saurashtra by virtue of the extensive reed-beds and 

marshes that surround it. The lake is fed entirely through the rivers Bhogavo,

Bharmani, and the catchment run-off dependent upon monsoon rainfall; it dries out 

completely in years of low rainfall (e.g. 1986), and even in wet years, is almost dry by 

early summer. The total area of the Nalsarovar lake is about 11,500ha (Bird Sanctuary 

12,082 ha). During very heavy monsoons, the water may be as much as two metres 

deep over most of the area. There are 360 islands, 36 of which are fairly large, 

scattered in the lake. Most of these islands remain submerged during the monsoon and 

are exposed when the water level recedes: Salinities range from fresh in winter to 

slightly brackish in summer. The other major wetlands of Surendranagar district are 

artificial water storage reservoirs surrounded by cultivation, scrub, desert, or upland 

habitats. The principal reservoirs are Sukhbhadar (up to 2 m deep), Moti Moladi (30 

cm deep), Muli (3.5 m. deep, retaining water longer than most others), Thoriani (over 

3 m deep, usually retaining water even in very dry years), and Sayala (1 m deep, the 

only reservoir with extensive emergent vegetation). To the north of Surendrangar, the 

two other important wetlands, Brahmani and Kharaghoda, are not well documented. 

• 

NALSAROVAR 

L 


Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with rainfall from the southwest 

monsoon concentrated in July, August, and September. Average annual rainfall is 

about 400 mm. 

Macrophytes: Hydrophytes including Chara, Potamogeton, Najas, Vallisneria, 

Nymphaea, Limnanthemum, Lemna, Wolfia, and Hydrilla. The temporary water 

bodies are characterised by a rich growth of Xanthium strumarium, Solarnum 

surattense, and Tephrosia purpurea. The semi-aquatic and marshland zones hold 

Ammania bacciferu, A.multiflora, Bergia sp., Alternanthera sessileis, Cyperus sp., 

Scirpus sp., Polygonum plebeium, and Marsilea aegyptiaca. Surrounding agricultural 

land supports crops of cotton, cereals, pulses, and groundnuts. The few trees in the 

region include Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Salvadora persica, Salvadora 

oleoides, and Acacia nilotica among others. 

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, all these wetlands are important for a wide 

variety of waterfowl, notably pelicans, flamingos, ducks, cranes, Fulica atra, and 

shorebirds. The numbers of ducks have, however, been decreasing at a fairly steady 

rate since the 1880s. The region is now perhaps most important for its wintering

cranes. Over 30,000 Anthropoides virgo were observed in central and eastern 

Saurashtra in the winter of 1984, the majority of these birds roosting at Muli, Sayala, 

and Nalsarovar. Grus grus also occurs in large numbers at several sites. Both species 

spend most of the day at the lakes, flying out to feed on agricultural land at dawn and 

dusk. Large numbers of great cormorant (Phoenicopterus ruber), occasionally 

frequent Kharaghoda and Nalsarovar. Pelicans appear in substantial numbers if water 

conditions permit; white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) is relatively common and 

widespread, and up to 100 Dalmatian pelican (P. crispus) have been recorded at 

Nalsarovar, but only a few P. philippensis have been observed. The importance of all 

these wetlands has been severely reduced by the worsening cycle of drought years 

with fewer and fewer years of adequate rainfall in the past two decades. In wet years, 

over 20,000 Anatidae winter at Nalsarovar but few, if any, appeared in the winters of 

1975-76, 1984-85, 1985-86 and 1986-87. In January 1980, the Lake hosted: 350 

Plegadis falcinellus over 1,000 Tachybaptus ruficollis 40 Platalea leucorodia 40 

Anser anser, 100 Tadorna ferruginea, 3000 Nettapus coromandelianus, 5000 Anas 

crecca, 5000 A. acuta, 6000 A. querquedula, 2000 A. clypeata, 1500 Aythya fuligula, 

60000 Fulica atra, 100 Glareola lactea, 400 Limosa limosa, 200 Gallinago gallinago 

300 Calidris minuta and many other species in smaller numbers; this was evidently a 

year of adequate water. By contrast, in January 1987 the Lake was completely dry and 

held only three birds. The other five major sites, Thoriani, Sayala, Sukhbhadar, Muli, 

and Moti Moladi, still retained some water in January 1987, and held a total of 2550 

waterfowl, including: 70 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 8 P. crispus, 180 Platalea 

leucorodia, 240 Phoenicopterus ruber, 62 Anser indicus, 230 Tadorna ferruginea, 6 

Grus antigone, 180 Anthropoides virgo, and 11 Rynchops albicollis and a small 

number of a wide variety of shorebirds. 

A waterfowl census in 1991-92, after a year of plentiful rainfall, recorded a total of 

over 200,000 birds, including the following: Grebes mainly Tachybaptus ruficollis: 

738, Pelicans: 42,877, including Pelecanus onocrotalus (37583), P. crispus (4364), 

and P. philippensis (643), Ducks and geese: 25,074, including A. crecca (1384), A. 

clypeata (6028), A. acuta (1406), and Tadorna ferruginea (625), Herons and egrets: 

8010, Ibises and spoonbills: 12,062, including Platalea leucorodia (6244), Plegadis 

falcinellus (2742), and Pseudibis papillosa (1933), Flamingos: 10,413, including 

Phoenicopterus roseus (8715), Cranes: 32,548, including Anthropoides virgo (16362) 

and Grus grus (1165), Shorebirds and waders: 63,836, including Limosa limosa 

(13,996) and Actitis hypoleucos (8028), Mammals include the Indian wild ass, nilgai 

and blackbuck 

Land tenure: Nalsarovar Lake is state-owned. 

Land use: The principal activities at Nalsarovar are fishing, grazing by domestic 

livestock, cutting of aquatic vegetation for fodder, and outdoor recreation. The 

sanctuary has a small population mostly of Padhar tribals who are dependent on the 

Lake for their livelihood. They fish during the monsoon and winter, and graze cattle 

on the dried-up river bed in summer. The Lake is a popular boating and picnic area 

for people from Ahmedabad. The other wetlands provide a source of water for 

irrigation and domestic use. In 1987, parts of the exposed bed of Nalsarovar Lake 

were being cultivated. 

Conservation measures taken: Nalsarovar Lake is protected in the Nalsarovar Bird 

Sanctuary (12,082 ha), established in April 1969. A core zone of approximately 100

ha is kept free from all disturbances. A management plan (1990-2000) for the 

Sanctuary has been prepared. The other wetlands are unprotected. 

Conservation measures proposed: Nalsarovar Lake has been proposed for 

designation as a Wetland of International importance under the Ramsar Convention. 

WWF-India and Lavkumar Khacher have made a number of recommendations 

concerning the management of the sanctuary. These include: (a) the establishment, by 

the State Government, of a special committee to investigate the problems at 

Nalsarovar; (b) the establishment of a special education and tourist centre at the 

existing recreation complex; (c) the designation of boating lanes and demarcation of 

disturbance-free zones; (d) strict protection of all the major islands, particularly 

during the breeding season; (e) the construction of fully equipped observation hides; 

and (f) the planting of Acacia nilotica trees on some of the islands to provide nesting 

sites for large waterbirds. Any master plan for the sanctuary should include the 

surrounding villages so that the welfare of the sanctuary can be clearly linked to the 

welfare of the local people. 

Disturbances and threats: The burgeoning human population of Gujarat is placing 

increasingly heavy demands on all natural resources, and the wetlands, in particular, 

are suffering from excessive exploitation. The marsh vegetation at Nalsarovar is 

heavily over-grazed by domestic livestock and is cut for fodder and fuel. Illegal 

shooting and trapping feature at several of the wetlands, including Nalsarovar, and 

visitors from urban areas cause considerable disturbance, particularly at weekends. 

The common crane (Grus grus) and demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) make 

substantial depredations on the groundnut and pulse crops, and this has given rise to 

some resentment among local farmers. Fishing activities at Nalsarovar, together with 

the increasing use of boats by visitors, can be a major cause of disturbance to the 

birds. 

Socio-economic values: Nalsarovar Lake is visited by large numbers of local tourists 

every winter. The local people operate boats for tourists. With proper management, 

the Bird Sanctuary could become one of the finest reserves for waterbirds in India, 

attracting significant numbers of foreign tourists as well. Fishing, cattle grazing, 

extraction of aquatic vegetation, and the use of neighbouring water bodies for 

irrigation, transport, and domestic use are the other uses of the wetlands. 

Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal and floral surveys have been carried out 

at Nalsarovar Lake, and several waterfowl censuses have been made. The Gujarat 

Tourist Department established a recreation complex at the lake, and this has 

subsequently been handed over to the Forest Department. 


LITTLE RANN OF KACHCHH 

The Little Rann (23° 10’–23° 45’ N, 70° 45’–70° 45’ E) is usually described as a flat, 

saline waste or salt-impregnated wilderness. It lies to the southeast of the Great Rann 

and along a line of marine recession between the Indus Delta and the Gulf of 

Khambhat. During the southwest monsoon (July to September), large areas are 

inundated by up to two metres of water, much of which is pushed up from the Gulf of 

Kachchh by strong westerly winds. The saltflats dry out almost entirely during the 

prolonged dry season. Saline areas are relieved by areas of slightly higher ground with 

salt-free soil supporting stunted, scrubby vegetation. There are about 30 of these little 

hillocks, or “bets”, of varying sizes in the Little Rann. In years of ample rainfall, the

flood water overflows into the Nalsarovar depression to the southeast. Soil conditions 

are saline to hypersaline. The total area of the wetland is about 495,300ha. 

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 

less than 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The maximun temperature is 

about 42°C, the minimum temperature about 12°C, and the average relative humidity 

25%. 

Macrophytes: The vegetation consists of xerophytic shrubs and thorny scrubland 

between open saline flats devoid of vegetation. There are virtually no trees and most 

of the vegetation is confined to the higher ground and transitional zones, these areas 

totalling approximately 33,000 ha. The 'bets' support a slightly richer flora than 

elsewhere. Some of these formerly supported mature stands of Acacia nilotica, 

Prosopis spicigera, Salvadora persica, and S.oleoides, but most of the large trees 

were felled and converted into charcoal in the 1950sand 1960s. Small shrubs of S. 

persica, Tamarix dioica, and the alien mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) are common in 

several areas, together with Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola barysoma, and Haloxylon 

salicornicum. Gramineae and Cyperaceae are better adapted to the hydromorphic 

conditions and include Aleuropus lagoporides, Cenchrus setigerus, C. ciliaris. 

Sporobolus marginatus, S. helveticus and Cyperus rotundus. 

Mammmals: The Little Rann supports a sizeable population the Indian wild ass 

(Equus hemionus khur) which has gradually increased, under protection, from about 

800 animals in the late 1960s to 1989 in 1983; but the asses are subjected to a 

considerable amount of disturbance and remain very wary. The Rann formerly 

supported large populations of nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), chinkara (Cazella 

gazella) and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), but these have been decimated in recent 

decades by illegal hunting. 

Birds: The region is still of considerable importance for a wide variety of waterfowl 

such as pelicans, herons, egrets, storks, spoonbills, ducks and shorebirds. Thousands 

of common cranes (Grus grus) winter in the area, and large numbers of flamingos 

both (Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoenicopterus minor) are present when water levels 

are suitable. A breeding colony of the Lesser Flamingo (P. minor) has recently been 

discovered in the Little Rann at Surajbari. The mouth of the Banas river is an 

important staging area for migratory shorebirds, and large concentrations of ducks, 

mainly Anas crecca, A. poecilorhyncha. A. acuta, A. querquedula, and A. clypeata, 

have been observed during the migration periods. 

Land tenure: The Little Rann is state owned; surrounding areas are partly stateowned 

and partly private. 

Land use: Grazing by domestic livestock. Parts of the Sanctuary are leased out by 

the Government to salt manufacturers, and salt production is now an occupation all 

along the periphery of the Rann. There is also limited cultivation of millet in the less 

saline areas. 

Conservation measures taken: The entire area has been declared a Wildlife 

Sanctuary by the Government of Gujarat to protect the population of wild ass (Equus 

hemionus khur). 

Disturbances and threats: There is almost no effective control in the Wild Ass 

Sanctuary, and no clear demarcation of its boundaries. As a result, the area has been 

exposed to a variety of abuses. Large herds of domestic cattle are driven into the Rann 

to graze on the ‘bets’, and most of the indigenous trees are now heavily browsed and

lopped. Local villagers enter the Sanctuary to collect firewood and make charcoal, 

and some areas have been ploughed for agriculture. Large areas of native vegetation 

have been replaced with plantations of the exotic mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), and 

this has now invaded the ‘bets’. A considerable amount of disturbance is caused to 

wildlife by jeeps and motorcycles driving at will across the flats, and the wild asses in 

particular are deliberately chased by tourists. Illegal shooting and trapping are 

common and the populations of some of the larger mammals have been decimated. A 

rapid expansion in salt production, although not in itself harmful to wildlife, has led to 

a multiplication of other forms of disturbance. 

Socio-economic values: The Little Rann of Kachchh, if managed efficiently, could 

not only remain an important salt-producing area, but could once again become a 

great wildlife sanctuary with tremendous potential for tourism. 

Reference: WWF India (1987); WWF India (1993). 

SOUTHERN GULF OF KACHCHH 

The Gulf of Kachchh is a large inlet of the Arabian Sea, about 60 km wide at its 

widest and tapering northeastwards for 170 km. The Marine National Park and 

Marine Sanctuary are situated along the southern shore of the Gulf from Okha (22° 

30’ N, 69° 00’ E) eastwards to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30’ N, 70° 05’ E). A vast 

area of intertidal mudflats, salt marshes, and seasonally inundated coastal flats extend 

northeastwards along Wagardhrai Creek to about 23° 15’ N, 70° 40’ E. Information 

from this area, a transitional zone between the Gulf and the Little Rann of Kachchh, is 

lacking. The National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a complex of 

fringing reefs backed by mudflats and sandflats, coastal salt marsh, and mangrove 

forest at various stages of exploitation. The towns of Okha, Salaya, Vadinar, Sikka, 

and Jamnagar, which have developed along the southern edge of the Gulf, exert 

considerable influence over it. The major islands (from west to east) are Beyt, 

Chusnas, Bhaidar, Nora, Ajad, Chauk, Dhanibet, Karumbhar, Goos Reef, Moouada, 

Pirotan, Jindra, and Chhad. The Gulf is rightly famous for its coral formations which 

are now the only living reefs between the Arabian Gulf and the Laccadives. The reefs 

are generally restricted to areas exposed to strong tidal currents, and living reefs are 

confined to the northern and western sides of the islands where the currents are 

strongest. They are most extensive near Poshitra Point and on Boria Reef (western 

part of the Gulf). The extent and variety of coral formations have been declining over 

the recent geological past as tectonic uplift has diverted the flow of the Indus away 

from the Gulf of Kachchh and thereby substantially reduced freshwater input. The 

deterioration of the reefs has accelerated noticeably in recent times. The total area of 

the Gulf of Kachchh is about 735,000 ha, Marine National park, is about 16,289 ha 

and Marine Sanctuary is 45,592 ha. 


about 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The mean maximum temperature is 

40°C, and the minimum 7°C. 

Macrophytes: Over 108 species of algae (70 fairly common and 38 rather rare) 

have been recorded in the Gulf of Kachchh. Twenty-nine species of green algae 

(Chlorophyceae), 30 species of brown algae (Phaeophyceae), and 49 of red algae 

(Rhodophyceae) have been identified. The Gulf contains some of the best mangrove 

forests on the west coast of India, but large areas have been totally cleared, or at least 

seriously degraded, by exploitation for domestic and commercial use. In the last 20

years alone, 95% of mature trees have been cut down. Only four islands, Ajad, 

Bhaidar, Pirotan, Kharachusa, and a small area on the mainland near Okha still 

support true mangrove forest. These areas have been protected by sacred traditions of 

the goodwill of local people. Elsewhere in the Gulf, the mangroves have been reduced 

to low bushes with a maximum height of two metres. The principal species are 

Avicennia alba, Rhizophora mucronata, and Ceriops tagal. 

Coralreefs: A total of 32 hard (Scleractinavian) and 12 soft (Alcyonarian) corals 

have been recorded. 

Fishes: About 150 species of fishes and 27 species of prawns have been recoreded. 

Reptiles: The marine turtles Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea breed on 

islands in the Gulf, but both are threatened by the fishermen of the Wagher 

community. Several species of snake occur, particularly in the mangrove scrub, and 

one species of banded sea snake has been recorded. 

Birds: An Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf in 1984 focussed attention on 

the avifauna, and discovered large concentrations of many species, particularly 

migratory shorebirds. No overall census was possible, but a high-tide roost of 10,000 

shorebirds was located on Pirotan Island, and a similar number were found on all the 

other islands that were visited during the survey. The most numerous species were 

Charadrius mongolus (over 3000 at Pirotan and 6000-9000 on Bhaidar), Arenaria 

interpres (1500 at Pirotan and many more on Bhaidar), and Calidris ferruginea 

(3000-4000 on most of the islands). Other common shorebirds included Haematopus 

ostralegus (roosts of 50 at Goos Reef and 25 at Pirotan), Pluvialis squatarola, 

Charadrius leschenaultii, Limosa limosa. L. lapponica, Numenius phaeopus (120 at 

Pirotan), N. arquata (flocks of up to 50), Tringa totanus (200-300 on Bhaidar and 150 

at Pirotan), Xenus cinereus (300 at Pirotan and larger numbers on Bhaidar), Calidris 

alba (200 at Pirotan), C. minuta, Limicola falcinellus, and Philomachus pugnax (2000 

at Pirotan). A particularly significant population of the crab plover (Dramas ardeola) 

occurs in the Gulf of Kachchh (over 5000 individuals in February /March 1984), and 

the species may well breed here. The great knot (Calidris tenuirostris) and Indian 

skimmer (Rynchops albicollis) have been recorded in winter. 

Other waterfowl observed in February/March 1984 included: Pelecanus onocrotalus, 

P. crispus, P. philippensis, Egretta gularis, Sarkidiornis melanotos and over 2200 

other ducks mainly (Anas clypeata), hundreds of gulls, (mainly Larus ichthyaetus, L. 

brunnicephalus and L. argentatus), and smaller numbers of the terns Gelochelidon 

nilotica, Hydroprogne caspia and Sterna albifrons. 

Many of the islands in the southern part of the Gulf support sizeable breeding colonies 

of Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola 

grayii, Butorides striatus, Egretta gularis, E. alba, Ardea cinerea, Mycteria 

leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus, and Platalea leucorodia. The coastal salt 

marshes and salt evaporation ponds are used by many of these birds, along with 

hundreds of Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Himantopus himantopus 

and Recurvirostra avosetta. In a first comprehensive study of waterbirds ever made in 

the Gulf by scientists of Saurashtra University as part of a WWF INDIA sponsored 

project (1984-89), 86 species of waterbirds were recorded in the salt-works, and 80 

species on the islands and coast along the Gulf. Most of the species found in the Gulf 

and the saltworks were common. The cattle egret, black ibis, ruddy shelduck, eastern 

golden plover, yellow wattled lapwing, eastern knot, sanderling and eastern little stint,

were recorded in the Gulf but not in the salt-works. The avocet, blacktailed godwit, 

blackwinged stilt, temminck's stint, pheasant-tailed, jacana and whitewinged black 

tern, which were recorded in the salt-works were not observed in the Gulf. The 

avocet, great crested grebe and rednecked phalarope were found in the salt-works and 

not in the coastal waters in the Gulf, though they are known to use the coast 

elsewhere. The salt-works were a breeding habitat for four species of birds, all of 

them ground-nesting, namely, little tern, blackwinged stilt, Kentish plover and 

redwattled lapwing. All the salt-works lacked trees and most lacked a good growth of 

mangrove within their boundaries. The islands and coast provided a habitat for 11 

species of tree-nesting waterbirds, namely, painted stork, grey heron, large egret, 

Indian reef heron, night heron, pond heron, white ibis, black ibis, darter, little 

cormorant, spoonbill and six species of ground-nesting waterbirds, namely lesser 

flamingo, little tern, Saunder's tern, great stone plover, Kentish plover, and red 

wattled lapwing. During the study, a number of species previously not known to occur 

in the area, or that are very rare on the west coast, were reported; these include eastern 

knot, eastern little stint, ringed plover, whitewinged black tern, brownwinged tern, 

slenderbilled gull, and sandwich tern. 

Mammals: The dugong (Dugong dugon) is present in small numbers, this being the 

only population on the west coast of India. The WWF INDIA sponsored project 

recorded the presence of immature-sized individuals and herds of up to 15 

individuals, indicating that there are resident animals that breed in the Gulf. The 

cetaceans Sousa plumbea and Neophocaena phocaenoides occur in the Gulf, but no 

data are available on their status. 

Land tenure: Largely state-owned; there are some private holdings on Beyt and 

Ajad Islands. 

Land use: Until the early 20 th century, Jamnagar was the centre of the one of the 

biggest pearl fisheries in the world, exploiting the eastern Gulf islands. A windowpane 

oyster fishery was developed at Okha in 1910, but uncontrolled exploitation has 

led to a temporary ban on the collection of all oysters in the Gulf. Fishing remains an 

important source of income and employment, although catches have declined 

markedly in recent years. For many years, the Digvijay Cement Corporation dredged 

sand from an area of 1600 acres (648 ha) in the Gulf, but this has now ceased. There 

are several salt-works along the southern shore; the largest, at Okha, has over 20,000 

ha of salt pans. The Gulf of Kachchh is one of the best natural harbours in India; an 

oil terminal has been built at Vadinar Island to accommodate very large oil tankers 

(300,000–400,000 tonnes). There is an offshore single-buoy mooring system from 

which the oil is pumped ashore. Several new industries have been established in the 

area in recent years. Beyt and Ajad islands are permanently inhabited, and there is a 

lighthouse on Pirotan with permanent staff. 

Conservation measures taken: Some 45,792 ha of the Gulf of Kachchh were 

declared a Marine Sanctuary in 1980, and a further 16,289 ha were declared a Marine 

National Park in 1982. A survey of the extent of the coral formations formed the basis 

for the delineation of the Park boundaries. The protected areas were established in 

response to the serious pollution and degradation of the mangrove/ coral reef 

ecosystem that now threatens the future of the Gulf. The cutting of mangroves has 

been prohibited, and the collection of pearl and window-pane oysters temporarily 

banned. Since the establishment of the National Park, the cement industry has been

fined for dredging outside its legal boundaries. Some 60 ha of Pirotan Island have 

been replanted with mangroves by visiting school parties. 

Disturbances and threats: The many disturbances and threats to the Gulf of 

Kachchh are summarized by Palmes and Briggs (in press). Uncontrolled exploitation 

has severely depleted the stocks of oysters. The dredging of sea sand to supply the 

cement industry had a deleterious effect on the coral reefs. Unsubstantiated reports 

suggested that there was some direct dredging of coral reefs, while considerable 

damage was caused to the reefs, both directly and indirectly, through increased 

sediment load. Fish catches in the Gulf are declining because of damage to the reefs 

and uncontrolled exploitation of the mangrove forests. Large areas of mangroves have 

been damaged by local people gathering firewood and fodder for their livestock. 

Renewed growth of the mangroves near the salt pans is severely constrained by the 

needs of the largely itinerant salt workers for firewood. During the drought years of 

1985-87, pressures increased on the mangrove areas. In late 1987, the government 

gave local people permission to collect mangrove foliage for fodder. This precipitated 

a massive increase in the cutting of mangroves, and it is anticipated that by the end of 

1988 not a single tree will have escaped unscathed. 

In some areas, the residues from the salt evaporation process are damaging the coastal 

fauna and flora. There are no facilities to cope with oil spillage at Vadinar Island; 

minor spills have already been reported, and the danger of a major spillage cannot be 

ignored. There are various sources of pollution along the coast, chiefly from light 

industries in the various towns, and a new fertiliser factory has been established at 

Sikka. Additionally, a considerable amount of municipal waste is dumped in the Gulf 

from barges. A proposal has recently been made to build a tidal barrage across the 

mouth of the Gulf to produce power for the region. If this plan is carried out, the 

changes in tidal regime would almost certainly spell disaster for the coral reefs and 

mangrove/mudflat ecosystem, and adversely affect the fishing industry and 

indigenous wildlife populations. 

Socio-economic values: The Gulf supports a major fishery which is largely 

dependent on the mangrove/mudflat ecosystem and coral reefs. The great variety of 

fishes available in local markets indicates the wealth of these waters. The value of the 

mangrove swamps as breeding and nursery grounds for commercially valuable fishes, 

molluscs, and crustaceans exceed their value as firewood and fodder. Similarly, the 

long-term values of the living coral formations far outweigh their short- term value as 

a source of cheap limestone for the cement industry. Developments in education, 

conservation, and tourism will undoubtedly help the socio-economic expansion of the 

region if managed in an appropriate manner. Wildlife tours to the Gulf began in 1985 

and have helped to publicize the importance of the Gulf outside India. 

References: WWF INDIA (1987, 1991, 1993) 

WETLANDS OF KACHCHH PENINUSLA 

The Kachchh Peninsula (22° 45’–23° 45’ N, 68° 40’–71° 00’ E) situated on the 

Kachchh Peninsula, north of the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. It is a region of relatively 

high relief comprising sheets of lava intersected by trap dykes. Much of the low-lying 

country has saline soils. The region extends for about 230 km from east to west, and 

up to 70 km from north to south. Natural lakes are very scarce in this semi-arid and 

rocky environment. As a consequence, numerous water storage reservoirs (tanks) 

have been constructed over the centuries to permit the cultivation of groundnuts,

pulses, cereals, and cotton. At least 60 of these reservoirs exceed 100 ha in area. 

Many wetlands, mostly in artificial, ranging in size from 5 ha to approximately 1000 

ha, in a region of 1,500,000 ha. Virtually all the water courses flowing out of the 

Chaduva Katrol Range (the central spine of the Kachchh peninsula) are dammed at 

some point along their relatively short path to the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Kachchh, or 

inland salt wastes of the Great and Little Ranns. There are several small estuaries 

along the south and west coasts of Kachchh and a few larger areas of saline and 

brackish marshes, particularly along the Wagardhrai Creek which connects the Gulf 

of Kachchh with the Little Rann. Some of the best known wetlands are the Bhimasar 

and Sinai Lakes, Dewisar Tank, Rudarmata Dam and Ninghar Dam, Kukma Village 

Tank and Lair Dam, Don Dam Reservoir, Topansar Tank, and Vijaysagar Dam. 


about 400 mm concentrated in July, August and September. In periods of below 

average rainfall, most of the wetlands remain dry, or virtually dry, for the entire year. 

Macrophytes: None of the Kachchh wetlands manifest the rich profusion of aquatic 

and emergent plants so typical of the wetlands of lower Sindh in Pakistan. Species of 

Typha, Juncus, and Phragmites occur at some of the lakes, but are intensively grazed 

by domestic livestock and cut for fodder. Most of the peripheral vegetation, 

particularly tamarisk (Tamarix dioica), has been cut for fuel. Many of the tanks are 

therefore decidedly bare of vegetation, compounding the appearance of aridity with 

the processes of desertification. The saline tracts and river beds support sparse 

woodland composed of Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Tamarix spp., and Calotropis 

procera. The flora of surrounding areas is generally xerophytic. Thorn forest is 

presumed to be the climax vegetation but it is everywhere degraded into various 

stages of scrub. 

Birds: Some of the larger lakes, e.g. Rudarmata Dam, are important for pelicans and 

cormorants. Anastomus oscitans, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis 

melanocephalus, and Pseudibis papillosa appear at many of the tanks, and up to 150 

Mycteria leucocephala have been reported at Vijaysagar. In addition, Pelecanus 

onocrotalus, Phalacrocorax carbo, Mycteria leucocephala, Pseudibis papillosa, 

Platalea leucorodia, Phoenicopterus ruber, ducks, Grus grus, Anthropoides virgo, 

Fulica atra and shorebirds, gulls and terns were also found. 


Conservation measures taken: Ninghar Dam (23° 08’ N, 69° 55’ E) was once 

maintained as a hunting preserve and in the 1930s, was considered to be the best area 

for duck, hunting in Kachchh. 

Land use: The tanks were built to supply water for irrigation and domestic use. They 

have also been heavily exploited for firewood and fodder. As the tanks dry up, they 

are often brought under cultivation and, after a series of dry years, cultivation of the 

lake beds inevitably evolves into semi-permanent agricultural operations. Many of the 

tanks are centres of spiritual and physical recreation. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive exploitation of the aquatic and peripheral 

vegetation exacerbates the deterioration of the tanks induced by lack of water. Overgrazing 

and cutting of natural vegetation in the catchment area is accelerating the 

processes of desertification. 

Socio-economic values: The wetlands provide a source of firewood and fodder to the 

local inhabitants, but harvests have consistently exceeded sustainable levels and, as a

esult, yields have fallen. Many of the lakes are scenically attractive and are the sites 

of temples. 

Research and facilities: Some mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out in 

February 1975 and in January 1987. 

References: WWF India (1993). 

NANDA ISLAND 

Nanda island is situated (23° 33’ N, 71° 05’ E) in Kachchh district, Gujarat, 10 km 

southwest of Adesar (Kachchh district) and 5 km off Piparala (Banaskantha district), 

Gujarat. The Little Rann is a vast stretch of salt-affected, barren wasteland covering 

an area of 3,88,500 ha, frequently flooded to a depth of 0.30–0.91 m. Numerous rivers 

pour their silt-laden waters annually into this Rann from the north, south, and east. 

The Banas, Rupen, and Saraswati rivers drain into the Rann from the east and 

northeast, and Machhu, Brahmani, Kankavati, Phulka, and Chandrabhaga from the 

south. The Rann is partially drained through a narrow creek to its west. The land is 

also affected by the ingress of tides. This water is driven by the strong southwest 

winds beyond the head of the Gulf of) Kachchh. Most of the Rann is dry by the end of 

November or middle of December. Nanda Island is a part of the Rann. The island 

remains above high flood water level during the monsoon. With the departure of the 

monsoon, the flood waters dry up, leaving behind a hard, flat surface covered with 

salt which makes the ground shine dazzling white. 

Abiotic factors: Mean annual rainfall is about 320 mm. Rainfall is highly erratic. 

The maximum temperature was recorded in summer and minimum in winter. 

Macrophytes: Flat, barren area without vegetative cover. There is some algal 

growth in stagnant water. On the island the main vegetation is Prosopis juliflora, 

Salvadora oleoides, Salvadora persica, Capparis aphylla and Melia azadirachta, in 

addition to agricultural crops such as castor, cotton, jowar, and bajra. Grasses and 

thorny vegetation also found. 

Birds: A very important place for resident and migratory birds. A waterfowl count in 

1991 recorded the following: 


Anas acuta (7) Larus ridibundus 

(2800+) 

Anas clypeata (47) Mycteria 

leucocephala (40+) 

Ardea cinerea (50+) Numenius arquata 

(11) 

Egretta gularis (5) Pelecanus oncrotalus 

(3200) 

Egretta intermedia 

Phoenicopterus minor 

(50+) 

(175) 

Fulica atra (1000+) Platalea leucorodia 

(200+) 

Himantopus Tringa nebularia (1)

himantopus (620) 

Hydroprogne caspia 

(100) 

Larus brunnicephalus 

(380+) 

Tringa totanus (1) 

The Island is inhabited by herds of wild ass (Equus hemionus khur), red antelope, and 

blackbuck. 


Land use: A part of the island is under seasonal cultivation. 

Conservation measures taken: It is a part of the Wild Ass Sanctuary. 

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: Salt production 

may start here in the near future. 

Disturbances and threats: Some disturbance to the migratory birds by fishermen 

and salt transporters from the Rann. 

Socio-economic values: Many of the local people are dependent on the area for fish. 

References: IWRB (1991); WWF India (1993). 

GULF OF KHAMBHAT 

An extensive area of estuarine habitats around the periphery of the Gulf of Khambhat. 

Gulf of Khambhat is situated (20° 35’–22° 20’ N, 72° 05’–72° 55’ E) from the region 

of Talaja on the west coast to the head of the Gulf at Khambhat, and south on the east 

coast for about 200 km to Valsad, Gujarat. The Tapi, Narmada, Mahi, Sabarmati, and 

several other rivers have deposited alluvium over large areas as the marine recession 

has united Saurashtra with the mainland of Gujarat. There are extensive areas of 

intertidal mud and sand flats, coastal salt marshes, and degraded mangrove 

associations, particularly in the deltas of the Mahi and Sabarmati rivers. One of the 

largest areas of intertidal mudflats (3000 ha) is located immediately to the north of 

Ghogha, near Bhavnagar. There are some coral reefs around small islets in the 

western part of the Gulf. 


about 800 mm. The monsoon commences in June or July and ends in September, but 

the rainfall is erratic in occurrence, duration and intensity. The winters are generally 

cool and dry, with minimum temperatures around 10°C. The pre-monsoon period in 

March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 45°C. 

Mangroves and associates: Formerly extensive tracts of mangrove forest, but now 

probably less than 20,000 ha. The forests are heavily utilised, and have been reduced 

to an open, scrub type of forest, with few trees exceeding 3m in height. Individual 

trees of Avicennia marina, a species highly valued by the local inhabitants, have a 

bushy, mutilated appearance with multiple vegetative shoots. Species of 

Rhizophoraceae are now rare and have disappeared completely from most sites. Thus, 

the zonation of mangrove forests in the Gulf is very simplified: a seaward band of 

Avicennia marina gives way to a back-mangal consisting of Salicornia brachiata, 

Suaeda fruticosa, and Atriplex stocksii, and a Caespitose grass, Urochondra setulosa, 

which appears at the extreme eastern limit of its distribution.

Reptiles: Two species of marine turtles, Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea, 

nest in large numbers along the coast and on Piram Island. 

Birds: Parasharya (1984) has recorded 62 species of waterbirds in the area. The 

coastal marshes and mudflats provide feeding areas for large numbers of herons, 

egrets, storks, and ibises which breed in groves of trees in nearby towns and villages, 

such as Bhavnagar, Gogha, Khambhat, Bharuch, and Surat. The New Port of 

Bhavnagar harbours one of the largest colonies of Egretta gularis in the world, 

approximately 1000 pairs in 1980, 1981, and 1982. Other common breeding species 

include Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E. 

alba, Mycteria leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus, Pseudibis papillosa, and 

Platalea leucorodia. The heron colonies in this area are one of the few places where 

E. gularis and E. garzetta nest side by side and interbreed. 

The extensive mudflats and sandflats such as those at Ghogha support very large 

numbers of migratory shorebirds, gulls, and terns, together with large feeding flocks 

of Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoeniconaias minor. The most abundant shorebirds are 

Recurvirostra avosetta, Charadrius mongolus, C. leschenaultii, Tringa and Calidris, 

and Limicola falcinellus. Numerous of crab plovers (Dromas ardeola) winter in the 

area, and a few Indian skimmers (Rynchops albicollis) have been reported. Large 

roosting flocks of Grus grus and Anthropoides virgo are often present. 


Land use: Fishing in the Gulf. The mangrove woodland is heavily utilised by the 

local population; the leaves and fruits of Avicennia marina are fed to cattle, and 

camels graze the landward edge of the forest. In some coastal villages and towns, the 

mangroves are the only source of firewood and the main source of green fodder. Salt 

extraction industries are located at several points around the Gulf. 


Disturbances and threats: Levels of exploitation continue to increase to meet the 

demands of an increasing human population in the region. The mangroves have 

already been over-exploited to the point at which much of the value of the resource 

has been lost. Coastal towns and several large cities in the catchment area are a major 

source of pollution. 

Socio-economic values: The mangroves constitute an important source of fuel and 

fodder, and presumably provide essential breeding and nursery grounds for many 

commercially important species of fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans. Despite their 

degraded condition, the forests remain vitally important for the survival of many 

coastal villages and towns. 

Research and facilities: Parasharya (1984) has studied the waterbirds of the Gulf of 

Khambhat for his Ph.D. at Saurashtra University. 

Reference: Gole (1984b); Parasharya (1984); WWF India (1993) 

KHIJADIA LAKES 

A group of three, shallow, freshwater lakes and extensive marshes adjacent to a large 

area of saltpans and salt marsh on the south shore of the Gulf of Kachchh. During the 

1930s, a barrage was constructed between Jamnagar and Navlakhi (43 km to the east) 

to reclaim coastal salt marsh for agricultural land. Only seven kilometres of the 

barrage, in the Khijadia area, have been maintained in working order. The principle of

the barrage was to desalinate the salt marsh by preventing tidal inundation and to use 

the monsoon rains to fertilise the soil with the rich silts washed down by the flood 

waters. As the salinity decreased in the 1940s and 1950s, the lakes were colonised by 

aquatic plants, and extensive reed-beds developed. By this time, however, the need for 

fresh water had become more important than the requirement for agricultural land, 

and plans to drain the area were abandoned. Instead, four pumping stations were 

installed at the east of the main Khijadia Lake to supply fresh water to nearby 

villages. 

The lakes and marshes are fed by monsoon run-off in several seasonal streams. 

Khijadia salt pans, which lie to the north and east of the barrage, extend into a large 

area of salt marsh between the barrage and the sea. A deep channel connects the 

outflow from the lakes with a tidal channel running down to the sea. By the end of the 

monsoon, the flood waters may reach 2 m in depth and cover over 1000 ha; as the dry 

season advances, the area of open water decreases, exposing extensive mudflats, 

especially at the eastern end of the lake. At low water levels, salt water seeps under 

the barrage from the Gulf during high tides. Studies conducted in February and March 

1984 revealed no contamination of the water with salt, a pH of 7, a noticeable green 

algal bloom, and a steady rate of water loss of 0.8-0.9 cm per day. Two of the three 

lakes are bunded with a motorable road along one side, and the third is dammed by a 

larger structure of cement, stones, and earth. In 1985 and 1986, all three lakes dried 

out in the summer months (March to June) as a result of inadequate monsoon rainfall. 

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate, with rainfall concentrated in July 

and August. The mean maximum temperature is 40°C, and the minimum 7°C. 

Macrophytes: The principal emergent species include Typha angustata, Scirpus sp., 

Cyperus sp., and Saccharum spontaneum. Submerged aquatic plants include Hydrilla 

verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas minor. Screens of Prosopis juliflora have 

been planted along the bunds. There is some scrubby mangrove in the adjacent salt 

marsh, but all the mangrove trees have been cut down. Avicennia marina still thrives 

in the channels, but grazing camels and constant cutting prevent any recovery to full 

tree height. The natural vegetation in surrounding areas includes Acacia nilotica, 

Capparis decidua, and Phoenix sp. 

The endemic Cyperus dwarakensis is found near Dwarka (Kamnaar); similarly 

Tephrosia jamnagarensis is endemic to the area. 

Birds: An extremely important staging and wintering area for a wide variety of 

waterfowl. Almost 200 species of birds have been recorded in the Sanctuary, 

including some 94 species of waterbirds. Waterfowl observed during a survey in 

February/March 1984 included: 


Ardea cinerea Philomachus pugnax 

Egretta alba Platalea leucorodia 

Fulica atra Plegadis falcinellus

Himantopus 

Porphyrio porphyrio 

himantopus 

Limosa limosa Recurvirostra 

avosetta 

Mycteria 

Tachybaptus ruficollis 

leucocephala 

P elecanus crispus Threskiornis 


Pelecanus 

onocrotalus 

2000 small shorebirds and 600 gulls (Larus spp.), 8500 ducks (mainly Anas penelope, 

A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata), and 600 terns (mainly Chlidonias hybridus, 

Gelochelidon nilotica, and Sterna aurantia). Other counts in recent years have 

included: 


Anas poecilorhyncha Grus grus 

Anthropoides virgo Phalacrocorax spp. 

Aythya ferina Phoeniconaias minor 

Aythya fuligula Phoenicopterus 

ruber 

Aythya nyroca Rynchops albicollis 

Egretta gularis 

Several species of waterfowl breed in the area, including Tachybaptus ruficollis, 

Porphyrio porphyrio, Fulica atra, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Himantopus spp. 

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus is a regular visitor. At least four pairs of Podiceps 

cristatus bred in 1984; this is a very uncommon breeding species in India south of the 

Himalaya. The area is also important for migratory swallows and martins 

(Hirundinidae), wagtails (Motaccillidae) and various other small passerines. 

Reptiles: Canis aureus and Felis chaus are common, and various freshwater turtles 

are known to occur. Little information is available on the other fauna of the Bird 

Sanctuary. 

Land tenure: Partly state-owned (Forest Department and Revenue Department) and 

partly under private ownership; surrounding areas are mainly privately owned. Private 

land in and around the Bird Sanctuary is soon to be transferred to the Forest 

Department. 

Land use: Many visitors come to observe birdlife in the Sanctuary. The Khijadia 

Lakes provide water for irrigation and domestic use, while salt is extracted from the 

two neighboring salt works: As water levels recede, local villagers cultivate 

vegetables on the exposed beds of the lakes. Cattle and other domestic livestock graze 

the edge of the reed-beds, and up to 150 camels graze the adjacent salt marsh at neap 

tides.

Conservation measures taken: The main lakes (604.9 ha) have been declared a Bird 

Sanctuary where hunting is prohibited, and the local WWF Group (Jamnagar) and 

Maharajah Jamsaheb have taken an interest in preserving the wildlife. There is no 

effective management as yet, but efforts are being made to fence the area, and a 

forestry official is available to control the cutting of firewood, illegal grazing, and 

poaching. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been suggested that the area should be 

managed primarily as a nature reserve, partly because of its excellent location close to 

the city of Jamnagar. Continuing efforts will be made to exclude cattle and other 

livestock by fencing the area, and plans have been made to dredge part of the lakes so 

that they will retain more monsoon floodwater. 

Disturbances and threats: Increased grazing could cause deterioration of the reedbeds, 

but unchecked reed growth would be undesirable from a wildlife management 

point of view. The volume of fresh water extracted by the pumping stations must be 

monitored to avoid excessive depletion of reserves. If too much water is extracted, the 

lakes will become saline, the reed -beds will be destroyed, and the value of the lake as 

a source of fresh water will be lost. As Jamnagar is one of the fastest growing towns 

in Gujarat, urban expansion and pollution may pose a threat in the near future. 

Socio-economic values: Of great importance both as a source of water and as a 

grazing area for Khijadia and other local villages. The lack of alternative grazing sites 

makes the reed-beds especially important. The Sanctuary could become an excellent 

nature reserve attracting many visitors; it has great potential for scientific research, 

and could be developed as an educational centre for school children and college 

groups. 

Research and facilities: Several waterfowl censuses have been carried out, and more 

detailed research on the avifauna has been undertaken by T. Mundkur et al. and an 

Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf of Kutch in February/March 1984 (Palmes 

and Briggs, in press). 


KANKAVATI AND SAPDA DAMS 

Kankavati irrigation reservoir was constructed in 1983, near Fall village on the 

Jamnagar-Rajkot of highway along Kankavati river. It is an earthen dam, 12.3 m high, 

2274m along and has a storage capacity of 6.8 cubic metres. The total area of the 

reservoir is 435 ha. Sapda dam is a 1828 m long earthen dam, constructed in 1987 on 

the banks of Ruparei river near Sapda village. The waterspread area of the reservoir is 

about 193ha. The catchment area of the dam is 5180 ha. Maximum water depth is 

7.88 m. 

Abiotic factors: Average rainfall, 570 mm. Hot winds blow throughout the summer 

season, and the rate of evaporation is high. Maximum temperature is 42°C and 

minimum temperature, 8°C. 

Birds: A good roosting site for wintering waterfowl, specially demoiselle crane 

(Anthropoides virgo) and ducks. Among the bird species observed in the area are 


Anas crecca Hydroprogne caspia 

Anas penelope Limosa limosa 

Ardea cinerea Mycteria 

leucocephala 

Aythya ferina Podiceps rufficollis 

Bubulcus ibis Pseudibis papillosa 

Dendrocygna bicolor Sarkidiornis 

melanotos 

Egretta alba Sterna aurantia 

Fulica atra Tringa stagnatilis 

Himantopus 

himantopus 

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are under private ownership. 

Land use: Water from both the reservoirs are used for irrigation the cultivated tracts 

in the surrounding regions. The waters are also utilized for fisheries. 

Disturbances and threats: Overfishing is a problem. Farming in the areas along the 

reservoirs exposed during winter when the water level decreases, disturbs the roosting 

migratory waterfowl. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoirs provide the nearby villages with water for 

irrigation and are used for fishing. Seasonal cultivation along the shores also provides 

occupation. 

Reference: Dodhia (1990); WWF India (1993). 

PARIEJ AND KANEVAL RESERVOIRS 

Pariej and Kaneval situated (22° 33’ N, 72° 38’ E) near Kheda, 50 km south of 

Ahmedabad, Gujarat are water storage reservoirs on the plains to the north of the Gulf 

of Khambhat. Pariej lies in a natural depression and is surrounded by an embankment; 

it has a circumference of about nine kilometres. Kaneval, with a circumference of at 

least 15 km, is considerably larger and contains several small islands. Both lakes are 

rich in aquatic vegetation, unlike most other wetlands in Gujarat. The total area of the 

Pariej reservoir is about 500 ha and Kaneval is 1500 ha. 


about 800 mm concentrated in July, August and September. 

Macrophytes: Both lakes are known to support an abundant growth of aquatic 

vegetation; including beds of Typha sp., no other details are available. 

Birds: Both lakes are of great importance for wintering waterfowl, particularly ducks 

and Fulica atra, and assume special significance in years when Nalsarovar is dry: In 

January 1975, Pariej held almost 25,000 waterfowl, including 235 Pelecanus 

onocrotalus, 95 Platalea leucorodia, 125 Phoenicopterus ruber, 8750 ducks (mainly

Anas penelope, A. strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata) and 15,000 Fulica 

atra. Only 2000 birds were seen at Kaneval, but these included 18 Sarkidiornis 

melanotos and 148 Grus antigone. A waterfowl census in mid January 1987 recorded 

over 28,000 waterfowl; 17,000 at Kaneval and 11,500 at Pariej. These included: 420 

Tachybaptus ruficollis, 19 Podiceps cristatus, 27 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 6 P. 

philippensis, 920 Phalacrocorax niger, 140 Mycteria leucocephala, 130 Plegadis 

falcinellus, 80 Anser anser, 810 Dendrocygna javanica, 200 Nettapus 

coromandelianus, 105 Anthropoides virgo, 85 Porphyrio porphyrio, 23,200 Fulica 

atra, 245 Himantopus himantopus and 300 Glareola lactea but only 1190 dabbling 

ducks (Anas spp.). 

Land tenure: The islands in Kaneval Reservoir are privately owned. 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. The trapping of ducks and 

coots on a large scale at Kaneval, and to a lesser extent at Pariej. At Kaneval, the birds 

are netted at night with mistnets. During the winter season, some 100-150 birds are 

trapped every night, and these sell for Rs. 10 each in the local markets. At Pariej, 

small numbers of birds are caught with nylon nooses. There is also some fishing at 

Pariej, and the islands at Kaneval are under cultivation. 


Disturbances and threats: Large numbers of waterfowl, are trapped for local 

consumption, particularly at Kaneval, and this may be having a detrimental effect on 

the populations. There is also some shooting at both sites. The disappearance of the 

breeding colony of Mycteria leucocephala at Kaneval has been attributed to the 

disturbance from hunting, and other human activities. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoirs are an important source of fresh water, and 

Pariej supports a small fishery. The annual harvest of ducks and coots provides a 

useful source of protein, but will require careful management if it is to be maintained 

on a sustainable basis. 

Research and facilities: Waterfowl counts were carried out in 1975 and again in 

1987. 

Reference: van der Ven (1987); WWF India (1993). 

WETLANDS OF SABARKANTA AND BANASKANTA DISTRICT 

Sabarkanta and Banaskanta district is situated (23° 21’ N–23° 59’ N and 71° 20’–73° 

20’ E) in the Gujarat. The site includes a few tanks, reservoirs, and small dams. These 

are Temba talav, Jamwada dam, Soneth dam, Morwada village tank, Futa talav, 

Dhansura talav, Hathmati reservoir, Lodra dam, and Dhambolia talav. 

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid to dry with extreme temperatures; maximum temperatures 

go up to 44°C, the minimum temperature is 8.4°C or less. Weather is very hot and 

oppressive in the latter part of the summer season. Average annual rainfall is 670 mm. 

Macrophytes: Trees include teak, mango, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia arabica, Melia 

azadirachta, Salvadora persica, S.oleoides, Capparis aphyla, Zizypus spp. The 

surrounding areas are used for cultivating jowar, bajra, sesamum, maize, gram, cotton, 

mustard, wheat, etc. 

Birds: The following birds were recorded at the sites during January 1991: Little 

grebe (20), grey heron (1), black ibis (18), greylag goose (8), comb duck (4), Eurasian

wigeon (25), spotbill duck (6), northern pintail (345), common pochard (30), common 

coot (781), ruff (50), Indian river tern 3, black-winged stilt (38), black-tailed godwit 

(100), Indian pond heron (1), median egret (2), purple heron (1), Indian cotton teal 

(26), lesser whistling teal (200), and northern shoveller (30). 

Land tenure: Panchayat owned 

Land use: Surrounding land is used for agriculture. 

Disturbances and threats: Poaching of birds is reported. 

Socio-economic values: Water from the tanks is used for irrigating the surrounding 

agricultural fields and for domestic purposes. 

References: Asian waterfowl census (IWRB 1991); WWF India (1993). 

AJWA, VADHWANDA AND PAVAGADH LAKES 

Ajwa (22° 24’ N, 73° 24’ E), Vadhwana (22° 11’ N, 73° 29’ E) and Pavagadh (22° 

29’ N, 73° 22’ E) lakes are water storage reservoirs with some associated marshes, in 

the vicinity of Vadodara in mainland Gujarat. These three lakes are thought to be 

representative of the large number of small wetlands in eastern Gujarat and southern 

Rajasthan. Numerous ancient tanks and semi-natural lakes extend northwards in a 

broad band from the Narmada river (which enters the Gulf of Khambhat at 21° 40’ N) 

all the way into Rajasthan. In general, these lakes support more aquatic vegetation 

than lakes further west in Gujarat. The total area of the Ajwa lake is 300 ha, 

Vadhwana lake is 400 ha and Pavagadh lake is 100 ha. 

• 

AJWA RESERVOIR 


• 

VADHWANA RESERVOIR 



about 800 mm. The monsoon commences in June or July and ends in September. The 

winters are cool and dry, with minimum temperatures around 10°C; the pre-monsoon 

period in March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 45°C. 

Macrophytes: The lakes support a rich growth of aquatic vegetation. The dominant 

emergents include Ammania baccifera, A. multiflora, Bergia sp., Alternanthera 

sessilis, Cyperus sp., Scirpus sp., Polygonum plebeium, and Marsiliea aegyptiaca. 

Floating and submerged aquatic plants include species of Chara, Potamogeton, Najas, 

Vallisneria, Nymphaea, Limnanthemum, Lemna, Wolffia, and Hydrilla. 

Reptiles: Six marsh crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) were observed on an island in 

Ajwa Lake during this survey. 

Birds: Thought to be a critical wintering area for waterfowl, particularly ducks, 

Fulica atra, and some shorebirds. In the winter of 1974-75, following a rather poor

monsoon, Ajwa and Vadhwana were two of the richest wetlands for waterbirds in the 

whole of Gujarat. Over 27,500 waterfowl were recorded during a brief survey in 

February 1975, including: 



Anas acuta (3,050) Calidris minuta (200) 

Anas clypeata 

(2,300) 

Fulica atra (8,270) 

Anas crecca (2,300) Grus antigone (22) 

Anas penelope 

Limosa limosa 

(3,050) 

(2,850) 

Anas 

Nettapus 

poecilorhyncha 

coromandelianus 

(230) 

(340) 

Anas querquedula 

Philomachus pugnax 

(440) 

(1,600) 

Anas Strepera (300) Plegadis falcinellus 

(115) 


Tachybaptus ruficollis 

(40) 

Aythya farina 

(1,100) 

(450) 

Land use: The lakes are used by local people as a source of fodder and as a grazing 

area during the long, dry season. They supply water to the town of Vadodara, and for 

irrigation. 

Disturbances and threats: No recent information. Grazing pressure was reported to 

be very heavy at Ajwa and Vadhwana in February 1975. 

Socio-economic values: No information. 

Research and facilities: A waterfowl survey was carried out in 1975, but no recent 

information is available. 

Reference: Koning and Koning-Raat (1975); WWF India (1993). 

WETLANDS OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN SAURASHTRA 

Saurashtra, the larger of Gujarat’s two peninsulas, extends from the port of Dwarka 

(22° 15’ N, 68° 58’ E) 250 km eastwards to the Gulf of Khambhat. The peninsula is 

generally rather flat, relieved in some areas by low hills rising to a peak at 1117 m. 

Much of the region is very fertile, and agricultural fields dominate the landscape. The 

peninsula has a radial drainage pattern flowing out of the central highlands. All the 

significant wetlands are water-storage reservoirs created by damming small rivers and 

streams. Gopa Kumar and Nageswara Rao (1987) have listed 108 dams, 617 

Checkdams, and 694 percolation tanks in the districts of Rajkot (837 sites),

Bhavangar (403 sites), and Amreli (179 sites) alone. A further 96 checkdams and 30 

percolation tanks are currently under construction in these three districts. About 55 of 

the reservoirs exceed 100ha in area, and several exceed 1500 ha. Veri reservoir, with 

an area of approximately 2800 ha, is the largest. The most important reservoirs 

include Lalpari, Randhanda, Nyari, Aji, Veri, Sardhar, Eshwaria, and Alansagar in 

Rajkot district; Hargovind, Ramdhari, Valavad and Shankar Talao in Bhavangar 

district; and Hiran Lake and Madhuvanti Dam in Junagadh district . 

Although most of the reservoirs are shallow (less than 2-3 m), some have maximum 

depths exceeding 12-15 m water levels fluctuate widely and, as a result, the reservoirs 

generally lack abundant aquatic vegetation. Maximum water depths are achieved in 

late September after the monsoon which, in good years, commences in June or July 

and continues up to the beginning of October. As the water level falls, some of the 

reservoirs, particularly in the vicinity of Rajkot, become brackish. The great majority 

dry out completely in years of poor rainfall, and in the recent succession of drought 

years, many of the wetlands thoughout Saurashtra have been dry all year round. Hiran 

Lake, in the Gir National Park, and Madhuvanti Dam to the west have remained in 

good condition, as they benefit from the better vegetation in the Park and hence the 

greater number of perennial streams. 

Abiotic factors: Dry, tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall 

ranging from about 800 mm in the southeast to 500 mm, or less, in the northwest. The 

monsoon starts in June or July and ends in September, but the rainfall is erratic in 

occurrence, duration, and intensity. The winters are generally cool and dry, although 

sporadic rainfall may occur. Minimum temperatures do not normally fall below about 

5°C. The pre-monsoon period in March-June is very hot, with temperatures reaching 

45°C, and dust storms are frequent. 

Macrophytes: The absence of vegetation at most of the Saurashtra wetlands is a 

fairly recent phenomenon; in the past, a variety of sedges and grasses formed a broad 

margin around the lakes, and there were extensive reed-beds at some sites. Only small 

patches of this marsh vegetation now remain, for example, at Veri, where there are 

still significant reed-beds. Shankar Talao, well vegetated until 1965, is now barren. A 

number of the reservoirs have rocky or masonry margins with no emergent 

vegetation whatsoever and a few are situated in urban areas, with dwellings reaching 

down to the edge of the water. Most of the reservoirs are surrounded by agricultural 

land or barren flats. In the upland areas, there are remnants of the dry, tropical, thorn 

forest which once covered the peninsula; this is best exemplified by the forests of the 

Gir National Park. 

Birds: Collectively, the wetlands of Saurashtra constitute an extremely important 

breeding, staging, and wintering area for a very wide variety of waterfowl. Gopa 

Kumar (1985) lists 138 species of waterfowl and five species of kingfishers 

(Alcedinidae) for the region. Common and widespread residents include 


Amaurornis akool Glareola lactea 

Amaurornis 

phoenicurus 

Himantopus 

himantopus

Anas poecilorhyncha Ixobrychus sinensis 

Anastomus oscitans Mycteria 

leucocephala 

Ardea cinerea Phalacrocroax 

carbo 

Ardeola grayii P. niger 

Bubulcus ibis Platalea leucorodia 

Charadrius dubius Pseudibis papillosa 

Chlidonias hybridus Sterna albifrons 

Egretta alba S. aurantia 

E. garzetta Tachybaptus 

ruficollis 

Esacus recurvirostris Vanellus indicus 

Gelochelidon nilotica 

The region is a major wintering area for pelicans, flamingos, ducks, cranes, and 

shorebirds, some species occurring in huge numbers. Numerous Pelecanus 

onocrotalus have been reported at many wetlands, notably at Alansagar, and P. 

crispus occurs in small numbers at several sites. Both flamingos, Phoenicopterus 

ruber and Phoeniconaias minor, appear as non-breeding visitors, the former often in 

very large numbers, e.g. at Veri in 1983. Several species of ducks winter in large 

numbers throughout the region, Anas penelope, A. crecca, A. acuta, A. clypeata, and 

Aythya ferina being the commonest. Tadorna ferruginea is widely distributed in small 

numbers, but Anser indicus is only an occasional visitor. Many of the wetlands 

provide secure roosting sites for large concentrations of Grus grus; over 15,000 

individuals were observed in January-February 1983, mainly at Veri, Valavad, 

Ramdhari, and Hargovind. The region is also of major importance as a wintering area 

for the demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo). The wintering population in the early 

1980s was estimated at about 30,000 birds. Roosts with over 1000 birds were located 

at Shankar Talao, Alansagar, Randharda, Aji, Lalpari, and Nyari in January-February 

1983, and a pre-migratory gathering of 20,000 was observed at Lalpari in March 

1985. Grus antigone is rather scarce, although 22 were seen together in the Rajkot 

area in 1985. Many species of shorebirds occur on migration and in winter, the most 

abundant being Himantopus himantopus, Recurvirostra avosetta, Limosa limosa, 

Calidris minuta, and Philomachus pugnax. 

Even in the winter of 1986-87, a year of extreme drought, there were important 

concentrations of waterfowl in Saurashtra. Censuses at nine sites in January 1987 

recorded over 11,000 waterfowl of about 70 species, including: 



Pelecanus Crispus 

(4,820) 

(13) 

Ardea cinerea (80) Pelecanus 

onocrotalus (320) 

Ciconia episcopus (16) Philomachus pugnax 

(1,040) 

Ciconia nigra (8) Phoenicopterus 

ruber (200) 

Ephippiorhynchus 

Platalea leucorodia 

asiaticus (10) 

(140) 

Grus grus (900) Pseudibis papillosa 

(250) 

Limosa limosa (550) Rhynchops albicollis 

Mycteria leucocephala 

(35) 

(18) 

Sarkidiornis 

melanotos (40) 

Hiran Lake within Gir National Park supports the largest known population of the 

marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodylus palustris) at one site: an estimated 60 

individuals in 1978. The surrounding forests support the last wild population of the 

Asiatic lion (Pantheraleo persica): there were 205 in 1970. 

Land tenure: Most of the reservoirs are state-owned, and most of the surrounding 

areas are privately owned. 

Conservation measures taken: Shooting is prohibited at most of the wetlands. Hiran 

Lake is protected in the Gir National Park (35,948 ha), established in 1974. At some 

wetlands, particularly Hiran Lake, the population of Crocodylus palustris has been 

augmented by animals reared in captivity. A captive-rearing programme was initiated 

in 1975, and by January 1987,145 animals had been released in the National Park. 

Land use: The lakes provide fresh water for irrigation and domestic use. Some of the 

lakes are still a source of firewood and fodder, but in most cases these resources have 

been eliminated by over-exploitaion. In recent years, the exposed beds of some of the 

lakes have been cultivated on a semi-permanent basis (e.g. at Lalpari, Nyari, and 

Randharda). Surrounding areas concentrate on grazing and the cultivation of 

groundnuts, pulses, mustard, and other crops. 

Disturbances and threats: The major problems stem from the apparently increasing 

unreliability of rainfall in this sem-arid region. As the periods of drought intensify, so 

the pressures on the wetlands increase and the vegetation, particularly, suffers further 

degradation. Illegal hunting occurs at some lakes (e.g. Veri). The expansion of Rajkot 

may soon cause excessive pollution to those lakes nearest the city. 

Socio-economic values: Water supply and recreation. 

Research and facilities: Koning and Koning-Rahat (1975) conducted waterfowl 

censuses at 18 reservoirs around Rajkot, Jasdan, and Bhavangar in February 1975, 

and Gole (1984b) surveyed ten lakes in January and February 1983. Gopakumar 

(1985) studied the wetlands of Saurashtra and their birds for an M.Sc degree at the 

Department of Biosciences at Saurashtra University. His research, carried out between 

July 1983 and June 1984, included a study of avian population dynamics at three

epresentative reservoirs near Rajkot. Further waterfowl censuses were carried out at 

nine lakes in January 1987. 

Reference: Gopakumar (1985); Gopakumar and Nageswara Rao (1987); Joel (1986); 

Khacher et al. (1987); WWF India (1993). 

WETLANDS OF KUTCH PENINSULA 

Kutch Peninsula situated on 22° 45’–23° 45’N, 68° 40’–71° 00’ E in the north of the 

Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat. The Kutch Peninsula is a region of relatively high relief 

comprising sheets of lava intersected by trap dykes. Much of the low-lying country 

has saline soils. The region extends for about 230 km from east to west, and up to 70 

km from north to south. Natural lakes are very scarce in this semi-arid and rocky 

environment. As a consequence, numerous water storage reservoirs (tanks) have been 

constructed over the centuries to permit the cultivation of ground nuts, pulses, cereals 

and cotton. At least 60 of these reservoirs exceed 100 ha in area. Virtually all the 

water courses flowing out of the Chaduva Katrol Range (the central spine of the 

Kutch peninsula) are dammed at some point along their relatively short path to the 

Arabian Sea, Gulf of Kutch, or inland salt wastes of the Great and Little Ranns There 

are several small estuaries along the south and west coasts of Kutch and a few larger 

areas of saline and brackish marshes, particularly along the Wagardhrai Creek which 

connects the Gulf of Kutch with the Little Rann. Some of the best known wetlands are 

the Bhimasar and Sinai Lakes, Dewisar Tank, Rudarmata Dam and Ninghar Dam, 

Kukma Village Tank and Lair Dam, Don Dam Reservoir, Topansar Tank and 

Vijaysagar Dam. In periods of below average rainfall, most of the wetlands remain 

dry or virtually dry for the entire year. The monsoon has failed several times in the 

past decade and as a result, most of the tanks have held very little water in recent 

years. Many wetlands of Kutch Peninsula are mostly artificial, ranging in size from 5 

ha to c.1,000 ha, in a region of 1,500,000 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 

about 400 mm concentrated in July, August and September. 

Macrophytes: None of the Kutch wetlands manifests the rich profusion of aquatic 

and emergent plants so typical of the wetlands of lower Sind in Pakistan. Species of 

Typha, Juncus and Phragmites occur at some of the lakes, but are intensively grazed 

by domestic livestock and cut for fodder. Most of the peripheral vegetation, 

particularly tamarisk Tamarix dioica, has been cut for fuel. Many of the tanks are 

therefore decidedly bare of vegetation, compounding the appearance of aridity with 

the processes of desertification. The saline tracts and river beds support sparse 

woodland composed of Salvadora persica, S. oleoides, Tamarix spp. and Calotropis 

procera. The flora of surrounding areas is generally xerophytic. Thorn forest is 

presumed to be the climax vegetation but it is everywhere degraded into various 

stages of scrub. 

Land tenure: No information. 

Land use: The tanks were built to supply water for irrigation and domestic use. They 

have also been heavily exploited for firewood and fodder. As the tanks dry up, they 

are often brought into cultivation, and after a series of dry years, cultivation of the 

lake beds inevitably evolves into semi-permanent agricultural operations. Many of the 

tanks are centres of spiritual and physical recreation.

Conservation measures taken: Ninghar Dam (23° 08’ N, 69° 55’ E) was once 

maintained as a hunting preserve, and in the 1930s, was considered to be the best area 

for duck hunting in Kutch. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive exploitation of the aquatic and peripheral 

vegetation exacerbates the deterioration of the tanks induced by lack of water. Overgrazing 

and cutting of natural vegetation in the catchment area is accelerating the 

processes of desertification. 

Socio-economic values: The wetlands provide a source of firewood and fodder to the 

local inhabitants, but harvests have consistently exceeded sustainable levels, and as a 

result, yields have fallen. Many of the lakes are scenically attractive and are the sites 

of temples. 

Birds: In years of average or above average rainfall, the region is a very important 

wintering area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. Some of the larger 

lakes, e.g. Rudarmata Dam, are important for pelicans and cormorants. Anastomus 

oscitans, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Pseudibis 

papillosa occur at many of the tanks, and up to 150 Mycteria leucocephala have been 

reported at Vijaysagar. However, during a waterfowl survey of five tanks in January 

1987, following three consecutive years of drought, only small numbers of birds were 

recorded. These included: 20 Pelecanus onocrotalus; 75 Phalacrocorax carbo; 33 

Mycteria leucocephala; 24 Pseudibis papillosa; 36 Platalea leucorodia; 130 

Phoenicopterus ruber; 700 ducks of 12 species; 50 Grus grus; 150 Anthropoides 

virgo; 680 Fulica atra and 275 shorebirds of 16 species, and 150 gulls and terns of 

eight species. 

Research and facilities: Some mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out in 

February 1975 and in January 1987. 

Reference: Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Koning and Koning-Raat (1975); 

Luthin (1984); WWF India (1993) 

LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH 

Little Rann of Kutch (23° 10’–23° 45’ N, 70° 45’–71° 45’ E) southeast of the Great 

Rann of Kutch and 130 km west of Ahmadabad, Gujarat. The Little Rann is usually 

described as a flat saline waste or salt impregnated wilderness. It lies to the southeast 

of the Great Rann and along a line of marine recession between the Indus Delta and 

the Gulf of Khambhat. During the Southwest Monsoon (July to September), large 

areas are inundated by up to two metres of water, much of which is pushed up from 

the Gulf of Kutch by strong westerly winds. The salt flats dry out almost entirely 

during the prolonged dry season. Saline areas are relieved by areas of slightly higher 

ground with salt-free soil supporting a stunted, scrubby vegetation. There are about 30 

of these little hillocks, or “bets”, of varying sizes in the Little Rann. In years of ample 

rainfall, the flood water overflows into the Nalsarovar Depression to the southeast. 

Soil conditions are saline to hypersaline. The total area of the wetland is about 

495,300 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of less 

than 300 mm concentrated in July and August. The maximum temperature is about 

42°C, the minimum temperature about 12°C, and the average relative humidity 25%. 

Macrophytes: The vegetation consists of xerophytic shrubs and thorny scrubland 

between open saline flats devoid of vegetation. There are virtually no trees and most

of the vegetation is confined to the higher ground and transitional zones, these areas 

totaling some 33,000 ha. The bets support a slightly richer flora than elsewhere. Some 

of these formerly supported mature stands of Acacia nilotica, Prosopis spicigera, 

Salvadora persica and S. oleodes, but most of the large trees were felled and 

converted into charcoal in the 1950s and 1960s. Small shrubs of S.persica, Tamarix 

dioica ssp indica and the alien mesquite Prosopis juliflora are common in several 

areas, together with Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola barysoma and Haloxylon salicornicum. 

Gramineae and Cyperaceae are better adapted to the hydromorphic conditions and 

include Aleuropes lagoprides, Cenchrus setigems, C. ciliaris, Sporobolus marginatus, 

S. helveticus and Cyperus rotundus. 

Land tenure: The Little Rann is state owned; surrounding areas are partly state 

owned and partly private. 

Land use: Grazing by domestic livestock. Parts of the Sanctuary are leased out by the 

Government to salt manufacturers, and salt production now occurs all along the 

periphery of the Rann. There is also a little cultivation of millet in the less saline 

areas. 

Conservation measures taken: The entire area has been declared a Wildlife 

Sanctuary by the Government of Gujarat to protect the population of Wild Ass Equus 

hemionus khur. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to upgrade the sanctuary and 

to declare it a Biosphere Reserve. There is an urgent need to improve the level of 

wardening in the sanctuary, and to develop an integrated management plan for the 

entire area. Lavkumar Khacher has recommended the establishment of a composite 

sanctuary incorporating the Great and Little Ranns of Kutch, and the development of 

an imaginatively radial programme for their effective management. 

Disturbances and threats: There is almost no effective control in the Wild Ass 

Sanctuary, and no clear demarcation of the boundaries. As a result, the area has been 

open to a variety of abuses. Large herds of domestic cattle are driven into the Rann to 

graze on the bets, and most of the indigenous trees are now heavily browsed and 

topped. Local villagers enter the sanctuary to collect firewood and make charcoal, and 

some areas have been ploughed up for agriculture. Large areas of native vegetation 

have been replaced with plantations of the exotic mesquite Prosopis juliflora, and this 

has now invaded the bets. A considerable amount of disturbance is caused to wildlife 

by jeeps and motorcycles driving at will across the flats, and the Wild Asses in 

particular are deliberately chased by tourists. Illegal shooting and trapping are 

common in the sanctuary, and the populations of some of the larger mammals have 

been decimated. A rapid expansion in salt production, although not in itself harmful to 

wildlife, has led to a great increase in other forms of disturbance. 

Socio-economic values: The Little Rann of Kutch, if managed efficiently, could not 

only remain an important salt producing area, but could once again become a great 

wildlife sanctuary with tremendous potential for tourism. 

Birds: The region is still of considerable importance for a wide variety of waterfowl 

such as pelicans, herons, egrets, storks, spoonbills, ducks and shorebirds. Thousands 

of Common Cranes Grus grus winter in the area, and large numbers of flamingos 

(both Phoenicopterus ruber and Phoeniconaias minor) are present when water levels 

are suitable. A breeding colony of the Lesser Flamingo P. minor has recently been 

discovered in the Little Rann at Surajbari (Mundkur et al., in press). The mouth of the

Banas River is an important staging area for migratory shorebirds, and large 

concentrations of ducks, mainly Anas crecca, A. poecilorhyncha, A. acuta, A. 

querquedula and A. clypeata, have been observed during the migration periods. 

Mammals: The Little Rann supports a sizeable population of the Indian Wild Ass 

Equus hemionus khur. The population has gradually increased under protection from 

about 800 animals in the late 1960s to 1,989 in 1983, but the asses are subjected to a 

considerable amount of disturbance and remain very wary. The Rann formerly 

supported large populations of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, Chinkara Gazella 

gazella and Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra, but these have been decimated in recent 

decades by illegal hunting. 

Research and facilities: Some ornithological research was carried out in the area by 

the late Dharmakumarsinhji. Biologists from Saurashtra University are currently 

studying the recently discovered breeding colony of Phoeniconaias minor, and 

carrying out research on the ecology of Gazella gazella and Boselaphus 

tragocamelus. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Ali (1945); Blasco (1977); Fernandes 

(1987); Gole (l984b); Karpowicz (1985); WWF India (1993). 

SOUTHERN GULF OF KUTCH 

Southern Gulf of Kutch situated on 22° l5’–23° l5’ N, 69° 00’–70° 40’ E in the 

southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch in Saurashtra, Gujarat. The Gulf of Kutch is a 

large inlet of the Arabian Sea about 60 km wide at its widest and tapering 

northeastwards for 170 km. The Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary are 

situated along the southern shore of the Gulf from Okha (22° 30’ N, 69° 00’ E) 

eastwards to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30’ N, 70° 05’ E). A vast area of intertidal 

mudflats, salt marshes and seasonally inundated coastal flats extends northeastwards 

along Wagardhrai Creek to about 23° 15’ N, 70° 40’ E. Information from this area, a 

transitional zone between the Gulf and the Little Rann of Kutch, is lacking. The 

National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a complex of fringing 

reefs backed by mud and sand flats, coastal salt marsh and mangrove forest at various 

stages of exploitation. The coral formations are now the only living reefs between the 

Arabian Gulf and the Laccadives. The towns of Okha, Salaya, Vadinar, Sikka and 

Jamnagar have developed along the southern edge of the Gulf and exert considerable 

influence over it. The major islands (from west to east) are Beyt, Chusnas, Bhaidar, 

Nora, Ajad, Chauk, Dhanibet, Karumbhar, Goos Reef, Moouada, Pirotan, Jindra and 

Chhad. The Gulf is rightly famous for its coral formations but their extent and variety 

have been declining over the recent geological past as tectonic uplift has diverted the 

flow of the Indus away from the Gulf of Kutch and thereby substantially reduced 

freshwater input. This deterioration of the reefs has accelerated noticeably in 

historical times. The corals are most extensive in the western part of the Gulf, 

particularly near Poshitra Point and on Boria Reef. The total area of Gulf of Kutch is 

735,000 ha, Marine National Park is about 16,289 ha and Marine Sanctuary is 45,592 

ha. 

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 

about 300mm concentrated in July and August. The mean maximum temperature is 

40°C, and the minimum 7°C. 

Macrophytes: Over 100 species of algae have been recorded in the Gulf of Kutch in 

the past, but in recent years only 74 species have been found.

Mangroves: The Gulf contains some of the best mangrove forests on the west coast 

of India, but large areas have been totally cleared or at least seriously degraded by 

exploitation for domestic and commercial use. In the last twenty years alone, 95% of 

mature trees have been cut down. Only four islands, Ajad, Bhaidar, Pirotan and 

Kharachusa, and a small area on the mainland near Okha still support true mangrove 

forest. These areas have been protected by sacred traditions or the good will of local 

people. Elsewhere in the Gulf, the mangroves have been reduced to low bushes with a 

maximum height of two metres. The principal species are Avicennia alba, Rhizophora 

mucronata and Ceriops tagal. 

Invertebrates and fishes: The coral reefs, mudflats and mangrove swamps support a 

great variety of invertebrates, fishes and birds. A total of 32 hard (Scleractinavian) 

and 12 soft (Alcyonarian) corals have been recorded, along with over 150 species of 

fishes. Species diversity is probably highest amongst the sponges and worms, but only 

preliminary investigations on most phyla have been carried out so far. Rarities include 

an unusual Echiurid. Great range extensions have recently been discovered amongst 

brittlestars and sponges, revealing an overlap between the marine faunas of the 

Arabian Gulf and South India. 

Reptiles: The marine turtles Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea breed on 

islands in the Gulf, but both are threatened by the fishermen of the Wagher 

community. Several species of snakes occur, particularly in the mangrove scrub, and 

one species of banded sea snake has been recorded. 

Birds: An Oxford University Expedition to the Gulf in 1984 focused attention on the 

avifauna, and discovered large concentrations of many species, particularly migratory 

shorebirds. No overall census was possible, but a high-tide roost of 10,000 shorebirds 

was located on Pirotan Island, and similar numbers were found on all the other islands 

that were visited during the survey. The most numerous species were Charadrius 

mongolus (over 3,000 at Pirotan and 6,000–9,000 on Bhaidar), Arenaria interpres 

(1,500 at Pirotan and many more on Bhaidar), and Calidris ferruginea (3,000–4,000 

on most of the islands). Other common shorebirds included 


Calidris alba (200 at 

Numenius arquata 

Pirotan) 

(flocks of up to 50) 

C. minuta N. phaeopus (120 at 

Pirotan) 

Charadrius 

Philomachus pugnax 

leschenaultii 

(2,000 at Pirotan) 

Haematopus ostralegus 

(roosts of 50 at Goos 

Reef and 25 at Pirotan) 

Pluvialis squatarola 

Limicola falcinellus Tringa totanus (200- 

300 on Bhaidar and 

150 at Pirotan) 

Limosa lapponica Xenus cinereus (300 

at Pirotan and larger

L. limosa 

numbers on Bhaidar) 

A particularly significant population of the Crab Plover Dromas ardeola occurs in the 

Gulf of Kutch (over 5,000 individuals in February/March 1984) and the species may 

well breed here. The Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris and Indian Skimmer Rynchops 

albicollis have been recorded in winter. Other waterfowl observed in February/March 

1984 included: 500 Pelecanus onocrotalus; 50 P. crispus; 3 P. philippensis; up to 20 

Egretta gularis; 40 Sarkidiornis melanotos; and over 2,200 other ducks mainly Anas 

clypeata, hundreds of gulls, mainly Larus ichthyaetus, L.brunnicephalus and L. 

argentatus, and smaller numbers of the terns Gelochelidon nilotica, Hydroprogne 

caspia and Sterna albifrons. 

Many of the islands in the southern part of the Gulf support sizeable breeding colonies 

of Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola 

grayii, Butorides striatus, Egretta gularis, E. alba, Ardea cinerea, Mycteria 

leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Platalea leucorodia. The coastal salt 

marshes and salt evaporation ponds are used by many of these birds, along with 

hundreds of Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Himantopus himantopus 

and Recurvirostra avosetta. 

Mammals: The Dugong Dugong dugon is present in small numbers, this being the 

only population on the west coast of India. The cetaceans Sousa plumbea and 

Neophocaena phocaenoides occur in the Gulf, but no data are available on their 

status. 

Land tenure: Largely state owned; there are some private holdings and Beyt and 

Ajad Islands. 

Land use: Until the early 20th century, Jamnagar was the centre of one of the biggest 

pearl fisheries in the world, exploiting the eastern Gulf islands. A window-pane oyster 

fishery developed at Okha in 1910, but uncontrolled exploitation has led to a 

temporary ban on the collection of all oysters in the Gulf. Fishing remains an 

important source of income and employment, although catches have declined 

markedly in recent years. For many years, the Digvijay Cement Corporation dredged 

sea sand from an area of 1,600 acres (648 ha) in the Gulf, but this has now ceased. 

There are several salt works along the southern shore; the largest, at Okha, has over 

20,000 ha of saltpans. The Gulf of Kutch is one of the best natural harbours in India; 

an oil terminal has been built at Vadinar Island to accommodate very large oil tankers 

(300,000-400,000 tons). There is an offshore single-buoy mooring system from which 

the oil is pumped ashore. Several new industries have been established in the area in 

recent years. Beyt and Ajad islands are permanently inhabited, and there is a 

lighthouse on Pirotan with permanent staff. 

Conservation measures taken: Some 45,792 ha of the Gulf of Kutch were declared a 

Marine Sanctuary in 1980, and a further 16,289 ha were declared a Marine National 

Park in 1982. A survey of the extent of the coral formations formed the basis for the 

delineation of the Park boundaries. The protected areas were established in response 

to the serious pollution and degradation of the mangrove/coral reef ecosystem that 

now threatens the future of the Gulf. The cutting of mangroves has been prohibited, 

and the collection of pearl and window-pane oysters temporarily banned. Since the 

establishment of the National Park, the cement industry has been fined for dredging

outside its legal boundaries. Some 60 ha of Pirotan Island have been replanted with 

mangroves by visiting school parties. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been widely proposed that the salt 

extraction companies should be obliged to restore mangrove forests wherever 

possible, and should be held responsible for the well-being of the forests surrounding 

their operations. A plan to restock mangrove forests with seedlings has failed to gain 

financial or political support, yet with proper legislation and cooperation, a 

sustainable yield of mangrove products and a secure coastal fishery could be 

achieved. A distinguished local Islamic leader is persuading visitors to plant 

mangrove seedlings as part of their pilgrimage to Pirotan. The Gulf of Kutch has been 

recommended on several occasions for designation as a Wetland of International 

Importance under the Ramsar Convention. 

Possible changes in land use: Depending upon administrative decisions and 

Government resolve, the Gulf of Kutch could become an important centre for 

environmentally sensitive development. However, it would seem likely that more, 

rather than fewer, ontentioul illuel will arise as more pressure is exerted on the area by 

industrial enterprises and an increasing human population in the hinterland. 

Disturbances and threats: The many disturbances and threats to the Gulf of Kutch 

are summarized by Palmes and Briggs (in press). Uncontrolled exploitation has 

severely depleted the stocks of oysters. The dredging of sea sand to supply the cement 

industry had a serious deleterious effect on the coral reefs. Unsubstantiated reports 

suggested that there was some direct dredging of coral reefs, while considerable 

damage was caused to the reefs both directly and indirectly through increased 

sediment load. Fish catches in the Gulf are declining because of damage to the reefs 

and uncontrolled exploitation of the mangrove forests. Large areas of mangrove forest 

have been cleared to make room for new saltpans, and the remaining mangroves have 

been damaged by local people gathering firewood and fodder for their livestock. 

Renewed growth of the mangroves near the salt plans is severely constrained by the 

needs of the largely itinerant salt workers for firewood. During the drought years of 

1985-87, pressures increased on the mangrove areas. In late 1987, the Government 

gave local people permission to collect mangrove foliage for fodder. This precipitated 

a massive increase in the cutting of mangroves, and it is anticipated that by the end of 

1988 not a single tree will have escaped unscathed. In some areas, the residues from 

the salt evaporation process are having a damaging effect on the coastal fauna and 

flora. There are no facilities to cope with oil spillage at Vadinar Island; minor spills 

have already been reported, and the danger of a major spillage cannot be ignored. 

There are various sources of pollution along the coast, chiefly from light industries in 

the various towns, and a new fertilizer factory has been established at Sikka. 

Additionally, a considerable amount of municipal waste is dumped in the Gulf from 

barges. A proposal has recently been made to build tidal barrage across the mouth of 

the Gulf to produce power for the region. If this plan is carried out, the changes in 

tidal regime would almost certainly spell disaster for the coral reefs and mangrove/ 

mudflat ecosystem, and have a serious adverse effect on the fishing industry and 

indigenous wildlife populations. 

Socio-economic values: The Gulf supports a major fishery which is dependent to a 

very large extent on the mangrove/mudflat ecosystem and coral reefs. The great 

variety of fishes available in local markets indicates the wealth of these waters. The 

value of the mangrove swamps as breeding and nursery grounds for commercially

valuable fishes, molluscs and crustaceans, far outweighs their value as firewood and 

fodder. Similarly, the long-term values of the living coral formations far outweigh 

their short-term value as a source of cheap limestone for the cement industry. 

Developments in education, conservation and tourism will undoubtedly help the 

socio-economic expansion of the region if managed in an appropriate manner. 

Wildlife tours to the Gulf began in 1985 and have helped to publicize the importance 

of the Gulf outside India. 

Research and facilities: The Maharajah of Baroda recruited James Hornell to 

undertake the first comprehensive study of the Gulf in 1908-1909. Several general 

surveys have been carried out in recent years, and an Oxford University Expedition 

made a detailed study of the Gulf in February and March 1984. Biologists from 

Saurashtra University are currently conducting research into the natural resources of 

the Gulf and their levels of exploitation. A field study centre and nature interpretation 

cum tourist headquarters are now being developed on Pirotan Island. 

Reference: De Block (1981); Fernandes (1987); Frazier and Mundkur (in prep); 

Hussain (1987a); Karpowicz (1985); Naik et al. (1985); Silas et al. (1985); Yadava 

(1985); WWF India (1993).

LAY KUSH TIRATH 

Lay Kush Tirath situated on 29° 55’ N, 76° 00’ E in 95 km WNW of Karnal, 

Haryana. It is a small freshwater lake and associated marshes on the rolling plains of 

northwestern Haryana. The total area of the wetland is 8 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges Plain. 

Flora: No information. 

Birds: An important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, notably 

Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, Anatidae and Gruidae. 



Conservation measures taken: A reserve was established in May 1974, but the 

status of protection is unknown. 


Socio-economic values: The area is a site of religious significance. 


SULTANPUR JHEELS 

A group of shallow freshwater lakes and associated marshes on rolling cultivated 

plains southwest of Delhi, Haryana. The lakes and marshes flood during the monsoon 

and, in years of adequate rainfall, retain water until at least March or April. Some of 

the Jheels, including the main lake in the Bird Sanctuary, have been increased in size 

by the construction of embankments (bunds). A large area of seasonally flooded sedge 

marsh extends north from the main lake. In recent years of low rainfall, only a few 

small pools have remained by mid-winter, some 30 cm in depth. The total area of the 

Jheels is 13,727 ha including a core are of 144 ha containing the main lake (346 ha). 

Consequently, pumping of groundwater is undertaken each year to maintain some 

waterfowl habitat. Surrounding areas are cultivated, heavily grazed, and for the most 

part rather degraded. The land slopes gently northwards through a region of 

innumerable stabilised sand dunes; the climate and soils are not conducive to the 

existence of permanent water bodies, and thus saline flashes predominate by late 

winter even in years of normal monsoon rainfall. 

Abiotic factors: Ganges Monsoon climate with scanty rainfall, very similar to that of 

Delhi. The monsoon rains have been well below average in several recent years. 

Macrophytes: There are small areas of Typha sp., and Phragmites sp., around 

several of the Jheels, and some emergent vegetation within the lakes, particularly in 

the core area. Extensive sedge marshes, particularly to the north of the main lake, 

form a loose mosaic with areas of dry grassland. The natural vegetation of the region 

is semi-arid scrub, but 78% of the buffer zone is under cultivation. 

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, a very important wintering area for a wide 

variety of waterfowl, notably pelicans, ducks, geese, and cranes. Waterfowl observed 

during a brief survey in January 1986 included: 450 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 15 

P.crispus, 150 Phalacrocorax carbo, 70 herons and egrets of seven species, 35 

Mycteria leucocephala, 200 Platalea leucorodia, 150 Phoenicopterus ruber, 100 

Anser anser, 350 A. indicus, 120 Grus grus, 500 Fulica atra, 50 Chlidonias hybridus,

and over 12,000 ducks of 12 species (mainly wigeon, gadwall, common teal, shoveler, 

pochard) and small numbers of shorebirds of 20 species. Noteworthy species recorded 

in small numbers included white necked stork, white ibis, black ibis, spoonbill, comb 

duck, sarus crane, purple moorhen, painted snipe. As many as 250 Pelecanus crispus, 

300 Platalea leucorodia, 200 Phoenicopterus ruber and 800 Grus grus have been 

reported in other winters, and Anthropoides virgo has been recorded on migration. 

Following the failure of the monsoon in 1986, the wetland was much reduced in size, 

and less than a thousand waterfowl were present in January 1987. No information is 

available on the breeding birds. The trees planted on islands in the main lake are still 

too small to support sizeable numbers of breeding herons and storks, but the situation 

will doubtless improve as the trees mature. Many species of raptors occur in the area, 

including the Imperial eagle, greater spotted eagle, and tawny eagle and marsh harrier 

(Circus aeruginosus). 

Land tenure: The core area (144 ha) is state-owned (State Wildlife Department); 

surrounding areas are under private or village panchayat control. 

Land use: The core area is managed primarily as a waterfowl reserve and tourist 

attraction. The buffer zone encompasses 17 revenue villages. Local villagers graze 

their livestock within the Sanctuary, and gather aquatic vegetation for thatch and 

fodder, although this has become illegal since the area was declared a National Park. 

Conservation measures taken: A core area of 144 ha, including the main lake, was 

declared a Bird Sanctuary by the Haryana State Government in April 1971. In 1991, 

Sultanpur was upgraded to National Park status. The Park is administered by the 

Wildlife Department and adjoining tourist complex by the Haryana Tourism 

Development Corporation. The Park is under the control of the Divisional Forest 

Officer, Gurgaon, assisted by a Range Officer, an Inspector of Wildlife, and their 

staff. All hunting has been prohibited within a radius of 10 km of the core area. 

Acacias have been planted on islands in the main lake to attract breeding birds. 

Conservation measures proposed: A study by the Environmental Services Group of 

WWF India (Fernandes 1987) has suggested several possible management approaches 

which take into account the prevailing land-use practices and the local resource needs 

of the area. These include: (a) better demarcation of the buffer zone, which should 

include the catchment area of the wetlands; (b) the planting of salt tolerant species 

such as Tamarix sp. and Sesbania bispinosa at the wetlands; (c) reafforestation in 

surrounding areas with ground cover and deep rooted trees to stabilize the soil. This 

vegetation would reduce surface run-off velocity, thereby reducing siltation, and 

would serve as wind breaks reducing the amount of wind blown sand and silt. The 

vegetation would help to reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration, thereby maintaining 

the water in the wetlands for a longer period, and would also provide shelter and 

nesting habitat for water birds. The Environmental Services Group also recommended 

that land-use patterns in surrounding areas be modified; there should be a change in 

cropping patterns to rotational and mixed cropping, and in areas where dry farming 

takes place, permanent cropping should be promoted, e.g. Zizyphus spp., Vigra spp., 

Cajanus cajan, Psidium guava and Morus alba. Livestock grazing should be 

prohibited near the wetlands, and social forestry should be encouraged in order to 

prevent the unscrupulous cutting of trees for fodder and fuel. All industrial activities 

should be banned and steps taken immediately to reclaim the quarried areas for social 

forestry and agriculture. Pisciculture might be encouraged at some of the wetlands,

and additional grazing land should be provided through planting to reduce overall 

grazing pressure. 

Disturbances and threats: Small numbers of cattle and water buffalo are grazed 

within the Sanctuary, but there is no fishing or human activity on the lake itself. There 

is a high level of disturbance from tourist activity, particularly when water levels are 

low and the birds are concentrated in a small area. Siltation caused by soil erosion in 

the catchment area is increasing. The excavation of sand for nearby lime and brick 

industries also poses a serious threat to the Sanctuary. Land-use practices in the 

catchment - expanding settlements, and construction of farmhouses and other 

buildings have impeded the natural flow of water into the lake, with the result that the 

wetland is drying up. Monsoon failure and siltation on account of windblown dust 

settling in the lake have accentuated the problem. Except for a brief spell after the 

rains, pools of water have to be artificially maintained by pumping up groundwater. 

Many of the surrounding waterbodies have been reclaimed for cultivation. 

Socio-economic values: Situated only 45 km from centre for outdoor recreation, 

notably bird-watching, and provides excellent opportunities for scientific research and 

conservation education. 

Reference: WWFINDIA (1987, 1992, 1993); Wetlands of India – A Directory, 

1990.

BHATEGAON DAM 

Bhategaon dam is situated (19° 25’ N, 77° 25’ E) in the Parbhani district, 

Maharashtra. Bhategaon pond is perennial natural water body used for culture of 

Indian major carps, which received rainwater from surrounding hills. The catchment 

area of pond is 15.54 sq.km, annual utilization 2.07 sq.km and total water spread 

area is about 46.94 ha. The length of the earthen dam is 452 m and maximum flood 

lift 1.50 m, while top width of wall is 360 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature varies from 18 to 

29°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1 to 8.8. 

Phytoplankton: Oscillatoria, Microcystis, Diatoma sp., Synedra, Euglena sp., 

Hydra, Cattalis, Typha, Potamogeton. 

Zooplankton: Amoeba cyst, Paramoecium, Rotifera sp., Daphnia pulex, D. vosea, 

Diaphanosoma, Cyclops scutifer, Diaptomus sp., Mesocyclops sp. 

Mollusca: Lemadian corrionus, Indonia caerules, Thaira tuberculata, Limpet 

ferrica. 

Crustaceans: Barytelphusa cunicularies and Insect larvae (Chironomus- 

Chironomidae; Dobensofly – Margarati) 


Land use: The dam is used for fishing and domestic purpose. 


Conservation measures proposed: No information 


Socio-economic values: The lake supports an important fishing industry and 

domestic use. 

Reference: Kadam et al ., (2005); Ugale and Hiware, (2005). 

JAGATUNGA SAMUDRA RESERVOIR 

Jagatunga Samudra reservoir is one of the ancient, perennial water bodies, situated 

near (18° 15’–19° 55’ N, 77° 40’–70° 15’ E) Kandhar town, Nanded district, 

Maharashtra. 


33°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1 to 10.18 

Fauna: No information 


Land use: Domestic purpose and irrigation 




Socio-economic values: The reservoir water is fir for irrigation, fish culture, cloth 

washing unfit for drinking.

Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002). 

JAYAKWADI RESERVOIR 

Jayakawadi reservoir is situated in (19° 30’ N, 75° 20’ E) Aurangabad district, 180 

km northeast of Pune, Maharashtra. A large water-storage reservoir, some 56 km long 

and up to 27 km wide, formed behind the Jayakwadi Dam on the uppermost reaches 

of the Godavari river. The shoreline supports little emergent vegetation. Seven 

seasonal streams and two perennial or near-perennial streams feed the lake. In years 

of normal monsoon rains, the reservoir fills up in September and October to a 

maximum depth of 32 m. The water spread area is about 40,000 ha at maximum 

extent. The surroundings are generally rather arid, with irrigated areas of cotton, 

pulses, and other crops. The reservoir was declared a bird sanctuary in 1986; however, 

the boundary of the sanctuary has not yet been demarcated and neither has any staff 

been recruited. 

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall 

of 359 mm, a maximum temperature of 44°C, and a minimum temperature of 10°C. 

pH value of 8.0 has been recorded. 

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation includes species of Chara, Spirogyra, 

Hydrilla, Potamogeton, and Vallisneria. Argemone mexicana occurs in surrounding 

areas. 

Fishes: The lake is reported to be rich in fishes, freshwater molluscs and crustaceans. 

Birds: In years of adequate rainfall, the reservoir is an important wintering area for 

migratory waterfowl. In January 1987, following several years of low rainfall, 

relatively few birds were observed; these included: 

• 

JAYAKAWADI RESERVOIR 



Anas Penelope (810) Gelochelidon 

nilotica (90) 

Anastomus oscitans (17) Glareola lacteal 

(385)

Aythya ferina (200) Nettapus 


(80) 

A. fuligula (1650) Phalacrocorax niger 

(220) 

A. nyroca (50) Tachybaptus 

ruficollis (106) 

Ciconia episcopus (11) Threskiornis 

melanocephalus (38) 

FuIica atra (3750) 

The reservoir is a very important roosting site for demoiselle cranes (Anthropoides 

virgo); some 3085 were recorded in January 1987. 

Land tenure: The reservoir is state-owned; surrounding areas are privately owned. 

Land use: Fishing and water supply for irrigation and domestic use; agriculture and 

plantation forestry in surrounding areas. 

Conservation measures taken: The reservoir was gazetted as a Bird Sanctuary in 

November 1986. Hunting, including both trapping and shooting, is prohibited. 

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to plant trees around the edge of 

the lake. 

Disturbances and threats: Trapping and shooting of birds continue to a limited 

extent, despite the ban on hunting. 

Socio-economic values: The waters of the lake supply neighbouring agricultural land 

and urban area. 

Research and facilities: Some waterfowl censuses have been carried out. 


PANZARA DAM 

Panzara dam located (20° 55’ 1” N, 74° 5’ 30”E) near Pimpalner town of Tal-Sakri, 

Dhule district, Maharashtra. The dam was constructed in the year 1966. The reservoir 

has water spread area about 6478 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The mean water temperature is 26.27°C. 

The mean pH value is 7.86. 

Algae: A total of 23 genera were recorded. These are follows; 


Anabaena Oocystis 

Chlamydomonas Oscilatoria 

Cocconies Pandorina 

Coelastum Pediastrum

Cosmarium Phormidium 

Cymbella Pinnularia 

Euglena Scenedesmus 

Fragillaria Spirogyra 

Lyngbya Spirulina 

Microcystis Surirella 

Navicula Synedra 

Nitzschia 









Reference: More and Nandan, (2003); More and Nandan, (2001) 

SIDDHEWADI RESERVOIR 

Siddhewadi reservoir is situated (16° 46’–17° 1’ N, 73° 42’–72° 4’ E) near Ped 

village, about 30 km from Tasgaon, sangli district, Maharashtra. This is an medium 

irrigation reservoir. It is constructed during the year 1972–1977 having height of 421 

meters. The water spread area of the reservoir is about 200.48. The reservoirs store 

rain water received from adjoining catchments area through smaller channels. The 

substratum is almost hard with rocky nature. 


in atmosphere and 20 to 32°C in water. 

Phytoplankton: A total of 27 species were recorded. These are follows; 


Anabaena spp. Nitzchia spp. 

Anguillula spp. Nostoc spp. 

Apanotheca stagnina Oscillatoria chlorine

Arthrospira spp. Pharaddium spp. 

Beggiatoa spp. Pinnularia spp. 

Cladophora spp. Rhizochloris 

mirabilis 

Closterium spp. Scenedesmus 

acuminatus 

Entrophysalis granulose Spirochaetes spp. 

Gleothece confluence Spirogyra spp. 

Lygnbya majuscule Stauronesis spp. 

Merismopedia 

tenuissima 

Strastrum spp. 

Microcystis aeruginosa Tabellaria spp. 

Microspore spp. Tribonema spp. 

Navicula mutica 


Land use: The reservoir is used for fishing and irrigation 





small fishery supplying local markets. 

Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002) 

PED RESERVOIR 

Ped reservoir is situated (16° 46’–17° 1’ N, 73° 42’–72° 4’ E) near Ped village, about 

30 km from Tasgaon, sangli district, Maharashtra. This is medium irrigation reservoir. 

It is constructed during the year 1970–1974 having height of 747.45 meters. The 

water spread area is about 33.20 ha. The reservoirs store rain water received from 

adjoining catchment area through smaller channels. The substratum is almost hard 

with rocky nature. 


in atmosphere and 24 to 31°C in water. 



Anabaena spp. Nitzchia spp. 

Apanotheca stagnina Oscillatoria chlorine 

Chlorella spp. Pharaddium spp. 

Clathrocystis spp. Pherimidium spp. 

Closterium spp. Pinnularia spp. 

Coelosphalerium spp. Scenedesmus 

acuminatus 

Gleocapsa spp. Spaeracystis spp. 

Hydrodicyton spp. Spirogyra spp. 

Hyella caespitosa Tetraspora spp. 

Lygnbya majuscule Tribonema spp. 

Navicula mutica 


Land use: The reserved is used for fishing and irrigation 






Reference: Hiware and Ugale, (2002) 

DHOM RESERVOIR 

Dhom reservoir is situated (17° 5’–18° 11’ N, 73° 33’ E) in the Dhom village, Satara 

district, Maharashtra. The Dhom dam is constructed on the river Krishna primarily for 

the irrigation purpose. It is irregular in shape and has a masonry work 241 m at the 

dam site and is constructed 10 km downstream of the origin of the river and is 

surrounded by hills. The stored water is mainly used for irrigation. It has a catchment 

area of 217.55 km 2 . Total submerged area is 2021 ha. stored water is primarily used 

for irrigation. The length of the reservoir is 2237 m in earthen and 241 m in masonry. 

The storage of clam is 382.32 mm 3 in Gross, 335.10 mm 3 in live and 47.22 mm 3 

in dead. 


29.5°C. The pH values ranged from 6.5 to 8.17. 



Amphora Monoraphidium 

Ankistrodesmus Navicula 

Anomoeoneis Nitzchia 

Chlorella Pandorina 

Closterium Peridinium 

Cocconeis Phacus 

Cyclotella Phormidium 

Cymbella Pinnularia 

Diatoma Raphidiopsis 

Elakatothrix Scenedesmus 

Eudorina Spirogyra 

Fragilaria Staurastrum 

Mastogloia Surirella 

Melosira Synedra 

Meridion Tetraedron 

Merismopedia Ulothrix 

Microcystis 

Zooplankton: Keratella sp., K. serrulata, Notholca sp., Nauplius (copepodes), 

Brachionus calcyflorus, Monostyla sp. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation purpose. 





valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use.

Reference: Khatavkar and Trivedy (1993); Trivedi (1993) 

AMBEDKAR TANK 

Ambedkar tank is situated on Lat. 16° 42’ N and Long. 74° 14’ E in the north-eastern 

out skirts of Kolhapur city, very near to the bank of Panchaganga river and Kolhapur 

sugar mill, Maharashtra. The age of this ware body is considered to be about 100 

years. It was initially a stone querry which was later given rectangular shape after 

constructing walls around, and a garden all along one side of the water body. The total 

water spread area is about 12,000 m 2 . Major source of water to this water body is rain, 

domestic sewage from the surrounding human settlements and the cloth washing 

wastewater. 


Macrophytes: Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes 

Fishes: Tilapia mosambica 


Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation 






Pollution status: The water body is highly polluted with organic matter as is 

apparent from the foul smell and colour of the water. The major sources of pollution 

is the entry of sewage and cloth washing waster from the surrounding areas. A heavy 

silting has been reported from the water body, and for this reason, the sediments were 

removed thrice in 1962, 1972 and 1986 by municipal authorities. Morphologically the 

water body is rectangular with a maximum length of 150 m and a maximum breadth 

of 80 m. The area of this water body at the full capacity is 12,000 m 2 . The maximum 

depth of this water body has been reported to be about 20 feet. An outline map 

showing the contours, sampling site and surrounding areas. 

Reference: Khatavkar and Trivedy (1993). 

EKRUK RESERVOIR 

The Ekruk is a oldest reservoir, situated in the Solapur district, Maharashtra. It was 

constructed in 1871. The total area is about 1842 ha. The length of the reservoir is 

2134 m and depth is 21.45 m. 


Fishes: Fishes are regularly stocked and harvested by owners. 

Land tenure: State-owned (During the past few years the reservoir given on lease to 

private parties for fishing). 

Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation and fishing 

Conservation measures taken: No information





Reference: Sakhare (2001); Khatavkar et al. (2004). 

RANKALA LAKE 

Rankala lake is situated (16° 42’ N, 74° 14’ E) in the western part of the city on 

Kolhapar-Goa road, Maharashtra. The lake is flanked by hills and agriculture on 

western and southern sides. East and North sides were compounded by stony walls. A 

beautiful picnic resort has been developed around the lake with recreational boating. 

The place is commonly known as “Rankala-Chaupati”. The length of the dam is 3.6 

km. The water from the Rankala irrigate 283 ha of the land. The lake with an area of 

1.05 m 2 , 4.06 m 2 , mean depth 4.26x10 6 m 3 capacity and about 4450 m shore is about 

110 years old. There seems to be no big industry in the catchment area. The lake is 

fed only from the run-off in the catchment area. Large amount of organic matter is 

brought through the run-off and lake itself is subjected to tremendous human activity. 


Macrophytes: Hydrilla veticillata, Chara sp., Nymphaea stellata and Eichhornia 

crassipes. 


Land use: The lake is used for irrigation purpose. 





valuable source of water for irrigation. 

Pollution Status: The most important being recreation, large scale clothe washing, 

human bathing, cattle wading and also the disposal of offerings on the religious 

occasions. Another important source of pollution is the disposal of raw sewage 

through some small drains, through it seems to be very minor and irregular. 


HINGNI RESERVOIR 

Hingni reservoir is situated in the Solapur district, Maharashtra. Hingni (Pangaon) the 

second important reservoir in the district and was constructed in 1976 near village 

Pangaon and Hingni. The depth of the reservoir is 21.87 m and length is 2134 m. The 

total area is about 1006 ha. 


Fishes: The major fishery of the reservoir is supported by Channa marulins, 

Mastacembelus armatus, Ambassis spp., Mystus spp., etc. 

Land tenure: State-owned

Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation and fishing 






Reference: Sakhate (2001). 

HADI MANGROVE WETLAND 

It is situated (16° 08’ 38” N, 73° 28’ 36” E) on the upland area (10-40 m) between the 

creek and the creek arm, which is extended southwards to Kandalgaon, Maharashtra. 

The tidal amplitude in this region is around 2 m. 

Abiotic factors: The temperature range between 18°C to 35°C and relative humidity 

ranges from 50 to 90%. The average rainfall is 2000–3000 mm during the months of 

June to September and the mean salinity ranges from 5–3%. 

Mangroves: The fringing areas are dominated by Rhizophora mucronata and 

Avicennia officinalis. In addition, mangroves like Rhizopora apiculata, Avicennia 

marina, Sonneratia alba and Excoecaria agallocha occur frequently. A rare 

population of Kandelia candel has also been encountered from this region. In the 

oligohaline zone (salinity less than 5%) Aegiceras corniculatum grows in abundance. 


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. 






coastal erosion. 

Reference: Kumaran et al. (2004) 

JAWALGAON RESERVOIR 

Jawalgaon reservoir is situated on Solapur district, Tuljapur-Vairag road about 27 km 

from Tuljapur, Maharashtra. The reservoir was constructed in the year 1977 at village 

Jawalgaon. The length of the reservoir is 1230 m and depth is 21.71 m. The total 

area of the reservoir is about 858 ha. 


Fishes: About 23 species have been recorded. These are follows; 


Catla catla Mystus cavassius

Chanda nama M. seenghala 

C. ranga Notopterus chitala 

C. gachua N. notopterus 

Channa marulius Ompak bimaculatus 

Cirrhinus mrigala Puntius kolus 

C. reba P. sarana 

Cyprinus carpio P. sophore 

Glossogobius giuris 

P. ticto tict 

giuris 

Hypopthalmicthys 

Rhinomugil corsula 

molithrix 

Labeo calbasu Wallago attu 

L. rohita 






Socio-economic values: The reservoir supplies water for irrigating about 4,451 ha of 

area. 

Reference: Sakhare (2001). 

SHAMBHU LAKE 

It is a famous place of pilgrimage situated in a book of the Shikhar Shingnapur hills, 

Maharashtra. The hill, crowned by a temple of Mahadev to which the village owes its 

celebrity, appears at a distance like the points of a very obtuseangled cone. The hills 

which surround the town look bare and wretched. The rains too are so light and 

intermittent in this part of the Satara District that little difficulty would be experienced 

in visiting Shingnapur even during the mansoon. It is ‘T’ shaped, the cross of the ‘T’ 

stretching north and south and shoot stem to the west. The catchment area of the 

reservoir is largely occupied by bare hills and very few agricultural fields. There are 

only few human settlement present. Except for the openings, the water body is 

completely enclosed by walls. The walls are highest and strongest at the openings 

before mentioned where they constitute a masonry dam to the streams which could 

otherwise pour their waters away from those hills in a south easterly direction. The 

wall at this part was about 3 m – out of the water, and therefore probably 7 m high 

atleast. Its breadth here, as everywhere also, it about 1.5 m while nowhere does the

masonry appear to have given way. The flood mark of the water appears at 1.2 m 

from the wall top, and the leakage from the waterbody is high. On the south where 

lies the village is a set of bathing ghats or steps. These, with the solid and square built 

houses of the village which give it almost a fortified appearance, have very 

picturesque aspect viewed from the north end of the pond. The wall is everywhere 

studded with projecting stones to enable bathers or others to climb up and down. At 

the east and is a sluice through which water is let out to garden lands, while in the 

north east corner and the centre of the north bank are two waterlifts by which water is 

drawn from wells dug in the sides of the lake. 

Macrophytes: Myriophyllum and Potamogeton 


Land use: The lake is used for drinking purpose. 




Socio-economic values: The local villagers are dependent on the lake for fish, 

drinking water, and other domestic needs. 

Pollution status: There is no industry in the village and whatever waste are 

generated are only in the form of domestic sewage. There is neither an organized 

systems of sewage collection nor any septic tank. 


YAMAI LAKE 

Yamai lake is situated on Lat. 17° 33’ N and Long. 74° 23’ E at Aundh which fall in 

khatav taluka, Satara district, Maharashtra. The area is in the rain shadow of 

Sahayadri ranges of Western ghats. It experiences comparatively quite low rainfall. 

The village Aundh is a famous place of Pilgrimage and lies in a basin of small hills 

entirely sheltered from the north and east. It has been a state ruled by the Pant 

Pratinidhi family. The water body is rectangular with an area of 8316 m 3 , a length of 

108 m and breadth of 77 m. The maximum depth of the water body is about 3 m. 

There are bathing ghat on one side and masonry steps on the three sides for access of 

the people to the water. The water body is completely bound by stoney walls, having 

inlet towards north and outlet towards east. There are no macrophytes in the water 

body. Water is usually dark green in appearance. The water body is surrounded 

mainly by the human settlements and temples on two sides while the remaining sides 

have agricultural fields in close proximity. The main source of the water is rain and 

the over flow from the adjacent pond. The main source of water to the adjacent pond 

is from an ephemeral river called Nanni river, originating from a nearby hills, which 

flows through agricultural fields. The overflow from this pond is the main water 

source of Yamai lake. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate 



Land use: The lake water is used for domestic purpose.




Socio-economic values: The village peoples are used bathing and washing purpose 

Pollution status: There is no direct entry of any waste in the lake but cloth-washing 

and bathing is common. At the time of festival when a large number of people (about 

70,000 to 80,000) take holy dip in the water, the water body is subjected to intensive 

human activity. 


UJJINI RESERVOIR 

Ujjini is a large reservoir of the Maharashtra state is constructed across river Bhima in 

1978. The total water spread area of the reservoir is about 29,000 ha. and maximum 

depth is 10.7 m. 


Fishes: The reservoir was stocked with fingerlings of Indian major carps at two 

numbers of them per hectare. 








Reference: Sakhare (2001). 

NATHSAGAR RESERVOIR 

Nathsagar reservoir is one of the major irrigation projects in Maharashtra state. It has 

been constructed across the river Godavari, a major river in southern India. The 

catchment area of Nathsagar dam is 21750 km 2 and impounding gross storage of dam 

is 2909 million cubic meters. The submergence area of dam is 35000 ha. The 

maximum height of this dam is 37 meter. This project has rehabilitated 107 villages. 

Nathsagar is one of the largest shallow wetland habitats which was traced by the 

migratory birds, 10-12 years ago. Now due to favorable environmental factors, ample 

food and safeness, this habitat is at the peak in fetching the birds from November to 

February every year. 


Fishes: A total of 66 species were recorded. These are follows: 


Amblypharyngodon mola Muraena anguilla 

Aorichthys aor Muraenesox bagio 

A. seenghala Mystus armatus 

Barilius bendelisis M. tengara 

Branchydanio rerio Nandus nandus 

Catla buchanani Nemacheilus aureus 

C. catla N. botia 

Channa marulius Notopterus notopterus 

C. orientalis Ompak bimuculatus 

C. punctatus Osteobrama bhimensis 

Chitala chitala O. cotio 

Cirrhinus cirrhosus Osteochilichthys 

godavariensis 

C. mrigala Pangasius pangasius 

Clarius batrachus Parasilorhynchus 

tentacularis 

Ctenopharyngodon idellus Plotosus lineatus 

Cyprinus carpio carpio Poecilia reticulate 

Danio aequipinnatus Pseudeutropinus taakree 

taakree 

D. fraseri Puntius chola 

D. malbaricus P. dorsalis 

D. rerio P. fraseri 

Esomus danricus P. jerdoni 

Eutropiichthys vacha P. melanostigma 

Gambusia affinis P. sahyadriensis 

Gara gotyla gotyla P. sarana sarana 

G. mullya P. sophore


Glossogobius giuris giuris P. ticto 

Glyptothorax conirostrae 

poonaensis 

Rasbora daniconius 

Heteropneustes fossilis Rohtee ogilbii 

Hypothalmichthys molitrix Salmostoma clupeoides 

Labeo calbasu S. novacula 

L. rohita Silonia childreni 

Mastacembelus armatus Thannichthys sandkhol 

Monopterus cuchia Wallago attu 

Land use: The reserved is used for irrigation for agriculture 





small fishery supplying local markets, and could, if appropriately managed. 

Reference: Khedkar (2005). 

WADALI LAKE 

Wadali lake is situated (20° 55’ N, 77° 48’ E) on the southeast of the Amravati 

University campus, Amravati, Maharashtra. The lake is surrounded by open hills 

towards East which drain water during monsoon. The lake also receives waste water 

from the Wadali Zoo and forest quarters from South and additional drainage is also 

from S.R.P. Camp from the North side. The catchment area of the lake is about 

1.5 km 2 and water spread area is 1,99000 m 3 . The lake shows varied depth from 0.2 m 

to maximum 3.06 m. 


Macrophytes: The macrophytic flora was dominated by Hydrilla, Vallisnaria, 

Ceratophylum and Chara spp. 

Crustacean: Macrobrachium kistnensis, Macrobrachium malcomsoni and Caridina 

nilotica. Paratelphusa macanni; P. cunicularis and P. hydrodromus. 

Insects: 


Aedes sp. Laccotrephes

maculates 

Anisops sardea Lepidiapharius 

kashmirensis 

Caenis perpusilla Lestes spp. 

Corixa sp. Limnometra 

fluviorum 

Culex sp. Lithocerus indicum 

Cybister limbatus Macrogomphus 

Cybister rugulosus Matrona 

Diplonychus rusticurn Mesovelia onentalis 

Donacia sp. Microvelia dileta 

Eretes sticticus Plea pallula 

Herbrus pusillus Ranatra elongata 

Hydrometra vitttata Sandracottus festiviis 

Hyphoporus sp. 

Land tenure: Private-owned 

Land use: Human activities like washing of clothes and vehicles are predominant on 

south and west shore of the lake. 



Disturbances and threats: The area of lake is bound by marginal weeds and vegetal 

coverage on which domestic animals graze adding their excreta into the water. 

Socio-economic values: The lake water is used for bathing and washing by local 

inhabitants. 

Pollution status: Lake water polluted by domestic animals. 

Reference: Meshram (2003). 

YELDARI RESERVOIR 

The Yeldari reservoir (19° 43’ N, 76° 45’ E), a purely hydro-electric project, was 

constricted in the year 1962 in the hilly area of Jintur tashsil, Parbhani district, 

Maharashtra. The reservoir is included in the Survey of India top sheet map 

no.564/10. The area around the reservoir comprises forest covered hills. The reservoir 

having catchment area of 7,330 sq.km. The maximum level of reservoir is 462.380 m.

• 

YELDARI RESERVOIR 



Phytoplankton: The following phytoplankton species are recorded in this reservoir; 

i.e. 


Anabaena sp. Navicula mutica 

Arthrospira spp. Nitzchia sp. 

Chlorella vulgaris Nostoc spp. 

Cladophora sp. Oedogonium sp 

Closterium sp. Oscillatoria chlorina 

Cosmarium 

microsporum 

Pandorina morum 

Cyclotella operculata Pediastrum duplex 

Cymbella turgida Phormidium sp. 

Eudorina sp. Pinnularia viridis 

Fragilaria sp. Scenedesmus sp. 

Gomophonema gracile Spirogyra 

margariata 

Lygnbya majuscule Stichococcus sp. 

Melosira sp. Synedra ulna

Zooplankton: 


Microcystis areuginosa Ulothrix zonata 

Microspora sp. Volvox sp. 


Brachionus calyflorus Euchianis dilate 

B. diversicornis Filina longiseta 

Alona rectangular Indialona ganapati 

Biapertura karma Keratella tropica 

Brachionus flacatus Lecane bulla 

Candocypria osborni Mesocyclops 

hyalinus 

Ceriodaphnia cornuta M. leukarti 

Cyclocypris globosa Moina micrura 

Cyclops viridis Nauplius larva 

Cypris sp. Neodiaptomus 

lindbergi 

Diaphanosoma excisum Phylladiaptomus 

annae 

D. sarsi Stenocypris sp. 

Diaptomus marshianus Trichocera porellus 

Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation 






Reference: Sakhare and Joshi (2006). 

NANDUR MADHAMESHWAR

The reservoir is situated (20° 01’ N, 74° 07’ E) at the headwaters of the Godavari 

river, 35 km east of Nasik, Nasik district, Maharashtra. Nandur Madhameshwar is a 

large water-storage reservoir (1500–2000 ha) created by the construction of a dam at 

the confluence of the Godavari and Kadva rivers in 1907. The reservoir fills with 

monsoon run-off during July-September and may overflow in years of heavy rainfall. 

Water is released from the reservoir at fixed intervals from October to April. Huge 

amounts of silt have been deposited over the last 80 years; consequently much of the 

lake is now marshland or very shallow water. There are three large islands covered 

with reed-beds and sedge marshes. As the dry season progresses, the Godavari river 

becomes the main water-course once again. An ancient temple (Madhameshwar) is 

situated on the banks of Godavari river below the dam. The presence of about 23 

small lakes within a radius of 25 km of the reservoir adds to the overall importance of 

the region. 

• 

NANDUR MADHAMESHWAR 


Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate with a average annual rainfall 

of 500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 25°C to 43°C, winter temperatures 

from 4°C to 26°C. 

Macrophytes: Almeida (1983) lists 463 species of plants, including over 80 species 

of aquatic plants; The latter include 


Azolla pinnata P. geniculatum 

Cryptdcorine spiralis Phyla nodiflora 

Cyperus spp. Polygonum glabrum 

Echiinochloa colnum P. plebeium 

Eichhornia crassipes Potamogeton crispus 

Hydrilla verticillata P. pectinata

Hygrophila auriculata P. perfoliata 

Ipomoea aquatica Rumex dentatus 

I. fistulosa Spirodela polyrrhiza 

Marsilea minuta Typha angustata 

Ottelia alismoides Vallisneria spiralis 

Paspalidium flavidum Zeuzine 

strateomatica 

The surrounding areas are intensively cultivated for sugarcane, wheat, jawar, and 

vineyards, and the landscape is almost devoid of trees. 

Fishes: Over 20 species of fish have been recorded in the reservoir, including 


Aspidoparis morar Mastacembelus 

armatus 

Barilius bendelisis Mystus cavasius 

Channa ranga Ompok bimaculatus 

Chela clupeoides Parasilorhynchus 

prateri 

Cirrhina reba Puntius amphibius 

Danio malabaricus P. fraseri 

Gawa mullya P. sarena 

Labeo boggut P. ticto 

L. calbasu Rasbora daniconius 

Birds: At least 235 species of bird are known to occur, of which 85% are migratory. 

The reservoir is particularly important as a staging and wintering area for migratory 

waterfowl. Up to 15,000 waterfowl have been recorded in winter, and even more are 

reported to be present during the migration seasons. A waterfowl census in January 

1987 recorded aIn1ost 12,000 waterfowl, including: 


Anastolmus oscitans 

Nycticorax 

(100) 

nycticorax (25) 


Phalacrocorax niger 

(700) 

(750) 

Ardeola grayii (290) Platalea leucorodia 

(80) 

Bubulcus ibis (210) Plegadis falcinellus 

(115) 

Calidris minuta (500) Pseudibis papillosa 

(110) 

Ciconia ciconia (40) Tadorna ferruginea 

(60) 

Egretta alba (60) Threskiornis 

melanocephalus (40) 

E. garzetta (200) Tringa Nebularia 

(300) 

Fulica atra (2000) T. tetanus (300) 

Glareola lactea (800) Other Tringa sp. 

(1200) 

Himantopus himantopus 

Other ducks (2500) 

(600) 

Limosa limosa (700) 

Mammals: Mammals known to occur in the area include the Fishing Cat (Felis 

viverrina) 

Land tenure: Some 1758 ha is under the State Irrigation Department; 21,867 ha 

under the Revenue Department; 8177 ha under private ownership and 55 ha under 

Forest Department. 

Land use: The reservoir supplies water to the local villages for irrigation and 

domestic use. Cattle are grazed along the edge of the reed-beds, and reeds are 

harvested each year. There is a little fishing in the open waters. Surrounding areas are 

used for agriculture. 

Conservation measures taken: A non-hunting area of 2380.6 ha was established in 

September 1983. The area, including the reservoir, was declared a Bird Sanctuary in 

February 1980, although lands under the State Revenue and Irrigation Departments 

have not been transferred to the sanctuary authorities. There are 11 villages (yet to be 

settled) within the Sanctuary. Plantation has been done on 55 ha of land under the 


Conservation measures proposed: Proposals for the development and management 

of the Bird Sanctuary include the eradication of Eichhornia crassipes and 

Parthenium, demarcation of the boundaries, construction of observation towers and 

footpaths, creation of a fish pond, construction of a museum, information centre and 

accommodation facilities, and purchase of boats to enable visitors to approach the 

birds. An immediate requirement is the planting of Acacia, Ficus and Neem trees on 

the islands and bunds to provide nesting and roosting sites for large water birds.

Possible changes in land use: There are plans to replace the old dam with a new one 

and dredge out parts of the lake to restore its original capacity. The fishery could be 

expanded, particularly if dredging is carried out. 

Disturbances and threats: The main disturbance to the ecosystem at present is the 

large-scale removal of aquatic vegetation for fodder and fuel. Fishing is sometimes 

excessive, and grazing by domestic livestock may cause disturbance to waterfowl 

populations. A sugar refinery near the reservoir is a. possible source of pollution. The 

replacement of the old dam, with a new dam and extensive dredging could have 

catastrophic effects on the aquatic vegetation and wildlife of the reservoir. No 

development plans, nor any security and management staff have yet been sanctioned 

for the sanctuary. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir supports a great diversity of wildlife, and has 

considerable potential for tourism; indeed, the area has been called the “Bharatpur of 

Maharashtra”. Under appropriate management, the area could become a major centre 

of nature-oriented tourism. 

Research and facilities: Survey teams from WWF India and the Bombay Natural 

History Society carried out avifaunal surveys from 1982 to 1984. The Nasik Bird 

Protection Society has continued these studies since then. The flora has been 

investigated by M.R. Almeida of the Bombay Natural History Society. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Almeida (1983); Daniel (1985); Mohan 

(1984); Rane (1983). 

PUNE-SHOLAPUR RESERVOIRS 

A number of small water-storage reservoirs constructed on the headwaters of the 

Krishna and Bhima rivers in Maharashtra. Compared with the ancient percolation 

tanks of the Deccan plateau, these reservoirs are generally of relatively recent origin, 

and some are a little more than 100 years old. About 20 tanks exceed 100 ha in area. 

They fill during the monsoon but become progressively drier and more brackish as the 

dry season advances. Most flood to a maximum depth of 3–6 m in September and 

October; some dry out completely by January or February while others retain up to 1 

m of water until April or May. Canal systems and overflow channels have created 

seepage lagoons, and areas of marshland exist where waterlogging occurs. Some of 

the more important reservoirs are: 

1. Hipparga Tank, near Sholapur: a small tank which floods to a maximum depth of 

4 m in September and October, and has a pH value of 8.0. 

2. Mayani Tank, near Satara: a small tank which floods to a maximum depth of 3 m 

in September and October, and dries out completely by January or February. 

3. Varvand Tank 60 km east of Pune: a large tank with a maximum depth of 3 m 

and pH value of 7.0; extensive grassy flats are exposed at low water levels. 

4. Shirsuphal (Victoria) Tanks, 70 km east of Pune: two large tanks with rocky 

shorelines and an adjacent small Typha marsh fed by seepage from the tanks. 

5. Patas Tank, 40 km east of Pune: a small tank of about 50 ha with abundant 

submerged vegetation and surrounded by grassy flats and mudflats. 

6. Matoba Tank, northwest of Pandharpur: a large tank which floods to a maximum 

in July and is usually dry by May.

Abiotic factors: Semi-arid, tropical monsoon climate, with an annual rainfall of 300- 

400 mm, most of which falls in August and September. The maximum temperature in 

summer is 41°C, and the minimum in winter 10°C. 

Macrophytes: The lakes support a rich growth of Vallisneria sp., Hydrilla sp., 

Potamogeton sp., and a variety of algae. Emergent and peripheral vegetation includes 

Scirpus sp., Typha sp., and Cyperus sp. The adjacent landscape is dominated by 

xerophytic vegetation, with species of Zizyphus, Capparis, Prosopis, Acacia, and 

Cassia auriculata. Many crops including cotton are grown in the valleys. 

Birds: The region, as a whole, is of considerable importance to migratory waterfowl, 

particularly in winter. The reservoirs support large populations of cormorants, herons, 

egrets, storks, ibises, flamingos, ducks, cranes, and rails. Significant numbers of Anser 

indicus winter at Hipparga Tank in some years and there are particularly large 

roosting concentrations of Anthropoides virgo at several tanks (e.g. 10,000 at 

Shirsuphal Lake in January 1986). Phoenicopterus ruber also sometimes occurs in 

very large numbers. Mayani Tank is important for wintering ducks of the genus 

Aythya. A wide variety of shorebirds are observed on passage and in winter, 

especially Himantopus himantopus, Charadrius dubius, C. alexandrinus, Limosa 

limosa, species of Tringa, Actitis hypoleucos, Gallinago gallinago, Calidris minuta, 

and C. temminckii. Sterna aurantia breeds at several of the lakes. 

In January 1987, waterfowl counts at seven localities (Pashan, Hipparaga, Mayani, 

Varvand and Matoba Tanks, and riverine marshes at Kavdi and Mula Mutha) 

recorded over 13,300 waterfowl of 58 species. These included: 140 Tachybaptus 

ruficollis, 140 Phalacrocorax niger, 300 herons and egrets of 7 species, 37 Mycteria 

leucocephala, 85 Anastomus oscitans, 24 Ciconia episcopus, 45 Threskiornis 

melanocephalus, 70 Plegadis falcinellus, 150 Platalea leucorodia, 250 

Phoenicopterus ruber, 315 Tadorna ferruginea, 420 Anas Penelope, 360 A. crecca, 

400 A. poecilorhyncha, 2,300 A. acuta, 415 A. querquedula, 310 A. clypeata, 1760 

Aythya farina, 31 Sarkidiornis melanotos, 780 Anthropoides virgo, 115 Porphyrio 

porphyrio, 2700 Fulica atra, 130 Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 740 Himantopus 

himantopus, 230 Glareola lactea and 800 other shorebirds of 18 species. 

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are mostly privately owned. 

Land use: The reservoirs supply water for irrigation and domestic use. Fishing takes 

place at some of the lakes. Surrounding areas are used for grazing and agriculture. 

Conservation measures taken: Shooting has been prohibited at all the reservoirs, 

but no other conservation measures have as yet been taken. 

Conservation measures proposed: There are plans to make the largest reservoir into 

a Bird Sanctuary. 

Socio-economic values: Obviously important in a semi-arid environment as a source 

of water for irrigation, and domestic and industrial use. Some of the reservoirs support 

small fisheries. 

Research and facilities: Limnological studies and waterfowl counts have been 

undertaken by the Ecological Society of Pune, and the population of Phoenicopterus 

ruber has been investigated by WWF India. 


RATNAGIRI MANGROVES

The Ratnagiri Mangroves (Bhatye: 16° 58’ N, 73° 17’ E; Kalbadevi: 17° 2’ N, 73° 

16’ E; Are: 17° 4’ N, 73° 17’ E) region comprises the three estuaries Bhatye, 

Kalbadevi, and are, located near the city of Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. Anthropogenic 

pressures are heavy at the mouth of Bhatye estuary/ Kajvi river (forming the southern 

boundary of Ratnagiri city) while the upstream areas are relatively less disturbed, 

Human activity is also intense at the mouth of Kalbadevi estuary from where a large 

channel of water descends southward, forming the Shirgaon creek, which supports a 

large number of mangrove species. The smallest of the three estuaries, is relatively 

less inhabited and supports more extensive vegetative cover than the other two. Daily 

tides flood the vegetation, affecting soil salinity. Bhatye, Kalbadevi and are estuaries 

occupy 80.65 ha, 62 ha, and 71.37 ha, respectively. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Average annual rainfall is 2000 mm. 

Temperature vary from 12.5° C to 36° C. 

Macrophytes: Woody mangroves cover the area. 


Dominant Species R. mucronata 

Aegiceras corniculatum Sonneratia alba 

Avicennia marina Subdominant 

Species 

A. officinalis Bruguiera 

gymnorrhiza 

Ceriops tagal Derris heterophylla 

Excoecaria agallocha Kandelia candel 

Rhizophora apiculata Lumnitzera 

racemosa 

Acanthus ilicifolius helps as a biomonitor of sewage pollution. Rhizophora apiculata 

is found only along Bhatye estuary (Kajvi river). There are a total of 28 mangrove 

species, including mangrove associates. Mangrove species such as Bruguiera 

gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Avicennia marina var resinifera, Kandelia candel, and 

Cynometra sp., found in Ratnagiri are on the verge of extinction. 

Birds: Birds in the estuary include egrets, herons, sandpipers, plovers, oyster 

catchers, kingfishers, lapwings, stilts, and moorhens, Fish species include 


Ambasis 

gumnocephalus 

E. fasciata 

Batrachus grunniens Gerres poeti 

Caranx boops Gobius criniger

Chateossus nasus Hippocampus 

guttulatus 

Chorinemus toloo Mugil carinatus 

Chrysophrys haffara Naucratus ductor 

Echeneis naucratus Platycephalus 

macracanthus 

Equula dussumieri Sardinella melanura 

Land tenure: Most of the area is privately owned or under the control of the State 

Revenue Department. Some parts are under the Forest and Fisheries Departments. 

Land use: The estuarine areas are exploited for fishes, crustaceans, and molluscs, as 

well as used for navigation. Forest resources are utilized for timber, fuelwood, fodder, 

and grazing. 

Conservation measures taken: Dominant mangrove species have been declared 

protected under the Forest Act. 

Disturbances and threat: Human and cattle pressures have seriously threatened the 

mangroves, especially of Bhatye and Kalbadevi estuaries. Sewage pollution is 

affecting the primary productivity and regeneration of mangroves. 

Socio-economic values: Tall poles of Sonneratia are used as timber. All other 

species are used as firewood, and Avicennia officinalis is used also as fodder. Large 

quantities of prawns, molluscs, crabs, and fish are harvested. The water ways are used 

for navigation. 


LOKTAK LAKE 

Loktak lake (24° 26’ N, 93° 49’ E), the biggest natural wetland in the North-eastern 

region of India (Manipur), is a large expanse of water on the West of the river Imphal. 

The catchment area of the lake is about 980 sq. kms. And water spread area is 

about 26,600 ha. Run-off from this catchment is drained into the lake mainly through 

seven streams which originate primarily in the northern and western flanks of the 

lake. Thick floating mats of weeds covered with soil called ‘phumids’ are a 

characteristic feature of this lake. Invasion of lake area by water hyacinth has created 

severe programs resulting in deterioration of the lake ecosystem. The main fish fauna 

present in the lake is minnows and minor carps. In the Southeastern region of this 

lake, there is Keibul Lamjao National Park which is the habitat of the brow antlered 

deer (Cervus eldi eldi) locally called Sangai which is a threatened species. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 1183 

mm; temperature ranges from 0° to 35°C. The driest months are February and March. 

Flora: A total of 28 species were recorded. These are follows; 


Anabaena circinalis Limnothrix redeckei 

A. doliolum Microchaete 

loktakensis 

A. flos-aquae Microchaete tenera 

A. laxa Nostoc carneum 

A. oscillarioides N. ellipsosporum 

A. torulosa N. punctiforme 

A. variabilis N. rivulare


Calothrix clavata N. spongiaeforme 

Cylindrospermum 

Phormidium lucidum 

gorakhpurense 

Cylindrospermum 

P. stagnina 

sphaerica 

C. tropicum P. subfuscum 

Gloeotrichia raciborskii Plectonema notatum 

Hapalosiphon 

hibernicus 

Rivularia manginii 

Hormidium moerlianum Tolypothrix tenuis 

Land use: It is a source of water for hydro-power generation, irrigation and drinking 

water supply. 

Conservation measure taken: The wetland has been identified as one of the sites 

for conservation under Indian National Wetland Programme. The State Government 

has also constituted a Loktak Development Authority for development of the wetland 

area on sound ecological basis. 

Disturbance and threats: The damming of the lake in 1983 (by the Ithai Barrage) 

caused the local extinction of several native fish species from the lake and the loss of 

extensive areas of rice cultivation, increasing the pressure on adjoining land which 

was already intensively cultivated. Local people can no longer use traditional fishing 

techniques developed for use in shallow water, and have even resorted to poisoning 

fish. The lake is undergoing rapid eutrophication caused by the inflow of domestic 

sewage, and fertilisers/pesticide runoff. This has been accelerated by the damming of 

the lake, which has restricted water circulation. Over-fishing is a problem, and 

waterbirds are intensively hunted and sold in Imphal. Increasing siltation has been 

caused by deforestation and shifting cultivation in the catchment area, involving the 

cutting and burning of forest for only three or four seasons of rice cultivation. 

Socio-economic values: There are many rural and urban settlements around the lake, 

with the total human population on and around the lake estimated at approximately 

100,000. Local populations depend heavily on Loktak lake for food, animal feed, 

fibre, fuel and shelter. Fishing is the predominant activity. Tourism plays an 

increasingly important role in the region. The planned activities in the future include 

the construction of a 126 km dyke encircling the lake, dredging of a major portion of 

the lake, encouragement of further human settlements, establishment of large fish 

culture pens in the middle of the water, destruction of a number of hillock islands and 

the installation of a large number of sluice gates, culverts and canals. 

Importance: Loktak Lake is an ancient lake and plays an important role in the 

economy of the Manipur State. Without the lake, the valley would be subjected to 

high floods during monsoon and drought during the dry season. It is a source of water 

for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. The livelihood of the 

surrounding rural population is largely dependent upon the fish of the lake. The site is

an important wintering and staging area for waterbirds. In the southeastern region of 

this lake, there is Keibul Lamjao National Park that is the only refuge for the highly 

endangered Manipur brown-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi). Other endangered 

species include Python molurus. 

Research and facilities: Yadava and Varshney (1982) have studied the ecological 

and socio-economic importance of Logtak Lake and other wetlands in Manipur. The 

region has been closed to most outsiders for many years, and little recent information 

is available on the wildlife. 

Source: WWF India (1993); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar site); Hosetti (2002); 

Jugeshor Singh and Pebam Rocky (2004). 

SANAPAT LAKE 

Sanapat lake (24° 40’ N, 93° 51’ E) is one of the thirteen major lakes in Manipur, 

situated in the Bishnupur district. Sanapat is a Oblongata shape lake. The average 

length is 1500 m and average breadth is 540 m. The lake, a sub-basin of Loktak lake 

(one of the Ramsar sites of global importance). The lake is shallow and its depth 

varied between 1.2–2.6 m during rainy season. The total area of the lake is 81 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, temperature ranges from 16°C to 25.3°C. 

The pH values varied from 5.8 to 7.2. 

Macrophytes: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) 


Land use: Marginal paddy cultivation. 

Disturbances and threats: The mountain lake is deteriorating rapidly in recent years 

due to diverse pressures from the surroundings catchments and their longevity is 

certainly under threat. Sanapat lake with its diverse environmental problems has 

affected the lake significantly. Marginal paddy cultivation should be checked and the 

use of chemical fertilizers be minimized. As Sanapat lake has its unique scenic beauty 

and huge biodiversity, ecotourism can be one of the options which provides 

alternative income to the local community and in turn conserve the lake ecosystem. 

Socio-economic values: Lotus grown in the lake is a good economy for the local 

people. Paddy cultivated in margin of the lake. 

Pollution status: The lake is mostly surrounded by human settlement, except hills in 

the south western side. 

Source: Alka Jain et al. (2005). 

KEIBUL LAMJAO NATIONAL PARK 

Keibul Lamjao National Park is situated in (24° 40’ N, 93° 57’ E) 15 km south of 

Imphal, Manipur. Keibul Lamjao is a large expanse of swamp with floating mats of 

vegetation (phumdi) covering much of its surface. The swamp lies at the northeast 

comer of the Loktak Lake basin, and is connected with Loktak Lake by a channel. 

Within the National Park, the only waterway that is open all year round is artificially 

maintained to enable boats to reach Pabot Hill in the north. The phumdi is composed 

of decaying vegetation and varies in thickness from 0.33 m to 1.33 m. It floats on the 

water with about one-fifth of its thickness above the surface, and is capable of 

supporting the weight of large mammals. The water is acidic, and varies in depth from

1.0 m to 1.5 m. At low water levels in February and March, the peripheral areas of 

phumdi come to rest on the ground. With the onset of monsoon, majority of the Park 

is covered with water and, three or four days later, the phumdi rises to the surface 

once again. Severe flooding washes away large amounts of the floating vegetation. 

This habitat, often referred to as “too deep to be marsh, too shallow to be a lake” is 

unique in India. Three hills, Pabot, Toya and Chingjao, rise out of the swamp and 

provide a refuge for the large mammals during the wetter periods. The total area of 

the Keibul Lamjao National Park is formerly 4000 ha, recently reduced to 2160 ha 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an average annual rainfall of 1183 

mm. Most of the rain falls in July and August, and the driest months are February and 

March. 

Macrophytes: There are two types of phumdi, phumdi ataoba (floating) and phumdi 

aruppa (sinking). The ataoba consists of reeds, grasses, and other plants growing on a 

mat of dead and decaying vegetation floating on the lake surface. Phumdi aruppa 

consists of mats of vegetation which have sunk to the bottom of the lake and support a 

rich emergent growth of reeds and grasses. In 1960, the composition of the phumdi 

was estimated to be as follows: 45% Phragmites karka, 25% Erianthus ravennae, 

15% Saccharum munja, 5% S. latifolium, 5% Alpinia allughas and 2% Saccharum 

procerum and 3% other species, including Zizania latifolia, a plant much relished by 

swamp deer (Cervus eldi). The floating phumdi gets thicker and heavier each year, the 

accumulation being greatest at the edge of the swamp. During a series of dry years, 

the edges of the phumdi become hard ground and the area of the swamp thus 

decreases. Eichhornia crassipes has recently appeared in the open water areas of the 

swamp, where species of Polygonum and Trapa also occur. The three small hills in 

the Park were formerly wooded, but are now almost barren. 

Special floral values: The phumdi association of Phragmites, Saccharum, and other 

species is a unique ecosystem within India. 

Birds: The swamp doubtless supports a wide variety of waterbirds, but no 

information is available. The fish fauna includes Channa striatus, Channa punctatus, 

Cyprinus carpio, Wallago attu and Puntius sophore. 

Mammals: The Keibul Lamjao swamp is the last refuge of the nominate subspecies 

of the Manipur brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi), locally known as “Sangai”. The 

subspecies was once thought to be extinct in the wild, but a small herd was discovered 

in Keibul Lamjao in 1950. By 1975 this population had dwindled to only 14 

individuals. Under protection, however, the mammals living in the swamp include 

sainbar (Cervus unicolor), hog deer (C. porcinus), common otter (Lutra lutra), the 

civets (Viverra civetta, Viverricula indica), and wild boar (Sus scrota). 

Land tenure: Largely state-owned, with lands belonging to the Thang, Brel, and 

Maril tribes almost dividing the sanctuary into two parts. Surrounding areas are 

privately owned. 

Land use: Prior to the establishment of the National Park in 1977, grass-cutting was 

officially permitted during the dry season, but this has now ceased. The grasses were 

used for thatching and for the production of mats, hats, and other decorative articles. 

Grazing, mostly by buffaloes, was a prominent feature of both the northern and 

southern parts of the Park and caused some habitat degradation. All agricultural and 

fishing rights within the Park ceased in 1977, but fishing, although now illegal,

continues on a small scale in the open water areas. Surrounding areas are almost 

entirely under rice cultivation 

Conservation measures taken: Keibul Lamjao was declared a Sanctuary in 1954; 

and officially gazetted in 1966. The 4000 ha Sanctuary was upgraded to a National 

Park in March 1977. However, because of strong opposition to the National Park from 

local villagers, the Park was reduced to its present 2160 ha in Apri11987. The Park is 

managed by the Forest Department of the Manipur Government. By 1978, the 

Government of India had spent Rs. 719,000 on construction works, including a 

perimeter fence of 2281 m to prevent people and domestic livestock from entering the 

reserve where it is most vulnerable. A cattle-proof trench has been dug along 870 m 

of the boundary; seven canoes have been purchased and four check points have been 

established at strategic places in the Park. The Department of Environment, 

Government of India; is financing a conservation programme for the endangered 

Manipur brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi), and an army helicopter has been 

leased to carry out census work. The Park is under the supervision of a full-time 

Assistant Conservator of Forests. Additional staff includes an assistant veterinary 

surgeon, a ranger of forests, field assistant, three foresters, four forest guards, and 

eight others. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a need to ensure that the legal 

provisions against poaching, fishing, encroachment, grazing, and other detrimental 

activities are properly enforced. The maintenance of the grassy swamp may require 

periodic burning. A proposal has been made for the establishment of a second 

sanctuary across the Manipur river at Khoidum Lamjao. This is the only other 

significant patch of swamp remaining in Manipur, and would be suitable for reintroduction 

of Cervus eldi eldi. 

Disturbances and threats: Even though the Sanctuary has been upgraded to 

National Park status, levels of exploitation by the local inhabitants remain high. 

Illegal grass-cutting still constitutes a major disturbance in some areas, and the 

continued presence of domestic livestock poses a threat to the brow-antlered deer. 

Emmeria wassilewskyi, a protozoan disease common in local cattle, afflicts the deer 

population. Poaching has been a major problem, particularly during the dry season in 

March-May. The shortage of reserve staff at Keibul Lamjao prohibits the 

implementation of effective conservation measures. Surrounding areas are intensively 

farmed, and the use of insecticides, herbicides, and fertilisers is increasing. There 

have been reports of water pollution derived from nearby human settlements, and the 

run-off of agro-chemicals needs to be monitored. Inevitably, deforestation and 

subsequent soil erosion in the water catchment area are affecting the water regime and 

water quality. The Loktak Dam, which will maintain a constant water level in the 

swamp, is likely to have a severe impact on the entire ecosystem of Keibul Lamjao. 

The possible effects of the dam on the hydrology and ecology of one of the most 

complex wetland systems in India has yet to be thoroughly investigated. There has 

been strong opposition to the National Park amongst local people since its 

establishment. In a violent demonstration against enforcement measures in 1979, 

villagers set fire to dry grasses, check-posts, staff quarters, and the observation tower 

within the swamp. As a result of the continued opposition, 1840 ha were excised from 

the National Park in April 1987. The high level of local antipathy persists, placing 

land-use predictions in considerable doubt.

Socio-economic values: The swamp is of considerable scientific interest as a unique 

habitat within India and the last refuge for Cervus eldi eldi. 

Research and facilities: The Zoological Survey of India and the Botanical Survey of 

India have carried out various investigations in the National Park, and Ranjitsinh 

(1978 & 1982) has studied the Cervus eldi population. The populations of large 

mammals are now censused annually. 

Reference: Singh (1980); Yadava and Varshney (1982); WWF India (1993). 

PHUMLEN, KHARUNG, AND IKOP LAKES 

Three major lakes, namely, Phumlen, Kharung, and Ikop, located close to one 

another, remain inundated in most seasons of the year. These lake is situated (24° 

15’–25° 30’ N, 94° 0’–94° 15’ E); km south of Imphal city, Thoubal district, 

Manipur. Kharung is fed by two rivers, Heirok and Sekrnai, from the east, and a small 

channel, Soirei, from the west. There are three outlets-Thongyai, Thongjil and 

Natekkhong-on the southwestern side. Morphometric features of Kharung lake 

include maximum length 7.2 km; maximum breadth 6.15 km; shoreline length 32.1 

km; maximum depth 2.65 km; mean depth 2.65 m; and total volume 35.3 cubic 

metres. Ikop Lake is surrounded by agricultural land on the north, west and east. The 

Lake has three feeder streams and outlets. Morphometric features include maximum 

length 7.4 km; maximum breadth 4.95 km; shoreline length 25.7 km; maximum depth 

3.6 m; mean depth 2.08 m; and total volume 34.79 cubic metres. Phumlen is an 

extensive lake with three perennial streams on the west and two other streams on the 

north. Shallow peripheral areas on the east, west, and north have been reclaimed for 

agriculture. The deepest part is on the southern side. The major portions of the Lake 

are occupied by floating phumdi. Morphometric features include maximum length 

9.75 km; maximum breadth 5.45 km; shoreline length 37.35 km; maximum depth 

3.51 m; mean dep!pc2.io m; and total volume 66.94 cubic metres. 

Abiotic factors: Sub-tropical monsoon climate with annual rainfall ranging from 975 

mm to 2646 mm. Temperature ranges from 0° C to 36.5° C. 

Macrophytes: Vegetation of the lakes is represented by floating emergent, 

submergent, and marginal macrophytes. Dominant species found in the lakes are 


Alisma plantago 

Paspalum 

aquatica 

scrobiculatum 

Alpinia nigra Polygonum 

barbatum 

Ceratophyllum 

Sagittaria 

demersum 

sagittifolia 

Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia sp. 

Hydrilla verticillata Setaria pallidefusca 

Jussiaea repens Utricularia stellaris

Lemna sp. Zizania latifolia 

Marsilea quadrifolia 

Special floral values: Altogether 213 plant species have been collected and identified 

from these lakes, including some of food and medicinal value. 

Reptiles: Among the reptiles, Python molurus is a rare species. 

Birds: About eight species of migratory ducks: common teal, gadwall, common 

pochard, red-crested pochard, ferruginous duck, brahminy duck, and shoveller visit 

the Lake every year between October and February. 

Mammals: Among mammals, stoat/ermine (Mustela erminea) is a rare species. Sus 

scrota, Felis chaus, Vulpes vulpes, Cuon alpinus and Arctonyx collaris are 

noteworthy. 


Land use: Agriculture, fishing, fish farming. 

Conservation measures taken: The deeper parts of the lakes have been reserved by 

the State Government as fishery reserves. 


Socio-economic values: These lakes are exploited for their fishery resources. Some 

aquatic plants are harvested for consumption and other uses. 


WARD’S LAKE 

The lake has had many names like Hopkinston’s Tank, Elliot’s Lake, Ward’s Lake, 

Nan Palok (in Khasi) and Laath Saab ko Talao (In Nepal), situated (25° 34’ N, 91° 

32’ E) in the heart of Shillong, Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya. The origin of the lake 

though the date is not known was the initiation of digging by a convict, when water 

was struck that the district authorities took over and extended the digging to the 

present lake. The idea of using this lake for recreation with a small park all around it 

goes to the credit of the then Chief Commissioner, William E. Ward 1893 after whom 

the lake id presently known. The lake has a maximum length of 333 meters and 

maximum breadth of 75 metre with a shore line of 1,284 metre. The maximum depth 

is 6 metre with a mean depth of 3.4 metre. 

The lake receives water through two inlets, both perennial, one from the South end of 

the lake and the other from the west. There is only one outlet at the North end. This 

outlet is controlled by sluice gates for allowing excess water to flow away during peak 

monsoon. It is therefore that the water level does not change appreciably throughout 

the year, the inlet from the south end is primarily water from of the hills streams 

which traverses from the upper hills to reach Ward’s Lake and then flow away as hill 

streams. The inlet at the west end of the lake is water of the drains and canals of 

Shillong. The latter therefore is allowed to flow first into the isolated pond which 

serves as a sedimentation tank from where the decanted water flows into the major 

lake. In addition, the lake receives surface run-off waters from the adjoining slopes of 

the hills. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 13.4°C to 

25°C in atmosphere and 10.9°C to 23.6°C in water. The pH values ranged from 5.7 to 

6.9. 

Macrophytes: 


Anthoxanthum odoratum Nymphaea nauchali 

Axonopus compresus Osmunda regalis 

Cardamine hirsute Oxalis corniculata 

Centella asiatica O. corymbosa 

Cynodon dactylon Paspalum dilatatum 

Davallia imersa Pinus kesiya 

Denothera rosea Plantago major 

Eleochariis congesta Poa annua


Emilia sonchifolia Pogonatherum crinatum 

Eragrostris gangetica Polygonum hydropiper 

E. nigra P. orientale 

Erigeron karvinskianus P. punctatum 

Erigeron sp. Potentilla mooniana 

Eurya acuminats Pteris vittata 

Galinsoga parviflora Ranunculus contoniensis 

Gnaphalium luteoalbum Richardsonia sp. 

Hedychium caronarium Rotala rotundifolia 

Hydrilla vertricillata Selaginella 

Hydrocotyle javanica Sonchus asper 

Hypocharis radicata Sonchus sp. 

Imperata cylindrical Sphaeroearyum sp. 

Juncus prismatocarpus Thuja oreientalis 

Kyllinga brevifolia Trifolium repens 

Lindernia cordata Utricularia bifida 

Lipocarph chinensis U. caerulea 

Nasturtium indicum Utricularia sp. 


Amphipleura Melosira 

Anacystis Meridion 

Ankistrodesmus Merismopedia 

Aphanocapsa Micrasterias

Botryococcus Microcystis 

Ceratium Navicula 

Chlamydomonas Nitzschia 

Chrysococcus Oocystis 

Closterium Oscillatoria 

Coelastrum Pandorina 

Coelosphaerium Pediastrum 

Cosmarium Peridinium 

Cyclotella Phacus 

Desmidium Pinnularia 

Diatoma Scenedesmus 

Dictyosphaerium Selenastrum 

Dinobryon Spirogyra 

Eudorina Staurastrum 

Euglena Synedra 

Gloeobotrys Synura 

Gloeocapsa Tabellaria 

Gloeocystis Tribonema 

Gymnozyoa Ulothrix 

Hormidium Westella 

Kirchneriella 

Zooplankton: Asplanchna, Brachionus, Cephalodella, Epiphanes, Keratella, 

Lecane, Lepadella, Polyarthra, Proales, Testudinnela and Trichocerca (Rotifera); 

Bosmina, Chydorus, Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Simocephalus (Cladocera); 

Centropyxis, Difflugia (Protozoa); Cyclops and Diaptomus (Copepoda); Cypris 

(Ostracoda). 


Land use: No information


Reference: Alfred, Thapa. 

UMIAM RESERVOIR 

Umiam reservoir is located (25° 39’ 30” N, 91° 54’ 12” E) in Ri-Bhoi district, 

Meghalaya. This reservoir was commissioned in 1964 for hydal power generation as 

phase-I of the Umiam-Umtru hydal power project. The total area of the reservoir is 

250 ha. Maximum depth of this reservoir is 50 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 23.4°C to 

33.4°C in atmosphere and 4.1°C to 21.1°C in water. The maximum pH value of 7.8 

was recorded. 

Phytoplankton: Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena sp., Spirulina sp., Ceratium 

hirundinella, Dinobryon sociale and Phacus sp. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for Hydal power generation 

Socio-economic values: It is very importance for Hydal power generation 

Reference: Sharma and Lyngdoh (2003). 

• 

UMIAM RESERVOIR 


UPPER KOLAB DAM 

Upper Kolab dam is situated (18° 47’ N, 82° 27’ E) at Koranga village, 15 km from 

Jeypore town, Orissa. The project got the approval of Government of India in 1975. 

Construction work started in 1978. The total area of the dam is about 15,380 ha. (3600 

ha forest area, 9,180 ha of private land and 2600 ha of government land were 

submerged under the reservoir). 




Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and power house. 



Socio-economic values: The dam supports an important fishing industry and is a 

valuable source of water for irrigation and power house. 

Reference: Biswanath Sahu (1993). 

CHITRAKONDA DAM 

Chitrakonda Dam is one of the Machkund-Sileru river system, situated in the Orissa. 

The river system carries 3.28 million acre foot of annual surface run-off with 

maximum flood discharge of 3,23,000 cu.sec. The dam is a joint project with the 

Government of Andhra Pradesh. The construction of the projects were completed in 

1972. The total area of the dam is about 17,180 ha. (Forest land 8,328 ha, private land 

5,039 ha, Government land 3,813 ha). 




Land use: The dam is used for irrigation 







BHITARKANIKA MANGROVE 

The word ‘Bhitarkanika’ is derived from Oriyan language- ‘Bhita’ means inside and 

‘kanika’ refers to the kingdom. In those days, the king of kanika used to go often for 

hunting into the Bhitarkanika forest endowed with animals. Bhitarkanika mangrove is 

situated (20° 39’ N, 86° 54’ E) in the deltaic region of Brahmani and Baitarani rivers 

in the Kendrapara district, Orissa. The Bhitarkanika Mangrove represents one of the 

finest remaining patches of mangrove forests along the entire Indian coast; besides

these, Sanyal et al. (1999) had reported about 20.0 km 2 mangrove areas from the 

mouth of the river Subarnarekha. The Bhitarkanika mangrove in the Orissa coastal 

areas in the 3 rd important mangrove area in India, i.e., after Sundarbans and Andaman 

& Nicobar Islands. Mangrove areas of the Orissa coast are both dense and sparse, 

which are estimated through Satellite imagery as 108.5 km 2 and 84.4 km 2 , 

respectively. The mangroves in Orissa state are distributed in three zones, viz., (i) 

Mangroves of the Mahanadi Delta, (ii) Mangroves of the Brahmani – Baitarini Delta 

and (iii) Mangroves of the Balasore coast. There are totally about 70 species of 

mangroves and associated plant species so far recorded in Bhitarkanika. About 53% 

of the area is covered by forest and the remaining 47% by the estuarine impoundment. 

The recent extent of mangrove forest cover estimated by the Forest Survey of India is 

219 sq.km. 


Abiotic factors: The climate of the area is tropical. In general there are three main 

seasons prevalent in this region. Summer begins from February and extends up to 

June. The rainy season usually starts in June and extends upto October. November to 

January is the winter season. The annual rainfall ranges from 920 to 3000 mm. and 

the main rainy months are August and September. In winter the temperature dips 

down to 10°C minimum and in summer the maximum temperature reaches up to 40° 

C. Wind velocity becomes 40 km per hour during the monsoon which ranges between 

15 to 25 km per hour in winter. The area is prone to severe cyclonic storms twice 

almost every year during April to May and October to November and also, there are 

occasional tidal bores. The humidity of the area varies between 35 to 95%. 

Macrophytes: Principal vegetation on these dunes includes Ipomea pescaprae, 

Hydrophylax maritima, Spinifex littoreus, Launaea sarmentosa and Gisekia 

pharnaceoides. 

Mangroves: Fifty-eight species of mangroves have so far been recorded in India of 

which 55 are found in Bhitarkanika (Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). Compared to the 

Sunderbans, India's largest tract of mangrove forest, Bhitarkanika represents a wide 

diversity of mangrove flora. The Heritiera formation of Champion and Seth (Type 

4B/TS-4, 1968) comprising the brackish water association of Heritiera, Cynometra, 

Aglaia, Cerbera, and Intsia is not found in the present Sunderbans of Indian territory

ut are well represented in Bhitarkanika. Rhizophora stylosa, Sonneratia griffithii and 

Heritiera littoralis have been recorded new for Indian mangroves from Bhitarkanika 

(Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). This association is unique only to Bhitarkanika 

mangroves. In Bhitarkanika a variety of wild rice (Porteresia coarctata) grows 

abundantly in tidal mud flats. Based on the genetic strain of this wild rice several 

saline and flood resistant varieties of rice have been developed. This has led to a 

tremendous economic impact making it very important. The dominant mangrove 

species in this region are 


Aegiceras corniculatum Merop angulata 

Avicennia officinalis Rhizophora 

apiculata 

Cerbera manghas R. mucronata 

Excoecaria agallocha Sonneratia apetala 

Heritiera fomes Xylocarpus 

granatum 

H. littoralis X. mekongenesis 

Kandelia kandel X. molucensis 

Pure formations of many of these tree species occur in the inner estuarine bank 

Reptiles: Bhitarkanika harbours one of the largest populations of endangered 

saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in India and is globally unique in that 10% 

of the adults exceed 6 m length. Nearly 700 saltwater crocodiles inhabit the rivers and 

creeks of Bhitarkanika today (Kar and Pattnaik, 1999). The eastern boundary of 

Bhitarkanika supports the largest nesting ground of the endangered olive ridley sea 

turtle in the world (Bustard, 1976). Nearly half a million olive ridleys on an avereage 

nest every year along the Gahirmatha coast of Bhitarkanika (Dash and Kar, 1990). 

The water monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) otherwise rare in most part of India, 

commonly occurs here. Besides water monitor, two other species namely common (V. 

bengalensis) and yellow (V. flavescens) monitors are also sympatric here (Biswas and 

kar, 1981). Notable among other reptiles of Bhitarkanika are king cobra 

(Ophiophagus hannah), Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), banded krait 

(Bungarus fasciatus), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and golden tree snake 

(Chrysopelia ornata). 

Birds: Extremely high congregations of migratiory waterfowls are observed in the 

coastal wetlands around Satbhaya village and in the Bhitarkanika forest block of the 

Sanctuary during December and January. The mangrove forests of Bhitarkanika 

harbours one of the largest congregation of breeding water birds in the country 

(Subramanya, 1996). Eleven species of Ciconiiformes are known to nest in this multi 

species nesting colony (Pandav, 1997). The breeding birds in this mixed species 

colony are



(Asian Openbill) 

Anhinga melanogaster 

(Darter) 

Ardea cinerea (Grey 

Heron) 

A. purpurea (Purple 

Heron) 

Bubulcus ibis (Cattle 

Egret) 

Casmerodius albus 

(Great Egret) 

Egretta garzetta 

(Little Egret) 

Mesophoyx 

intermedia 

(Intermediate Egret) 

Nycticorax 

nycticorax (Blackcrowned 

Night 

Heron) 

Phalacrocorax niger 

(Little Cormorant) 

Threskiornis 


(Black-headed Ibis) 

The endangered Lesser Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilos javanicus) also breeds in 

Bhitarkanika. Six species of kingfishers, Black-capped (Halcyon pileata), Whitebreasted 

(H. smyrnensis), Brownwinged (H. amauroptera), Collared (Todirhamphus 

chloris) Common (Alcedo atthis) and Pied (Ceryle rudis) are sympatric here. 

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has recently been identified as an important bird area 

(IBA) of the country. 

Mammals: Bhitarkanika is also home for several mammals. Five species of marine 

dolphins have been recorded from the area. The commonest species encountered in 

this area is the Indo-pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis). The other four 

species of marine dolphins that are found in the coastal waters off Gahirmatha are 

Irrawady dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Pantropical spotted dolphin, Common 

dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and Finless black porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides). 

Notable among the other mammalian fauna of Bhitarkanika are Striped Hyena 

(Hyaena hyaena), Fishing cat (Felis viverrina), Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Smoothcoated 

otter (Lutra perspiciliata), Common palm civet (Paradoxurus 

hermaphroditus), Small Indian civet (Vivericula indica), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix 

indica), Wild boar (Sus scrofa), Spotted deer (Cervus axis) and Sambar (Cervus 

unicolor). 

Land tenure: The site is owned by the state and its surroundings also by private 

Land use: The wetland is used for non-urbanized settlements; rice growing; water 

regulation; aquaculture and irrigation. 

Conservation measures taken: The very first step towards conservation of 

Bhitarkanika has been its declaration as a wildlife sanctuary. Bhitarkanika is one of 

the earliest protected areas of Orissa being declared as a wildlife sanctuary in 1975. A 

separate wildlife division with headquarters at Chandbali was created in 1980 to 

effectively manage this area. The headquarters of the division later shifted to Rajnagar 

in 1991. The Gahirmatha Marine (Wildlife) Sanctuary on the eastern boundary of 

Bhitarkanika was notified in 1997. Bhitakanika National Park was notified in 1998.

Comprehensive Management Plan involving the Protected Areas and surrounds is 

now under preparation. While this is being done, specific species conservation 

measures have been initiated and are summarised below. The wetland has been 

accorded international importance by its designation as a Ramsar Site in 19.08.2002. 

• Saltwater crocodile conservation program: Bhitarkanika was declared as a 

wildlife sanctuary primarily to protect its endangered saltwater crocodile 

population. In 1975 and integrated Government of India and FAO/UNDP project 

was launched to protect and restock the saltwater crocodile population in 

Bhitarkanika with Dr. H. R. Bustard as its Technical Advisor. A 

rearing centre was established at Dangamal for this purpose. This has achieved 

tremendous success in rearing and rehabilitating the species and the population of 

estuarine crocodile in the wild is estimated to be nearly 700 (Kar and Pattnaik, 

1999). Fishing has been completely stopped in Bhitarkanika River and associated 

creeks and the project has resulted in rejuvination of large tracts of mangrove 

forests. 

• Sea turtle project: The Gahirmatha coast which forms the eastern boundary of 

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary harbours the largest known nesting population of 

olive ridley sea turtle in the world. After its discovery in 1974 (Bustard, 1976), the 

wildlife wing of the Orissa Forest Department established Gahirmatha Marine 

Turtle Research and Conservation Centre at Habalikhati-on-sea near the nesting 

beach and took up study on the ecology and nesting biology of sea turtles. 

Immediately after the nesting beach came under protected area status, egg 

collection was banned and through the combined efforts of Orissa and West 

Bengal forest departments, the road and rail transport of sea turtles from Orissa 

was stopped. 

• The death of olive ridley sea turtle because of intense fishing activities increased 

during later part of nineties and concerns were expressed from various quarters 

over this high sea turtle mortality. In order to provide adequate protection to the 

sea turtles in the coastal waters the Gahirmatha Marine (Wildlife) Sanctuary was 

notified in 1997 taking 20 km wide coastal stretch from south of Wheeler Islands 

spanning 35 km to the south. The sanctuary area is patrolled by Forest Department 

and Coast Guards and number of fishing vessels violating the Wildlife Protection 

Act, 1972 are being seized and prosecuted. 

• Mangrove conservation: Although Bhitarkanika is the 4 th largest stretch of 

mangrove forest in mainland India, the diversity of mangrove species is at its 

maximum in Bhitarkanika. This area has been included in the national mangrove 

network and has started receiving support from Government of India for its 

conservation. The “Kalibhanjdia Island” has been identified to be designated as 

the Mangrove Genetic Research Centre. Afforestation of depleted mangrove 

patches have started in different pockets after removal of encroachments due to 

prawn culture. 

Conservation measures proposed: Most important intervention required to save this 

magnificent wetland is to properly delineate the boundary of the diversity rich zones. 

At present the mangrove area encompasses large number of villages which clearly fall 

out side the forested areas. However, large tracts of forest lands still remain 

undemarcated, which requires to be demarcated and reserved. All protected reserve 

forests (PRF) once demarcated in the field and final notification of these PRFs 

announced will benefit management of the area. All newly accreted islands and

mudflats needs to be declared as Reserve Forests. Settlement of all forest blocks 

should be completed within a specified time frame. Any part of the sanctuary where 

the mangroves have vanished or depleted due to anthropogenic intervention and 

creeks have been dyked need to be freed and planted up with suitable species of 

mangroves. 

A shift in house construction strategy, which do not need forest products for 

construction or repairs needs to be promoted. They need to be trained in the new 

technique of construction using local non-forest materials. Social and farm forestry 

needs to be encouraged in the surrounding villages for meeting the need of forest 

material without much dependence on mangroves. Eco-development initiatives to be 

taken up in a big way to reduce people’s dependence on the forest and wetland. 

Ecofriendly aquaculture need to be encouraged in the area to reduce the fishing 

pressure on the surrounding rivers. A regional policy on migration of people from 

other areas need to be developed to prevent further growth in migrating population in 

the region. Political and administrative will are crucial to prevent such inflow of 

people. 

Recent developmental activities on the periphery of the Bhitarkanika region has put 

tremendous pressure on this wetland. A moratorium in construction of roads, jetties 

and harbors in the sanctuary or its fringes to reduce their adverse impact, needs to be 

considered. Wherever they exist, movement of vehicles or number of mechanised 

boats should be properly regulated to minimize the disturbance. 

Tourism in the sanctuary need to be regulated in order to reduce pressure on particular 

patches. All arrangements to accommodate the tourists should be located away from 

the sanctuary and a proper eco-tourism plan for the park need to be developed. 

Disturbance and threats: Due to the rich aquatic life people moved into the area 

resulting in a densely populated and agriculturally prosperous alluvial flat land. The 

site is threatened by construction of saline embarkments for aquaculture and 

consequently elimination of mangroves, clearing of the mangrove forest for 

agriculture including irrigation, intensive fishing in the peripheral river systems, 

exploitation of mangroves for house construction, fencing and fuel wood, as well as 

poaching of wild animals. Successful conservation measures increased the crocodile 

population but also the man-crocodile conflict. The surroundings harbour sizeable 

populations of migratory waterbirds but many of these wetlands lack protection. With 

the recent change in land use pattern, the coastal wetlands and agricultural fields are 

increasingly being converted into brackish water prawn-culture ponds, resulting in 

hypersaline land and a loss of wintering ground for migratory waterbirds. The 

abundant Asian Openbill is loosing its feeding ground (the mollusc Pila globosa 

living in paddy fields). Pressure on the surroundings has increased due to migration 

and settlement of people from West Bengal. 

Socio-economic values: There is a major influx of tourists to Bhitarkanika during 

winter and tourism during rest part of the year is moderate. The influx of tourists to 

the area has generated employment for local inhabitants. For recreation and tourism 

facilities of rest houses and Dormitory are available at Dangmal, Ekakula and 

Habalikhati. 

Mangrove ecosystems have traditionally been sustainably managed by local 

populations for the production of food, medicines, tanins, fuel wood and construction 

materials. Most of the villagers living around Bhitarkanika derive benefits from the

mangrove forests in one way or the other. The entire fishing industry in the area that 

provides employment to local communities is dependent on the rivers and the coastal 

waters adjoining the mangrove forests. The area is commercially important for fishes 

(Hilsa illisha, Lates calcarifer, Mystus gulio and Mullet sp.), for prawns (Penaeus 

indicus and P. monodon), and for honey (3,000 – 5,000 kg in Feb.–May), 

traditionally collected by the local community of ‘Dalei’. In addition to the fishing 

industry, plant species provide employment for the locals: the grass Myriostachia 

wightiana and the climber Flagellaria indica are used for basket and rope making, the 

abundant palm Phoenix paludosa for thatching. Research activities take place, e.g. 

functioning of the mangrove ecosystem, botanical surveys, studies on rice as food 

supplier, wildlife monitoring (incl. a saltwater crocodile and marine turtle centres), 

and peoples dependency on the mangroves. Bhitarkanika mangroves harbour wild 

strains of Paddy, that is tolerant of long duration saline inundation and has significant 

genetic research value for the staple rice-eating community of east-coast of India. 

Importance: Bhitarkanika Mangroves are representing one of the finest and largest 

contiguous remaining patches of mangrove forests along the Indian coast. Of India's 

58 recorded species of mangroves, 55 species are found. The dense coastal forests 

provide vital protection for millions of people from devastating cyclones and tidal 

surges. Gahirmatha beach is said to host the IUCN red-listed, largest known Olive 

Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting beach in the world, with half a 

million nesting annually. The coastal waters are a major mating area for migratory 

turtles. Furthermore, the site hosts the vulnerable Grey Pelican (Pelecanus 

philippensis), and the nationally highest density of endangered saltwater crocodiles, 

with nearly 700 Crocodylus porosus. One of the largest Indian heronries counts more 

than 20,000 nesters. The area regularly supports 30,000 birds with a maximum of 

50,000 in 1995. The site hosts 174 bird species of which 82 species breed. It is also a 

wintering habitat for 57 species of waterbirds. It is also the east coast's main nursery 

for brackish water and estuarine fish. 

Management authority: Divisional Forest Officer; Mangrove Forest Division 

(Wildlife) Rajnagar, Orissa. 

Past and present status: Bhitarkanika is surrounded by thickly populated and 

agriculturally prosperous alluvial flat land. This part of mangrove forest surrounded 

by rivers and criss-crossed creeks is very rich in aquatic life. Taking advantage of this 

people have moved in to this area in large number resulting in creation of new 

settlements and increase in population of the old settlements. The ever increasing 

human population has been a major threat to this wetland resulting in the following 

disturbances: 

a. Construction of saline embarkments for aquaculture and destruction of mangroves 

b. Clearing of the mangrove forest for agriculture. 

c. Intensive fishing activities in the peripheral river systems. 

d. Exploitation of mangroves for house construction, fencing and fuel wood. 

e. Poaching of wild animals. 

Nearly two and half decades of successful conservation measures have resulted in an 

increased crocodile population in Bhitarkanika and its associated river systems. Along 

with the increase in human and crocodile population, and biotic interference in and 

around the park, has led to an increased man-crocodile conflict. So far, there have

een 35 instances of human casualties in the area because of crocodiles (Kar and 

Patnaik 1999). Besides these casualties, there have been numerous accounts of attack 

both on human beings and livestock by crocodile in the area. There is also a growing 

feeling of over abundance of crocodiles in the area among the local communities. Of 

late, this successful conservation measure is becoming a victim of its own success 

resulting in an increased human crocodile conflict. 

Surrounding areas of the wetland: The wetlands adjoining the mangrove forests of 

Bhitarkanika harbour a sizeable population of migratory waterfowl in winter. 

However, many of these wetlands do not come under the jurisdiction of Bhitarkanika 

Wildlife Sanctuary and lack protected area status. With the recent change in land use 

pattern (evident after 1993) all along the Orissa coast, the coastal wetlands and the 

agricultural fields adjoining these wetlands are increasingly being converted into 

brackish water prawn culture ponds. Conversion of the coastal wetlands around 

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary has resulted in a loss of wintering ground for the 

migratory waterfowl. The Asian Openbill, which constitutes a significant percentage 

of breeding birds in the heronry, feeds exclusively on molluscs Pila globosa, in the 

paddy fields surrounding the sanctuary. With the conversion of these paddy fields to 

prawn culture ponds, the Asian Openbills are facing a loss of their feeding grounds. 

This, in the future, may affect the breeding behaviour of these birds in the heronry and 

may be detrimental for the survival of Asian Openbills in the long run. 

Research and facilities: Ever since its establishment as a wildlife sanctuary, 

Bhitarkanika is in the focus of various research activities relating to the mangrove 

ecosystem and its function, vegetation of the mangroves, endangered animals 

inhabiting the mangrove forest and peoples dependency on the mangrove forest. 

Bhitarkanika was declared as a wildlife sanctuary in April 1975 primarily to protect 

the endangered saltwater crocodile from the brink of extinction. Because of poaching 

and loss of habitat the saltwater crocodile population in Bhitarkanika was reduced to a 

mere 35 adult and sub-adult individuals (Kar and Bustard. 1989). In 1975 the 

Government of Orissa established a saltwater crocodile research and conservation 

centre at Dangamal. Through the rear and release program nearly 2,500 crocodiles of 

1m length have been restocked in Bhitarkanika and the present population is around 

700 individuals of both size classes (Kar and Patnaik, 1999). The average density of 

crocodiles (other than hatchlings) in Bhitarkanika has increased from 0.87 

individuals/km in 1976 (Kar and Bustard, 1976 and 1991) to 5.0 individuals/km in 

1998 (Kar and Patnaik, 1999). The breeding population of saltwater crocodile in 

Bhitarkanika is well established now and more than 40 breeding females have been 

recorded in the area (Pandav, 1998). 

Along with the saltwater crocodile head start program, the Government of Orissa in 

1976 established the Gahirmatha marine turtle research centre at Habalikhati to study 

the world's largest nesting population of Olive ridley sea turtles. A long term tagging 

program was taken up by the Orissa Forest Department in 1977 and this programme 

has broadened our present knowledge on the sea turtles nesting at Gahrimatha (Dash 

and Kar, 1990). The Olive ridley nesting population at Gahiramtha was monitored by 

the Wildlife Institute of India between 1995 and 1999. Nearly 9,000 Olive ridleys 

were tagged during this period and several of these tagged turtles have been recovered 

from the western coast of Sri Lanka. 

The most detailed botanical survey of Bhitarkanika mangroves has been carried out 

by the Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta and the result of this survey has been

published in the form of a book (Bannerjee and Rao, 1990). The study by Bannerjee 

and Rao (1990) revealed the presence of 55 of the 58 recorded Indian mangrove 

species in Bhitarkanika. The mangrove plant community in Bhitarkanika is 

characterised by an abundance of species flowering from February to April, during 

which period there is a seasonal migration of bees into the area. The pollination 

biology of some of the mangrove species have been studied by Pandit (1997). 

Research and monitoring has been a regular activity of the wildlife wing of the Orissa 

Forest Department in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary. Some of the regular research 

activities of the wildlife wing in Bhitarkanika includes the annual census of saltwater 

crocodile, nesting olive ridley sea turtle at Gahirmatha and census of the colonial 

nesting birds in the heronry. 

Reference: Banerjee and Rao (1990); Biswas and Kar (1981). Bustard (1976); 

Chadha and Kar (1999); Dash and Kar (1990); Kar and Bustard (1989); Kar and 

Bustard (1991); Kar and Patnaik (1999); Lopex and Mundkur (1997); Pandav (1997); 

Pandav (1998); Pandit (1997); Subramanya (1996); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar 

website). 

HIRAKUD RESERVOIR 

Twenty five kilometers from the end to end, Hirakud (21° 32’ N, 83° 52’ E) is 

the world’s longest main stream dam over the river Mahanadi and one of the major 

dam in India. River Mahanadi drains an area of 141, 600 km 2 of which 46.5 per cent 

lie in Orissa. Its main tributaries are Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonk, Ib, Ong and Tel – 

the last two join the river downstream of the Hirakud Reservoir. Its construction 

started in 1951 and its reservoir started impounding water from monsoon of 1956. The 

total length is 4800 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water temperature ranged from 21 to 

30°C and pH values from 7.3 to 8.5. 


• 

HIRAKUD RESERVOIR 



Actinaustraum sp. Melosira sp. 

Amphora sp. Meoismopedia 

glauca 

Anaebaena orientalis Microsystis sp. 

Anaebaena sp. Navicula sp. 

Ankistrodesmus felcatus Nitzschia sp. 

Anthrospira sp. Nostoc sp. 

Chlamydomonas 

globosa 

Oscillatoria amoena 

Chlorolla vulgaris O. orientalis 

Crucigenia sp. O. simpliccisima 

Cyclotella sp. Pandorina sp. 

Cymbella sp. Pediastrum sp. 

Diatoma elongata Phacus sp. 

Dispora cunciformes Phormidium sp. 

Eudorina sp. Sienedesmus sp. 

Euglena sp. Spirogyra sp. 

Fragilaria sp. Spirulina sp. 

Frustulia sp. Surirella sp. 

Gyrosigma sp. Synecocchus sp. 

Kirchnerilla sp. Synedra ulna 

Melosira ambiguna 

Zooplankton: Rotifera (Brachionus sp., Keratella sp., Asplancha sp., Polyarthra sp.) 

Cladocera (Daphnia sp., Bosmina sp., Moina sp.); Copepoda (Mesocyclops sp., 

Cyclops sp., Nauplii sp.). 


Land use: It is a multipurpose dam meant for irrigation, flood control (down stream 

delta) and power generation.

Socio-economic values: Irrigation for 2,64,228 ha. (Khari-1,55,428 ha; Rabi- 

1,08,800 ha). Power installed is 270 mw. The water can be used for drinking after 

preliminary treatment. 

Reference: Dash et al. (1993). 

RENGALI DAM 

Rengali dam is situated (21° 17’ N, 85° 02’ E) in the Dhenkanal district, Orissa. 

Brahmani is the second largest river in Orissa. It carries 70.50 million acre foot of 

mean annual run-off with maximum flood discharge of 8,00,000 cu.sec. The delta 

region is subjected to frequent flood. The reservoir spreads over 414 sq.km area and 

stores 4.4 lakh hectare meter at RL 120 meter and 5.15 lakh hectare meter at RL 125 

meter. 




• 

RENGALI DAM 

Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and fishing. 

Socio-economic values: The dam supports an important fishing industry and is a 




SATKOSHIA GORGE SANCTUARY 

Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary is situated in (20° 33’ N, 84° 50’ E) the 105 km west 

of Cuttack, Orissa. A 22 km stretch of the Mahanadi river in the Satkoshia Gorge 

between Tikerpara and Barmul. The river is very slow-flowing for much of the year 

and contains many deep pools, even during the dry season. Numerous sand bard and 

gravel beds are exposed at low water levels. The total area of the Sanctuary is 79, 552 

ha.


Reptiles: Until recently, the Satkoshia Gorge section of the Mahanadi river supported 

one of the significant populations of the endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) in 

India. The last wild hatchlings were seen in 1974, and no eggs have been laid since 

the 1976 breeding season. A major efforts, however, being made to restore the 

population with animals reared in captivity from eggs collected elsewhere. 


Land use: The wetland is used for Sanctuary. 

Conservation measures taken: The Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary was established in 

1976 to protect a population of the endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). Some 

107 captive-reared individuals were released into the river between 1977 and March 

1980 to augment the vestigial wild population. The animals are strictly protected 

within the Sanctuary. 


Research and facilities: There has been a considerable amount of research centered 

around the Gharial project. 

Reference: Groombridge (1982) 

• 

SATKOSHIA GORGE SANCTUARY 

CHILKA LAKE 


Chilka lake is (19° 28’–19° 54’ N, 85° 06’–85° 35’ E) in Puri and Ganjam districts, 

Orissa. Chilka, the designated Ramsar site, is the World’s second largest 

brackishwater lagoon, is about 64.5 km long (NE – SW) with a width varying from 

18.5 km in the northern part to 5 km in the souther sector. Chilka is a shallow lake 

separated from the Bay of Bengal by a long sandy ridge not less than 200m wide. The 

range in water depth is from 0.9–2.6m in the dry season to 1.8–3.7m in the rainy 

season.

In the north, the Daya and Bhargavi rivers flow into the lake and, with some eight 

other rivers, annually discharge about 375,000 cusecs of freshwater carrying some 13 

million metric tonnes of silt into the lake. The lake is connected to the Bay of Bengal 

via a channel through the sand ridge in the north-east. The opening point of this 

channel with the lake is known as Magarmukha (Mouth of the Crocodile). The 

important islands found lake are the Nalabana, Kalijai Hill, Krushnaprasadrah (Old 

Parikuda), Badakuda, Sanakuda, Kanthapantha, Nuapara and Honeymoon. The lake 

has been divided into four separate zones namely the southern, central and northern 

sectors and the outer channel area. The total area of this lake is 116,500 ha. in 

monsoon and 89,100 ha. in summer. 


and minimum of 17.5°C was recorded. Salinity ranged from 0.1 to 36‰ and pH 

values form 6.8 to 9.7. 

Algae: Enteromorpha, Gracillaria, Spirogyra, Cladophora and Polysiphonia, Najas 

sp., stoneworts Chara sp., Nitella sp. and Hydrilla sp. Potomegeton spp. 

Amphibians: True Frogs-Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana tigerina, Rana limnocharis, 

Rana breviceps, Polypedates maculatus, Microhyla ornata, Bufo melanostictus 

Fishes: Hilsa ilisha, Mugil macrolepis, Mystus gulio, Lates calcarifer, Polynemus 

tetradactylus, Glossogobius giuris, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, 

Gerres setifer and Mystus gulio. 

Reptiles: Soft-shelled Turtles-Lissemys punctata punctata; Lizards-Hemidactylus 

brooki, H. frenatus, H. leschenaulti, Sitana ponticeriana, Calotes versicolor, 

Psammophilus blanfordanus, Mabuya carinata, Mabuya bibroni, Barkudia insularis, 

Varanus bengalensis; Snakes-Blind Snakes (Ramphotyphlops braminus, Typhlops 

porrectus, Typhlops acutus), Boas (Eryx conicus), File Snakes (Chersydrus 

granulates), Colubrid Snakes (Ptyas mucosus, Boiga trigonata, Dendrelaphis tristis, 

Xenochrophis piscator, Enhydris enhydris, Cerberus rhynchops), Cobras and Kraits 

(Bungarus caeruleus, Naja naja naja), Sea Snakes (Enhydrina schistosa, Hydrophis 

obscurus), Vipers (Vipera russelli). 

Birds: 

Source: http://www.ramsar.org/


Anas acuta E. intermedia 

A. clypeata Fulica atra 

A. crecca Himantopus 

himantopus 

A. penelope Larus 

brunnicephalus 

A. querquedula Limosa limosa 

A. strepera Netta rufina 

Anastomus oscitans Nettapus 


Anser indicus Pelecanus 

philippensis 

Ardea cinerea Phalacrocorax niger 

Ardeola grayii Phoeniconaias minor 

Aythya ferina Phoenicopterus 

ruber 

A. fuligula Podiceps cristatus 

Calidris ferruginea Porphyrio porphyrio 

C. minuta Tachybaptus 

ruficollis 

Charadrius mongolus Tadorna ferruginea 

Chlidonias hybridus Threskiornis 

aethiopica 

Egretta alba Tringa erythropus 

E. garzetta T. tetanus 

Land tenure: State-Owned. Measures are being implemented to declare the area a 

sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. It already has sanctuary status 

under Orissa Forest (Shooting) Rules 1972. Designated as a Ramsar site on accession 

in October 1981. 

Land use: A great deal of human activity takes place at Chilika. More than 9000 

fishing boats operate on the lake, and there are over 15 mechanised ferries 

transporting people between various points. Aerial operations reveal that at least 25% 

(4000 ha in 1991) of the littoral zone of Chilika lake has been taken over for prawn 

culture operations. A huge number of cattle and water buffalo graze in and around the

lake, and local villagers gather reeds and grasses for thatching purposes. A small, but 

growing, number of naturalists and tourists have been attracted to the sanctuary in 

recent years. The drainage basin (over 43000 ha) is heavily populated. Forests, mostly 

deciduous stands of Shorea, Dillenia and Pterosperumum species, cover the upper 

reaches of rivers draining into Chilka, between 300 m and 600 m altitude. They are 

largely over-felled and over-grazed. Stone quarrying in the hilly terrain is common. 

Cultivated areas lie mostly in the fertile, alluvial flat lands to the north of Chilka and 

at place extend right up to the lake. Some 1600 ha of the lake have been reclaimed for 

rice cultivation. The lucrative prawn fishery of the lake has transformed the fish 

landing points into large commercial centres. Rambha and Barkul along the lake are 

tourist centres. Apart from the towns, the shore has 122 fishing villages with a total 

population of around 100,000 while the surrounding area has about 273 villages. 

Conservation measures taken: The entire lake was given "Sanctuary" status in 1973 

under the Orissa Forest (Shooting) Rules 1972. Measures are now being implemented 

to declare the area a Sanctuary under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The lake was 

designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 

October 1981. A core area has been delineated around Nalban Island where fishing 

and grazing will be banned. Hunting is prohibited throughout the lake, and night 

fishing has been banned since 1986. The lake is under the control of the State Wildlife 

Department. The number of staff has recently been increased and is headed by a 

Divisional Forest Officer. 

Conservation measures proposed: An integrated study of the problems facing 

Chilka Lake is urgently required. The area is too vast to permit rigorous control over 

land use, and the great number of people dependent upon the lake will have to be 

accommodated in any conservation strategy for the area. Fishing will be allowed to 

continue at present levels, except in the Nalban core area, but the introduction of 

motorized fishing vessels is to be prohibited throughout the lake. The Fisheries 

Department has submitted a series of proposals to regulate the size of fishing nets, 

declare parts of the lake fish sanctuaries, and earmark seasons for certain species, but 

these have yet to be implemented. 

Socio-economic values: The lake supports a major fishery for finfish, prawns and 

other crustaceans with an estimated 6000 MT of fish taken annually. There has been a 

steady drop in the total fish landings with only 42170 MT being taken in 1990–91. 

About 22% of the catch consists of prawns, followed by mullets. Only a relatively 

small quantity are consumed by local fishermen. Most of the fish landed is exported 

primarily to fish markets in Calcutta. A net revenue of over Rs.70 million is taken by 

the Government from 24 revenue villages along the lake shore, the majority of this 

revenue coming from prawn catches. The State Government receives an annual 

income of Rs. 1 million from the fishing leases. The lake has enormous potential for 

scientific research, outdoor recreation, and tourism, and the State Government is 

developing the area as a tourist attraction. The site has a rich birdlife with over 150 

recorded migratory and resident species. It has one of the largest concentrations of 

migratory waterfowl in India including large flocks of ducks (Anatinae), geese 

(Anserinae), flamingos Phoenicopterus sp., pelican Pelecanus sp., plover Charadrius 

sp., gulls Larus sp. and terns Sterna sp. 

Pollution status: The area is threatened by pollution from domestic and industrial 

waste. The large number (400) of buffalos on Nalban Island is disturbing the 

avifauna.

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society has made some 

investigations at the lake, and conducted bird ringing programmes at Nalban Island in 

February–March 1981 and February–April 1984. A total of 4,546 waterfowl of 56 

species were ringed during the two seasons. The State Government has indicated to 

the Society that it will finance a long term research station at Chilka under the 

supervision of the Society. 

Reference: http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Abbsai (1997); Rath and 

Adhikary (2005). 

ROPAR RESERVOIR 

Ropar wetland is situated (31° 01’ N, 76° 30’ E) near Ropar City, 45 km northwest of 

Chandigarh City, in Ropar and Nawanshahr districts, Punjab. This reservoir at Ropar 

(manmade wetland) was formed due to the construction of Ropar head regulator in 

1952. Before that, small headwork was constructed during the year 1882, on the right 

side of river Sutlej near Ropar Town so as to supply water to Sirhind Canal. With the 

construction of main barrage during the year 1952 water was also diverted into 

another canal - Bist Doab Canal. The reservoir level is maintained at Reduced Level 

(RL) 873.50 feet above Main Sea Level (MSL) compared to the bed level at RL 

857.00 feet above MSL. Depth of water varies from half meters to 6 meters in the 

Reservoir area. Shallow water features exist along both the sides of the river located 

within the wetland area. The annual average inflow during 2000 has been reported to 

be 3677400 cusecs. Per day incoming water at Ropar Wetland from River Sutlej is 

10215 cusecs out of which 2460 cusecs flows into the rivers downstream of Ropar 

Reservoir. 7346 cusecs water is released into Sirhind Canal and 490 cusecs is released 

into Bist Doab Canal per day. Upstream of Ropar Wetland 850 cusecs is diverted 

through Bhakra Main Line. 


Abiotic factors: Climatically this area falls under semi-arid zone of Punjab with 

mean annual rainfall of 1518 mm. 

Trees: A total of 19 species of trees were recorded. These are follows;


Acacia catechu F. religiosa 

A. modesta Mangifera indica 

A. nilotica Melia azadirachta 

Albizzia lebbek Moringa oleifera 

Azadirachta indica Morus indica 

Bombax ciba Prosopis juliflora 

Cassia fistula Salix willow 

Dalbergia sissoo Syzygium cuminii 

Eucalyptus tereticornis Zizyphus jujube 

Ficus Bengalensis 

Bushes and Grasses: A total of 14 species were recorded. These are follows; 


Adhatoda vasica Erianthus munja 

Arundo doanx Eulaliopsis binnata 

Cannabis sativa Heteropogon 

contortus 

Carissa spinarum Lantana camara 

Chrysopogon fulvus Saccharum 

spontaneum 

Cymbopogon maritini Typha elephantine 

Dodonaea viscosa Zyzyphus mauritiana 

Fishes: A total of 21 species of fishes were recorded. These are follows; 

Zoological Name Local 

Name 

Ambasis nama Shisha 

Machi 

A. ranga Shisha 

Machi 

Status 

Ornamental 

Value 

Commercial 

Value

Aorichthys 

seenghala 

Sangarha Commercial 

Catla catla Thal Commercial 

Ceenopharyngodon Grass 

Commercial 

idelle 

Carp 

Channa punctatus Dolla Commercial 

C. striatus Curd Commercial 

Cirrhinus mrigala Mori Commercial 

Colisa fasciata Kanghi Ornamental 

Value 

Cyprinus carpio 

Common Commercial 

communis 

Carp 

C. carpio spacularis Mirror 

Carp 

Commercial 

Labeo calbasu Kalbans 

or Dhai 

Commercial 

L. dero Gid Commercial 

L. dyocheilus Kunni Commercial 

L. gonius Seerha Commercial 

L. rohita Rohu Commercial 

Mastacembelus 

armatus 

Sam Commercial 

Puntius sarana Puthi Commercial 

P. ticto Ticher Wild 

Wallago attu Mali Commercial 

Amphibia (Frogs): Rana tigrina (Indian tiger frog), Rana limnocharis (Indian rice 

frog), Rana breviceps (Indian burrowing frog), Bufo melanostictus (Common toad). 

Reptiles: A total of 18 species of reptiles were recorded. These are follows; 

Zoological Name Common Name 

Tortoises 

Chitra indica 

Geoclamys hamilton 

Lizards 

Calotes versicolor Girgit (blood 

sucker) 

Mabuya macularia 

Ophiodactylus 

tridactylus 

Uromastix hardwicki Sanda 

Varanus monitor 

Snakes 

Echis carinatus Phoorsa 

Eryx johnii johnii Johns sand boa 

Fungarus caerulens Common Indian 

Krait 

Leptotyphlops 

blandfordi 

Lycodon striatus Wolf snake

Naja naja Cobra 

Phython molurus Indian python or 

ajgar 

Psammophis leithi Sand snake 

Ptyas mucosus Rat snake 

Typhlops porrectus Blind snake 

Vipera russelli Russel's viper 

Birds: A total of 49 species of local birds, 11 species of migratory birds, 3 species of 

rare birds and 54 species of common birds were recorded in this wetland. 

Zoological Name 

Local Birds 

Common Name 

Accipiter badius Shikra 

A. nisus Sparrow hawk 

Aeriodotherco 

Bank myna 

giniginianus 

A. tristis Common myna 

Alcedo atthis Small blue 

kingfisher 

Ardea alba Large egret 

Ardeola grayii Pond heron 

Athene brama Spotted owlet 

Aythya ferina Common Pochard 

Bubo bengalensis Great hornedowl 

Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret 

Calidris minuta Little stint 

Caprimulgas indicus Jungle nightjar 

Ceryle rudis Pied kingfisher 

Charadrius dubius Little ringed 

plover 

Coracia benghalensis Indian roller 

Dicrurus adsimilis King crow or 

Drongo 

Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged kite 

Francolinus 

Black partridge 

francolinus 

F. pondicerianus Grey partridge 

Fulica atra Coot 

Gallinula chloropus Moorhen 

Gullus gallus Peafowl 

Halcyon smyrnensis Whitebreasted 

kingfisher 

Haliastur indus Brahminy kite 

Himantopus 

Blackwinged stilt 

himantopus 

Lanius cristatus Brown shrike 

Lanius excubitor Grey shrike 

L. schach Rufousbacked 

shrike 

Oriolus oriolus Golden oriole

Pandion haliaetus Osprey 

Perdicula asiatica Jungle bush quail 

Pitta brachyura Pitta 

Podiceps niger Little Cormorant 

Porphyrio porphyrio Purple moorthen 

Psittacula eupatria Green Large 

parakeet 

P. krameri Roseringed 

parakeet 

Pycononotus cafer Red vented 

bulbul 

Sterna aurantia River tern 

Streptopelia chinensis Spotted dove 

S. decaocto Ring dove 

Sturnus contra Pied myna 

Tockus birostris Grey hornbill 

Treron phoenicoptera Blue rock pigeon 

Tringa hypoleuces Common 

sandpiper 

Tyto alba Barnowl 

Upupa epops Hoopoe 

Vanellus indicus Redwattled 

lapwing 

V. malabaricus 

Migratory Birds 

Yellow wattled 

lapwing 

Anas acuta Pintail 

A. clyopeata Shoveller 

A. penelope Wigeon 

A. platyrhynchos Mallard 

A. poeccilorhyncha Spotbill duck 

A. steopera Gadwall 

Aythya ferina Common pochard 

Circus aeruginosus Marsh harrier 

Hydrophasianus 

Pheasat tailed 

chirurgus 

jacana 

Netta rufina Red Crested 

pochard 

Tadorna ferruginea 

Rare Birds 

Ruddy shelduck 

Dinopium benghalense Goldenbacked 

woodpecker 

Megalaima 

Crimsonbreasted 

haemacephala 

barbet 

M. zeylanica 

Other Birds 

Green barbet 

Acrocephalus 

Ashy grey 

stentoreus 

warbler 

Alauda gulgula Skylark 

Ammomanes Rufoustailed

phoenicurus finch-lark 

Anthus similis Rock pipit 

A. trivalis Tree pipit 

Apus affinis House swift 

Certhia himalayana Tree creeper 

Cisticola juncidis Streaked fantail 

warbler 

Clamator jacobinus Pied crested 

cuckoo 

Copsychus saularis Mag-pie robin 

Corvus 

House Crow 

macroryhynchos 

Cuculus varius Common hawkcuckoo 

Cypsiurus parvus Palm swift 

Dendrocitta vagabunda Tree pie 

Dicaeum agile Thickbiled flower 

pecker 

Embeviza 

Blackheaded 

melangcepala 

bunting 

Estrilda amandava Red munia 

Eudynamys scolopacea Koel 

Galerida cristata Crested Lark 

Hirundo daurica Redrumped 

swallow 

H. rustica Swallow 

H. smithii Wire-tailed 

swallow 

Megalaime asiatica Purple sunbird 

Megalurus palustris Striated marsh 

warbler 

Meolphus lathami Crested bunting 

Mirafra erythroptera Red-winged bush 

lark 

Motacilla alba White wagtail 

M. caspica Grey wagtail 

M. citreola Yellow head 

wagtail 

M. flava Yellow wagtail 

Muscicapa thalassina Verditer 

flycatcher 

Oenantive fenschi River pied chat 

Orthotomus sutorius Tailor bird 

Parus major Grey tit 

Paseer domesticus House sparrow 

P. manyar Streaked weaver 

bird 

P. pyrrhorstus Jungle sparrow 

Pericrocotus 

crinnamomeus 

Small minivet

Phonicurus ochruros Black red start 

Ploceus phillipinus Weaver bird 

Prinia socialis Ashy wern 

warbler 

P. subflava Plain wern 

warbler 

Sanocoloides fulicata Indian robin 

Saxicola caprata Pied bush chat 

S. leucura White tailed stone 

chat 

S. torguata Stone chat 

Tichodroma muraris Wall creeper 

Tophrodornis 

Wood shrike 

pondicarianus 

Turdoides caudatus Common babbler 

T. earlei Striated babbler 

T. malcolmi Grey babbler 

T. striatus Jungle babbler 

Turdus merula Black bird 

T. ruficollis Blackthroated 

thrush 

Land tenure: The site belongs to the government of Punjab and surrounding areas 

are mostly privately owned. 

Land use: The reservoir is an important source of water for irrigation, industry and 

domestic use in remote places via Sirhind and Bist Doab Canals. 

Conservation measures taken: Ever since the recognition of Ropar Wetland as a 

Wetland of National Importance by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of 

India (MEF, GOI), the Punjab State Council for Science & Technology has initiated 

efforts to take up conservation programmes involving the state executing departments. 

Proposals for this purpose are formulated and submitted to the MEF, GOI on annual 

basis. The Ministry has so far provided Rs. 12.70 lac to the State Government for 

various activities. Activities undertaken include plantation in 10 ha area, water quality 

monitoring, fencing in strategic locations and public awareness. A TV and VCR has 

been provided to the district administration for generating public awareness through 

local Environment Protection Society. The district administration has constructed an 

Information Centre-cum-Watch Tower for generating mass awareness and promote 

public participation in the wetland conservation programmes. This information centre 

comprises of a porch (14'x15'), Hall (32'x15'), Room (16'x10'), Toilet (6'x9') and high 

rise watch tower. One public awareness programme was also organised at wetland site 

to infuse grass root level gatherings in our conservation measures. 

Conservation measures proposed: Ropar Wetland essentially has tremendous 

ecological values. But the ecosystem is threatened on many counts, which include 

excessive siltation as a result of the erosion from the adjoining nude hills. Interference 

to the avifauna is also a matter of concern. Immediate steps, particularly, afforestation 

and soil conservation in the highly erosion prone catchment areas in the vicinity of 

this wetland, fencing of strategic areas and awareness of general public are required to 

be initiated. The State Govt. has already constructed an Information Centre and Watch 

Tower for stimulating and sensitising public to understand environment in general and

wetlands in particular. This Centre, however, requires to be strengthened with basic 

facilities like books, blow-ups, binoculars, small telescope, video films, etc. Details of 

the conservation and management and awareness steps alongwith the financial 

requirements are given hereunder:- 

1. Survey and Mapping: A preliminary survey of Ropar Wetland Ecological Zone 

has been done by the Deptt. of Town and Country Planning, Punjab. However, to 

undertake long term conservation and management programmes and to protect this 

wetland it is desirable to conduct detailed survey, including remote sensing survey, 

and prepare comprehensive maps. Subsequently the steps for its notification may be 

taken up. A sum of Rs. 11.34 lac is required for undertaking plane table and contour 

surveys. Work has been started to survey the area. 

2. Afforestation and Soil Conservation: Since this wetland is located right in the lap 

of badly damaged and absolutely nude erosion prone Shivalik Foothills, thousands of 

tonnes of silt gets transported into this wetland and further down every year. This 

excessive siltation is not only reducing the extent of lake but also is transforming the 

functioning of this ecological system. It has been planned to check silt loading in a 

phased manner by undertaking plantation and soil conservation work. This work will 

be initiated first in the vicinity of the wetland. The Deptt. of Forests & Wildlife, 

Punjab shall take up plantation of indigenous species in 50 ha area. Funds to the tune 

of Rs. 40.00 lac are required for this purpose. Council is also proposing to take up 

concrete grid support plantation at strategic locations and arial seeding on inaccessible 

hills. 

3. Fencing and Wildlife Development: The Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab has 

proposed to erect chain-link fence to protect certain strategic areas of the wetland. 

This will help in checking the excessive exploitation of vital wetland resource and 

prevent encroachments of the wetland area. Funds to the tune of Rs. 30.00 lac are 

required for raising fence during the ninth five year plan. Wildlife Deptt. also 

proposes to provide wooden nests of different shapes. Recent experiments in some 

western countries shows that landing of some important birds in wetlands also 

depends upon the clues and signatures supporting the occurrence of some related birds 

in that habitat. Since the birds are important ecological components of any ecosystem 

the results of such experiments may help in artificially encouraging the landing of 

birds. Punjab State Council for Science & Technology proposes to install suitable 

number of plastic birds initially at Ropar and Kanjli Wetland marshes. For this 

purpose Rs. 50,000/- will be required during first two years of the 9th Five Years 

Plan. 

4. Monitoring of Water Quality: Quality of water determines the ecosystem health of 

wetlands. Preliminary studies undertaken by Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) 

under MINARS programme of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India 

has found that water quality is of 'A' category at Nangal, when the river makes its turn 

into Punjab and deteriorates to 'D' downstream of Ropar reservoir. The deterioration 

of water quality is mainly due to the industrial effluents from Nangal Fertilizer 

Limited, Punjab National Fertilizer Corporation, Naya Nangal; Ropar Thermal Plant, 

United Paper Mills, Zenith Paper Mills, etc. Without the immediate curative and 

preventive measures, water quality of this wetland, particularly the areas located 

downstream of Ropar Barrage, may deteriorate still further. Such measures can be 

better planned and executed if detailed base line data regarding pollution levels and 

their source is available. For this purpose, it is essential to undertake extensive

pollution monitoring studies of point and non-point source along the river. PPCB 

undertook studies during 1998-99 and had reported that water quality in the reservoir 

and its upper areas mainly fall in Class ‘A’ to ‘C’ but it deteriorates to Class ‘D’ in the 

downstream area where industrial effluents join the river (PPCB, 2000). The PPCB 

would continue to undertaken such studies at five river monitoring stations. Besides 

physico-chemical analysis of important parameters, biological estimations as well as 

pesticide residue analysis will be undertaken. An amount of Rs. 9.25 lac is required 

for five years for undertaking the above said studies. 

5. Restoration of Storage Capacity of Reservoir: The Irrigation Department, Punjab 

has observed that lot of silt deposition is taking place in the lake thereby reducing the 

lake storage capacity considerably. The Irrigation Deptt. plans to undertake operations 

to remove silt from the reservoir at an approximate cost of Rs. 98.00 lac for five 

years. 

6. Conservation and Development of Fisheries: This wetland had been a major 

source of fisheries ever since. However, the contractors have over exploited this 

resource although some regulation measures are being implemented by the 

Department of Fisheries, GOP. Since the fisheries form an important and integral part 

of food web and human food chain, it is essential to sustainably maintain this fragile 

relationship between the Fish level and the other biotic resource like birds and 

primary producers. Regular release of fish species is highly essential for this purpose. 

To upkeep the fish level it may also be essential to set up some fish seed farms nearby 

and renovate the existing ponds. Besides, some other infrastructure associated with 

the project is required to be developed. An amount to the tune of Rs. 25.00 lac is 

required in this regard. 

7. Research Studies: To analyse the biotic components, foodchain sequence in our 

wetlands and potential threats to these places and their components, and to make longterm 

conservation strategies, the research studies on aquatic ecosystems of Punjab are 

being promoted by the State Science & Technology Department. Certain future 

programmes for wetland conservation will definitely depend upon the research 

database. Punjabi University Patiala undertook studies on aquatic ecosystems of 

Punjab particularly for evaluating the food chain structure. Studies on biodiversity of 

this wetland and limnological parameters besides habitat characteristics and economic 

valuation of Ropar Wetland resource are priority areas of research as are described 

hereunder: 

a) Hydrology and productivity: wetland quality depends closely on water quantity 

and quality. However, decisions regarding dam construction and river 

embankments are made with little thought on their impact upon the productivity of 

rivers and flood plains. The effects of degradation or improvement of wetland 

may not be felt instantaneously or in immediately surroundings. It may be felt at 

later dates and in far away areas. Detailed studies, therefore, need to be carried 

out to study the impact of the wetland on hydrogeology of the area. 

b) Fisheries and sustainable use of wild life Population: Due to heavy pressure on the 

wetland areas on account of various factors like encroachment for agriculture, 

pollution, etc. the impact on faunal populations is catastrophic. It is clear that 

unless solid argument based on hard scientific data is presented for maintenance 

of these sites, this pressure is likely to continue. Hence the need of investigation in 

this area.

c) Traditional human use: Human beings are an important component of any 

ecosystem and are in reciprocal relationship with it. It is important to understand 

how breakdown of traditional controls of land use has increased the rate of habitat 

loss and how it can be checked. Wetland conservation practices can be successful 

only if its social impact is conducive to its use by the people inhabitating that 

ecosystem. It is, therefore, important that social impact analysis of developmental 

versus conservation projects be carried out alongwith environmental impact 

analysis of various human activities initiated in the wetland area. 

d) Land use planning: A thorough understanding of the hydrology, pedology and 

agricultural potential of the site is required in taking decisions regarding 

demarcation of the wetland area. 

e) Economic assessment: Wetlands have been playing crucial role in human 

development by providing functional and ecological values. It is essential to 

undertake economic assessment of Ropar Wetland. Such an assessment would 

definitely act as a motivating tool to convince the public to protect and conserve 

it. 

f) Flora and Fauna: Detailed taxonomic studies of plant and animal species of this 

wetland need to be carried out. This will also help to identify the endemic 

species, if any, of this region, which will invite particular attention for 

conservation. 

A corpus amount of Rs. 25.00 lac for five years will be required for conducting these 

studies. The research projects can be initiated depending upon the availability of 

funds. 

Disturbance and threats: Ropar wetland is facing severe problems of siltation from 

the adjoining deforested hills. Increasing industrialisation is causing an inflow of 

pollutants. Invasive species such as Parthenium sp. and Lantana sp. are a 

further cause of concern. Illegal fishing and poaching also occur. 

Socio-economic values: Ropar area has its distinct place in the District since Anglo 

Sikh relations and territories were defined by an agreement between Maharaja Ranjit 

Singh and Lord William Bentick in October, 1831 under the shade of an old Ficus 

Tree which existed on the bank of River Sutlej. The area is deeply associated with the 

socio-economic development of the State and adjoining regions. The strategic 

location of Ropar Headworks and its link with important towns attract inumerable 

visitors daily. Having tremendous recreational values a number of birds watchers and 

nature lover visit the area. A Tourist Banglow named Pinccasia Tourist Complex 

located inside the wetland offers necessary cuisine facilities. Since this wetland is an 

important source of fisheries, it is significant from economic point of view for the 

State. 

This wetland contributes to the tourism activities to a substantial extent. Nature 

lovers, bird watchers, swimmers and environmentalists visit the area regularly and 

enjoy the nature. A tourism complex 'Pinccasia' within the wetland boundary opened 

in 1975 is also an important attraction for the visitors. A Boat Club is also functioning 

in the area and the boating lovers visit the area from time to time. Tourism facilities, 

at present, at Ropar are being provided by the Punjab Tourism Development 

Corporation. Tourism potential has further enhanced with declaration of Ropar 

Wetland Region as a National Wetland.

Importance: Ropar wetland is an extremely important ecological zone located in the 

lap of Shivalik Foothills. The wetland provides habitat to the endangered turtle Chitra 

indica and the threatened snake Python molurus ("at lower risk"). The site is an 

important breeding area for the globally vulnerable otter Lutrogale perspicillata and 

"at lower risk" mammals such as the deer Axis porcinus, and probably the Indian 

Pangolin Manis crassicaudata. The nationally protected deer Cervus unicolor, and 

several reptiles also breed at the site. Some 35 species of fish play an important role in 

the food chain. The site is also an important staging ground for migratory waterbirds. 

In total, at least 9 mammal, 154 bird (migratory and local), 35 fish, 9 arthropod, 11 

rotifer, 9 crustacean and 10 protozoan species have been reported from the site. 

Research and facilities: There are three Universities in the State namely Punjab 

Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Punjabi University, Patriala and Guru Nanak Dev 

University, Amritsar where necessary infrastructural and scientific facilities are 

available for undertaking studies on this wetlands. Sludge and Water Quality 

Monitoring is being carried out by the Punjab Pollution Control Board, Patiala. Ropar 

Wetland, supporting a large number of biotic components is an important open 

ecosystem for undertaking in-depth studies relating to food chain parameters, energy 

flow cycling, hydrological parameters, biotic status, etc. 

Management authority: Principal Secretary, Department of Science, Technology & 

Environment, Government of Punjab. 

Past and present status: This ecosystem is hard pressed under a diversity of threats 

calling immediate measures. Some of the threats looming over Ropar Wetland 

(PSCST 1992, Ladhar and Handa 1992, Ladhar, 1995) are as under: 

Ropar Wetland is facing severe problems of siltation from the adjoining nude and soft 

hills, which need immediate treatment and greening. The hills being prone to 

continuous and extensive erosion will lead to shrinkage of wetland area. 

The outside interference with the resident and migratory birds, illegal fishing and 

poaching of wildlife may put many species in danger. This needs protection by way of 

fencing, etc. 

Increasing industrialisation is posing a big problem to the ecological status of Ropar 

Wetland. Fertilizer plant at Nangal, Thermal Power Plant at Ropar, etc. are 

responsible for water quality degradation of this eco-system. Inflow of chemical 

pollutants like agrochem-residues run off, industrial effluents and sewage from some 

towns in the upper reaches like Nangal, Naya Nangal, Anandpur Sahib, Kiratpur 

Sahib, etc. need to be immediately assessed and rectification initiated. 

Invasion and growth of weeds like Parthenium and Lantana into the wetland zone is 

also a cause of concern. 

It is, therefore, recommended that the conservation measures need to be initiated 

without any delay since the measures at Ropar will not only restrict at this place but 

also will provide results downstream thus helping the improvement in the ecological 

character of Harike Wetland too. 

Reference: Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab (1993); Dhillon, SS and Kaur H. 

(1996); Ladhar S.S. (1995); Ladhar S.S. and Handa, S.M. (1992); Punjab Pollution 

Control Board (PPCB) (2000); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology 

(1992); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (1998); Punjab 

State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST) (2000); Randhawa, A.S. (1990);

Sharma, BR (1987); Verma, et al. (1994); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website). 

HARIKE LAKE 

Harike lake is situated (31° 13’ N, 75° 12’ E) in the Kapurthala, Ferozepur and 

Amritsar districts, Punjab. The lake is formed by damming of Beas-Sutlej watershed, 

is the biggest watershed of Punjab. The lake was created in 1953 by the construction 

of a barrage at Harike. On account of heavy siltation due to denuded catchment area, 

the ponded area is gradually decreasing. The lake is heavily infested by water 

hyacinth. The total area of the lake is about 4100 ha. 

Abiotic factors: North Indian monsoon climate, typical of the Punjab. The monsoon 

rains have been well below average in many recent years. 

Macrophytes: Dense floating beds of Eichhornia crassipes cover approximately 

70% of the lake, and the emergent vegetation is dominated by Typha sp. Various trees 

have been planted on the reservoir embankments. 

Fishes: The main fish fauna in the lake is Hilsa. 


Birds: The site is important for wintering and staging waterbirds, supporting over 

200,000 Anatidae during the peak of migration. Species include 


Anas acuta A. rapax 

A. clypeata Aythya ferina 

A. crecca A. fuligula 

A. falcata A. marila 

A. penelope A. nyroca

A. strepera Grus grus 

Anser anser Netta rufina 

A. indicus Oxyura leucocephala 

Aquila clanga Tadorna ferruginea 

A. heliaca 

The area is also important for breeding birds, including Haliaeetus leucoryphus. 

Mammals: The mammals include Felis chaus, Canis aureus and the threatened 

Lutra perspicillata. 


Land use: The lake is used for water supply for drinking and irrigation 

Conservation measure taken: The wetland has been identified as a site for 

conservation under the Indian National Wetland Programme. The State Government 

has prepared a Management Action Plan for conservation of the wetland, and has 

been funded by the Central Government. This wetland was also declared a wildlife 

sanctuary by the State Government. The sanctuary area was enlarged in 1992 to 86 sq. 

km. From 1980 – 1985, the Bombay Natural History Society carried out research and 

a bird-ringing programme. 

Disturbance and threats: A major part of Harike Lake is infested by the water 

hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to eradicate 

this rapidly spreading, introduced aquatic plant. The lake is also becoming 

contaminated with chemicals and insecticides used in the surrounding areas. Due to 

deforestation in the catchment area, the lake is getting heavily silted and the pond area 

is gradually decreasing. Fishing continues throughout the year, both day and night, 

and causes some disturbance to wildlife. The use of gill nets has also caused waterbird 

mortality. A large crow (Corvidae) roost, attracted to the site by a nearby carcass 

dump, may be adversely affecting numbers of other breeding birds 

Socio-economic values: The entire lake is leased on an annual basis for commercial 

fishery operations. 

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society is engaged in a 

detailed research and bird ringing programme at Harike Lake. A major ornithological 

field laboratory is being established, and large numbers of birds have already been 

ringed (2,199 individuals of 73 species during the winter of 1981/82). The problems 

and prospects of Harike Lake were detailed in a seminar convened at the Punjab 

Agricultural University, Ludhiana, in 1983. Attempts are currently being made to 

monitor a variety of complex hydrobiological problems including the eradication of 

Eichhornia. 

Reference: http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); WWF India (1993); Devare 

(2002). 

JANUARI RESERVOIR

Januari reservoir is situated (31° 5’ N, 77° E) in the 27 km away from Hoshiarpur 

town, Punjab.Dholbaha dam is a irrigation and flood control project, constructed in 

the year 1986 on Dholbaha choe in Hoshiarpur district for irrigation and flood control 

with the aid from World Bank under Kandi Watershed and Area Development 

Programme. The dam is located sownstream of confluence of Kukanet and Buhera 

khads. Dholbaha dam is an earth fill dam consisting of a central impervious core, 

protected by previous shell zones on its upstream. A principle spillway consisting of 2 

barrel of 200 x 2575 mm at an elevation 417.0 m, combined with an overflow 

auxiliary spillway with its creast fixed at elevation 424.0 m to cater for design flood 

of 16,000 cusecs have been provided. The Reservoir has a total catchment area of 

56/14 km 2 with a gross storage capacity of 1091 ha. The reservoir has a maximum 

depth of 18.5 m. The total area of the dam is 18 ha. Dholbaha reservoir is mainly 

rainfed with a catchment area of 56.14 sq. km. The average annual precipitation is 

reported to be 97.9 cm. The normal reservoir level is 417.0 m at FRL and the dead 

storage level is 405 m. The average water fluctuation in the reservoir is 6.33 m. 



Macrophytes: Ipomea 



Tabellaria Eunotica 

Mastoglioa Calonies 

Fragilara Gyrosigma 

Coconies Planktospharia 

Naviculla Troschia 

Melosira Rhizoclonium 

Neidium Psdiastrum 

Nitzshia Characium 

Amphora Planktosphaeria 

Gomphonema Cystodinium 

Cymbella Nostoc 

Synedra Oscillatora 

Diatoma

Zooplankton: Actinosphaerium, Notholca, Daphina, Cyclops, Diaptomus, Nauplii. 

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cirrhinus 

mrigala. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation purpose 

Socio-economic values: Observations on the fish spectrum of the reservoir showed 

absence of natural fishery. The fish catch is totally composed of culturable fishes 

which are stocked by the Department of Fisheries, Punjab. 

Reference: Kaushal and Sharma (2004). 

KANJLI 

The Kanjli wetland is located (31° 25’ N, 75° 22’ E) about 20 kms North-East of 

Harike. Kanjli wetland came into formation in 1870 with the construction of Head 

Regulator near village Kanjli on the Kali Bein rivulet in Kapurthala district. It 

supports diversity of aquatic, mesophytic and terrestrial flora and fauna including 

some important species of plants and animals. It has a total water spread area of about 

183 ha. It is a permanent stream converted into a small reservoir at Kanjli for the 

purpose of storage for irrigation supplies. 


Abiotic factors: The average annual rainfall in the region is around 700 mm 

extending from July to mid October. The temperature ranges from an average 

minimum of 6ºC, occasionally dropping below the freezing point of water, in winter 

to a maximum of 45ºC in summer (Verma et al. 1994). Hence, water temperature and 

water depth also vary according to season. 

Trees: A total of 12 species of trees were recorded. These are follows; 


Acacia arabica Mangifera indica 

Albizzia lebbeck Melia azedarach 

Azadirachta indica Morus alba 

Dalbergia sissoo Prosopis juliflora 

Eucalyptus hybrid Syzygium cumini 

Ficus bengalensis Ziziphus mauritiana 

Shrubs: Calotropis procera, Ipomoea crassicaulis and Tamarix dioca 

Herbs: Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum, Scirpus sp. and and other common herbs. 

Aquatic flora: 


Chara sp. Potamogeton sp. 

Cyperus sp. Trapa sp. 

Eichhornia crassipes Typha angustata 

Hydrilla sp. T. elephantine 

Nelumbo sp. Vallesnaria sp. 

Nymphea sp. 

Zooplankton: A total of 34 species were recorded. These are follows; 


Protozoa Namatoda 

Amoeba sp. Monochulus sp. 

Centrophxis sp. Monochus sp. 

Coleps hirtus Rhabdolaimus sp. 

Difflugia sp. Ostracoda 

Vorticella sp. Cypris sp. 

Rotifera Copepoda 

Anuroeposis sp. Chiromomus larvae 

Brachionus sp. Cyclops sp.

Cephalodella sp. Mesocyclops 

leuckartii 

Epiphanes sp. Oligochaeta 

Filinia longiseta Chaetogaster sp. 

Keratella valga Diaphanosoma sp. 

Lecane sp. Diplogaster sp. 

Lepadella sp. Cladocera 

Monostyla sp. Alona sp. 

Platyias sp. Bosmina sp. 

Ploesoma sp. Ceriodaphnia sp. 

Testudinella sp. Chydorus sp. 

Trichotria sp. Pleuroxus sp. 

Macrothrix sp. 

Macro invertebrate species: A total of 15 species were recorded. These are follows; 


Insecta Oligochaeta 

Baetis sp. Aelosoma 

bengalensis 

Chironomus 

Branchiura 

tendipediformis 

sawerbytii 

C. tentans Chaetogaser sp. 

Hexagenia limbata Mollusca 

Hydropsyche sp. Indoplanorbis 

exustus 

Limnephilus sp. Lamellidan 

marginalis 

Palpomya sp. Lymnaea lutiola 

Tanypus sp. Melanoides sp. 

Fishes: About 15 fish species have been reported in the District Gazetteer. National 

Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) (Handa, 1993) has reported 

17 fish species as listed in table given below. The common fish species are Catla

catla, Channa marulius, C. striatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, L. rohita. 

List of fish species in Bein and Kanjli lake 


Ambassis bacalus L. calabasu 

Catla catla L. rohita 

Channa maurulius Mystus seenghala 

C. punctatus M. tengara 

C. striatus Notopterus chitala 

Clarius batrachus N. notopterus 

Ctenopharyngodon 

idella 

Puntius sophori 

Cyprinus carpio Wallago attu 

Labeo bata 

Reptiles: As reported in the District Gazetteer (Sharma, 1984), tortoise is commonly 

found in the area. Certain other reptiles have also been reported. 

Birds: Kanjli Wetland supports a large number of resident and migratory birds. It 

attracts almost the same type of avifauna as that of Harike. It, infact, acts as an 

important refuelling base for long distant migratory birds. Some of the common 

resident and migratory birds are listed below; 

Common Resident Birds of Kanjli Wetland Area 

(Based on Deptt. of Wildlife, GOP 1993; PSCST1999) 

Crow Cormorant Red munia 

Little cormorant Indian darter or snake bird Koel 

Parakeets Shikra Sparrow vulture 

Sparrow-hawk Blue rock Weaver bird 

Pigeon Turtle dove Indian robbin 

Ring dove Spotted dove Field king fisher 

Peafowl Bush quail Black-winged kite 

Indian button quail Common quail 

Partridge Grey partridge 

Common coot Purple moorhen 

Lapwing 

Common Migratory Birds of Kanjli Wetland Area 

Various species of goose White eyed pochard 

Wigeon Tufted pochard

Common teal Large whistling teal 

Pintail Mallard 

Shoveller 

Mammals: The mammilion fauna includes Indian Civet, Mongoose, Indian 

porcupine squirrel and common Indian hare. 

Land tenure: The stream itself and surrounding marsh, orchard and forest areas are 

under provincial ownership. Areas surrounding the site are privately owned. 

Land use: The main land use in the area is agriculture which predominates on the 

surrounding fertile plain. 

Conservation measures taken: The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of 

India (MoEF, GOI) selected Harike Wetland and Kanjli Wetlands for conservation 

and management. Subsequently, a State Level Steering Committee was constituted in 

1987 to identify the problems of the area and initiate remedial measures. This 

Committee designated the Environment Division of Punjab State Council for Science 

& Technology for coordinating and implementing the Wetland Projects. The 

conservation and management measures so far taken at Kanjli Wetland with the 

assistance of MoEF, GOI are described as under:- 

1. Survey, Mapping and Notification: A detailed survey of Kanjli Wetland has been 

carried out and draft map as well as draft notification have been prepared by the Town 

and Country Planning Department. Draft notification has been submitted to the 

MoEF, GOI for issuing notification of this wetland as it is important that the Kanjli 

Wetland be notified as protected area under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. 

2. Weed Control: Water hyacinth is a major problem at Kanjli Wetlands and control 

of this weed needs to be taken up on priority basis. Excess of weed is seen to cover 

the entire water surface thus depriving the avian fauna of the very fact, which attracts 

them to these wetlands – a plentiful water availability. Besides, excessive 

transpiration by the plant also leads to enhanced water losses. However, this plant is 

also recognized as a water purifier due to its ability to absorb heavy metals from the 

water bodies. At the same time, its death and decay within the wetland can lead to reentry 

of these chemicals in water further leading to eutrophication. 

Excessive growth of water hyacinth in the West Bein and surrounding ponds thus 

pose a major ecological problem. Since the chemical method of weed removal is not 

desirable, manual method of weed control has been adopted. The experience of 

manual removal of this weed has, however, shown that plants reappear after every 3 

to 4 months. Hence, weed clearance is required about 3 times in a year. Physical 

stoppage of this weed upstream of the main lake area has also not helped in bringing 

this weed under control. Efforts to gainfully utilise this weed for biogas generation 

also could not provide encouraging outcome. The weed control measures have been 

carried out by the Irrigation Department and district administration. District Police has 

also helped for cleaning the lake of this weed at times. During 2000-2001, Army 

cleared some part of the lake. Now it is planned to use conveyor belt system as a 

mechanical way to clear this weed. 

3. Afforestation: The wetlands of Punjab are perhaps not the perfect avian paradise 

though they attract large species of birds. There are perhaps not too many trees for 

birds to operate from. A good tree cover not only provides adequate space for nesting 

and roosting and food for some bird species but it also acts as lungs of the ecosystem.

Further, it promotes understorey vegetation and helps in preventing siltation since 

roots of plants act as effective soil binders. Trees need to be grown not only around 

the ponded area but also on the small islands. Till date about 26 hec. area in Kanjli 

Wetland has been afforested with mixed indigenous species by the Forest Department. 

Work needs to be continued for plantation in both wetland zone as well as catchment 

areas to increase the tree cover. 

4. Fencing: The wetlands need to be protected from excessive grazing by cattle and 

encroachment by public for the preservation of important pockets providing habitat to 

wading birds. Encroachments need to be checked by the District Administration and 

unauthorised occupations removed. Till date 10880 Ln.Ft. fence has been erected 

around the Kanjli Wetland area by the Deptt. of Forests & Wildlife. It may be pointed 

out that the purpose of this fencing is not only to protect young plants but also to 

demarcate habitat for wading birds. 

5. Monitoring of Pollution: The external loading of nutrients is a decisive factor for 

determining the productivity of lake water. Overloading of lakes by nutrients can lead 

to eutrophication. For the restoration of wetland quality, preventive and curative steps 

are required to be undertaken. Hence, monitoring of water quality is an important 

activity because polluted water from some towns and industries enters into the Kali 

Bein. Besides, non-point pollution of farm chemicals from the catchment areas is 

another problem. The Punjab Pollution Control Board has already undertaken 

monitoring of water quality of Kanjli Wetland during 1991–92, 1992–93 and 1996–97 

which shows that the water of this wetland generally conforms to class "B" as per 

designated best use. It however deteriorates to Class 'D' during December. 

PPCB has recommended the following measures: 

1) Intensive afforestation activity is required to prevent the seepage and runoffs 

from the nearby field. A rich tree cover besides, acting as lungs of the 

ecosystem will provide adequate space for nesting of some birds species too. 

2) Weed clearing, manually or by dredging, is frequently required. 

3) Steps should be taken to prevent the people from making the lake a dumping 

site. i) proper level of water must be maintained in the reservoir to save the 

biotic life of the lake in acute summers. ii) Deforestation should be strictly 

prohibited (in catchment along the Kali Bein). 

4) The villages along Kali Bein feeding Kanjli lake must not discharge their 

sullage into the Kali Bein. 

5) The Village Panchayats may use Karnal Technology for use of sullage for 

irrigation purposes. 

6) The farmers be educated to use least amounts of fertilizers and pesticides and 

as far as possible switch over to bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides. 

The extent of water hyacinth in the lake is an indicator that eutrophication has 

increased over the years especially due to use of farm chemicals in the nearby 

fields. What is needed now in view of recommendations of the Board is to 

continue the detailed study of the cause and extent of pollution in the river 

water feeding the lakes and plugging the factors responsible for deterioration 

of water quality. 

6. Public Awareness: The Council has been carrying out public awareness activity by

involving NGOs and other departments. Posters, pamphlets and other information 

material have been published and distributed and educational hoardings have been 

installed at site. Seminars and meetings are organised from time to time. 

Conservation measures proposed: The values of wetlands in landscape and their 

benefits for human kind are increasingly recognized yet economic development 

continues to destroy or degrade wetland systems. It is accepted that wetlands are 

functioning in a larger ecological entity. Their management and conservation 

programmes must, therefore, address to the entire system processes functioning in the 

landscape as a whole to ensure maintaining the sustainability. Various factors has to 

be taken into account for both short and long term measures to prevent any further 

loss and improve their ecological character. A truly holistic approach needs to be 

implemented after optimising all the system qualities. Efforts to conserve Kanjli 

Wetland, which is one of national wetlands, have been continuing for the last few 

years. It is, however, observed that intensive efforts need to be made to restore the 

ecological character of this wetland. PSCST, therefore, proposes to continue 

conservation measures at Kanjli Wetland in coordination with various executing 

departments in the State. Details of all the activities are given below: 

1. Afforestation: Tree cover in wetland area provides suitable microhabitats for 

diversity of fauna. Besides, the spawning of fish takes place preferably under the 

shade of trees in aquatic ecosystem. However, the status of tree cover in wetland area 

is dwindling. Thus efforts are needed to balance the ecosystem by providing more 

greenery by way of planting diverse kinds of native trees like species of Acacia, 

Terminalia, Syzygium, Salix, Pongamia, Morus, Azadirachta, Casuarina, Delonix, 

etc. To extend the area under green cover around the Kanjli Wetland, the Deptt. of 

Forest and Wildlife, Punjab plans to take up plantation in another 10 hecatare area 

during next five years at a cost of Rs. 7.00 lac. 

2. Wildlife Conservation: Wetlands are the important repositories of the diversity of 

wild genetic resource extremely important from long-term ecological point of view. 

But as the wetlands are shrinking the biological resource are also under stress. The 

wildlife at Kanjli Wetland is also suffering loss due to one reason or the other. To 

conserve wildlife resource the Wildlife Deptt., Punjab proposes to take up 

conservation measures like protection of the area by repairing damaged fence already 

erected around the wetland and by erecting barriers. Besides, the Deptt. plans to put 

up some wooden nests to facilitate the multiplication of birds. To avoid disturbance to 

the wildlife it is also planned to put up wooden hideouts for the explorers of 

nature/wetland. These activities shall require an assistance to the tune of Rs. 6.35 lac. 

Recent experiments in some western countries shows that landing of some important 

birds in wetlands also depends upon the clues and signatures supporting the 

occurrence of some related birds in that habitat. Since the birds are important 

ecological components of any ecosystem the results of such experiments may help in 

artificially encouraging the landing of birds. Punjab State Council for Science & 

Technology, therefore, proposes to install suitable number of plastic birds initially at 

Ropar and Kanjli Wetland marshes. For this purpose Rs. 1,00,000/- will be required. 

3. Control and Management of Water Hyacinth: Kanjli Wetland is infested with the 

worlds worst weed i.e. water hyacinth. So far the manual operations have been 

adopted to bring this weed under control. However, the lake get reinfested with this 

weed within no time. To safeguard the ecological character of this ecosystem it is 

planned to take up integrated measures of both physical removal by using conveyor

elt mechanical system and control through biological means. The aim of this activity 

is to establish sustainable long term capacity for maintaining control of water 

hyacinth. The control programme would rely on manual method for rapid short term 

control in restricted areas, and biological agents for long term control. The biological 

control programme would initially rely on release of two weevil species that have 

been found effective world wide and have already been imported, reared and released 

in Harike Ecosystem. These species of weevils are Neochetina bruchi and N. 

eichorniae which are complimentary in their action. The possibility would also be 

explored for supplementing the weevils later by releases of moth Sameodes 

albiguittalis if found appropriate. At present no funding estimates are indicated under 

this project separately as the Comprehensive Proposal for control of water hyacinth 

from catchment drains of Harike Wetland have already been included under Harike 

Wetland project. However, to take up physical removal of weed from Kanjli 

ecosystem area an amount of Rs. 9.50 lacs shall be required for five years. 

4. Water Quality Monitoring: Punjab Pollution Control Board has studied the water 

and sludge quality of Kanjli Wetland area and has reported that water of this late 

generally conforms to Class 'B'. But the quality degrades even to Class 'D' sometimes. 

Recommendation of the studies have been included in previous pages. One of the 

important recommendations is to keep vigil on the level of pollution for which the 

regular monitoring of the lake water must be continued. This shall help to elucidate 

the nature and dynamics of the lake ecosystem on long term basis. PPCB proposes to 

continue the water quality monitoring programme during the next five years for which 

an estimated amount of Rs. 16.00 lacs shall be required. 

5. Conservation of Fisheries: The importance of wetlands has also been linked to 

the productivity of fish species. Besides, the diversity of fish available in particular 

ecosystem determines the ecological status and functional values of that particular 

ecosystem. While the reports shows that their are 17 species of fish existing in the 

lake water of Kanjli but the degrading water quality may exterminate most or even all 

of these species in the times to come if curative measures are not initiated. Therefore, 

a programme aiming at restoring and sustaining the survival of all the species 

available in this lake has been planned. The programme would address the continuing 

pressure by introducing more fish species in the lake but would do so by avoiding the 

unforeseen effects of exotic introductions. With this view the Deptt. of Fisheries 

would take up necessary steps at Kanjli Wetland for which estimated amount of 

Rs. 24.95 lacs shall be required. 

6. Research Studies: This programme aims to provide information on the ecology of 

the lake and its catchment, the biology of its flora and fauna, the impact of 

environmental factors on the lake system and socio-economic implications of the use 

of lakes resource. Research programmes oriented in this direction shall contribute 

towards improved ecological efficiency, greater biodiversity, and ecological balance 

in the lake system. To analyse the biotic components, foodchain sequence in our 

wetlands and potential threats to these places and their components, and to make longterm 

conservation strategies, the research studies on aquatic ecosystems of Punjab are 

being promoted by the State Science & Technology Department. Certain future 

programmes for wetland conservation will definitely depend upon the research 

database. Studies on biodiversity of this wetland and limnological parameters besides 

habitat characteristics and economic valuation of Kanjli Wetland resource are priority 

areas of research as are described hereunder:-

a) Hydrology and productivity: Detailed studies need to be carried out to study the 

impact of this wetland on hydrogeology of the area. Economic productivity linked 

with this issue needs to be evaluated and projected. 

b) Fisheries and sustainable use of wild life Population: Due to heavy pressure on the 

wetland areas on account of various factors like encroachment for agriculture, 

pollution, etc. the impact on faunal populations is catastrophic. It is clear that 

unless solid argument based on hard scientific data is presented for maintenance 

of these sites, this effort is likely to continue. Hence the need of investigation in 

this area. The fisheries research programme would have five sub-programmes: 

Studies of fish biology and biodiversity conservation, aquaculture, socioeconomics, 

database establishment and fish stock assessment. 

c) Traditional human use: Wetland conservation practices can be successful only if 

its social impact is conducive to its use by the people inhabitating around that 

ecosystem. It is, therefore, important that social impact analysis of developmental 

versus conservation projects be carried out alongwith environmental impact 

analysis of various human activities initiated in the wetland area. 

d) Flora and Fauna: Detailed taxonomic studies of plant and animal species of this 

wetland need to be carried out. This will also help to identify the endemic 

species, if any, of this region which will invite particular attention for 

conservation. 

A corpus amount of Rs. 10.00 lac for five years will be required for conducting 

these studies. The research projects can be initiated depending upon the 

availability of funds. 

7. Economic Valuation of Wetland Resource: Wetlands are as yet least understood 

or even misunderstood ecosystems from the productivity values and functional points 

of view in the State. These are being quickly reclaimed under the name of 

reformation. Both manmade and natural wetland places in Punjab are under severe 

threats. Although Harike Wetland has been listed as one of the six Indian Ramsar sites 

of international significance and Kanjli and Ropar Wetlands are of national 

significance and PSCST has also recognized five more wetlands of state importance, 

still environmental deterioration of wetlands is on the peak. This has been despite all 

concerted efforts of the state and union government for their conservation and 

management to ensure their sustainability so that the Society can derive wide-range 

benefits from them. Since the environment is simply incomplete without wetlands 

which provide livelihood on diverse counts, it is extremely essential to understand the 

role of wetlands in general and each of its components in particular, their ecological 

functions and values not wetlands as units but in respect of their contributions to 

agriculture, forestry, recreation, etc. for effective integration of such understanding 

into the overall planning process. 

A three-stage wetland valuation approach may be generally applied to completely 

understand the exact role and values of any wetland. These three steps for evaluation 

of wetland resource and sustainable development may be described as 'General, 

Ecological and Economic Analysis', 'Detailed Parameter Analysis' and 'Specialised 

Issue Analysis' of each wetland ecosystem. Functional values of wetland ecosystems 

shall involve assessment of 'Life Support Functions' with respect to their critical/vital 

position and status, 'Social/cultural functions' with respect to recreational, asthetic 

heritage, educational values, etc., productivity functions with respect to subsistence

and commercial outputs and other functions like future roles/values in long range 

aspects. 

Various management aspects shall directly be related to the wetland values/functions 

and the anthropogenic threats to such ecosystems. So a comprehensive analysis of the 

systems and environmental impacts is required to be undertaken for planning suitable 

measures including involvement of general public. 

Under General Analysis, the following aspects will be covered: 

• Biological components with respect to importance of wetland wildlife including 

waterfowl, plant species rarity/scarcity, etc. and its rating. 

• Hydrological components including water status, erosion and its control, flood 

impact, etc. 

• Productivity potential with respect to direct value products. 

• Social aspects like local or state heritage. 

• Overall rating of wetland significance. 

Under Detailed Parameter Analysis, each of the life support, socio cultural and 

production values will further be critically fractionated and evaluated in terms of their 

exact values and potential with respect to future needs of the system. Different steps 

adopted by international organisations will be adopted and followed for this purpose. 

As regards specialised analysis, specific working matrices will be followed as 

recommended by North Americal Wetland Conservation Council to evaluate use and 

non-use values, option values, existence values, etc. 

For undertaking the economic valuation of resource of Kanjli and Ropar Wetlands 

and five State level wetlands of Punjab, intensive studies shall be conducted for which 

an estimated expenditure of Rs. 15.00 lac shall be required 

8. Public awareness: Conservation and Management of wetland ecosystem can best 

be ensured if the public participates in these programes. It is possible if the public is 

aware about the importance of such eco-systems. Awareness can be created through 

mass-media, educational material, camps, etc. Voluntary Organizations can play an 

important role in translating scientific ideas to public opinion. The informed general 

public can then become a potent force in developing sound wetland management 

policies. The public awareness activities would require funds amounting to Rs. 13.75 

lac during next five years. 

Scientific research and facilities: There are three Universities in the State mainly 

Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana Punjabi University, Patiala and Guru Nanak 

Dev University, Amritsar, where necessary scientific infrastructural facilities are 

available for undertaking studies on this wetlands. Sludge and Water Quality 

Monitoring has been done during the year 1991–92, 1992–93 and 1996–97. A project 

on Management and Control of Aquatic Weed in Kanjli Wetland was taken up by 

NEERI, Nagpur 1993. 

Disturbance and threats: Excessive growth of water hyacinth poses a major 

problem for the site. Some other weeds such as Parthenium are also considered 

problematic. Other threats are reduced inflow of water, increasing pollution levels, 

deforestation in the catchment area, and excessive grazing and soil erosion. 

Socio-economic values: Kali Bein is a permanent rivulet. It acts both as a ground

water discharging and recharging rivulet. Excess water during rainy seasons from the 

adjoining agricultural crops get discharged into the Kali Bein. It also serves as an 

important source of water for agriculture. At the same time it also help in flood 

management. Since the ground water table in adjoining areas is stable as compared to 

rest of the State, the Bein is playing a vital role in hydrology. 

The Kanjli Lake is an important water sponge performing the functions of recharging 

ground water. The ground water is in fact fast receding in some districts of Punjab but 

the observations around this wetland shows that it is playing a tremendous role in 

enriching the ground water thereby helping the nearby population, which is dependent 

on ground water for irrigation, industries and drinking supplies, for easy abstraction of 

water. 

Pressure on underground water is also somewhat relieved as a number of farmers do 

direct abstraction of water from the Kali Bein as it is economical to some extent. 

This wetland is in fact very important source of water in the Kapurthala district as 

such. The Kali Bein which passes almost mid-way through district has much more 

rewarding potential than ever estimated. Throughout its length, the Kali Bein is 

recharging the ground water and also it acts as a discharging drain by taking away 

excessive rainwater from sensitive crops like wheat, potato, etc. 

Importance: Kanjli Wetland is an extremely important ecosystem in the region. It 

support a diverse kinds of food chains and food webs, help in water recharging and 

discharging, improve water quality, reduce flooding, etc. It is an important component 

of socio-religious aspects of the society. 

Various species of important plants like Phragmites, Ipomoea, Potemogetom, 

Vallisneria, Utricularia and variety of tree species improve the habitat. Good number 

of birds, fishes, Zooplanktons and Benthic Invertebrates have been reported in the 

area. However, no endemic species have been reported in the area. 

Management authority: Principal Secretary, Department of Science, Technology & 

Environment, Government of Punjab and Executive Director, Punjab State Council 

for Science & Technology. 

Past and present status: The general problems associated with Kanjli wetland are 

excessive weed growth (mainly, water hyacinth), reducing inflow of water, increasing 

pollution levels, deforestation in catchment areas, excessive grazing and soil erosion, 

etc (PSCST 1992, PSCST 1998, PSCST 2000). 

Reference: Deptt. of Wildlife, Govt. of Punjab 1993; Hand, B.K. (1993); Ladhar S.S. 

(1995); Punjab Pollution Control Board, (1993); Punjab State Council for Science & 

Technology (1992); Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (1998); Punjab 

State Council for Science & Technology (2000); Sharma, B.R. (1984); Verma, et al. 

(1994); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Kler (2002). 

DHOLBAHA RESERVOIR 

Dholbaha reservoir is situated (31° 5’ N, 77° E) in the 30 km away from Hoshiarpur 

town, Punjab. Dholbaha dam is a irrigation and flood control project, constructed in 

the year 1986 on Dholbaha choe in Hoshiarpur district for irrigation and flood control 

with the aid from World Bank under Kandi Watershed and Area Development 

Programme. The dam is located downstream of confluence of Kukanet and Buhera 

khads. Dholbaha dam is an earth fill dam consisting of a central impervious core,

protected by previous shell zones on its upstream. A principle spillway consisting of 2 

barrel of 200 x 2575 mm at an elevation 417.0 m, combined with an overflow 

auxiliary spillway with its creast fixed at elevation 424.0 m to cater for design flood 

of 16,000 cusecs have been provided. The Reservoir has a total catchment area of 

56/14 km 2 with a gross storage capacity of 1091 ha m. The reservoir has a maximum 

depth of 18.5 m. The total area of the dam is 57 ha. Dholbaha reservoir is mainly 

rainfed with a catchment area of 56.14 sq. km. The average annual precipitation is 

reported to be 97.9 cm. The normal reservoir level is 417.0 m at FRL and the dead 

storage level is 405 m. The average water fluctuation is 6.33 m. 



Macrophytes: Ipomea 



Amphora Melosira 

Calonies Naviculla 

Characium Neidium 

Coconies Nitzshia 

Cymbella Nostoc 

Cystodinium Oscillatora 

Diatoma Planktosphaeria 

Eunotica Psdiastrum 

Fragilara Synedra 

Gomphonema Tabellaria 

Gyrosigma Troschia 

Rhizoclonium 

Mastoglioa 

Zooplankton: Actinosphaerium, Notholca, Daphina, Cyclops, Diaptomus, Nauplii. 

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Labeo rohita, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cirrhinus mrigala. 



Conservation measures taken: No information

Socio-economic values: Observations on the fish spectrum of the reservoir showed 

absence of natural fishery. The fish catch is totally composed of culturable fishes 

which are stocked by the Department of Fisheries, Punjab. 

Reference: Kaushal and Sharma (2004).

SAMBHAR LAKE 

Sambhar Lake (27° 00’ N, 75° 00’ E) is the largest saline wetlands of Rajasthan. The 

lake receives run-off from a catchment area of about 552,000 ha and has no outlet. 

Sambhar is fed by four main streams: Roopnagar, Mendha, Kharian, and Khandel. 

Phulera (4 km south of Sambhar) and Didwana (60 km to the northwest) are 

considerably smaller. It is a shallow wetland, the depth if which ranges between 0.5 

and 2.0 metres. Sarnbhar is surrounded by low hills and fossil dunes, with Sambhar 

town being located on one such dune. About 7800 ha of the eastern part of Sambhar 

Lake, north and west of Sambhar town, is devoted to salt production by Sambhar Salts 

Ltd, a Government of India company. About 200,000–250,000 metric tonnes of salt 

are produced annually. Sambhar Lake is skirted by the main Jaipur–Jodhpur railway. 

A 5.16 km long dam (Gudha Jhapog Dam), supporting a railway line used by the salt 

company, has been constructed through the lake, dividing it into two sections: the 

reservoir and salt-works, and the main lake. The area of flooding at each of the saline 

lakes depends upon the volume of monsoon rains, and the depth varies seasonally and 

from year to year from a few centimetres to a maximum of two metres. Sambhar Lake 

often dries out completely in early summer (March to June). Following the heavy 

monsoon rains of 1974, 1975, 1977, and 1980, the Lake retained water throughout the 

year, but in 1987, following four years of drought, it was completely dry by 

December. 



500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 24.4°C to 36.7°C, winter temperatures 

from 11.7°C to 31.7°C. 

Macrophytes: The vegetation present in the catchment area is mostly xerophytic 

type. Shoreline vegetation includes the halophytes Suaeda fruticosa, Salsola 

baryosma and Cressa cretica. The most dominant algae in Sambhar Lake and the salt 

pans are Dunaliella salina, Chlamydomonas sp., Anabaena sp., and Aphanothece 

halophytica. Most of the permanent vegetation around the Lake is xerophytic in 

nature. The main tree species growing in the catchment are Acacia senegal (kumbhet), 

A.nilotica (babul), Salvadora oleoides, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria,

Maytenus emarginata, Azadirachta indica, Tecomella undulata, etc. Prosopis 

cinererea (Khejari) is the dominant tree in the sandy area. Anogeissus pendula, 

Euphorbia royleana, and Boswellia serrata are found growing on the nearby hills. 

The main shrub species are Tamarix dioica, Mimosa hamata, Acacia jacquemontii, 

Leptadenia pyrotechnica, and Calotropis procera. Other vegetation includes 

Saccharum bengalensis, S.spontaneum, Sericostema pauciflora, Crotolaria burhia, 

Tephrosia purpurea, Aerva persica, Tephrosia spp., and Portulaca oleracea. The 

main grasses are Cenchrus pennisetiformis, C.ciliaris, Chloris dolichostachya, 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium. Sporobolus sp., Aleuropus lagopoides, and Chloris 

virgata. The common ephemerals, which make their appearance after the first 

showers, are Farsetia hamiltonii, lndigofera cordifolia, Corchorus trilocularis, 

Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema portulacastrum, etc. 

Special floral values: The green alga Dunaliella salina is an ecologically and 

economically interesting saline species. 

Birds: The site is important for wintering waterbirds, including Pelecanus 

onocrotalus, P. philippensis (1,000 Pelecanus spp.), Phoenicopterus ruber, P. minor 

(500,000 Phoenicopterus spp.), Anser indicus (max. 170), Anas clypeata and 

Recurvirostra avosetta. A large number of ducks and shorebirds occur on passage and 

in winter. Thirteen species of ducks and 32 species of shorebirds have been recorded. 

A mixed flock (totalling approximately 15,000) of the following avifauna were 

observed at Sambhar Lake in January 1993: lesser flamingo, greater flamingo, tufted 

duck, pochard, white pelican, brown-headed gull, black-headed gull, herring gull, 

redshank, greenshank, common sandpiper, blackwinged stilt, pintail, shoveler, 

dabchick, purple moorhen, demoiselle crane, large Indian pratincole, and avocet. In 

addition, an estimated 4000 Phoenicopterus ruber and P.minor were observed at the 

reservoir adjoining the salt pans of Sambhar Lake. 

Land tenure: The site is State owned, but part is leased to the Salt Department of the 

Government of India. 

Land use: Extraction of salt is the only major activity. Domestic livestock graze in 

the areas, and marble is mined in the nearby hills. About 20 villages are located 

around Sambhar lake. Extraction of salt from brine by private individuals is 

undertaken and some cultivation too. 

Conservation measures taken: Hunting is prohibited, and there is a proposal to 

designate the area as a Bird Sanctuary. The wetland has been identified as one of the 

sites for conservation action under the Indian Wetland Conservation Programme, and 

a detailed management plan is in preparation. Sambhar Lake was declared a Ramsar 

Site in 1990. No habitat protection, but shooting is prohibited. The wetland has been 

accorded international importance by its designation as a Ramsar Site in 23.03.1990. 

Disturbance and threats: Increasing siltation of the lake has resulted from 

desertification of the surrounding land, caused mainly through over-grazing by 

domestic livestock. Domestic sewage is discharged into the site from the town of 

Sambhar. 

Socioeconomic values: An area of about 7,800 ha in the eastern part of the lake is 

used for salt production, and is one of the largest of such areas in India. 

Importance: Sambhar Lake is famous for harbouring flamingos in large numbers, 

next only to Rann of Kutch in the country. The waders congregate here in appreciable 

numbers besides migratory ducks; especially pochards, coots and other aquatic birds.

The terrestrial fauna confined to the catchment area includes rare/threatened species 

like Uromastix, saw-scaled viper, desert cat, desert fox, etc. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Alam (1982); Ali and Ripley (1968); de 

Block (1981); WWF INDIA (1987); Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Om Prakash 

Dayama (1988); Sharma (1988); Ramsar website. 

PHULERA, AND DIDWANA SALT LAKES 

Phulera (27° 12’ N, 74° 34’ E) and Didwana (26° 52’ N, 75° 11’ E) situated 

approximately 60 km northwest of Jaipur, Rajasthan. The lakes receives run-off from 

a catchment area of about 552,000 ha and has no outlet. A number of small, shallow, 

brackish water marshes are scattered around these saline lakes. Approximately 20% of 

Didwana Lake is given over to salt pans. The area of flooding at each of the saline 

lakes depends upon the volume of monsoon rains, and the depth varies seasonally and 

from year to year from a few centimetres to a maximum of two metres. The total area 

of the Phulera lake is 600 ha. and Didwana lake is 200 ha. Intense evaporation 

creates an extremely saline environment. The two lakes are surrounded by sandflats 

and dry thorn scrub. 


500 mm. Summer temperatures range from 24.4°C to 36.7°C, winter temperatures 

from 11.7°C to 31.7°C. 

Macrophytes: Most of the permanent vegetation around the Lake is xerophytic in 

nature. The main tree species growing in the catchment are Acacia senegal (kumbhet), 

A. nilotica (babul), Salvadora oleoides, Capparis decidua, Prosopis cineraria, 

Maytenus emarginata, Azadirachta indica, Tecomella undulata, etc. Prosopis 

cinererea (Khejari) is the dominant tree in the sandy area. Anogeissus pendula, 

Euphorbia royleana, and Boswellia serrata are found growing on the nearby hills. 

The main shrub species are Tamarix dioica, Mimosa hamata, Acacia jacquemontii, 

Leptadenia pyrotechnica, and Calotropis procera. Other vegetation includes 

Saccharum bengalensis, S.spontaneum, Sericostema pauciflora, Crotolaria burhia, 

Tephrosia purpurea, Aerva persica, Tephrosia spp., and Portulaca oleracea. The 

main grasses are Cenchrus pennisetiformis, C. ciliaris, Chloris dolichostachya, 

Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Sporobolus sp., Aleuropus lagopoides, and Chloris 

virgata. The common ephemerals, which make their appearance after the first 

showers, are Farsetia hamiltonii, lndigofera cordifolia, Corchorus trilocularis, 

Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema portulacastrum, etc. 

Special floral values: The green alga Dunaliella salina is an ecologically and 

economically interesting saline species. 

Birds: A large number of ducks and shorebirds occur on passage and in winter. 

Thirteen species of ducks and 32 species of shorebirds have been recorded, the lakes 

being particularly important for Anas clypeata and Recurvirostra avosetta. Anser 

indicus is regularly present in winter in small flocks of up to 170 birds, and up to 150 

A. anser have been observed at Phulera and Didwana. 

Phulera Salt Lake is the wintering area for a variety of waterfowl, prominent among 

them (as recorded in January 1993) being Anser anser (15), Ciconia nigra (37), and 

several ducks and waders such as Tringa totanus (12). The species identified at Mudia 

talab adjoining Phulera Lake in January 1993 were coot, pintail, pochard, gadwall, 

common teal, dabchick, redshank, and brahminy duck.

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are partly state-owned and partly 

privately owned. 

Land use: Extraction of salt from brine by private individuals is undertaken and 

some cultivation too. 

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection, but shooting is prohibited. 

Disturbances and threats: Grazing pressure by cattle, sheep, goats, and camels in 

the catchment appears to be intense. Hunting of waterfowl by local communities is 

reported. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Alam (1982); Ali and Ripley (1968); de 

Block (1981); WWF India (1987; 1993); Gole (1984b); Karpowicz (1985); Om 

Prakash Dayama (1988); Sharma (1988); Sangha (2002). 

JAISAMAND LAKE 

Jaisamand is the oldest man-made lake, situated on Lat. 24° 14’ N and Long. 73° 57’ 

E, in the 54 km southeast of Udaipur, Rajasthan. The lake was constructed about 250 

years ago. The catchment area is about 1127 sq.km, almost all of which extends 

towards northwest and northeast. Its source of water is from five rivers, the principal 

being river Gomati and others are small and seasonal. The maximum length and 

breadth of the lake are 13.68 and 8.05 km respectively. Shore-line length is 89.4 km 

whereas shoreline development index (DL) is 3.75. The total area of the lake is 7160 

ha. The greatest depth point (32 m) is neat the centre of lake and the average depth is 

15 m. The lake surroundings receive an average annual rainfall of 62.67 cm with a 

maximum precipitation during southwest monsoon i.e. June to September. 

JAISAMAND LAKE 


Fishes: A total of 22 species were recorded. These are follows; 

S. Species Name S. Species Name 

No 

No 

1 Catla catla 12 L. qonius 

• 


2 Channa marulius 13 L. rohita 

3 C. punctatus 14 Mastacembelus armatus 

4 C. striatus 15 Mystus aor 

5 Cirrhina mrigala 16 M. cavasius 

6 C. reba 17 M. seenghala 

7 Heteropneustes fossilis 18 Notopterus notopterus 

8 Labeo bata 19 Ompok pabda 

9 L. boqut 20 Puntius sarana 

10 L. calbasu 21 Tor tor 

11 L. fimbriatus 22 Wallago attu 

Reptiles: The marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodyluspalustris) is present. 

Birds: The lake is possibly of considerable importance for migratory waterfowl and 

the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) is known to occur. Gole recorded small 

numbers of herons, ducks, gulls, and terns in January /February 1984, but no other 

details are available. 

Land tenure: At least partly State-owned 

Land use: The lake provides irrigation water to neighbouring agricultural land and 

supports an important fishery 

Conservation measures taken: Part of the water catchment area and at least one 

shore of the lake are included in the Jaisamand Wildlife Sanctuary (7000 ha), 

established in 1957 and administered by the Forest Department of the Government of 

Rajasthan. The lake has been stocked with fish. 

Disturbances and threats: The amount of fishing might exceed the capacity of the 

lake, but regular restocking obscures the actual situation. 

Socio-economic values: An important fishery; the lake is regularly stocked with 

large species of carp such as catla, rohu and mrigal. The fishing rights are leased out 

to a contractor for over 50,000 rupees per annum. 

Research and facilities: Limnological studies have been undertaken in the past. 

Reference: Gole (1984b); Luther and Rzoska (1971); Sambasiva Rao and Durve 

(1989); WWF India (1993); Sharma and Sarang (2004). 

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK 

Keoladeo National Park situated (27° 07’–27° 12’ N, 77° 29’–77° 33’ E) in eastern 

Rajasthan, the park is 2 km south-east of Bharatpur and 50 km west of Agra. The site 

comprises a freshwater swamp which is part of the Indogangetic Great Plains. For 

much of the year, however, the wetland area is only some 1,000 ha. The area is 

flooded in the monsoon (July–September) to an average depth of 1–2 m. From 

October to January the water level gradually falls, and from February the land begins 

to dry out. By June only some water remains. The environment is partly man-made 

with dykes dividing the area into 10 units, each with a system of sluice gates to 

control water level. It is unlikely that the site would support such numbers of 

waterfowl as it does without the addition of water from Ajan Bund, a man-made 

impoundment. Soils are predominantly alluvial - some clay has formed as a result of 

the periodic inundations.

Keoladeo Ghana, or Bharatpur as it is often known, is the most famous wetland in 

India. It is situated in a shallow, natural depression at the western edge of the 

Gangetic plain, some 50 km west of the Yamuna river. The well documented avian 

diversity of Bharatpur, which has in fact been artificially induced, began in the 1850s 

when the Maharajah of Bharatpur and his state engineers created at least ten 

extensive, but only seasonally inundated, lagoons divided by a system of earthen 

dykes (bunds). Sluice gates in the bunds facilitated control of the water level in each 

compartment, attracting various species of waterfowl, especially ducks, which were 

periodically shot in vast numbers during the winter season. The water is obtained 

largely from the Ajan bund. A canal flows through the park, and up to 14 million 

cubic metres of water are taken annually from the irrigation reservoir located a 

kilometre outside the park. In years of inadequate rainfall, the inundated area of the 

park has seldom exceeded 850 ha, and the water in the lagoon has rarely achieved the 

maximum depth of two metres. During the 1980s particularly, the existence of 

flooded areas became increasingly dependent upon pumped water, since natural 

inflow from the monsoon rains was far short of requirements. In a year of sufficient 

rains, the lagoons flood during the monsoon to average depths of between one and 

two metres. After October, the level in each lagoon begins to fall; by February, the 

lagoons start to dry out, and in June little water remains. The soils at Keoladeo are 

predominantly alluvial, over-lying kanker pan and some clay formations resulting 

from the periodic inundation. Situated in one of the most densely populated regions of 

India, the park is surrounded by 17 villages, and the city of Bharatpur (population 

50,000) is only two kilometres to the north-west. A metalled road, which is now 

closed to traffic, passes directly through the Park. Collateral roads along the bunds 

branch off this main artery and facilitate observation of the lagoons, which vary in 

size from a few tens of hectares to well over 100 ha. Keoladeo is well-wooded and 

supports several groves of mature trees, in contrast to the surrounding areas which are 

now intensively cultivated. In several of the compartments, there are many artificial 

islands which have been planted with trees to encourage colonial nesting waterbirds. 

Source: http://www.ramsar.org/

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 17.3 to 

32.6°C in atmosphere and 15.6 to 28.7°C in water. The pH values range from 6.6 to 

7.3. 

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation is rich and provides a valuable food source for 

waterfowl. Species include water lilies Nymphea nouchatia, N. stellata and N. 

cristata, the true lotus Nilumbium sp., duckweeds Lemna sp. water fern Azolla sp., 

Vallisneria sp., Hydrilla sp., Naga sp., Chara sp., Ipoma sp., sedges Cyperus sp. and 

lesser reedmace Typha angustata. There is also wild rice. Other vegetation is 

characteristic of a semi arid zone dominated by babul Acacia nilotica, ber Zizyphus 

mauritiana, khejri Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, S. persica and 

Capparis aphylla. 

Protozoans: A total of 117 species of protozoans belonging to 78 genera have been 

identified by Mahajan, Arora et al. (1982). Most species were seriously affected by 

the drought of 1979. 

Molluscs: Various molluscs have been recorded, notably species of Lymnaea and 

Gryllus. 

Fishes: A total of 43 species of fish has been recorded, including Puntius sophore, 

Cirrhinus reba, Heteropneustes fossilis, Channa punctatus, C. striatus, and Colisa 

fasciatus. An estimated 65 million fish fry entered the Park in 1985. 

Reptiles: Reptiles known to occur include the cobra (Naja naja), Python molurus 

(120), Bungurus fasciatus, and Zaocys nigromarginatus, monitor lizard (Varanus sp.) 

and seven species of freshwater turtle of which two species, namely, the spotted black 

terrapin and peacock soft shell are additions to the Rajasthan fauna. 

Birds: At least 332 species of birds have been recorded in the Park. In years with an 

adequate monsoon, many thousands of large waterbirds settle down to breed on the 

wooded islets in July, and tens of thousands of migratory waterfowl arrive in October 

and November to spend the winter in the Park. Keoladeo is particularly famous for its 

wintering flock of Siberian white cranes (Grusleucogeranus). This flock has, 

however, decreased by more than 50% during the past 15 years. 

According to the BNHS study report, changes in the habitat of the Park, for instance, 

non-availability of water and thick overgrowth of grass in the feeding habitat, are 

reasons for the decline in the number of Siberian cranes which generally arrive by the 

beginning of December and depart by early March. In recent years they have been 

less predictable, no doubt partly because of the deteriorating conditions in the Park. 

Perhaps more significantly from an Indian perspective, the population of Sarus cranes 

(Grus antigone) breeding at Keoladeo is steadily declining; almost 20 pairs are 

thought to have bred in 1980, but in 1984, only 11 pairs could be located in the same 

area. However, in late April 1984, 657 Sarus cranes were counted in the Bharatpur 

areas, as compared with only 258 at the same time of year in 1983. But in 1992, the 

numbers declined drastically to 40. Both Pelecanus philippensis and P. crispus occur 

in small numbers when water levels are suitable, and P.onocrotalus is frequently 

recorded in large numbers. P. philippensis has bred, and Ephippirohynchus asiaticus 

does so annually, with maximum of seven pairs. 

Peak counts in recent years have included hundreds of Phalacrocorax carbo, P. 

fuscicollis, and P. niger and the following; 100 Anhinga melanogaster, 100 

Nycticorax nycticorax, 150 Ardeola grayii, hundreds of Egretta garzetta, 100 E. 

intermedia, 240 E. alba, 45 Ardea purpurea, 120 A. cinerea, 20 Anastomus oscitans,

hundreds of Mycteria leucocephala, 35 Ciconia episcopus, 16 Ephippiorhynchus 

asiaticus, 50 Threskiornis melanocephalus, 300 Platalea leucorodia, 250 Anser 

anser, 400 A. indicus, 150 Tadorna ferruginea, 30 Sarkidiornis melanotos, 80 

Nettapus coromandelianus and 5000-10,000 other ducks, mainly Anas penelope, A. 

strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata with smaller numbers of Anas 

poecilorhyncha, A. querquedula, Netta rufina, and Aythya ferina; Anas falcata is an 

occasional winter visitor in very small numbers. Other common waterfowl in winter 

include Tachybaptus ruficollis, Porphyrio porphyrio, Fulica atra (often several 

thousands), Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Metopidius indicus. 

A survey of breeding waterfowl in 1984 recorded the following numbers of nests: 


No 

No 

1 Amaurornis phoenicurus 64 11 Mycteria leucocephala 1749 

2 Anas poecilorhyncha 10 12 Nettapus coromandelianus 5 

3 Anastomus oscitans 5181 13 Nycticorax nycticorax 76 

4 Anhinga melanogaster 225 14 Phalacrocorax carbo 97 

5 Ardea cinerea 32 15 P. fuscicollis 1554 

6 A. purpurea 14 16 P. niger 569 

7 Dendrocygna javanica 5 17 Platalea leucorodia 282 

8 Egretta alba 70 18 Porphyrio porphyrio 24 

9 E. garzetta 390 19 Threskiornis 

melanocephalus 389 

10 E. intermedia 410 

Among the shorebirds, Charadrius alexandrinus, Limosa limosa, Tringa stagnatilis, 

T. glareola, Gallinago gallinago, Calidris temminckii, and Philomachus pugnax are 

particularly common. Rostratula benghalensis, Vanellus leucurus, and V. cinereus 

occur in significant numbers, the last two as winter visitors, and the rare V. gregarius 

has also been recorded as a winter visitor. Keoladeo is famous for a number of birds 

of prey, particularly during the winter months. Haliaeetus leucoryphus breeds, 

frequently nesting close to the administrative centre; Aquila clanga, A. rapax, 

A.heliaca, and A. nipalensis are fairly common. Falco peregrinus, Pandion haliaetus, 

Circaetus gallius, Spilornis cheela and Circus aeruginosus are regularly observed. 

The Park is also host to a diversity of owl species; several breeding pairs of Bubo 

coromandus are particularly noteworthy. 

An avifauna survey in 1992 recorded the following: 


No 

No 

1 Anas acuta (3226) 12 A. fuligula (34) 

2 A. clypeata (187) 13 A. nyroca (51) 

3 A. crecca (1284) 14 Dendrocygna javanica (332) 

4 A. penelope (822) 15 Fulica atra (4372) 

5 A. platyrhynchos (11) 16 Grus antigone (40 in 

6 A. poecilorhyncha (112) 17 

February 1992, and 79 in 

April 1992) 

Grus grus (230) 

7 A. querquedula (226) 18 Netta rufina (15) 

8 A. strepera (669) 19 Nettapus coromandelianus

(9) 

9 Anser anser (69) 20 Sarkidiornis melanotos (5) 

10 A. indicus (1553) 21 Tachybaptus ruficollis (92) 

11 Aythya ferina (268) 22 Tadorna ferruginea (52) 

Mammals: A wide variety of mammals occur, though given the limited area of the 

park and the inhospitability of the surrounding densely settled countryside, No 

information of the species occurs in particularly large numbers. Ungulates include 

blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chital (Axis axis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), hog 

deer (C. porcinus), and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). Indian wild boar (Sus 

scrofa) and Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) are frequently observed. Cats include 

jungle cat (Felis chaus), leopard cat (F. benghalensis) and the marsh-dwelling fishing 

cat (F. viverrina). A lone leopard was sighted for a few months (1987–88) during the 

BNHS study. The smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata) is often seen in the 

lagoons: The common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) and common Indian 

mongoose (H. auropunctatus) are present in large numbers, as is the hare (Lepus 

nigricollis), Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis), jackal (Canis aureus), and Hyaena 

hyaena are present, along with the small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) and 

common palm civet / toddy cat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). Primates are 

represented by the Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and common langur (Presbytis 

entellus). 

Land tenure: State owned. The area was declared a national park on 10 March 1982, 

and accepted as a World Heritage Site in December 1985. Previously the private duck 

shooting preserve of the Maharaja of Bharatpur since the 1850s, the area was 

designated as a bird sanctuary on 13 March 1956 and a Ramsar site in October 1981. 

The last big shoot was held in 1964, but the Maharajah retained shooting rights until 

1972. 

Land use: Formerly local villagers had grazing rights within the Park; these were 

rescinded in 1982. Current land use is designed to enhance the, long-term value of the 

site for scientific study, recreation, and wildlife- oriented tourism. Some deleterious 

forms of land use continue, such as collection of firewood. Khus grass (Vetiveria 

zizanoides) is regularly harvested. Permits to cut grass from April to July every year 

are now given to the villagers. 

Conservation measure taken: Keoladeo Ghana was established as a National Park 

in March 1982, having been designated as a Bird Sanctuary in March 1956. It was 

designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 

October 1981, and was nominated as a World Heritage Site in 1985. The last great 

duck shoot at Bharatpur was held in 1964, but the Maharajah retained shooting rights 

until 1972. The Park is managed by the Forest Department of the State Government of 

Rajasthan. The boundary is clearly marked by a two-metre high stone wall, about 32 

km in length, which encircles the park and was built with financial assistance from the 

Central Government. This wall prevents the entry of domestic livestock, some 5000 of 

which were herded daily into the park before completion of the wall in 1982. Grazing 

by domestic cattle and water buffalo within the park has now almost ceased. The 

density of human settlements surrounding the park precludes the creation of a buffer 

zone. The whole wetland is increasingly dependent on water from the reservoir 

outside the park boundary. As far as possible, water levels are maintained to benefit 

the bird life, but the supply of water is in great demand for agriculture. If the park is in 

danger of drying out completely, water may be pumped from deep wells to ensure the

survival of a core area of aquatic life until the next significant rains. The major road 

which once passed through the park has been re-routed outside. Grazing is prohibited, 

but in recent years Park authorities have allowed regulated harvesting of grasses 

(Paspalum distichum). Harvesting of some grass species and the grazing of water 

buffalo are now seen as essential components of any future integrated management 

plan for the park. Attempts to control the spread of invasive grasses such as Vetiveria 

zizanoides and Paspalum distichum by mechanical means, such as bulldozing, have 

been unsuccessful. After a short period during which the other components of the 

aquatic flora recover, the grasses recolonize the cleared areas with renewed vigour. 

Efforts to manage the aquatic and terrestrial habitats (including grasslands) so as to 

maintain the ecological seral stage of the aquatic ecosystem, continue. Attempts are 

being made to arrest the process of plant succession at a stage suited for avifauna. 

Water supply required for flooding the area has been ensured every year on a priority 

basis by the State Government. The Forest Department employs a Divisional Forest 

Officer, a Deputy Wildlife Warden, a Research Officer, a forester, three rangers, 20 

game guards, some clerks, and an accountant responsible to the Chief Wildlife 

Warden and Park Manager. 

Conservation measures proposed: In view of the recent extensive ecological 

changes, mostly detrimental to the value of the park for water birds, the Bombay 

Natural History Society has made four important recommendations: 

1. A herd of at least 200 water buffalo should be introduced to test the assumption that 

they are an essential part of the Keoladeo wetland ecosystem, keeping the grass 

Paspalum distichum and other species such as Cyperus alopecuroides, Eleocharis 

plantagenia, Typha angustata and Vetiveria zizanoides at lower densities. 

2. Steps should be taken to ensure that at critical times adequate supplies of water are 

available, particularly at the end of July, to promote breeding in the colonial nesting 

species, and later to provide at least some areas for wintering waterfowl and the 

Siberian White Cranes Grus leucogeranus. 

3. The traditional harvesting of khus grass Vetiveria zizanoides, which is used for 

thatch and to produce scented oils, should be permitted to prevent the grass spreading 

into new areas. 

4. The calves of the remaining feral cattle in the dry sections of the park should be 

removed to prevent a population increase, which might seriously affect wild ungulate 

populations. 

The Rajasthan Forest Department has been vehemently opposed to renewed grazing at 

Keoladeo because it would be extremely difficult to enforce a limit on the number of 

animals which should be admitted. 

Disturbance and threats: Leopard Panthera pardus has not been seen since its 

extermination from the area in 1964. Previous threats from fishing and cattle grazing 

have now been eliminated. The high level of pollutants in Arjan Bundh is believed to 

be responsible for the increasing number of piscivorous birds seen in a dazed state and 

unable to fly. Notably fewer birds were recorded in 1984 than in previous years. 

Disturbance from visitors can be cause for concern. The ban on grazing (November 

1982) has caused local resentment, and aquatic plant growth is no longer kept in 

check. Also livestock dung provided nutrients and supported insects. The Ramsar 

Monitoring Procedure was applied in November 1988 because of concern that the 

lack of grazing was leading to weed infestation and loss of wetland.

Socio-economic values: The site supports some 364 bird species and is considered to 

be one of the world's best and richest bird areas. It is the major wintering ground of 

the western population of the endangered Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus. A total 

of 41, including eight young, were recorded in December 1984, the highest number 

for many years (ICBP, 1985) but there were only 19 in 1988–89. Other species 

include gadwall Anas strepera, shoveler A. clypeata, common teal A. crecca, cotton 

teal Nettapus coromandelianus, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, comb duck Sarkidiornis 

melanotos, white spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, 

cormorant P. carbo, Indian shag P. fuscicollis, painted stork Ibis 

leucocepalus, Asian open-billed stork Anastomus oscitans, oriental ibis Threskiornis 

melanocephalus, ruff Philomachus pugnax (probably the most abundant wader), 

darter Anhinga melanogaster, spot-billed pelican Pelecanus philippensis, common 

sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos, wood sandpiper Tringa glareola, green sandpiper T. 

ochropus and Sarus crane Grus antigone. There are many birds of prey including 

osprey Pandion haliaetus, peregrine Falco peregrinus, Pallas' fish eagle Haliaeetus 

leucoryphus, short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus, tawny eagle Aquila rapax, imperial 

eagle A. heliaca, spotted eagle A. clanga and crestedserpent eagle Spilornis cheela. 

Management Practices: Water levels are regulated to benefit waterfowl. If the 

wetland is in danger of drying out completely there are arrangements to pump water 

from deep wells to ensure the survival of aquatic flora and fauna until the next 

monsoon. The boundaries are clearly delineated by a 32 km long, 2 m high stone wall, 

which totally encloses the park to prevent humans and domestic livestock from 

trespassing. Due to the dense human settlement surrounding the park, there is no 

possibility of creating a buffer zone. The road from Bharatpur town, which bisected 

the park, has been closed and relocated outside the boundaries. This has considerably 

reduced the level of disturbance by visitors from the town. Grazing and the collection 

of firewood and khus grass Vetiveria zizenoides were phased out in 1983. The absence 

of grazing, which is now believed to keep waterways open, is causing management 

problems as vegetation blocks up the channels. Remedial measures taken to control 

plant growth include manual removal of weeds and bulldozing. Burning and 

introduction of ungulates is under consideration. 

Research and Facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society has carried out bird 

ringing in the area for the past 20 years. Limnological studies are carried out by the 

Zoology Department of the University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Monitoring of the 

population dynamics of birds has been undertaken by the park management. Under 

the Deputy Chief Wildlife Warden are a research officer, forester, three rangers, 20 

wildlife guards, clerks and an accountant. 

Reference: Pallavi and Rana (2002); Abdulali and Panday (1978); Ali (1953); Ali 

and Hussain(1982); Breeden and Breeden (1982); Breeden and Breeden (1982–1983); 

Grimwood (1981); Jackson (1983); Saxena (1975); Ali and Hussain (1982,1984); Ali 

and Vijayan (1986); Anon (1984); WWF INDIA (1987); Gole (1987a); Jackson 

(1983); Karpowicz (1985); Luther and Rzoska (1971); Mahajan, Arora et al. (1982); 

Mahajan, Sharma, S.D. et al. (1982); Mahajan, Sharma, S.P. et al. (1982); 

Ramachandran and Vijayan (1987); Sauey (1987); Sauey et al. (1987); Saxena 

(1975); Singh et al. (1987); Vijayan and Vijayan (1987); Vijayan (1991); 

http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website); Ajith Kumar and Mittal (1993); Bhupathy 

and Vijayan (1994); Ramachandran and Vijayan (1997); Bhupathy et al. (1998); 

Gargi and Randheera Singh (2000); Gargi and Vibhu Prakash (2002); Gargi (2002); 

Gargi and Vibhu Prakash (2003); Ashok Verma (2003)

JAWAI RESERVOIR 

Jawai reservoir is situated (25° 6’ N, 73° 9’ E) in the Pali district, Rajasthan. The 

impoundment is located across the river Jawai which originates from the eastern 

slopes of Aravali ranges. It was constructed in the year 1957 mainly for drinking 

purposes to fed peoples of Jodhpur town. The reservoir is surrounded by hills of 

Aravali ranges and has a total catchment area of 787 km 2 . In order to supplement the 

available storage, water is added through a canal from near by Sei reservoir. The C/A 

ratio of 30 indicate low inputs of allochthonous nutrients through the catchment 

compared to other reservoir investigated during the survey. The mean depth of the 

reservoir is 7.7 m and water spread area is about 2590. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum water temperature of 

26.5°C and minimum of 22°C. 


• 

JAWAI RESERVOIR 



No 

No 

1 Anabaena 14 Navicula 

2 Botryococcus 15 Oscilatoria 

3 Characiopsis 16 Pediastrum 

4 Characium 17 Peridinium 

5 Coccoenis 18 Phormedium 

6 Cosmarium 19 Rhizoclonium 

7 Frustulia 20 Scenedesmus 

8 Gomphonema 21 Spirogyra 

9 Gyrosigma 22 Synedra 

10 Lyngbya 23 Tabellaria 

11 Meridion 24 Trachiscia 

12 Merismopedia 25 Zygnema 

13 Microcystis

Periphyton: Bacillariophyceae (67.1%), myxophyceae (15.2%), chlorophyceae 

(14.0%) and animalcules (3.7%). Bacillariophyceae thus was rich both quantitatively 

and qualitatively and was represented by Gyrosigma, Frustulia, Navicula, Nitzschia, 

Tabellaria, Epithemia, Mastogloia, Caloneis, Syendra, Fragilaria and Hantzschia. 

Characium, Cladophora represented chlorophyceae. 

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Colurella, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca, 

Bosmina, Monostyla, Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia and Cyclops. 

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna were dominated chironomids (38%). Chaoborus 

constituted 14.3% while tubificids formed 9.7%. 

Fishes: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, Notopterus 

notopterus, O. bimaculatus, T. tor, Mystus seenghala, W. attu, L. gonius, L. bata, B. 

bola and P. sarana. 

Land tenure: Sate-owned 

Land use: Irrigation purpose 



Reference: Sharma and Kaushal (2004). 

GAMBHIRI RESERVOIR 

Gambhiri situated (24° 42’ N, 74° 43’ E) around 35 km from Chittorgarh town, 

Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan., It is an old impoundment across the river Gambhiri a 

tributary of the river Banas. The earth-fill dam was constructed mainly for flood 

control and irrigation purposes in the year 1967. The upper reaches of reservoir 

surrounds by hills of Aravali range. The reservoir has a catchment area of 1036 km 2 

and water spread area is 2,336 ha. It falls under the medium reservoir category. The 

low mean depth of 3.2 m indicate shallow character. The ratio of catchment/area 

(considered to be an index of allochthonous inputs) is moderate (44) reflecting inputs 

of nutrients through the catchment. 

• 

GAMBHIRI RESERVOIR 



25°C and minimum of 19°C. 



No 

No 


2 Cosmarium 10 Peridinium 

3 Cyctodinium 11 Rhizoclonium 

4 Cymbella 12 Scenedesmus 

5 Meridion 13 Synedra 

6 Microcystis 14 Tabellaria 

7 Mougeotia 15 Zygnema 

8 Oscilatoria 

Periphyton: Frustulia, Diatoma, Tabellaria, Navicula, Achnanthes, Melosira, 

Amphora, Stauroneis, Synedra and Fragilaria. 

Zooplankton: Filinia, Keratella, Colurella, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca, 

Haxarthra, Moina, Bosmina, Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Cyclops and Diaptomus. 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna forming 68.65 of the population 

followed by Chaoborus (13.4%), tubificids (10.0%) and molluscs (10.0%). 

Fishes: 


No 

No 

1 Catla catla 7 L. rohita 

2 Channa marulius 8 Mastacembelus armatus 

3 Cirrhinus mrigala 9 Mystus seenghala 

4 Labeo bata 10 Ompok bimaculatus 

5 L. calbasu 11 Wallago attu 

6 L. gonius 


Land use: Flood control and irrigation. 

Socio-economic values: In addition to its importance for water supply, the reservoir 

supports a small fishery supplying local markets. 


SARDAR SAMAND RESERVOIR 

Sardar Samand is a freshwater reservoir, situated (25° 09’ N, 73° 05’ E) in 55 km 

south of Jodhpur, Pali district, Rajasthan. The reservoir is semicircular in shape, 9.45 

km long and 3.85 km wide. The total area of this reservoir is 3641 ha. and maximum 

depth is 5.79 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The pH of the reservoir is 7.9–9.3. 

Macrophytes: Important macrophytes are Potamogeton indicus and Ceratophyllum 

demersum

Phytoplankton: Important phytoplankton species includes, Merismopedia, Nostoc, 

and Oscillatoria. 

Fishes: 


No 

No 

Ichthyofauna 10 P. sophore 

1 Channa marulius 11 Wallago attu 

2 Cirrhinus mrigala Zooplankton 

3 C. reba 12 Asplanchna 

4 Labeo angra 13 Brachionus 

5 L. dero 14 Cyclops 

6 L. rohita 15 Cypris 

7 Mastacembelus armatus 16 Daphnia 

8 Mystus bleekeri 17 Diaptomus 

9 Puntius sarana 

Other faunal species are the shrimp (Caridina weberi), frog (Rana cyanophlyctis), and 

turtle (Lissemys punctata). 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation and drinking purpose. 

Socio-economic values: Provides water for drinking and irrigation. 

Reference: Saxena (1982), Saxena and Bhargava (1984), Saxena and Bhargava 

(1985), Saxena and Bhargava (1987). 

KOTHARI RESERVOIR 

Kothari reservoir is situated (25° 18’ N, 75° 0’ E) near Trivani town, Bhilwara 

district, Rajasthan. It lies across the river in the year 1990. It has catchment area of 

2176 km 2 and water spread area 785 ha. It is a shallow reservoir having a mean depth 

of 3.3 m. 





No 

No 

1 Anabaena 15 Nitzschia 

2 Botryococcus 16 Nostoc 

3 Characium 17 Oedogonium 

4 Coccoenis 18 Oscilatoria 

5 Cosmarium 19 Pediastrum 

6 Cyclotella 20 Peridinium 

7 Cyctodinium 21 Phormedium 

8 Cymbella 22 Rhizoclonium 

9 Gomphonema 23 Scenedesmus 

10 Gyrosigma 24 Spirulina 

11 Melosira 25 Synedra 

12 Meridion 26 Tabellaria

13 Microcystis 27 Trachiscia 

14 Navicula 

Macro-vegetation: The dominant forms were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and 

Potamogeton. Marsilea occurred rarely. 

Periphyton: Periphytic communities were dominated by bacillariophyceae. Diatoms 

were represented by Synedra, Navicula, Cymbella, Tabellaria, Caloneis, Gyrosigma, 

Nitzschia, Melosira and Amphora. Chlorophyceae (13.6%) was comprised of 

Characium and Cladophora. Protozoans were represented by Difflugia. 


Diaphanosoma, Asplanchna, Diaptomus, Moina, Daphnia and Cyclops. 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 56% of the total fauna followed by 

tubificids (18.6%), molluscs (13.5%) and chaoborus (11.9%). 

Fishes: Major crops dominated by Catla catla formed 50% of the catch. Cat fishes 

(Mystus seenghala, Wallago atta, Notopterus notopterus) constituted 32% of the 

catch. Other fishes in the catch were Channa reba, Labeo bata, L. gonius and Channa 

sp. 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation. 




NANDSAMAND RESERVOIR 

Nandsamand reservoir is situated (25° 50’ N, 75° 47’ E) near Nathwara, Rajsamand 

district, Rajasthan. Nandsamand, an impoundment across the river Banas. It is around 

five decade old reservoir having been formed in 1957 mainly for irrigation purposes 

and is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It has a total catchment area 839 km 2 and 

water spread area 407 ha. The catchment/area ratio is quite high (209) indicates inputs 

of good amount of nutrients through the catchment. The mean depth of 5.2 m reveals 

shallow character of the reservoir. 





No 

No 

1 Anabaena 11 Pediastrum 

2 Cosmarium 12 Peridinium 

3 Crucigenia 13 Phormedium 


5 Diatoma 15 Scenedesmus 

6 Frustulia 16 Spirulina 

7 Meridion 17 Synedra 

8 Microcystis 18 Tabellaria

9 Navicula 19 Trachiscia 

10 Oscilatori 20 Zygnema 

Periphyton: Synedra, Daitoma, Merodion, Fragilaria, Navicula, Tabellaria, 

Frustulia and Cocconeis. 

Macrovegetation: The common forms were Hydrilla, Potamogeton and Vallisneria. 


Haxarthra, Daphnia, Bosmina, Cyclops and Diaptomus. 

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna of the reservoir was dominated by chironomids 

(58%). Chaoborus formed 17.4% of the total benthos followed by molluscs (15.9%). 

Fishes: 


No 

No 

1 Catla catla 7 Mystus seenghala 

2 Cirrhinus mrigala 8 Notopterus notopterus 

3 C. reba 9 Puntius sarana 

4 Labeo gonius 10 Tor tor 

5 L. rohita 11 Wallago attu 

6 Mastaccembelus aramtus 






KHARI RESERVOIR 

Khari reservoir is situated (20° 42’ N, 74° 17’ E) in Khari Dantra village, Bhilwara 

district, Rajasthan. Khari, an impoundment across the river Khari a tributary of the 

river Banas. It is a four decades old reservoir constructed for irrigation in the year 

1956. The upper reaches of the reservoir surrounds by hills of Aravali range. The low 

mean depth of 5.0 m indicate shallow character. The ratio of catchment/area 

(considered to be an index of allochthonous inputs) is high (92) and indicates inputs 

of nutrients through the catchment. It has water spread area of 773 ha. 


30°C and minimum of 15.5°C. 



No 

No 

1 Anabaena 16 Navicula 

2 Ankistrodesmus 17 Oedogonium 

3 Characiopsis 18 Oscilatoria 

4 Characium 19 Pediastrum 

5 Chlarococcum 20 Phormedium 

6 Cocchochloris 21 Protococcus 

7 Coccoenis 22 Rhizoclonium

8 Crucigenia 23 Rhoicosphenia 

9 Cyclotella 24 Scenedesmus 

10 Cymbella 25 Spirogyra 

11 Diatoma 26 Synedra 

12 Melosira 27 Tabellaria 

13 Meridion 28 Volvox 

14 Microcystis 29 Zygnema 

15 Mougeotia 

Macrophytes: The dominant form were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Potamogeton. 

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Bosmina, Notholca, 

Diaphanosoma, Asplanchna, Diaptomus, Moina, Daphnia, Chydrous and Cyclops. 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 61.6% of the total fauna followed by 

Chaoborus (19.2%) and molluscs (19.2%). 

Fish: Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, Labeo gonius, L. bata, Barilius bola and 

Puntius sarana. 






SOM KAMLA AMBA RESERVOIR 

Som Kamla Amba reservoir is situated (23° 56’ N, 74° 02’ E) near Amba, Dungarpur 

district, Rajasthan. The reservoir has a catchment area of 5376 km 2 . It has a mean 

depth of 4.8 m and is shallow in nature. The total area of the reservoir is about 3618 

ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Water temperature ranged from 17°C to 

28°C. 



No 

No 

1 Ahanochaete 16 Mougeotia 

2 Amphora 17 Navicula 

3 Ankistrodesmus 18 Nostoc 

4 Characiopsis 19 Pachycladon 

5 Chlarococcum 20 Pediastrum 

6 Closterium 21 Phormedium 

7 Cocchochloris 22 Pleurogaster 

8 Coccoenis 23 Rhizoclonium 

9 Cosmarium 24 Scenedesmus 

10 Crucigenia 25 Schizodictyon 

11 Diatoma 26 Spirogyra 

12 Fragilaria 27 Spirulina 

13 Frustulia 28 Synedra 

14 Merismopedia 29 Tabellaria


Macrovegetation: The common forms of aquatic weeds occurred were 

Potamogeton, Hydrilla and Vallisneria. 

Periphyton: Cymbella, Gyrosigma, Synedra, Navicula, Notzschia, Amphipleura, 

Achnanthes, Meridion and Caloneis. Characium and Cladophora represented 

chlorophyceae (13.8%). Protozoans (4.1%) were represented by Difflugia. 

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Bosmina, Monostyla, 

Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia, Chydrous, Cyclops 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna (42.7%) followed by molluscs 

(34.9%), Chaoborus (16.9%) and tubificids (5.5%). 

Fishes: Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, Labeo rohita, L. gonius, L. bata, Barilius 

bola, Puntius sarana, Catla catla, and Cirrhinus mrigala. 






ORAI RESERVOIR 

Orai reservoir is situated (25° 2’ N, 74° 4’ E) around 3.5 km away from Chittorgarh 

town, Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan. It is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It 

was constructed by blocking the river Orai in the year 1972–73 mainly for irrigation. 

It lies in the Banas river system. Total catchment area of 220 km 2 and water spread 

area 640 ha. The mean depth (5.5 m) shows shallow nature of the water body. 


28C and minimum of 16°C. 



No 

No 

1 Achnanthes 18 Nostoc 

2 Amphipleura 19 Oscilatoria 

3 Ankistrodesmus 20 Pachycladon 

4 Botryococcus 21 Peridinium 

5 Cerasterias 22 Phormedium 

6 Characiopsis 23 Pleurogaster 

7 Characium 24 Protococcus 

8 Chlarococcum 25 Rhizoclonium 

9 Coccoenis 26 Rhoicosphenia 

10 Crucigenia 27 Scenedesmus 

11 Cyctodinium 28 Spirulina 

12 Diatoma 29 Synedra 

13 Frustulia 30 Tabellaria 

14 Meridion 31 Tetraedron 

15 Microcystis 32 Trachiscia

16 Mougeotia 33 Ulothrix 

17 Navicula 34 Zygnema 

Periphyton: Synedra, Stauroneis, Diatoma, Caloneis Fragilaria, Amphora, 

Gyrosigma, Melosira and Cymbella. 

Macrovegetation: Aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Potamegton, Elodea 

occurred only in winter season. 

Zooplankton: Polyarthra, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Trichocerca, Notholca, 

Bosmina, Asplanchna, Diaphanosoma, Moina, Diaptomus, Daphnia, Chydrous, 

Cyclops 

Macrobenthos: The bottom fauna of the reservoir was dominated by Chironomods 

(52.4%). Molluscs formed 18.5% of the total benthos. Tubificids constituted 16.9% 

while Chaoborus formed 9.2%. 

Fishes: 


No 

No 

1 Channa reba 7 N. notopterus 

2 E. vacha 8 Osteobrama cotio 

3 Labeo gonius 9 Puntius sarana 

4 Mastacembelus armatus 10 Tor tor 

5 Mystus seenghala 11 Wallago attu 

6 Notopterus chitala 






UDAISAGAR RESERVOIR 

Udaisagar reservoir is situated (24° 33’ N, 73° 47’ E) near Udaipur town, Udaipur 

district, Rajasthan. Udaisagar, an impoundment across the river Bedach a tributary of 

river Banas. It is an oldest impoundment having been formed in 1965. The catchment 

of the reservoir is surrounded by hills of Aravali ranges. It has a catchment area of 

31.1 km 2 and total water spread area 440 ha. The low depth of 7.0 m indicate shallow 

character. The ratio of catchment/area is high (109) indicating inputs of nutrient 

through the catchment. 





No 

No 

1 Achnanthes 17 Melosira 

2 Amphora 18 Meridion 

3 Botryococcus 19 Microcystis 

4 Caloneis 20 Mougeotia

5 Characiopsis 21 Navicula 

6 Characium 22 Oedogonium 

7 Chlarococcum 23 Oscilatoria 

8 Cocchochloris 24 Phormedium 

9 Coccoenis 25 Rhizoclonium 

10 Cosmarium 26 Scenedesmus 

11 Crucigenia 27 Spirogyra 

12 Cyclindrospermum 28 Synedra 

13 Fragilaria 29 Tabellaria 

14 Frustulia 30 Wollea 

15 Gomphonema 31 Zygnema 

16 Hydrocoleum 

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Filinia, Brachionus, Diaphanosoma, Notholca, 

Diaptomus, Asplanchna, Moina, Chydrous, Daphnia and Cyclops. 

Periphyton: Bacillariophyceae (69.0%) dominated over myxophyceae (19.1%) and 

chlorophyceae (13.5%). Diatoms were represented by Cymbella, Tabellaria, 

Calonoeis, Synedra, Gyrosigma, Diatoma, Melosira, Navicula, Stauroneis and 

Cocconeis. Chlorophyceae were represented by Characium and Cladophora. 

Protozoans were represented by Difflugia. 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids constituted 83.8% of the total fauna followed by 

Chaoborus (9.5%) and molluscs (4.8%). 


Land use: The reservoir is used for irrigation 




WEST BANAS RESERVOIR 

West Banas reservoir is situated (24° 41’ N, 72° 57’ E) in the Sirohi district, 

Rajasthan It lies across the main river West Banas, around 35 km away from Sirohi 

town. It has a total catchment area of 508 km 2 and water spread area is 940 ha. The 

reservoir is mainly constructed for irrigation in the year 1965–66 and is surrounded by 

hills of Aravali ranges. The out flow from Jawai reservoir joins the river West Banas. 

The mean depth of 4.2 m suggest shallow character of the reservoir. The C/A ratio of 

54 indicates more inputs of allochthonous nutrient through the catchment. 



Macrophytes: The dominant forms were Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Potamogeton. 

Periphyton: Synedra, Gyrosigma, Cymbella, Navicula, Fragilaria, Tabellaria and 

Stauroneis. 



No 

No 

1 Anabaena 14 Navicula

2 Botryococcus 15 Oedogonium 


4 Characium 17 Peridinium 

5 Coccoenis 18 Phormedium 


7 Diatoma 20 Rhoicosphenia 

8 Frustulia 21 Scenedesmus 

9 Gomphonema 22 Synedra 

10 Gyrosigma 23 Tabellaria 

11 Meridion 24 Trachiscia 


13 Mougeotia 

Zooplankton: Arcella, Keratella, Polyarthra, Brachionus, Colurella, Notholca, 

Trichocerca, Daphnia, Haxarthra, Cyclops, Diaphanosoma and Diaptomus. 

Macrobenthos: Chironomids dominated the fauna (83.8) followed by Chaoborus 

(8.1%) and molluscs (8.1%). Maximum concentration of benthos were in winter 

season. 

Fishes: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, L. gonius, Mystus seenghala, Wallago attu, 

Mastacembelus armatus, Ompok bimaculatus, Channa marulius and Puntius sarana. 



Socio-economic values: In addition to its importance for water supply, the reservoir 

supports a small fishery supplying local markets. 


LAKES OF CENTRAL RAJASTHAN 

Lakes in the vicinity of (24° 30’–27° 05’ N, 73° 35’–76° 20’ E) Udaipur, Bhilwara, 

Bundi, Kota, Ajmer and Jaipur, central Rajasthan. Numerous large and small water 

storage reservoirs (tanks) scattered throughout a region of about 40,000 sq.km in 

central Rajasthan. At least 300 of the tanks exceed 100 ha in extent and about 25 

exceed 1,000 ha, but few if any are larger than 5,000 ha All are fresh to brackish. The 

tanks were constructed at various times during the last 600 years by bunding the 

numerous predominantly intermittent or seasonal water courses which drain the 

monsoon run-off from the eastern flank of the Aravalli Range into the Banganga 

Nadi, Dhund Nadi, Banas, Kural Nadi and Chambal Rivers (tributaries of the 

Ganges). The water level in the tanks is wholly dependent upon the monsoon rainfall; 

in recent periods of drought, many of the lakes have dried up for the first time in 

hundreds of years. Others dry up annually in summer or are reduced to shallow 

puddles. As water levels fall, muddy fringes and small islands are exposed. The 

maximum depth tends to be 5–6 m in the rainy season, and 2 m in the dry season. The 

largest and most important tanks are as follows: Galaisagar, Kandhar and Mansarovar 

near Udaipur; Uniara and Begimpura near Bhilwara; Chandlai and Bhimlat near Kota; 

Phoolsagar, Dhamna, Bharda, Rustomganj, Sarauli, Mansagar, Hindoli and Ramsagar 

near Bundi; New Barol, Bhaniyan, Ramsar, Sardarsamand and Anasagar near Ajmer; 

and Aakera, Chhaparwada, Jalsagar, Mahlan and Morel near Jaipur. In addition to 

these relatively large water storage reservoirs, there are innumerable smaller tanks, 

particularly to the southeast of Nasirabad (28° 00’ N, 74° 45’ E) and west of

Indargarh (25° 43’ N, 76° 11’ E). The entire area forms a transitional belt between the 

Great Indian Desert to the west and the Vindhya Range to the southeast. The region is 

one of sandy plains sloping gently to the northeast, relieved by stoney uplands 

between the river systems. In the southern part, the tanks are surrounded by 

cultivation, whilst to the north and west, scrub and thorn forest predominate. The total 

area of wetlands are unknown, however about 300 lakes of 100 to 5,000 ha in area 

and many smaller lakes and ponds in a total region of about 4,000,000 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of about 490–640 

mm. The rainy season is from July to September. Temperatures rise to 40–45°C in 

summer and fall to 8–10°C in winter. 

Macrophytes: Several of the reservoirs support marginal emergent vegetation, 

particularly sedges (Carex spp.) and rushes (Typha spp.). Surrounding areas are either 

degraded thorn forest and scrub dominated by Anogeissus pendula trees or 

agricultural land with scattered Prosopis cinereria and Acacia nilotica trees. The 

principal crops are cereals, cotton and groundnuts. 

Birds: At least 25 of the tanks attract sizeable numbers of migratory ducks, coots and 

shorebirds during the winter months, and the region as a whole is extremely important 

for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably Pelecanus onocrolalus, storks, 

Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoeniconaias minor, Anser indicus and cranes. Large 

numbers of ducks and coots occur at some sites; for example, over 11,000 ducks and 

4,800 Fulica atra were recorded by Gole during a survey of seventeen lakes in 

November 1982. The ducks included: 260 Tadorna ferruginea; 290 Nettapus 

coromandelianus; 16 Sarkidiornis melanotos; 740 Anas Penelope; 760 A. crecca; 160 

A. poecilorhyncha; 1,400 A. acuta; 640 A. querquedula; 2,100 A. clypeata; 390 Netta 

rufina; 2,500 Aythya ferina; 630 A. nyroca; 770 A. fuligula. As many as 500 

Pelecanus onocrotalus have been recorded at Sarauli Tank. Anastomus oscitans and 

Ciconia episcopus are common throughout the region, and Grus antigone occurs quite 

commonly in the central and eastern parts. Anthropoides virgo passes through the 

region in very large flocks in November; over 1,000 were recorded at Mahlan Tank in 

November 1982. The region is especially important as a wintering area for the 

vulnerable Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus. Some 80,000 A. indicus were reputed to 

winter in Rajasthan in the past, and there may still have been as many as 20,000 in the 

early 1980s. Flocks of over 500 have been reported at Sarauli and Bharda Tanks, and 

smaller flocks, generally of 40–150 birds, at Chhaparwada, Ramsar, Dhamna, Uniara, 

Begimpura, Mansarovar, Galaisagar, Aakera and Morel. Anser anser also occurs in 

winter, but in much smaller numbers. Many species of migratory shorebirds occur in 

large numbers, the commonest being Limosa limosa and Philomachus pugnax. In 

February 1986, Wells observed 2,000 Himantopus himantopus and 3,500 

Philomachus pugnax together with smaller numbers of Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis, 

T. glareola, Actitis hypoleucos and Calidris minuta at one tank near Jaipur. 

Rhynchops albicollis has been recorded at Chandlai Tank. 

Land tenure: The tanks are state owned (Government Irrigation Department); 

surrounding areas are partly state owned and partly private. 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic consumption, and some fishing 

and reed-cutting; livestock grazing and cultivation in surrounding areas. During the 

dry season, the beds of some of the tanks are cultivated by private land holders.

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection, but all hunting and shooting is 

prohibited throughout the State of Rajasthan. 

Conservation measures proposed: Nine of the larger tanks, namely Galaisagar, 

Begimpura, Bharda, Ramsagar, Ramsar, Sardarsamand, Chhaparwada, Mahian and 

Morel, are particularly rich in wildlife and have been identified a sites worthy of 

special protection. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal waterfowl hunting is common at some of the tanks, 

especially near Jaipur. Pollution poses a potential threat at many of the tanks, 

particularly those in the vicinity of Kota, Udaipur and Ajmer, where industrial 

development projects have recently been initiated. Excessive grazing in the water 

catchment areas and destruction of the deciduous and thorn forests are resulting in 

increased rates of siltation and affecting water quality. The inflow of domestic sewage 

in lakes around Udaipur (e.g. Pichola Lake) is resulting in eutrophication and the 

proliferation of aquatic weeds. 

Socio-economic values: Some of the tanks have important religious significance to 

the local inhabitants and are places of pilgrimage. 

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses have been carried out at some of the 

larger tanks. 


SACRED KHECHOPALRI LAKE 

Sacred Khechopalri lake is situated on Lat. 27° 22’ 24” N and Long. 88° 12’ 30” 

E in the Sikkim Himalaya. The total area of this lake is 12 km 2 .The depth of the 

lake is 3.2 m to 11.2 m and open water area is 37900 m 2 . 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 24°C and 

minimum of 4°C. The pH values ranged between 6.8 and 8.5. 

Macrophytes: Aponogeton monostachyon, Ceratophyllum sp., Monocharia 

vaginalis, Scirpus sp. 

Phytoplankton: Phytoplankton species composition belonging to different families 

showed Chlorophyceae (18) to be the most dominanat group, followed by 

Chrysophyceae (15), Cyanophyceae (11), and one species each of Charophyceae, 

Euglenophyceae, Dinophyceae and Cryptophyceae. 

Zooplankton: Among the zooplankton, it comprised of 7 rotifers, 5 protozoans, 2 

each of copepods and cladocerans, and 1 each of ostracods and isopods. 

Fishes: Cyprinus carpio, Danio aequipinnatus, Garra sp., Schistura sp. and 

Schziothorax sp. 


Land use: The lake is not used for any other purpose expect for rites and rituals. 

Socio-economic values: Sacred Khecheopalri lake is a famous lake “With fulfilling 

lake”. 

Reference: Alka Jain et al. (2005).

MUTHUPET MANGROVE 

The mangrove wetland is located (10° 46’ N and 79° 51’ E) in the southernmost end 

of the Cauvery delta in the districts of Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur and Thanjavur. It is 

part of a large coastal wetland complex called the Great Vedaranyam swamp. The 

mangrove wetland comprises different categories of wetland such as healthy 

mangroves, degraded mangroves, lagoons, tidal creeks and man-made fishing canals. 

Many drainage arteries of the Cauvery basin namely, Paminiyar, Karayar, Kilaithangi, 

Marakakorayar flow through the Muthupet and adjacent villages and create a lagoon 

before they entry into the Palk Strait. The northern as well as the western to border of 

the lagoon are occupied by a dense mangrove community. The southern portion of the 

lagoon is formed by a sand sprit which is devoid of mangroves. The total area of the 

wetland is about 6803 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 26 to 35°C 

in atmosphere and 25 to 35°C in water. The salinity values ranged from 0 to 38‰, and 

pH values from 7 to 8.9. 

Mangroves: The Muthupet mangrove wetland is characterized by the presence of the 

following extrusive mangrove species were Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegiceras 

corniculatum, Avicennia marina, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora mucronata, 

Lumnitzera racemosa and associated species were Suaeda maritima, Suaeda monica, 

and Salicorina brachiata. 

Phytoplankton: Seventy six species of Phytoplankton and 90 species of zooplankton 

have been reported (Kalidasan, 1991). Diatoms are dominant group of Phytoplankton 

followed by dinoflagellates, chlorophyceans. 

Cyanobacteria: 

S. 

No 

Species Name S. 

No 

Species Name 

Aphanocapsa littoralis 

Aphanocapsa koordersi 

Gloeocapsa sp. 

Johannesbaptistia pellucida 

Microcystis robusta 

Oscillatoria curviceps 

Oscillatoria claricentrosa 

Oscillatoria tenuis 

Oscillatoria calcuttensis 

Oscillatoria vizagaptensis 

A. bullosa

Phormidium sp. 

Porphyrosiphon natarsii 

Schizothrix telephorides 

Spirulina major 

Synechocystis sp. 

Zooplankton: Among the zooplankton, copepods dominate and the rotifers. 

Molluscs: Among molluscs, bivalves such as, Meretrix meretrix, Perna viridis, 

Crosso sensis, Anadora rhombea, Placenta placenta, Crassostrea madrasensis, 

Martesia sp., Meretrix casta, Perna indica and Gastropods such as, Cerithidea 

fluviatilis, Littorina scabra, Nassarius stolatus, Neritina violacea, Telescopium 

telescopium, Pythia plicata, Melampus ceylonicus and Balanus spp. are found. The 

edible oyster Crassostrea madrasensis (> 9 cm) and their spats are abundant on the 

microdeltas and on the emerged land pockets. 

Shell fishes: Penaeus indicus. P. monodon, Metapenaeus dobsoni, M.ensis, 

Macrobrachium rude, mud crab Scylla serrata, field crab Portunus puber, hermit crab 

Eupagurus bernhardus, dobi crabs Uca lactea, U. dussumieri, mud lobster Thalasima 

anomola, Sesarma fascinata and the woodlouse Cyathura sp. Seeds of crustaceans 

such as P. indicus (July–September), P. monodon (October–December), 

M. dobsoni (January–March), M. monoceros (January–March) are commonly 

available at Muthupet (Oswin, 1997). During May the post-larvae of the crustaceans 

are found to approach the coast in large numbers. 

Fin fishes: Muthupet mangrove harbors 73 species of finfish (Cecilia Pandian, 1996). 

Seeds of Mugil spp., Chanos chanos are more during April to June. From January to 

March the seeds of Sillago sihama are abundant 

Insects: A total of 107 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Acisoma panorpoides 55 Loccotrephes sp. 

2 Aedes sp. 56 Loxostege similalis 

3 Aeschnid sp. 57 Lygus linecolaris 

4 Alabama aggillaceae 58 Macrodactylus subspinosus 

5 Amarygmus caparium 59 Mantis religious 

6 Ammophila levigata 60 Megachile latimanus 

7 Anaphelus sp. 61 Melanoplus differentialis 

8 Andren wilkella 62 M. femurrubrum 

9 Anteas florilla 63 Melanotus fossilis 

10 Apis dorsata 64 Mesonsemia croesas 

11 A. florida 65 Microcentrum rhombifolium 

12 Aris vivida 66 Moobia quadridens 

13 Brachynus americanus 67 Murgantia luptescens 

14 Brochymena araborea 68 Mutilla sexmaculata 

15 Calosoma scrutafor 69 Mylabris postulate 

16 Camnula pellucidae 70 Necrophorus marginetus 

17 Canthom virida 71 Necrosia pholidofus 

18 Carpocopsa pomonella 72 Neoconocephalus 

exilisconorus 

19 Catopsila horella 73 Oecophylla sp.

20 Ceratine sp. 74 Oedemerid sp. 

21 Chaetochema continis 75 Onthophagus longicornis 

22 C. pulicaria 76 Orthetrum brunneum 

23 Challa crule 77 Oryctes rhinoceros 

24 Chilocorus biralnerous 78 Papilio polytes 

25 Chion cinctus 79 Paralobesis viteana 

26 Chlaenus circumdatus 80 Paratettix cuculatus 

27 Chrysocoris stolli 81 Perillus bioculatus 

28 Cicindilla ocdonota 82 Pherasophus lineforms 

29 Coccinella septempuncata 83 Photinus pyralis 

30 Componotus sp. 84 Phyllophaga crassima 

31 Crambus mutabilis 85 Planthypena scabra 

32 Crocothemis erytbraea 86 Polidours aristolochiae 

33 Culex sp. 87 P. hector 

34 Danae fab 88 P. polyxenes 

35 Danais chrysippus 89 Polistes annularis 

36 D. eucharis 90 Precis lemonias 

37 D. limance 91 Promachus sp. 

38 D. mellisa 92 Recticulitermus flavipes 

39 D. plexipus 93 Rhyothenus varigata 

40 Dryinius trifascians 94 Saperda calcarata 

41 Easarcories ventralis 95 Sceliphram 

mandrospatatnam 

42 Elaster sp. 96 Sclenopsis sp. 

43 Ergolis aradine 97 Stizus prismaticus 

44 Estigmena acrae 98 Systena balanda 

45 Gorocephelum hotnanseggi 99 Tabanus striatus 

46 Gryllotalpha hexadactyla 100 Telechinae violae 

47 Gryllus assimilus 101 Tenebroides mauritanicus 

48 Haematobia tritans 102 Terlas hacabe 

49 Halisodota caryace 103 Triatoma sanguisuga 

50 Hemicocephalis basalis 104 Trichobaris trinotata 

51 Heptosia nina 105 Xylocopa aestuans 

52 Irdomyrmex humilis 106 Zezura viridule 

53 Leptocorisa varisuga 107 Zyorotypus lubbari 

54 Libellula luctuosa 

Amphibians: Rana hexadactyle, Bufo melanostictus and Rhacophorus maculatus. 

Reptiles: Veranus salvator, Naja naja, Bungarus coerulas, Enhydrina schistosa, 

Helonia mydas, Sternotherus sp. and Testudo elegans. 

Birds: A total of 160 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Accipiter badius 81 Hirundo daurica 

2 Acridotheres tristis 82 Hydrophasianus chirurgus 

3 Acrocephalus dumetorum 83 Jynx torquilla 

4 Actitis hypoleucos 84 Lanius cristatus 

5 Aegithina tiphia 85 L. schach 

6 Alauda gulgula 86 L. vittatus

7 Alcedo atthis 87 Larus brunnicephalus 

8 Amaurornis phoenicurus 88 L. cachinnans 

9 Anas acuta 89 L. fuscus 

10 A. clypeata 90 L. ichthyaetus 

11 A. crecca 91 L. ridibundus 

12 A. poecilorhyncha 92 Limosa lapponica 

13 A. querquedula 93 L. limosa 

14 A. affinis 94 Lonchura Malacca 

15 A. strepera 95 L. punctulata 

16 Anastomus oscitans 96 Merops orientalis 

17 Anhinga melanogaster 97 M. philippinus 

18 Anser indicus 98 Mesophoyx intermedia 

19 Anthus rufulus 99 Milvus migrans 

20 A. similis 100 Mirafra assamica 

21 Ardea cinerea 101 Motacilla cinerea 

22 A. purpurea 102 M. flava 

23 Ardeola grayii 103 Muscicapa dauurica 

24 Arenaria interpres 104 Mycteria leucocephala 

25 Artamus fuscus 105 Nectarinia asiatica 

26 Athene brama 106 N. zeylonica 

27 A. noctua 107 Nenus cinereus 

28 Aythya ferina 108 Nettapus coromandelianus 

29 Bubulcus ibis 109 Numenius arquata 

30 Burhinus oedicnemus 110 N. phaeopus 

31 Cacomantis passerinus 111 Nycticorax nycticorax 

32 Calidris minuta 112 Oriolus oriolus 

33 Caprimulgus asiaticus 113 Orthotomus sutorius 

34 Carpodacus erythrinus 114 Pandion haliaetus 

35 Casmerodius albus 115 Passer domesticus 

36 Centropus sinensis 116 Pavo cristatus 

37 Ceryle rudis 117 Pelecanus philippensis 

38 Charadrius alexandrinus 118 Peridicula asiastica 

39 C. dubius 119 Phaenicophaeus viridirostris 

40 C. hiaticula 120 Phalacrocorax carbo 

41 C. leschenaultii 121 P. niger 

42 Chlidonias hybridus 122 Philomachus pugnax 

43 Circus aeruginosus 123 Phoenicopterus minor 

44 C. macrourus 124 P. ruber 

45 Cisticola juncidis 125 Pitta brachyura 

46 Clamator jacobinus 126 Platalea leucorodia 

47 Columba livia 127 Ploceus philippinus 

48 Copsychus saularis 128 Pluvialis fulva 

49 Coracias benghalensis 129 Porphyrio porphyrio 

50 Corvus macrorhynchos 130 Psittacula krameri 

51 C. splendens 131 Pycnonotus cafer 

52 Cyornis tickelliae 132 P. leucogenys 

53 Cypsiurus balasiensis 133 Recurvirostra avosetta 

54 Dendrocitta vagabunda 134 Rostratula benghalensis 

55 Dicaeum erthrorhynchos 135 Saxicola caprata 

56 Dicrurus macrocercus 136 Saxicoloides fulicata

57 Dinopium benghalense 137 Sterna albifrons 

58 Dromas ardeola 138 S. aurantia 

59 Egretta garzetta 139 S. caspia 

60 E. gularis 140 S. hirundo 

61 Elenus caeruleus 141 Streptopelia chinensis 

62 Eremopterix grisea 142 S. decaocto 

63 Eudynamys scolopacea 143 Sturnus malabaricus 

64 Falco tinnunculus 144 S. pagodarum 

65 Ficedula parva 145 Sylvia curruca 

66 Francolinus pondicerianus 146 Tachybaptus ruficollis 

67 Fulica atra 147 Tephrodornis pondicerianus 

68 Galerida cristata 148 Terpsiphone paradisi 

69 Gallicrex cinerea 149 Threskiornis melanocephalus 

70 Gallinago gallinago 150 Tringa glareola 

71 G. stenura 151 T. nebularia 

72 Gallinula chloropus 152 T. stagnatilis 

73 Gelochelidon nilotica 153 T. tetanus 

74 Glareola lacteal 154 Turdoides affinis 

75 Halcyon pileata 155 Tyto alba 

76 H. smyrnensis 156 Upupa epops 

77 Haliastur Indus 157 Vanellus indicus 

78 Hierococccyx sparverioides 158 V. malabaricus 

79 H. varius 159 Zoothera citrine 

80 Himantopus himantopus 160 Z. wardii 

Mammals: Cannis aureus, Lepus nigricolis, Lutra lutra, Paradoxurus 

hermaphroditus¸ Vivericula indica, Herpestes edwardsi, Mus booduga, Rattus rattus, 

Pteropus gigantus, Rhinolophus rouxi, and Cynopterus sphinx. 


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns and crabs surrounding 

areas are mainly under cultivation for coconut and paddy. Large-scale extraction of 

“Industrial Grade Salt” is being carried out. Fishing is also done. The women engaged 

in collecting firewood in the mangroves for their livelihood, do it regularly since there 

is a good demand from the local tea shop owners and illicit arrack distillers. 

Conservation measures taken: The mangrove wetland is managed by the Tamil 

Nadu Forest Department under the supervision of the Wildlife Warden, 

Nagapattinam. At the field land, a Rage Officer Overseas the Protection and other 

management activities. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the area are reclamation for 

agriculture; uncontrolled grazing by domestic livestock, and over-exploitation of the 

forest resource. Pollution from domestic sewage and agricultural run-off has also been 

reported. There is a considerable among of general disturbance throughout the area, 

partly caused by tourism. Trees are being cut and vegetation removed for construction 

work. 



coastal erosion. The area has considerable potential for wildlife tourism; if this could

e shown to provide an alternative source of income for the local people, further 

destruction of the natural resource might be averted. 

Reference: Kannan et al. (2002); Jayapaul et al. (1992); Oswin (1998); Oswin 

(1999); Selvakumar and Sundararaman (2001); Selvam et al. (2002). 

KOONTHAKULAM AND NEARBY TANKS 

A group of small village tanks (water storage reservoirs) and ponds within a 10 km 

radius of Koonthakulam (8° 28’ N, 77° 44’ E), including Koonthakulam village tank 

and an unnamed seasonal pool one km to the east-southeast. Koonthakulam Tank has 

a raised bund with masonry revetment. The tanks and pools are set in an area of 

relatively low human population density, with arid scrub and plantations of mesquite 

Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica. The largest Acacia plantation is to the west of 

Koonthakulam Tank and the largest area of Prosopis is to the northeast. The tanks are 

usually full from October to March; they generally dry out in the hot season, but some 

water enters when the nearby irrigation canal overflows. The total area of the 

Koonthakulam tank is 77 ha and area of other tanks are unknown. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with most of the rainfall occurring during 

the Northeast Monsoon in October and November. 

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. There are large 

plantations of Prosopis juliflora and Acacia nilotica and patches of arid scrub in 


Special floral values: The region exhibits good examples of native scrub 

communities. The relative abundance of Palmyra sp is especially interesting. 

Birds: One of the most important breeding areas for cormorants, herons, egrets, 

storks, ibises and spoonbills in Tamil Nadu. There are many small breeding colonies 

of cormorants and egrets with a few Anhinga melanogaster and Ardea cinerea in the 

Tirunelveli area, usually in large trees inside villages. The breeding colony at 

Koonthakulam is particularly large and includes significant numbers of Pelecanus 

philippensis and Mycteria leucocephala. Most of the cormorants, herons and egrets 

nest in old neem trees inside the village, but the pelicans and storks favour less 

disturbed sites on the periphery of the village. The surrounding scrubby areas are an 

important roosting refuge for some storks and ibises. The tanks provide rich feeding 

areas for the breeding birds, and also support large numbers of migratory waterfowl, 

particularly ducks and shorebirds, during the northern winter (December–February). 

Phoenicopterus ruber is a regular winter visitor in flocks of 50–60, Anser indicus is 

an occasional winter visitor in flocks of up to 50, and Ciconia ciconia is a regular 

passage migrant, also in flocks of up to 50. The surrounding rather open scrub 

supports a distinctive and increasingly threatened avifauna as yet unprotected by 

existing reserves. 

Land tenure: At least some of the wetlands are state owned (State Forest 

Department). 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation; livestock grazing and collection of firewood in 


Conservation measures taken: The nesting birds are protected by the sentiments of 

local inhabitants. The State Forest Department has taken an interest in protecting the 

breeding water birds even though the present colonies are not all on State land.

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that a Water bird Sanctuary 

be established and that attempts be made to move the main breeding colony of water 

birds to a new area where it can be afforded better protection. This could perhaps be 

achieved by planting trees suitable for long-term use by the birds. Protection of 

neighbouring water bodies would be essential for the viability of the whole area. The 

scrub along the roadsides should also be given some protection. 

Disturbances and threats: The main threats are destruction of trees for firewood and 

excessive grazing by cattle in the area around the tanks. Many birds are now forced to 

nest in trees on the periphery of the village and in mesquite scrub, often in vegetation 

unable to bear the weight of their nests. 

Socio-economic values: The nesting birds have an important socio-historical value to 

the local inhabitants, who are especially proud of their recently acquired breeding 

pelicans. As in most parts of Tamil Nadu, the main colony site is in old neem trees 

within the village. 


PULICAT LAKE 

An extensive brackish to saline lagoon with associated marshes and a massive fresh to 

brackish swamp to the north. Pulicat is the second largest salt-water lagoon in India, 

situated (Lat. 13° 25’–13° 55’ N and Long. 80° 03’–80° 19’ E) 45 km north of 

Madras, in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and a part extending into the 

Chengalpettu district of Tamil Nadu; approximately 84% of the lagoon lies in the 

state of Andhra Pradesh and the rest in Tamil Nadu. The total area of the lake is about 

350 sq.km. It is fed by two rivers, one at the southern tip (Arani river), and the other 

from the northwest (Kalangi river) which is also more significant. The eastern 

boundary of the lagoon is formed by the spindle-shaped Sriharikotta Island, which 

separates the lagoon from the Bay of Bengal. A navigation channel, the Buckingham 

Canal, runs through the lagoon on the western side of this island. The lagoon is 

shallow, with large areas of mudflats and sandflats. There are two connections with 

the sea; in general, sea water enters the lagoon through the channel at the north end of 

Sriharikotta Island, and flows back into the Bay of Bengal through the channel at the 

south end. There are two large islands, Irrukam and Venadu, and several smaller 

islands in the northern part of the lagoon.

PULICAT LAKE 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The air temperature varied from 15 to 

45°C. The salinity values range from 34 to 36‰. The water is alkaline in nature (8.5– 

8.6) 

Algae: The lagoon supports a rich growth of algae, particularly filamentous algae. 

Some 59 species, including eight Cyanophyceae, seven Chlorphyceae, two 

Rhodophyceae, and 42 Bacillariophyceae have been recorded. Sriharikotta island has 

some very significant patches of residual, dry, evergreen forest and large areas of 

littoral scrub. There are small patches of woodland around fishing villages on the edge 

of the lagoon. Large areas of the surrounding plains have been invaded by Prosopis 

juliflora. Spirulina major, Oscillatoria spp., Anabaena spp., Rhizosolenia 

castracanei, Eucampia cornuta, and Climacodium fravenfeldianum are the common 

phytoplankton. 

Fishes: At least 65 species of fish have been recorded. Some of the fishes 

commonly found here are Mugil cunnesius, M. jerdoni, M. dussumieri, M. cephalus, 

M. bornensis, Tetradon nigropunctatus, T. leopardus, Barbus dorsalis, Macrones 

vittatus, Sardinella fimbriata, and Chanos chanos. 

Birds: An extremely important area for a wide variety of resident and migratory 

waterfowl, notably pelicans, herons and egrets, storks, flamingos, ducks, shorebirds, 

gulls, and terns. Pulicat is the third-most important wetland for migratory shorebirds 

on the eastern sea- board of India, and is especially important during the spring and 

autumn migration seasons. The lagoon supports significant populations of 

Tachybaptus ruficollis, Pelecanus philippensis, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, P. niger, 

seven species of herons and egrets, Mycteria leucocephala, Anastomus oscitans, 

Threskiornis melanocephalus, Platalea leucorodia, Dendrocygna javanica, and Anas 

poecilorhyncha. P. phlippensis and M. leucocephala visit the lagoon in large 

numbers from breeding colonies at neighbouring sites. Common passage migrants and 

winter visitors include Phoenicopterus ruber (up to 3000), Anser indicus, Tadorna 

• 


ferruginea, Anas penelope, A. strepera, A. crecca, A. acuta, A. querquedula, A. 

clypeata, Aythya ferina, about 20 species of shorebirds, Larus brunnicephalus, L. 

ridibundus, Chlidonias hydridus, Gelochelidon nilotica, and Hydroprogne caspia. 

The largest concentrations of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) occur in the 

Andhra Pradesh part of the sanctuary, around the islands of Vendadu and Irukkam. 

Esacus recurvirostris and Burhinus oedicnemus are common residents of the scrubfringed 

shores. The area is rich in birds of prey; Haliaeetus leucogaster breeds, and 

Pandion haliaetus, Circus spp., and Falco peregrinus appear in winter. 


Land use: Fishing for finfish and prawns; many small fishing villages dot the shores 

of the lagoon and on the large islands in the Andhra Pradesh section. The 

Buckingham Canal is a navigation route for cargo and passenger vessels. There is a 

SHAR Space Research Centre on Sriharikotta Island. 

Conservation measures taken: Some 17,250 ha of the Andhra Pradesh portion of 

the lagoon lies within the Andhra Pradesh Pulicat Lake Sanctuary (58,000 ha), 

established in September 1976 and managed by the Divisional Forest Officer, Nellore. 

The entire portion within Tamil Nadu (6000 ha) was declared a Sanctuary in October 

1980. 

Conservation measures proposed: A Wildlife Action Plan has been drawn up by the 

Expert Group on the Pulicat Lake Sanctuary. This recommends the following: (a) the 

setting up of a hydro biological research station; (b) establishment of a visitor centre; 

(c) provision of shallow-bottomed boats to enable sanctuary staff to patrol the lagoon; 

(d) preparation of a management plan and conservation strategy for the entire area. 

Possible changes in land use: Industrial interests have expressed a desire to develop 

refinery complexes alongside the lagoon. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal disturbances are caused by fishing 

activities and the fishing villages and fish factories bordering the lagoon. The 

proposed construction of salt pans within the Tamil Nadu Pulicat Lake Sanctuary, and 

industrial development on the shores of the lagoon, could pose serious threats in the 

future. The Andhra Pradesh Government is planning to release some 4780 ha of the 

Andhra Pradesh Pulicat Lake Sanctuary for the setting up of a marine chemicals and 

salt-manufacturing industry. 

Socio-economic values: The lagoon supports an important fishery, especially for 

prawns. These, and other, fishing operations are concentrated in the northern and 

northeastern sectors of the lagoon, in Andhra Pradesh. An average of 1200 tonnes of 

fish and crustaceans are harvested of which prawns constitute 60/ followed by mullets 

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society carried out an 

ornithological survey in November–December 1983, and the Zoological Survey of 

India has compiled species lists for many groups of flora and fauna. This work has 

been based at the Madras Marine Biological Station. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (970); Jhingran (1991); Expert Group Committee 

(1984); WWF India (1987; 1993); Hussain (1987a); Karpowicz (1985); Krishnan 

(1984); Neelakantan (1980); Government of India (1990). Nanda Kumar et al. (2001). 

PICHAVARAM MANGROVE

Pichavaram mangrove situated (11° 27’ N and 79° 47’ E) near Killai and 

Chidambaram, Cuddalore district, and about 200 km South of Chennai City, Tamil 

Nadu. The forest occurs on 51 islets and the total area of the Vellar-Pichavaram 

Coleroon estuarine complex is 2335.5 ha. of which only 241 ha. is occupied by dense 

mangrove vegetation. Nearly 593 ha. of this wetland is occupied by halophytic 

vegetation like Suaeda, 262.5 ha. Barren mud flats and 1238.5 ha. Basren high 

saline soil (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1994) out of the 2335.5 ha. of this mangrove 

wetland only 1100 ha. The southern part near the Coleroon estuary is predominantly, 

mangrove vegetation, while the northern part near the Vellar estuary is dominated by 

mud-flats. It is one of the typical mangrove swamps of India, with a high productivity 

of about 8 tons of organic plant detritus ha/ year. The tides are semi-diurnal and vary 

in amplitude from about 15 to 100 cm in different regions during different seasons, 

reaching a maximum during monsoon and post-monsoon and minimum during 

summer. The depth of the water-ways ranges from about 0.3 to 3 m (Muniyandi, 

1986). It is an estuarine type of mangrove wetland. Fishing villages, croplands and 

aquaculture pond surrounds the area. Comprising the entire mangrove vegetation 

located in the middle portion of the Vellar-Pichavaram-Coleroon wetland has been 

declared as a reserved forest. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The temperature varied from 28 to 33°C 

in atmosphere and 26 to 30°C in water. The salinity values range from 10 to 34‰. 

Annual rainfall was 1463.0 ± 329.9 mm during 1990–1998, and the number of rainy 

days was 53 ± 87. About 75.90% of total rainfall is recorded during north-east 

monsoon (October – December) accompanied by frequent depressions in the Bay of 

Bengal, while low rainfall is registered during north-east monsoon (April-June) 

(Kathiresan et al., 1996). 

Seaweed and seagrass: 


No 

No 

1 Bostrychia radicans 11 H. pinifolia 

2 Caloglossa leprieurii 12 Halophila beccarii 

3 Chaetomorpha aerea 13 H. beccarii

4 C. crassa 14 H. ovalis 

5 C. linum 15 Hypnea cornuta 

6 Cladophora glomerata 16 H. musciformis 

7 C. tuberosus 17 Padina gymnospora 

8 Enteromorpha clathrata 18 Polysiphonia platycarpa 

9 E. compressa 19 Rosenvingea intricata 

10 Halodule pinifolia 20 Spyridia fusiformis 

Mangroves: 


No 

No 

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 8 Lumnitzera racemosa 

2 Aegiceras corniculatum 9 Rhizophora annamalayana 

3 Avicennia marina 10 R. apiculata 

4 A. officinalis 11 R. mucronata 

5 Bruguiera cylindrica 12 Sonneratia apetala 

6 Ceriops decandra 13 Xylocarpus mekongensis 

7 Excoecaria agallocha 

Suaeda maritima, Suaeda monica and Salicornia brachiata are the important 

associated species of this wetland. 

Bacteria: 


No 

No 

1 Aeromonas 8 Methanococcoides 

methyluteus 

2 Azotobacter beijerinckii 9 Micrococcus 

3 A. chroococcum 10 Phormidium sp. 

4 A. vinelandi 11 Pseudomonas caryophyllus 

5 Bacillus cereus 12 P. mesophilica 

6 Chromatium sp. 13 Rhodopseudomonas sp. 

7 Flavobacterium 14 Vibrio 

Fungus: Aspergillus, Penicillium and Streptomyces sp. 

Phytoplankton: Natural phytoplankton communities are dominated by diatoms. A 

total of 63 species were recorded. These are follows; 

S. 

No 


No 

Achnanthes brevipes 

Ampniprora gigantean 

Asterionella japonica 

Bacteriastrum comosum 

Bellarochea malleus 

Biddulphia dubia 

Biddulphia sp. 

Cerataulina bergonii 

Ceratium furca 

Chaetoceros affinis 

Climacosphaenia moniligera 

Species Name

Cocconeis disculoides 

Coscinodiscus centralis 

Dinophysis caudate 

Diploneis bombus 

Ditylum brightwellii 

Eucampia cornuta 

Fragilaria intermedia 

Frustulia rhomboides 

Guinardia flaccid 

Gyrosigma balticum 

Gyrosigma sp. 

Hemiaulus sinensis 

Hemidiscus hardmannianus 

Lauderia annulata 

Leptocylindrus danicus 

Lithodesmium undulatum 

Melosira sulcata 

Navicula longa 

Nitzschia closterium 

Peridinium depressum 

Provocentrum micans 

Rhizosolenia alata 

Schroedrella delicatula 

Skeletonema costatum 

Stephanophxis palmeriana 

Surirella ovalis 

Synedra ulna 

Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii 

Triceratium favus 

Bacteriastrum delicatulum 

Biddulphia mobiliensis 

Biddulphia sinensis 

Bacteriastrum varians 

Ditylum sol 

Rhizosolenia setigera 

B. heteroceros 

C. compressus 

C. indicus 

C. lorenzianus 

C. peruvianus 

C. socialis 

C. thorii 

C. tripos 

E. zodiacus 

F. gracillima 

G. hippocampus 

N. pygmaea 

N. rostellata 

N. salinarum 

R. styliformis

Benthic diatoms: 

S. 

No 

R.. stolterforthii 

T. reticulum 


No 

Species Name 

Amphora coffeaeformis A. holsatica 

Diploneis ovalis A. marina 

Fragilaria pinnata D. suborbicularis 

Fragilaria sp. D. subovalis 

Gyrosigma balticum G. scalproides 

Navicula digito-radiata N. commutata 

Navicula sp. N. gracilis 

Nitzschia angustata N. granulata 

Nitzschia sp. N. obtusa 

Pinnularia ambigua N. palea 

Plagiogramma staurophorum N. punctata 

Pleurosigma angulatum N. vermicularis 

Surirella striatula P. interrupta 

P. normanii 

P. reana 

Zooplankton: The following zooplankton species have been recorded; 

Protozoa: 

Rotifera: 


No 

No 

1 Amphorellopsis acuta 8 T. cylindrical 

2 Epipocylis undello 9 T. directa 

3 Eutintinnus tenuis 10 T. glans 

4 Favella ehrenpergii 11 T. minuta 

5 F. philippinesis 12 T. stenosomella 

6 Tintinnopsis amphora 13 T. tubulosa 

7 T. beroidea 

S. 

No 


No 

Anuraeopsis fissa 

Platyias patulus 

P. quadricorunis 

Brachionus angularis 

B. bidentata 

B. calyciflorus 

B. caudatus 

B. falcatus 

B. quadridentatus 

B. forficula 

B. rubens 

Species Name

B. urceolaris 

Trichotria tetractis 

Tripleuchlanis plicata 

Lecane curvicornis 

L. leontina 

L. luna 

L. papuana 

L. ungulate 

Dipleuchlanis propatula 

Monostyla bulla 

M. closterocerca 

Euchlanis dilatata 

M. quadridentata 

M. stenroosi 

M. unguitata 

E. oropha 

Keratella cochlearis 

K. procurva 

Cephalodella gibba 

K. quadrata 

Ploesoma lenticularia 

K. tropica 

Pilina longiseta 

Mytilina ventralis 

Foraminifera: Globigerina rubescens and Robulus stepheni. 

Metazoan: Bivalve veliger, Cirripede nauplii and Copepod nauplii. 

Copepoda: 

S. 

No 


No 

Acartia danae 

Centropages furcatus 

Acrocalanus gibber 

Centropages gracilis 

Acartia gracilis 

Paracalanus parvus 

Eucalanus elongates 

Corycaus danae 

Labidocera acuta 

Euterpina acutifrons 

Oithona plumifera 

Macrosetella rosea 

Acartia erythraea 

Microsetella gracilis 

Acrocalanus chilkaensis 

Oithona brevicornis 

Eucalanus attenuatus 

Oithona similes 

Acartia spinicauda 

Species Name

Oithona rigida 

Decapoda: Lucifer hanseni 

Chaetognatha: Sagitta enflata and Sagitta bipunctata 

Larval forms: Prawn nauplii, Mysis, Fish larva, Megalopa, Crab zoea, Fish egg. 

Polychaeta: Heteromastus similis, Euclymene annandale, Perinereis sp. and 

Mercierella enigmatica. 

Bivalvia: Crassostrea madrasensis 

Gastropoda: Dostia (Neritina) crepidularia, Telescopium telescopium, Cerithidea 

fluviatilis, Cerithidea obtusa, Littorina scabra, Assiminea nitida, Pythia plicata, 

Melampus ceylonicus, Cassidula nucleus. 

Cirripeida: Balanus amphitrite 

Tanaidacea: Tanais sp., Apseudes gymnophobia, Halmyrapseudes killaiyensis. 

Isopoda: Ligia exotica, Cirolana fluviatilus, Sphaeroma terebrans, S. annandalei 

Amphipoda: Paracalliope sp., Grandidierella sp., Corophium triaenonyx and 

Talorchestia sp. 

Free-living marine nematodes: A total of 39 species were recorded. These are 

follows; 

S. 

No 


No 

Adoncholaimus fuscus 

Anoplostoma blanchardi 

Araeolaimus longicauda 

Axonolaimu typicus 

Daptonema conicum 

D. oxycerca 

Desmodora 

(Pseudochromadora) luticola 

Diplolaimella ocellata 

Dorylaimopsis timmi 

Eleutherolaimus 

obtusicaudatus 

Halalaimus (H.) gracilis 

H. (Halalaimus) filum 

Halichoanolaimus dolichurus 

Metachromadora (M.) remanei 

Metalinhomoeus longiseta 

Neochromadora izhorica 

Oxystomina elongate 

O. unquiculata 

Paracanthonchus elongates 

Paracomesoma longispiculum 

Paralinhomoeus brevibucca 

Parodontophora brevamophida 

P. breviseta 

Polygastrophora septembulba 

Species Name

Prochromadorella brachyuran 

Sabatieria falcifera 

Sphaerolaimus maeoticus 

S. pacificus 

Spilophorella papillata 

Spirinia (Perspiria) 

straiaticaudata 

S. (Spirinia) parasitifera 

Steineria pilosa 

Terschellingia longicaudata 

Theristus (Penzancia) calx 

T. (Theristus) pertenuis 

Tripyloides gracilis 

Trissonchulus oceanus 

Viscosia carnleyensis 

V. macramphida 

V. viscose 

Insects: A total of 79 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Acisoma panorpoides 41 Lamprophorus sp. 

2 Acridiuma calanacorne 42 Leptocorisa varicornis 

3 A. peregidium 43 Leptosia nina 

4 A. sucinutum 44 Lethe europa 

5 Aeschinid sp. 45 Manido histero 

6 Alphitobius piceus 46 Melantis leda 

7 Amarygmus cuparius 47 Mesomorpha villiger 

8 Ammophila levigata 48 Murgantia luptescens 

9 Appias albino 49 Mutilla sexmaculata 

10 Aschishus breviconis 50 Mylabris pustulata 

11 Asoudiniroga sanctaecrussis 51 Myllocerus viridanus 

12 Atella phalantha 52 Myrmeleonid sp. 

13 Batocera rufomaculata 53 Necroscia pholidotus 

14 Bembex sulphurescens 54 Nezuura vurudula 

15 Calandra sculpturata 55 Onthophagus longicornis 

16 Catcopsilia florella 56 O. onitis 

17 Chrysocoris stolli 57 Oryctes rhinoceros 

18 Cicindella octonata 58 Otheries masterina 

19 Coccinella septempunctata 59 Oxytonisia versicolor 

20 Colotis etrida 60 Paplio polytes 

21 Cossyphus depressus 61 Phersophus lineiforms 

22 Danais chrysippus 62 Platerious sp. 

23 D. meliss 63 Polidours arisotolchae 

24 D. nilgiriensis 64 Polidours hector 

25 D. pixippus 65 Precis almanac 

26 Delias eucharis 66 P. iphita 

27 Dicrononcus amabilis 67 P. lemonias 

28 Dysderus cingulatus 68 Pyrops sp. 

29 Ergolis aradina 69 Rhyncophorus feruginus

30 Euploeca core 70 Rhyotherns varigata 

31 Eusarcoris ventralis 71 Salda dixoni 

32 Gonocephalum hfomanseggi 72 Scliphron madraspatunam 

33 Gryllotalfa africana 73 Sphnoptera arachnid 

34 Haltica sp. 74 Stizus prismaticus 

35 Heliocopris bucephalus 75 Telchinia violae 

36 Henicocephalis basalis 76 Terisas hecabe 

37 Herse sonluvuli 77 Tribolium castaneum 

38 Hierodula coarclata 78 T. confusum 

39 Hieroglyphus farcifer 79 Yphtima baldus 

40 Ileus cincta 

Shell-fishes: 

S. 

No 


No 

Penaeus indicus 

P. monodon 

Macrophthalmus depressus 

M. erato 

P. semisulcatus 

Dotilla myctiroides 

P. merguiensis 

Grapsus strigosus 

Metapenaeus monoceros 

G. tenuicrustatus 

M. affinis 

Metapograpsus maculatus 

M. dobsoni 

M. messor 

M. brevicornis 

Ptychognathus altimanus 

M. lysianassa 

Pseudograpsus intermedius 

Scylla serrata 

Nanosesarma (Nanosesarma) 

minutum 

Scylla tranquebarica 

N. patavicum 

Portunus (Portunus) 

sanguinolentus 

Sesarma andersoni 

P. pelagicus 

S. brockii 

Charybdis (Charybdis) lucifera 

S. plicatum 

Charybdis helleri 

S. bidens 

Thalamita crenata 

Neoepisesarma (Muradium) 

tetragonum 

Species Name

Fin-fishes: 

S. 

No 

T. chaptali 

N. mederi 

Galene bispinosa 

Plagusia dentipes 

Heteropanope indica 

P. depressa 

Ocypode platytarsis 

Metaplex elegans 

O. macrocera 

M. distincta 

Uca (Celuca) lactea annulipes 

Cardisoma carnifex 

U. triangularis Bengali 


No 

Ambassys gymnocephalus 

Lates calcarifer 

A. commersoni 

Lutjanus argentimaculatus 

Arius subrostratus 

Mugil cephalus 

Chanos chanos 

Osteomugil cunnesius 

Etroplus suratensis 

Pomadasys kaakan 

Gerres filamentosus 

Plotosus canius 

G.abbreviatus 

Scatophagus argus 

Liza parsia 

Siganus javus 

L.macrolepis 

S.canaliculatus 

L.subviridis 

Terapon jarbua 

Species Name 

Birds: A total of 177 species were recorded. The reported species are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Accipiter badius 90 Lanius cristatus 

2 A. nisus 91 L. schach 

3 A. virgatus 92 L. vittatus 

4 Acridotheres tristis 93 Larus argentatus 

5 Acrocephalus aedon 94 L. brunnicephalus 

6 A. dumetorum 95 L. ichthyaetus 

7 Aegithina tiphia 96 L. ridibundus 

8 Alauda gulgula 97 Limicola falcinellus

9 Alcedo atthis 98 Limnodromus 

semipalmatus 

10 Amaurornis phoenicurus 99 Limosa lapponica 

11 Anas acuta 100 L. limosa 

12 A. clypeata 101 Lonchura punctulata 

13 A. crecca 102 Megalaima haemacephala 

14 A. penelope 103 Merops leschenaulti 

15 A. poecilorhyncha 104 M. orientalis 

16 A. querquedula 105 M. philippinus 

17 A. strepera 106 Milvus migrans 

18 Anastomus oscitans 107 Mirafra assamica 

19 Anhinga rufa 108 M. erythroptera 

20 Anthus novaeseelandiae 109 Motacilla alba 

21 Anus affinis 110 M. cinerea 

22 A. platyrhynchos 111 M. flava 

23 Ardea alba 112 M. indica 

24 A. cinerea 113 M. maderaspatensis 

25 A. purpurea 114 Muscicapa latirostris 

26 Ardeola grayii 115 M. muttui 

27 A. striatus 116 Mycteria leucocephala 

28 Arenaria interpres 117 Nectarinia asiatica 

29 Artamus fuscus 118 N. zeylonica 

30 Athene brama 119 Neophron percnopterus 

31 Bubulcus ibis 120 Nettapus coromandelianus 

32 Burhinus oedicnemus 121 Numenius arquata 

33 Calidris alpina 122 N. phaeopus 

34 C. minuta 123 Nycticorax nycticorax 

35 C. temminckii 124 Oriolus oriolus 

36 C. testacea 125 Orthotomus sutorius 

37 Centropus sinensis 126 Pandion haliaetus 

38 Ceryle rudis 127 Passer domesticus 

39 Charadrius alexandrinus 128 Perdicula asiatica 

40 C. dubius 129 Petronia xanthocollis 

41 C. hiaticula 130 Phalacrocorax carbo 

42 C. leschenaultii 131 P. fuscicollis 

43 C. mongolus 132 P. niger 

44 Chlidonias hybridus 133 Philomachus pugnax 

45 Ciconia ciconia 134 Phoenicopterus roseus, 

46 Circus aeruginosus 135 Phylloscopus magnirostris 

47 C. macrorus 136 Pitta brachyura 

48 C. melanoleucos 137 Platalea leucorodia 

49 C. pygargus 138 Plegadis falcinellus 

50 Clamator jacobinus 139 Pluvialis dominica 

51 Columba livia 140 P. squatarola 

52 Copsychus saularis 141 Podiceps ruficollis 

53 Coracias benghalensis 142 Prinia subflava 

54 Corvus macrorhynchos 143 Psittacula krameri 

55 C. splendens 144 Pycnonotus cafer 

56 Cuculus varius 145 P. luteolus 

57 Cypsiurus parvus 146 Rallina eurizonoides

58 Dendrocitta vagabunda 147 Rallus striatus 

59 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos 148 Recurvirostra avosetta 

60 Dicrurus adsimilis 149 Saxicoloides fulicata 

61 Dinopium benghalense 150 Sterna albifrons 

62 Egretta garzetta 151 S. aurantia 

63 E. gularis 152 S. benghalensis 

64 E. intermedia 153 S. bergii 

65 Elanus caeruleus 154 S. hirundo 

66 Eremopterix grisea 155 Streptopelia chinensis 

67 Esacus magnirostris 156 S. decaocto 

68 Eudynamys scolopacea 157 S. senegalensis 

69 Falco chicquera 158 Sturnus pagodarum 

70 F. peregrinus 159 S. roseus 

71 F. tinnunculus 160 Sylvia curruca 

72 Francolinus pondicerianus 

161 Tephrodornis 

pondicerianus 

73 Galerida cristata 162 Terpsiphone paradisi 

74 Gallicrex cinerea 163 Threskiornis aethiopica 

75 Gallinago gallinago 164 Tringa erythropus 

76 Gelochelidon nilotica 165 T. glareola 

77 Glareola lactea 166 T. hypoleucos 

78 Haematopus ostralegus 167 T. nebularia 

79 Halcyon pileata 168 T. ochropus 

80 H. smyrnensis 169 T. stagnatilis 

81 Haliaeetus leucogaster 170 T. terek 

82 Haliastur Indus 171 T. tetanus 

83 Himantopus himantopus 172 Turdoides caudatus 

84 Hirundo daurica 173 Turnix suscitator 

85 H. fluvicola 174 Tyto alba 

86 H. rustica 175 Upupa epops 

87 Hydroprogne caspia 176 Vanellus indicus 

88 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 177 V. malabaricus 

89 I. flavicollis 

Seasnakes: Enhydrina schistose and Acrocordus granulatus 


Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. The more 

robust mangrove species have been selectively felled. There are several human 

settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside enter the forest to 

collect wood. The human population density has been calculated at 12 persons per 

hectare. Surrounding areas are mainly under cultivation for rice and pulses. Largescale 

extraction of “Industrial Grade Salt” is being carried out. Fishing is also done. 

Conservation measures taken: Department of Forest, Government of Tamil Nadu, 

declare the Pichavaram mangrove wetland as a Reserved Forest. This mangrove 

wetland is attracting large number of tourists. A limited amount of fishing is 

permitted, but shooting is prohibited. The Tamil Nadu Forest Department launched a 

crocodile rehabilitation project at Pichavaram, and by 1984, had released 12 

crocodiles provided by the Orissa State Forest Department.

Conservation measures proposed: in his National Wildlife Action Plan Survey, M. 

Krishnan made extensive proposals for the conservation of the area. He suggested that 

the development of tourism would be a sensible alternative to uncontrolled 

exploitation, and could benefit the local inhabitants. The establishment of a good 

interpretation centre would be an essential first step. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the area are reclamation for 

agriculture; uncontrolled grazing by domestic livestock, and over-exploitation of the 

forest resource. A part of the area has already been reclaimed for agriculture. The 

existing level of exploitation far exceeds sustainable levels, and the habitat is rapidly 

being degraded by the removal of all Sonneratia apetala and Xylocarpus granatum. 

The collection of firewood has reduced large areas to pure coppice of Avicennia 

marina. Extensive tree felling for fuelwood has resulted in the extinction of a 

mangrove species Kanelia. Two other mangrove species, Sonneratia and Xylocarpus, 

are on the brink of extinction. The back-mangals are heavily grazed by domestic 

livestock, the fishery resources are being over-exploited, and there is heavy hunting 

pressure on marine turtles. The oyster beds, which support numerous denizens, are 

being indiscriminately harvested for the shells which are used in the production of 

lime and are also very lucrative financially. Pollution from domestic sewage and 

agricultural run-off has also been reported. There is a considerable among of general 

disturbance throughout the area, partly caused by tourism. The construction of the 

road along the east coast, which is to eventually link Calcutta with Kanyakumari, is a 

serious threat to this mangrove forest. Trees are being cut and vegetation removed for 

construction work. 





destruction of the natural resource might be averted. 

Research and facilities: Research on the mangrove ecosystem has been carried out 

by biologists from the Marine Biological Centre at Parangipettai, 10 km from 

Pitchavaram, and from Annamalai University. A 10 hectare plot has been handed over 

to a local tourism initiative of the Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation. A 

tourist centre has been created, with a lodge, a canteen and accommodation for a 

small numbers of visitors; when further facilities are required, they will be located on 

the mainland. 

Reference: Anantharaman and Kannan (1997); Chandrasekaran (2000); 

Govindasamy and Kannan (1991). Karuppasamy and Perumal (2000); Kathiresan 

(Eds.) (2000); Kathiresan et al. (1996); Ravichandran and Kannupandi (2004); 

Sampath and Krishnamurthy (1993); Senthil and Varadharajan (1995); Subramanian 

and Sethuraman (1998). Kathiresan et al., 1996; Kathiresan, 2000); Chinnadurai and 

Fernando (2003, 2007). 

POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE AND BIRD SANCTUARY 

The Point Calimere (10° 19’ N, 79° 38’ E) region was first identified as an area of 

high significance in conservation of birds by the late Dr. Salim Ali in 1962. The 

proposed Sanctuary may be divided into three divisions: The Point Calimere Forest, 

The Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS), which includes the mangrove forests at 

Muthupet; and the mangroves of Talaignayar Reserve Forest (TRF).

(i) Point Calimere Forest: 

Geology: As Point Calimere is the seaward apex of the Cauvery river delta, the soil 

deposits are essentially of fluvial origin, besides sand dunes. The pedologic horizons 

are inseparable. The only well individualised horizon is at the surface. It has little 

organic matter, and is usually clayey sand, with pebbles, gravel or concretions. The 

average depth of this horizon is 30 to 40 cm. Below 40 cm, the layers are 

permanently humid, richer in clay, but poorer in organic matter. Below 60 cm, the soil 

is pale grey, very rich in clay, which is penetrated only by some big roots. The soils 

are halomorphic with a muddy structure in a moistened state and a compact structure 

in dry state. A saline efflorescence is often formed at the surface due to the capillary 

rise of salt (mainly sodium chloride), favoured by the proximity to the sea and the 

length of the dry season. The sand on the dunes is fine yellowish-white, and is 

continuously altered by aeolian erosion whenever exposed (Blasco and Legris 1973). 

Location and Topography: The northern boundary of the Point Calimere forest starts 

ca 6 km south of Vedaranyam and extends further south for about 4 km till the Palk 

Strait. It is bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal and to the west by the Great 

Vedaranyam Swamp. The forest (17 km 2 ) is not continuous but interrupted by 

many tidal inlets and creeks of varying lengths and widths, which get flooded during 

the monsoon. 

(ii) Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS) 


Geology and Evolution: GVS comes under the category of bar-built estuaries under 

the four primary subdivisions of estuaries (Pritchard 1967). Geomorphologically, the 

GVS is a resultant formation of the interaction between the tidal forces of the sea and 

the mainland river water currents in the estuarine areas. As this area exists in a low 

energy zone (due to the presence of the shallow Palk Strait), extensive sand bars 

reaching a distance of 30–40 km are formed. These sand bars protect the inner lagoon 

formations from direct sea action, and due to fluvial processes, very large amounts of 

clayey silt are deposited behind the sand bars. Tissot (1987), from palynological 

studies at Muthupet region, estimated the mangrove forest and sediments to be about 

2000 years old. He cited the existence of ancient sand bars or dunes much further 

north-west of the present beaches all along the Cauvery delta. Blasco (1975) found

that the warping rate of the Muthupet (Mullipallam) Lagoon was very rapid and that 

over a period of 25 years, an area of nearly 400 ha had been gained. 

Location and Topography: The GVS (350 km 2 ) lies parallel to the Palk Strait for 

about 45 km, and is separated from it by a sand bank, breached at a few places. The 

GVS is flanked on the northern boundary by a number of villages. The GVS can be 

broadly divided into two parts, which are connected to each other only during the 

rainy season by a small breach. 

The western part has mangrove forests (120.2 km 2 ) and a lagoon (17 km 2 ), 

called the Mullipalam Lagoon. The River Korayar is the main source of freshwater. 

This region is regularly influenced by tidal action due to an opening (1.5 km 2 

long) 

into the Palk Strait. The depth of the lagoon varies seasonally and does not exceed 2 

m. Salinity of the lagoon varies from 5–15 ppt (gm/litre) during the monsoon to about 

45 ppt during summer. 

During very dry periods, there is water only in the Seruthalaikkadu Creek. The 

Seruthalaikkadu Creek is connected to the sea by an opening, called the Chellakanni 

Aaru. The freshwater input into this area is confined to the rainy season, largely from 

the small drainage canals connected to the River Cauvery that empty into the swamp. 

There are several islets in this area, which are formed due to aeolian and fluvial 

deposition. The depth of water in the Seruthalaikkadu Creek varies seasonally from 

about 60 to 120 cm. Salinity in the Creek varies from ca 10 ppt (monsoon) to 50 ppt 

(summer), while in the northern areas prone to drying, salinity goes up to 100 ppt just 

prior to drying. 

(iii) Talaignayar Reserve Forest (TRF) 

Geology: The soil in Talaignayar is clayey due to the estuarine nature of the area and 

consequent successive deposits of alluvial silt brought down by the River Adappar. 

These alluvial deposits have risen to the ground level, thereby exposing the soil to 

inundation only during high tide. 

Location and Topography: TRF, which is not contiguous with the Point Calimere 

forests and the GVS is approximately 18 km north of Point Calimere. It is situated 

near the estuary of the River Adappar, which flows into the Bay of Bengal near 

Kallimedu, and is thus covered by extensive lagoons and streams. 

Abiotic factors: The climate is monsoonal, but is not typical of monsoonal climates 

due to its asymmetrical rainfall regime. The main contribution to the rainfall is from 

the North-East Monsoon (October–December), and to a considerably lesser degree, 

the South-West Monsoon (June–September). There is much variation in the quantum 

of rainfall from year to year, as the area is vulnerable to cyclonic storms that influence 

the distribution and quantum of rainfall considerably. The average rainfall ranges 

from 1000–1500 mm (Meher-Homji 1984). The highest temperatures (34°C) are 

recorded in May, and the minimum (25°C) in January and February. Humidity 

remains relatively high and constant throughout the year. A marked feature of the 

climate of this region is the strong southwesterly winds during May and June. 

Macrophytes: During the monsoon, aquatics such as Aponogeton natans, Bergia 

capensis, Najas graminea and Sphenoclea zeylanica occur. Pentatropis microphylla is 

a common twiner on many plants. 

Trees: The dominant trees of the forest are Manilkara hexandra (locally called Palai, 

is the most important dry evergreen species) and Salvadora persica in the open areas.

Insectivorous plants such as Drosera burmanii and D. indica are also present in the 

grassland habitat. Dominated by Halophytes such as Arthrocnemum indicum, 

Salicornia brachiata and Sessuvium portulacastrum are common along the marshy 

areas of the shore. Patches of Prosopis chilensis, Calotropis gigantea, Clerodendrum 

inerme and Pandanus tectorius occur in elevated areas. Ipomoea pes-caprae, Spinifex 

littoreus and Zoysia matrella are common on the sand dunes. 

Mangroves: Avicennia marina is the dominant mangrove species in the area. The 

shrub layer is made up of Suaeda maritima and S. monoica. Excoecaria agallocha 

occurs on the river banks, and Aegiceras corniculatum and Acanthus ilicifolius at the 

edges, where the tidal influence is pronounced. Suaeda maritima and Excoecharia 

agallocha dominate in the back-mangrove areas. According to Tissot (1987), the 

mangroves of Muthupet are of recent origin, and some important species such as 

Rhizophora and Sonneratia have disappeared in the recent past due to changes in the 

salinity regimes. At Talaignayar, the vegetation is characteristic salt-marsh vegetation 

with extensive growth of Suaeda monoica and S. nudiflora. Acanthus ilicifolius, 

Aegiceras corniculatum, and Rhizophora candelaria are dominant on either side of 

the river Adappar and its tributaries that form the estuary. 

Fishes: GVS is the spawning and / or nursing ground for commercially important 

prawns (mainly White Prawn Penaeus indicus and Tiger Prawn P. monodon), crabs 

(Marsh Crab Scylla serrata) and fishes. Eastern part of the GVS harbours 23 fish 

species, mainly mullets, where as the Mullipalam Lagoon at Muthupet has a more 

direct influence of the sea and harbours more marine species of fish, some 20 species. 

Reptiles: Twenty nine species of reptiles and eight species of amphibians have been 

reported from the Sanctuary, the Starred Tortoise Geochelone elegans, the Olive 

Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys olivacea, Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata and 

the Green Turtle Chelonia mydas. 

Birds: Both the species of flamingos that inhabit the Old World viz., the Greater 

Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus and Lesser Flamingo P. minor inhabit the GVS). 

The origin of flamingo species of the GVS is uncertain. The earlier general 

presumption that they originate from Kutch is belied by the recovery of Iranian and 

Russian ringed Greater Flamingos from the GVS. The Lesser Flamingo is presumed 

to be of African origin since little breeding has been recorded in India. The Greater 

Flamingo appears to be largely a monsoon visitor to the GVS. The movements of 

Lesser Flamingo in the GVS are erratic, it is sedentary for some months and then 

moves to other haunts. Flamingos inhabit highly alkaline and saline lakes and are 

considered to be partial to saltworks. The Greater Flamingo is attracted to reservoirs 

and low salinity condensers of industrial salt works in the GVS during the monsoon, 

due to increase in food supplies. The Lesser Flamingo avoids salt works all through 

the year. The main reason for this difference is that the Greater Flamingo is a 

generalist feeder (plant and animal) and can shift to feeding on different species of 

food, where and when abundant, while the Lesser Flamingo is a specialist feeder (blue 

green algae) and cannot shift to such opportunistic feeding. 

The Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra of Point Calimere represents one of the three 

isolated populations of Blackbuck existing in Tamil Nadu, with the other populations 

in the Guindy National Park (Chennai) and near Satyamangalam (Erode district). The 

Blackbuck of Point Calimere are unique in that males do not attain the black 

colouration of adults, as in parts of central and northern India, and remain a dark tan 

throughout their lives. Locally known as Velimaan (open country deer), the

Blackbuck inhabits the open stretch of grazing lands (700 ha), south and west of the 

forest of Point Calimere. This isolated population of Blackbuck at Point Calimere 

probably survived unmolested throughout the centuries due to the locals’ now 

declining belief that eating its meat causes leprosy. The predators of the Blackbuck at 

Point Calimere are Jackals, and sometimes village dogs. Competition for food is from 

domestic and feral cattle. The population estimate of the Blackbuck at Point Calimere 

over the years carried out by different individuals or organisations are as follows: 

Source Year Population Estimate 

Daniel (1967) 1967 750–800 

Johnson (1975) 1971 970 

Nair (1976) 1974 340 

Natarajan et al. (1978) 1977 506 

Forest Department 1981 1546 

Forest Department 1985 1623 

490 

Natarajan (1994) 1989 

843 

280 

538 

Forest Department 1993-94 1725 



Asian waterfowl count of Point Calimere Wildlife sanctuary. 

Species 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 2000 

Little Grebe - - - - - 6 

Spotbilled Pelican 74 127 127 124 5 431 

Little Cormorant - - - - - 2 

Little Egret 274 518 1239 899 647 1 

Indian Reef Heron 6 3 44 126 22 19 

Grey Heron 6 3 44 126 22 19 

Large Egret 125 146 325 163 83 304 

Median Egret 25 5 - - 2 1 

Cattle Egret 37 - - 4 165 1 

Pond Heron 25 25 61 31 20 5 

Night Heon - - - - - 2 

Painted Stok 237 253 138 169 3 79 

Spoonbill 402 135 148 465 60 509 

Greater Flamingo 27953 3595 949 1082 100 10133 

Lesser Flamingo 150 - 210 400 - 355 

Bar-headed Goose 61 - 36 16 - 9 

Gadwall 500 - - - - - 

Wigeon - - - - 400 

Mallard 150 - - - - - 

Spotbill Duck 160 - - - - - 

Shoveller 4054 600 513 - 154 300 

Pintail 14210 4864 1514 3620 6795 24910 

Garganey 1060 200 500 - - 530 

Common Teal 1690 460 100 - - -

White-breasted 

Waterhen 

- - - - - 6 

Fantail Snipe - - - - - 1 

Black-tailed Godwit - 700 1279 651 622 1265 

Bar-tailed Godwit - - - - 2 

Whimbrel - - - 6 - - 

Curlew 12 4 12 5 22 16 

Spotted Redshank - - 3 - - - 

Redshank 97 91 290 129 19 29 

Marsh Sandpiper 235 548 480 887 14757 695 

Greenshank 102 8 61 169 495 225 

Green Sandpiper 34 10 - - - 3 

Wood Sandpiper 20 - - - 11 1 

Terek Sandpiper 2 530 - - 1 - 

Common Sandpiper - - - 2 13 2 

Turnstone - - 1 - 17 21 

Eastern Knot - - - - - 9 

Red Knot - - - - - 2 

Little Stint 15530 4701 13511 12791 27917 3910 

Temminck’s Stint - - 1 - 2 - 

Dunlin 650 - - - - 1 

Curlew Sandpiper 3485 777 1672 1960 6902 20 

Broad-billed 

Sandpiper 

- - - - - 20 

Ruff - 60 528 485 839 15 

Red-necked 

Phalarope 

- - - - - 8 

Blackwinged Stilt 3 7 2096 865 - 4 

Avocet - - 90 3000 - - 

Grey Plover - 11 3 19 9 - 

Pacific 

Plover 

Golden 26 - - - 159 100 

Little Ringed Plover 51 20 77 145 443 343 

Kentish Plover 11 30 12 50 2570 700 

Lesser Sand Plover 187 69 821 150 5551 3877 

Redwattled Lapwing - - - - 2 2 

Yellow-legged Gull 34 - 508 1220 594 267 

Black-headed Gull - - - - - 53 

Brownheaded Gull 354 702 816 190 437 268 

Whiskered Tern 165 82 192 272 157 268 

Black Tern - - 3 - - 29 

Gullbilled Tern 3 23 28 80 43 76 

Caspian Tern 9 18 63 121 510 10 

Lesser Crested Tern - - - 25 - - 

Large Crested Tern - - - 9 - 7 

Common Tern 137 53 31 23 14 17 

Little Tern 230 31 170 536 103 19 

Unidentified Ducks - 197 - 790 550 -

Unidentified Waders - - 3250 - - - 

Unidentified 

and Terns 

Gulls - - 10 196 - - 

Mammals: Fourteen species of mammals have been reported from the Sanctuary. 

The larger mammals are the Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra, Spotted Deer Axis axis, 

Wild Boar Sus scrofa and Jackal Canis aureus. The Flying Fox Pteropus 

giganteusroosts in large flocks on trees in the Point Calimere forest and the mangrove 

forest at Muthupet. The Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis is seen near the shore 

during the monsoon. 

Land tenure: The entire forest of Point Calimere was notified as reserve forest in 

two stages, in 1892 (Kodikkadu Reserve Forests) and in 1938 (Kodikkadu Extension 

Reserve Forest). It was declared as Point Calimere Sanctuary in June 1967. The 

Surrounding areas of the Muthupet Reserve Forest (mangroves) starts about 40 km to 

the west of Point Calimere. From 1853 to 1912, the Muthupet forest was under the 

‘Chatram Department’, (rest houses for pilgrims and travellers constructed by the 

Raja of Tanjore) a branch of the then District Board of Tanjore. After that, the charge 

of the forests was shared by the Revenue Department and the Chatram Department. In 

1937, the forests were declared as a reserve forest, and taken over by the Forest 

Department. The Talaignayar Reserve Forest (mangroves) is situated about 25 km to 

the north of Vedaranyam and was notified as a reserve forest in 1931. In 1988, a 

proposal was sent to the Tamil Nadu Government to extend the area of the Sanctuary 

to include GVS and TRF. The new Sanctuary, with a total area of ca 385.3 km 2 , will 

bear the name Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. The promulgation of this 

new sanctuary is still in process. 

Land use: The Sanctuary is bordered in many areas by villages and an estimated 

35,000 fishermen and agriculturists live at the borders of the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 

1988). The Great Vedaranyam Swamp (GVS) has a long history of salt production. A 

number of domestic and industrial salt works operate in the GVS. Depending on the 

time of the year, between 500 to 900 cattle (domestic, abandoned and semi-feral) 

graze in the open areas of the Sanctuary inhabited by the Blackbuck at Point 

Calimere. Surrounding areas of the wetland is used for a number of villages dot the 

northern bank of the Swamp, and fishing is an important occupation of many 

villagers. It goes on throughout the year without any restrictions on the fishing gear, 

resulting in fishes of small size and non-target species being caught. It is estimated 

that around 35,000 fishermen and agriculturalists live around the borders of the 

Sanctuary. 

Conservation measures taken: Situated at the southern end of Nagappattinam 

district, Tamil Nadu, the Point Calimere region was first identified as an area of high 

significance in conservation of birds by the late Dr. Salim Ali in 1962. Through 

several stages, the forest areas were declared as the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary 

(22.5 km 2 ). 

• Management practices: In the absence of the management plan (one plan 

submitted for approval) few practices that are being followed are: 

• To conserve the black buck and other wild animals an innovative freshwater 

Source, has been created. In the watchtower over head tanks have been 

constructed, to supply water (fresh) during the drought period (April, May, June) 

and under ground pipline is laid up to 3 kms. to connect the overhead tank for the

supply of water. The water source is from the bore-well equipped with motor. 

• Along the coast olive ridely turtles are come to the shore for egg laying. During 

1999-2000, an attempt had been made to collect the eggs, about 1500 eggs were 

collected and the eggs hatched in the artificial hatchery. (14 clutches about 85-90 

eggs/ clutch). 80 to 82% succeed in the attempt to prevent the predation by the 

jackals, the hatchery was fenced with Bamboo racks, and the fishing nets was 

used to prevent the predation by raptors. 

Conservation measures proposed: In 1988, a proposal was sent to the Tamil Nadu 

Government to extend the area of the Sanctuary to include the Great Vedaranyam 

Swamp and the Talaignayar Reserve Forest, and rename the sanctuary as the Point 

Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. The promulgation of this new sanctuary is still 

in process. The potential for designation of the sanctuary as a Ramsar Site is largely 

on account of the Great Vedaranyam Swamp (350 km 2 ), which is one of the largest 

wetlands of southern India and is a major wintering refuge for a multitude of 

migratory waterbirds. The earlier management plan expired in 1997. And a new one is 

submitted for the approval. In this the removal of the weed prosopis is recommended 

(inside the sanctuary), under eco-development. 

Disturbance and threats: The climate is monsoonal, but is not typical of monsoonal 

climates due to its asymmetrical rainfall regime. The main contribution to the rainfall 

is from the North-East Monsoon (October–December), and to a considerably lesser 

degree, the South-West Monsoon (June–September). There is much variation in the 

quantum of rainfall from year to year, as the area is vulnerable to cyclonic storms that 

influence the distribution and quantum of rainfall considerably. The average rainfall 

ranges from 1000–1500 mm (Meher-Homji 1984). The highest temperatures (34°C) 

are recorded in May, and the minimum (25°C) in January and February. Humidity 

remains relatively high and constant throughout the year. A marked feature of the 

climate of this region is the strong southwesterly winds during May and June. 

Socio-economic values: Territorial jurisdiction resides with the Indian State of Tamil 

Nadu; functional jurisdiction with the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, State 

Governemnt of Tamil Nadu. The wetlands are used for agriculture, fishery (also in the 

salt works reservoirs), salt production (domestic and industrial salt works), firewood 

collection, forestry (timber), and grazing lands for livestock. The site is also used for 

scientific research (fauna monitoring, postgraduate studies and evaluation of the 

ecosystem resource benefiting to locals), recreation and pilgrimage (January-April). 

The surroundings are mainly used for agriculture and fishery. 

The site supports the IUCN red-listed birds Pelecanus philippensis, Phoenicopterus 

minor, Limnodromus semipalmatus, and Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, the mammal 

Antilope cervicapra and the reptiles Chelonia mydas, Lepidochelys olivacea, 

Eretmochelys imbricata. It regularly supports about 30,000 flamingos and tens of 

thousands of other waterbirds. It also regularly supports over 1% of the individuals in 

the south Asia population of Pelecanus philippensis (200–300 individuals). 

Research and facilities: The Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary was identified as an 

area of high significance in conservation of birds from the time the late Dr. Salim Ali 

made an exploratory visit to the area in 1962. From 1980 for nearly a decade, the 

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) had been monitoring the avifauna and other 

wildlife (and their habitats) of the forests of Point Calimere and GVS, under two U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service sponsored projects. However, the TRF, which is part of the

proposed Sanctuary, has largely been overlooked as it is at some distance from Point 

Calimere, the headquarters of the Sanctuary. Besides the BNHS, the AVC College 

Mayiladuthurai, which offers a wildlife biology course, has used the Point Calimere 

Wildlife Sanctuary as a field base for many postgraduate students. Students of the 

Centre for Advanced Studies in Marine Biology, Parangipettai (Porto Novo) 

have also undertaken a few research projects in the GVS. The M.S. Swaminathan 

Foundation, Chennai has recently (1997) established a station at Muthupet to evaluate 

the resource of the Muthupet ecosystem, with special source to the benefits to the 

locals. 

Past and Present: The estuarine ecosystem is regarded as one of the most 

productive of all ecosystems. Inspite of its multiple values and the fact that it is a selfsustaining 

unit, needing no fertilizers, pesticides or maintenance, the estuarine 

ecosystem has been largely regarded as a wasteland to be put to other uses (Maltby 

1986, Odum 1971). The situation is the same in Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. 

The Sanctuary is bordered in many areas by villages and an estimated 35,000 

fishermen and agriculturists live at the borders of the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 1988), 

thereby exerting tremendous pressures on the Sanctuary’s resource. Inspite of the 

multiple benefits accruing to the locals from the Sanctuary, little thought is given to 

judicious or sustainable use of the resource. Thus, the tranquil exterior of the Point 

Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary is deceptive − it is beset by problems as follows: 

Site: 

• Forest Destruction: A significant portion of the firewood requirements of 

Kodikkarai and Kodikkadu is being illegally obtained from the forest (Daniel and 

Rao 1994). Legally, only the tribals are allowed to collect dry wood from the 

forest for their use. The tribals, known as the Cheendi Valayars, now number 

around 450 individuals (Source: Village Panchayat), an increase from a 

population of 151 in 1961 (Sarma 1976). With the increasing demand for 

firewood, the tribals have started to cut green wood for their own use and for sale 

to the villagers. The demand for firewood (and timber) further increases during 

the fishing season (December to February), when there is an influx of around 

5,000 fishermen from other areas. Tree cutting also occurs in the islets in the 

GVS. When most parts of the GVS dry up during the dry season, people go in 

bullock-carts to cut the trees in the islets. In Muthupet, Selvam et al. (1994) 

reported that only 15% of the mangroves is ‘healthy’, and a total of 103 families 

depend on the forests for their livelihood. The wood is mainly sold as firewood to 

tea shops. Each bundle of wood fetches approximately 40 to 50 rupees, and is 

preferred over Prosopis, the other most common alternative, as it fetches a higher 

price. According to recent Forest Department Source (A.D. Barua, Wildlife 

Warden), there has been concerted efforts in the past few years both at Point 

Calimere and Muthupet to check tree cutting, and the situation is much better 

now. 

• Collection of Non-Timber Forest Produce: Besides firewood and timber, there 

is illegal collection of forest produce, such as fruits of Manilkara hexandra, 

Zizyphus oenoplia, Carissa carandus, Syzigium cumini, Sapindus emarginatus, 

and rhizomes of Gloriosa superba from the Point Calimere forests. Trees are 

destroyed during collection of Manilkara fruits, as branches are chopped off to 

collect the fruits. Large scale collection of leaf litter from the forest is carried out 

yearly for use as manure for the tobacco crop, this practice has a long history and

dates back to 1938. According to the Forest Department (A.D. Barua, Wildlife 

Warden, pers. comm.), the collection of fruits, such as M. hexandra and S. cumini 

was legally permitted in the past, but has now been stopped, and similar is the 

case with forest litter collection. A recent problem is that fruiting of trees in the 

forest is poor, which is attributed to the ‘increasing pollution’ of the ground water 

(A.D. Barua, Wildlife Warden, pers. comm.). Ali and Sugathan (1985) had earlier 

pointed out instances of withering of Palmyra trees Borassus flabelifer in 

Kodikkarai and Kodikkadu villages. 

• Spread of Prosopis: Prosopis chilensis was planted in Point Calimere Sanctuary 

during the 1950s near Muniappan Eri and some areas bordering the GVS, to serve 

as wind barriers (Natarajan et al. 1984). Since then, the species has spread to 

many areas in the forest. Natarajan (1994) found cattle to be one of the main 

dispersal agents of the species by consuming its pods. The spread of Prosopis is 

restricted to the open areas (e.g., Peralam and Periyanandu Pallam), grazing lands, 

or where the forest has been heavily disturbed, such as near villages and in the 

islets in the GVS. However, the species has a positive role in that it reduces by 

40–50% the demand for firewood and fence material from the forest (Daniel and 

Rao 1994). The Forest Department had made some efforts to check the spread of 

Prosopis in the blackbuck area by uprooting and burning in the past, but this is 

presently being carried out. 

• Salt Works: GVS has a long history of salt production. A number of domestic 

and industrial salt works operate in the GVS. There have been demands from 

certain quarters to establish more salt works, including a huge (24,000 ha) salt 

complex. Environmentalists and locals have opposed the proposal, recognising 

the importance of the Swamp for waterbirds, and concern about the groundwater 

being affected. Kodikkarai has scarcity of good drinking water, and an increasing 

number of wells turn brackish every few years, attributed to the presence of salt 

works by the villagers. The overall impact of a salt complex of such a magnitude 

will definitely alter the ecosystem, affecting the biodiversity of the GVS, besides 

having probable repercussions on the fisheries on the coast (Manakadan 1994). 

Additionally, as discussed earlier, there is poor fruiting of trees in recent years, 

suspected to be due to the increasing salinity of the ground water. 

• Grazing: Depending on the time of the year, between 500 to 900 cattle (domestic, 

abandoned and semi-feral) graze in the open areas of the Sanctuary, inhabited by 

the Blackbuck at Point Calimere. The Forest Department’s efforts to ban grazing 

by stopping the issue of grazing permits have met with stiff resistance from the 

locals. However, the role of cattle in the control of spread of shrubs and trees and 

maintaining the grassland through grazing and browsing needs to be studied in 

detail, before a decision can be taken on stoppage or control of grazing for the 

benefit of blackbuck (Daniel and Rao 1994), though cattle have also been 

identified as major dispersal agents for seed of Prosopis (Natarajan 1994). It is 

also suggested that the grasslands have been maintained ‘naturally’, due to 

periodic submergence by water as the grassland stretches occur in low lying areas 

(A.D. Barua, Wildlife Warden, pers. comm.). At Muthupet, about 150–200 

abandoned aged or dry cattle graze in the reserve forest (Selvam et al. 1988). 

According to the Forest Department’s records, around 5,000 head of cattle graze 

in the Sanctuary (Varatharaj 1988). 

Surroundings:

• Decreased Freshwater Inflow: The River Cauvery, the source of the freshwater 

inflow into the GVS, has its origins in the Western Ghats ranges of Karnataka 

state. It traverses nearly 850 km, draining an area of ca 89,600 km 2 

en route. The 

Cauvery is considered to be the best utilised river system in southern India. There 

are seven major dams and a number of smaller dams all along its length. These 

seven dams can store in total, 232 tmc ft (35%) of the estimated 671 tmc ft of 

water available in the Cauvery (Jayaraman et al. 1982, 'The Hindu', Madras: 28- 

07-1991 and 7-12-1991). Though the Cauvery receives water during both the 

monsoons, freshwater inflow into the central and eastern part of the GVS is only 

during the North-East Monsoon period due to the impoundments on its course. 

This factor accounts for extensive drying of the GVS during certain months. 

Though the Mullipallam Lagoon receives water throughout the year from the 

River Korayar, the inflow has declined over the years. Tissot (1987) attributes this 

reason for the natural replacement of true mangrove species with more salt 

tolerant forms at Muthupet. Thus the GVS is now estuarine in character mainly 

during the monsoon period. Old people recall the days when the northern parts of 

the Swamp had extensive reed beds, instead of the present bare saline mudflats. 

The reduced freshwater inflow (and the presence of salt works) must have altered 

the water chemistry, affecting the biodiversity. 

• Pollution: Anbazhgan (1988) found the waters of the GVS to have high 

concentrations of calcium, magnesium (attributed to salt works) and faecal 

coliform (attributed to waterbirds). He also found a high concentration of heavy 

metals, nickel, lead and zinc in the sediments. As the GVS is downstream from 

cities and crop lands, it faces the threats of domestic, industrial and farm 

pollutants brought by the Cauvery. The belt between Mettur-Bhavani-Erode, 

through which the Cauvery flows, is highly industrialised, with large and small 

scale chemical, distillery, textile and tannery units (Frontline magazine: 

27/4/1991). 

• Oil/Gas Exploration: In 1982, the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), 

surveyed the area for oil/gas exploration. The results of the survey and future 

plans of the ONGC in this area are unknown. It is reported that the Cauvery basin 

has a reserve of 370 million tonnes of oil and oil equivalent gas (both on-andoffshore) 

- 'The Hindu', Madras: 5/10/1990. 

• Over-Fishing: A number of villages dot the northern bank of the Swamp, and 

fishing is an important occupation of many villagers. It goes on throughout the 

year without any restrictions on the fishing gear, resulting in fishes of small size 

and non-target species being caught. It is estimated that around 35,000 fishermen 

and agriculturalists live around the borders of the Sanctuary. 

• Poaching of Waterbirds: A study by the Salim Ali Wild Wings Trust (Daniel et 

al. 1999) found that certain families in the villages that border the GVS depend on 

bird trapping for their livelihood and the number of birds being trapped is 

significant. 

Management authority: The Range Officer, Kodiakari Wildlife Range Kodiakari, 

Nagapattinam (Dt.) and Wildlife Warden, Nagapattinam. 

Reference: Alagarrajan, S. 1990; Alagarrajan, 1996; Natarajan, 1997; Selvam, et al., 

1998; Selvarn, et al., 1999; http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website).

CHEMBARAMBAKAM TANK 

Chembarambakam lake is situated (13° 00’ N and 80° 05’ E) near Poonthamal, 

Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu. It is one of the largest tanks in Tamil Nadu. The 

total area of the lake is about 1700 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring 

during the northeast monsoon in October and November. 

Birds: Apparently, one of the most important wintering areas for migratory 

waterfowl, particularly Anatidae, in southern Tamil Nadu. On the basis of a partial 

count, it was estimated that at least 15,000–20,000 waterfowl appeared in January 

1987. Much the most abundant species was Anas querquedula; other birds included: 

15 Ciconia ciconia, at least 75 Tachybaptus ruficollis, 820 Nettapus 

coromandelianus, 420 Fulica atra, 60 Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 80 Larus 

brunnicephalus, 130 Chlidonias hybrida and a large number of Anas penelope and 

A. clypeata. 


Land use: The tank water is used for drinking purpose. 




Research and facilities: A waterfowl census was carried out in January 1987. 


CHAMBHAL RIVER 

KALIVELI TANK 

Kaliveli tank is situated (12° 05’–12° 15’ N, 79° 47’–79° 59’ E) near Marakkanam 

east coast in Tamil Nadu. It lies parallel to the east coast and is linked with the sea 

• 


through a narrow channel via Yadayanthittu estuary. Kaliveli is a seasonal wetland 

and can dry out completely during the summer months preceding the Southwest 

monsoon. The water level in the wetland varies with the amount of precipitation it 

receives. The lake fills up to its maximum extent by the end of the Northeast 

monsoon, and in years of low rainfall, dries out completely for a few months during 

the hot season. The total area of this tank is 13,200 ha. The average depth of water at 

the end of the monsoon is about one meter, and the maximum after heavy rainfall, 

about two meters. By the end of the monsoon, the lagoon is normally full of 

Freshwater having received copious run-off from neighbouring farmlands and other 

parts of its watershed. Subsequently, as the inflow of Freshwater diminishes, there is 

some inflow of sea-water from the estuary, and the lagoon becomes brackish, 

particularly at its Northern end. The lake is occasionally flooded by sea-water during 

cyclonic disturbances. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with average annual rainfall is about 

1,200 mm. The temperature varied between 28°C–39°C. The salinity range of 4.27– 

35.5‰, pH from 6.95 to 10.11 and chloride from 0.18 to 1.87 mgl -1 . 

Mangroves: Oldtimers swear that as recently as thirty years ago Kaliveli supported a 

large and lush mangrove forest. It was gradually cleared to make way for agricultural 

land. Now only a few mangrove bushes remain as relics of the glorious past. 

Algae: Enteromorpha intestinalis 

• 

KALIVELI TANK 


Birds: During a survey in the late 1980s, some 78 species of waterfowl recorded in 

Kaliveli including 13 species of Antidae and 30 species of shorebirds. The area 

regularly hodls over 30,000 ducks in winter, and 20,000–40,000 shorebirds and 

20,000–50,000 terns during the migration seasons. These are follows; 

S. Species Name S. Species Name

No No 

1 Accipter badius 61 Gelochelidon nilotica 

2 Acridotheres tristis 62 Halcyon smyrnensis 

3 Aegithina tiphia 63 Haliaeetus leucogaster 

4 Alauda gularis 64 Haliastur indus 

5 Alcedo atthis 65 Himantopus himantopus 

6 Ammomanes phoenicurus 66 Hirundo rustica 

7 Anas acuta 67 Hydroprogne caspia 

8 A. clypeata 68 Larus brunnicephalus 

9 A. Penelope 69 L. ichthyaetus 

10 A. querquedula 70 L. ridibundus 

11 Anas spp. 71 Limosa limosa 

12 Anastomus oscitans 72 Merops orientalis 

13 A. oscitans 73 M. phillipinus 

14 Ardea alba 74 Milvus migrans 

15 A. alba 75 Mirafra erythroptera 

16 A. cinerea 76 Mycteria leucocephala 

17 Ardeola grail 77 M. leucocephala 

18 Arenaria interpres 78 Neophron percnopterus 

19 Artamus fuscus 79 Netta rufina 

20 Athene brama 80 Numenius arquata 

21 Burhinus oedicnemus 81 N. arquata 

22 Calidris alpine 82 N. phaeopus 

23 C. ferruginea 83 Nycticorax nycticorax 

24 C. minuta 84 Pandion haliaetus 

25 C. submimuta 85 Pelecanus philippensis 

26 C. temminckii 86 P. philippensis 

27 C. testacea 87 Philomachus pugnax 

28 Ceryle rudis 88 Phoenicopterus monor 

29 Charadrius alexandrinus 89 P. roseus 

30 C. dubius 90 P. ruber 

31 C. leschenaultia 91 Platalea leucorodea 

32 C. mongolus 92 P. leucorodia 

33 Chlidonias hybridus 93 Plegadis falcinellus 

34 C. leucopterus 94 Pluvialis dominica 

35 Ciconia ciconia 95 P. squatarola 

36 C. ciconia 96 Pseudibis papillosa 

37 Circus aeruginosus 97 Psittacula krameri 

38 C. macrourus 98 Pycnonotus cafer 

39 C. melanoleucos 99 Recurvirostra avobetta 

40 C. pygargus 100 Riparia riparia 

41 Columba livia 101 Satreptopelia chinensis 

42 Coracias benghalensis 102 Sterna albifrons 

43 Corvus macrorhynchos 103 S. bergii 

44 C. splendens 104 S. hirundo 

45 Cuculus varius 105 Tadorna ferruginea 

46 Cursorius coromandelicus 106 Tephrodornis pondicerianus 

47 Cypsiurus parvus 107 Threskiornis aethiopica 

48 Dendrocitta vagabunda 108 T. melanocepphalus 

49 Dicrurus adsimilis 109 Tringa hypoleucos

50 Dinopium benghalense 110 T. erythropus 

51 Egretta garzeeta 111 T. glareola 

52 E. gularia 112 T. nebularia 

53 E. intermedia 113 T. ochropus 

54 Egretta spp. 114 T. stagnatilis 

55 Eremopterix grisea 115 T. terek 

56 Falco peregrines 116 T. tetanus 

57 F. tinnunculus 117 Turdoides affinis 

58 Francolinus pondicerianus 118 Vanellus cinereus 

59 Gallinago gallinago 119 V. indicus 

60 G. stenura 

Land tenure: The lake and the estuary are state-owned; adjacent land is partly 

private and partly owned by the state. There are some areas of legalized encroachment 

around the lagoon. 

Land use: Salt pans 

Conservation measures proposed: A number of individuals and organizations have 

recommended that the area be made into a Bird Sanctuary, and reafforestation with 

mangrove species has been considered. The School of Ecology at the University of 

Pondicherry has requested the District Collector for permission to use the tank 

exclusively for research purposes. The wetlands and the entire watershed have been 

recommended for designation as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and 

the Biosphere Programme. Davis (1985) has made a number of recommendations 

including the following: (a) the development of an educational programme to 

demonstrate to the local people that management of Kaliveli Tank will be in their 

long-term best interest; (b) the completion of a detailed study on the vegetation 

structure and dynamics of the tank; (c) the planting of trees to provide nesting habitat 

for water birds; (d) the development of a tourist industry focusing on a bird sanctuary. 

Davis also suggested that the Kaliveli Watershed would be an excellent site for a 

model study of integrated watershed development. 

Disturbances and threats: The water-spread area of Kaliveli is shrinking, mainly 

due to encroachment by paddy fields. This intensification of agriculture along with 

overgrazing and the increased use of fertilizers/pesticides in the vicinity of the lake 

are rapidly becoming serious threats. Although bird shooting is prohibited, significant 

poaching takes place all the time. Apart from the birds killed, considerable harm is 

also caused by the disturbance created the hunters. A single gun shot can force the 

entire bird population (up to 40,000) of Kaliveli to stop all their activities and fly 

away. All large species of waterbirds, including pelicans, storks and flamingos, are 

shot for eating or selling as meat. 

A caustic soda plant released toxic effluents into the sea near Kaliveli which might be 

getting backwashed into the lake. Some effluents are also let in to a tributary stream 

and this might soon affect the entire area. There are also plans for the development of 

a sugar refinery within the watershed. 

Socio-economic values: Kaliveli is remunerative to the people living around it, so 

also to some industrialists, particularly those interested in salt production. But the 

utilization of the lake thus far has been on an entirely ad-hoc basis with no regards 

whatsoever for the sustainability of the produce or the health of the lake. Till recent 

times the human interaction with Kaliveli was confined to the villagers living around

the lake who drew their requirements of food (fishes), fodder, and fuelwood from it. 

This interaction has been mild and sustainable. 

Now Kaliveli is being increasingly used for teleost and prawn fishing. There are 

interest groups who have been pressing for the bunding of the brackish portion of the 

lake so that is the converted to a saline pond for year-round cultivation of shrimp. 

Thankfully such plans haven’t taken off as yet. 

On the Northeastern side of Kaliveli there is a large, and increasing, expanse of salt 

pans. At present this is the only sizable and organized industry directly supported by 

Kaliveli. During the dry seasons people from 22 villages around Kaliveli collect 

grasses and reeds for the use as building material, firewood, and fodder. The greenery 

is used to let livestock graze upon it. In many ways Kaliveli would appear an 

attractive prospect for any development-conscious executive. It is readily accessible, 

with a highway running along its Eastern shore. There is availability of ample 

freshwater. All the infrastructure of an upbeat town-Pondicherry-is close at hand. It is 

no surprise that off-and-on proposals are floated to exploit Kaliveli as a tourist spot 

and encourage such bioresource-oriented industries for which Kaliveli may supply 

raw material. So far no such proposal has fructified; when it does it may well spell the 

doom for the wetland. 

Research and facilities: A number of individuals have studied the site, chiefly from 

an ornithological point of view, and several waterfowl censuses have been carried out 

in recent years. UNESCO Consultant Dr C.B. Davis carried out a study of the 

tank and its watershed in December 1984, and made recommendations on the 

management of the tank and general development in the region. Studies are currently 

being conducted by Centre Field, Auroville, and the French Institute at Pondicherry, 

with assistance from the Bombay Natural History Society. 

Past and Present status: There is evidence that in ancient times Kaliveli was 

totally navigable and the Buckingham Canel connected it to Pulicat lake 42 km North 

of Madras. Now the waterways are sited down making navigation impossible. 

Reference: WWF India (1993); Balachandran (1994); Gopi Sundar (2000). 

SATHANUR RESERVOIR 

Sathanur reservoir situated (12° 20’ N, 78° 54’ E) in the Tiruvannamali district, Tamil 

Nadu. The reservoir scaled in November 1957. Maximum depth is 30.2 m. It is 

situated 30 km west of Tiruvannamalai. The catchment area covering 10835 ha 

extends into the neighbouring Dharmapuri district. Water depth fluctuates widely, the 

maximum being 39 m. The reservoir is perennial and total area is about 1255 ha. 


and minimum temperature of 24°C. The pH values range from 7.4 to 8.8. 

Phytoplankton: The plankton was dominated by diatoms – Nitzschia, Cyclotella, 

Synedra, Navicula, etc and to a less extent by Chlorophyceae-Pediastrum, 

Cosmarium, Tertastrum, staurastrum, Chlorella, Pandorina, etc. Bluegreens were 

least dominant and the species represented were Merismopedia, Oscillatoria, 

Microcystis and Tertapedia. 

Zooplankton: Zooplanktons were represented by rotifers like Brachionus, Keratella 

and Syncheta. Daphnia and Cyclops occurred rarely.

Fishes: Sathanur reservoir is a very productive major carp-dominated one. About 13 

species were recorded. These are follows; Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu, L. kontius, 

Puntius sarana, Wallago attu, Mystus aor, M. vittatus, Notopterus notopterus, Tilapia 

mossambica, Etroplus suratensis, Cirrhina reba, C. cirrhosa and Rhinomugil corsula. 

Birds: The reservoir attracts several bird species. A census conducted in 1991–92 

recorded Phalacrocorax niger (1,200), Anhinga rufa (40), Ardeola grayii (180), 

Bubulcus ibis (160), Egretta garzetta (300), E.intermedia (225), E. alba (45), Ardea 

purpurea (18), A. cinerea (80), and shorebirds (about 7000), including, blackwinged 

stilt, red-wattled lapwing, little-ringed plover, lesser sand plover, Kentish plover, and 

common sandpiper. The fish species include Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu, 

Wallago attu, and several catfishes. In the surrounding forests, spotted deer (Axis 

axis) and wild boar (Sus scrota) are found in considerable numbers. 


Land use: The dam is used for irrigation and fishing 

Disturbances and threats: Owing to the high rate of deforestation and 

mismanagement of lands in the catchment area, the rate of siltation is high. It has been 

estimated that 779 million cubic feet of silt has been deposited in the last 30 years and 

siltation is still continuing. Impounding of water in six minor reservoirs constructed 

across the river Ponnaiyar, upstream of Sathanur, is reportedly restricting the inflow 

of water to the reservoir. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir irrigates 18212 ha of agricultural lands in 

Tiruvannamalai, Sambuvarayar, and Cuddalore districts. It is also the main source of 

drinking water for the inhabitants of the region. The State Forest Department has 

established a crocodile farm at the reservoir with the introduction of 1200 marsh 

crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris). The farm attracts tourists in large numbers which is 

a source of income. Fishery operations are being carried out by the Tamil Nadu 

Fisheries Development Corporation. Fingerlings of three fish species, Catla catla, 

Labeo rohita, and Cirrhinus mrigala, obtained by induced breeding, have been 

stocked in the reservoir. The annual catch of these fishes is an important source of 

income. 

Reference: Sreenivasan (2006). 

BHAVANISAGAR RESERVOIR 

Bhavanisagar (Lat. 11° 28’ N and Long. 77° 06’ E) is a large water-storage reservoir 

of relatively recent construction, fed by the Bhavani and Moyar rivers flowing out of 

the Niligiri Hills. The lake is eutrophic, with a maximum depth of 40 m, an average 

depth of 11.4 m and total area is 3695 ha.


Principal vegetation: No information. 

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory ducks, notably Anas acuta. The 

reservoir also supports small numbers of Pelecanus philippensis and a wide variety of 

herons, egrets, storks, ibises, shorebirds, and terns. About 4000 waterfowl were 

recorded during a census in January 1987, including: 4 Pelecanus philippensis, 160 

herons and egrets of six species, 65 Mycteria leucocephala, 113 Anastomus oscitans, 

40 Sterna melanogaster, 110 Anas poecilorhyncha, 10 Ciconia episcopus and 3400 

Anas acuta. 


Land use: Water supply for irrigation, fishing, and fish culture. 

Conservation measures taken: Some protection is afforded to the fauna of the lake. 

Fishing is prohibited for a distance of five miles (eight kilometres) below the dam, 

and the mesh size of nets is regulated. 

Disturbances and threats: None known. 

Socio-economic values: The reservoir supports a small fishery, and is an important 

source of water for irrigation. 

Reference: Luther and Rzoska (1971). 

BHAVANISAGAR RESERVOIR 

ADYAR ESTUARY 

The Adyar Estuary situated near (13° 00’ N; 80° 04’ E) Chennai, Tamil Nadu. 

The estuary is comprises shallow, brackish water on a mud and sand bed with several 

sandy islands supporting a growth of grasses and light scrub. For most of the year, its 

exit to the sea is blocked by a sand bar. This is opened, either by man or by storms, at 

irregular intervals, thus allowing an incursion of seawater. The northern shore 

comprises planted gardens and the Adyar plain, which has heavily-grazed grass flats 

with thin, thorn scrub. The southern shore includes limited, remnant mangrove stands 

and the grounds of the Theosophical Society. These grounds are heavily planted with 

casuarina, coconut palms, and a wide variety of trees and shrubs. There are some 

• 


areas of wild scrubland. The wetland is mainly storm-fed. Water is brackish, and its 

depth varies from 1.5 m to 3 m, according to the tide. The total area of this estuary is 

about 200 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical, with about 1000 mm rain annually, particularly during the 

northeast monsoon season (October–January) when the river is often flooded, and the 

sand bar is demolished, increasing the tidal impact. 

Macrophytes: Vegetation is rather poor. Some of the tree species commonly found 

near the estuary include Prosopis spp., Pongamia pinnata, Ficus glomerata, Cocos 

nucifera, Acacia farresiana, Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Phoenix 

sylvestris, Cassia marginata, Bambusa spp., Anacardium occidentale, Borassus 

flabellifer, among others. 

Amphibian: Amphibian fauna include paddy frog, bull frog, painted frog, narrowmouthed 

frog, baloon frog, green frog, tree frog, common toad, and Ferguson’s toad. 

The brackishwater fauna of the estuary include coelenterates, sponges, arthropods, 

crustaceans, etc. 

Reptiles: Among the reptiles are cobra, coral snake, rat snake, bronze-back tree 

snake, checkered keelback, olive keelback, dog-faced watersnake, cat snake, wolf 

snake, common sand boa, vine snake, saw-scaled viper, common skink, Adyar gecko, 

and common monitor chameleon. The beaches adjacent to the river mouth are the 

nesting grounds of the olive ridley turtle. 

Birds: An important area for hundreds of migratory birds. Among the breeding 

species, white-bellied sea eagle, stone curlew, and Kentish plover are of special 

interest. The following bird species have been recorded from the estuary: lesser 

golden plover, little ringed plover, Kentish plover, black-tailed godwit, common 

sandpiper, little stint, brown-headed gull, paddy bird, and little egret. 

Mammals: Mammals include: jackal, palm civet, small civet, common mongoose, 

black-naped hare, striped palm squirrel, flying fox, bandicoot, musk shrew, etc. 


Conservation measures taken: The estuary and its surrounding area has been 

declared a protected area where shooting and trapping of birds is prohibited. 

Conservation measures proposed: Efforts are being made by WWF INDIA 

Madras State Office to declare it as a bird sanctuary with facilities for viewing birds 

from hides. A proposal and plan for the sanctuary have been submitted to the State 

authorities. 

Land use: Along the estuary are planted gardens, and grassflats which are used for 

grazing, mangrove stands, and the premises of the Theosophical Society of India. The 

estuary is used for fishing especially for prawns. 

Possible changes in land use and proposed development projects: Plans to 

develop the area is proposed to be developed into a tourist resort are is being opposed 

by environmentalists and several NGOs. The Madras Metropolitan Development 

Authority (MMDA) proposes to develop an arm of the estuary into a shopping 

complex. 

Socio-economic values: Grazing and fishing are the two major activities. Gardens 

and grounds of the Theosophical Society are used for leisure by the residents of 

Madras city who are allowed in during specified hours.

Research facilities: The Zoological Society of India and the Madras Naturalist’s 

Society are monitoring the area. 


SIRUTHAVUR TANK 

Siruthavur is an irrigation tank, situated (13° 00’ N, 80° 10’ E) in the Chengelpettu 

district, Tamil Nadu, which is rain-fed. The average depth is 3.7 m and total area is 

7772 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical climate. Temperature ranges from a maximum of 33°C to a 

minimum of 21°C. Average annual rainfall is 1200 mm. 

Macrophytes Acacia nilotica is the main species growing around the tank. 

Birds: A recent waterfowl census recorded the following: Anas penelope (348), A. 

querquedula (6), Aythya fuligula (22), Nettapus coromandelianus (2), Chlidonias 

hybrida (6), Gelochelidon nilotica (4). 


Land use: The waters of the tank are used for irrigation and fishing. 

Conservation measures proposed: Deepening of the tank is proposed. 

Disturbances and threats: Shooting of birds has been reported. The tank is getting 

silted up. 

Socio-economic values: The tank is a major source of water for irrigation of 



• 

SIRUTHAVUR TANK 


GULF OF MANNAR MARINE NATIONAL PARK 

Two large, shallow, sea bays, Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar (8° 48’ N, 78° 

10’ E to 9° 20’ N, 79° 15’ E), and a chain of twenty small offshore islands in the Gulf 

of Mannar Marine National Park. The islands stretch for about 120 km parallel to the

coast, from Rameshwaram Peninsula in the east to Tuticorin (8° 50’ N, 78° 10’ E) in 

the west. The relatively calm and silt-free waters between the coastline and offshore 

coral reefs offer ideal conditions for the growth of luxuriant meadows of sea-grass. 

These meadows support a dwindling population of the dugong (Dugong dugon), the 

conservation of which is one of the principal aims of the National Park. The Park 

contains impressive fringing reefs and the best coral formations on the east coast of 

India. There is only one reef in Palk Bay, which lies in an east-west direction along 

the mainland at Mandapam and Rameshwaram island, extending from 79° 08’ E to 

79° 20’ E along latitude 9° 17’ N. The reef is discontinuous at Pamban Pass and is 

divided on the western side, into two parts by a narrow navigational channel. The reef 

formation in the Gulf of Mannar is of fringing type, developed around a chain of 20 

islands from Tuticorin (8° 48’ N, 78° 09’ E) to Shingle island (9° 14’ N, 79° 14’ 

E),lying at an average distance of about 8 km from the mainland. In addition, a 2 km 

shore reef, the only one known so far in the Gulf of Mannar, exists at Kilakkarai. The 

area of National Park unknown; area of islands 618.32 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of about 

900 mm. Average temperatures range from 25°C to 31°C. 

Macrophytes: There are extensive beds of sea-grasses (Hydrocharitaceae and 

Potamogetonaceae) in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. More than 100 species of 

algae and angiosperms belonging to the genera Sargassum, Turbinana, Gelidium, 

Gracilaria, Ulva, Ceramium, Valonia, Enhalus, Acanthophora, Cymodacea, 

Halimeda, and Polysiphonia have been recorded from the sea around Krusadai Island. 

Much of the northern shore of Krusadai Island is covered with mangrove vegetation, 

mainly Pemphis acidula and Avicennia officinalis. Most of the islands have now been 

deforested, and several of the inshore islands have been colonised by the aliens 

Prosopis juliflora and Casuarina spp. 

Special floral values: The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay contain some of the most 

extensive beds of sea-grasses (Hydrocheritaceae and Potamogetonaceae) on the east 

coast of India. 

Mammals: A very important area for the dugong (Dugong dugon), the most 

endangered species of mammal on the east coast of India. Several species of cetaceans 

also occur in the Park. 

Reptiles: Marine turtles breed in small numbers, and there is a rich marine fauna 

associated with the fringing reefs. 

Birds: Rameshwaram Island (Dhanuskodi lagoon), Manauli, and Hare islands in the 

Gulf of Mannar and a lagoon adjoining the Palk Bay near Mandapam are the major 

coastal habitats available for migratory and resident waterfowl. Altogether, 86 species 

of waterfowl have been estimated from Mandapam, Palk Bay, during censuses 

conducted between 1986 and 1988: 

Birds/Years 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 

Herons, egrets, and bitterns 858 698 660 

Plovers, sandpipers, and snipes 40,398 22,364 32,261 

Ducks 2578 1515 1905 

Gulls and terns 18269 4232 6063 

Thousands of waterfowl use the Gulf as a wintering and staging area during 

migration. Hundreds of migratory waders of 12 species summer in Manali and Hare

islands. Among the waders, Charadrius mongolus (9000 estimated in January 1988), 

Calidris ferruginea, and Calidris minuta (5600 in February 1988) are the most 

abundant species. Commonly seen in hundreds are the sand-flat preferring waders 

Calidris alba (710 in 1987-88), Calidris minuta (215), C. tenuirostris (305), Limosa 

lapponica (225), Numenius arquata (320), N. phaeopus (140), Arenaria interpres 

(620), Charadrius leschenaultii (340), and Pluvialis squatarola (625). Other 

interesting wader species recorded in the intertidal habitats at Manali and Hare islands 

are Dromas ardeola (400) and Haemotopus ostralegus (21). Among the terns, Sterna 

benghalensis (3800) and S. sandvicensis (400) are predominant. The greater flamingo 

(Phoenicopterus roseus) regularly winters in Dhanuskodi and Pillaimadam lagoons. 

About 7000 of the species were recorded in January 1988, which was just 50% of the 

number recorded in January 1986. The interesting bird records include pelagic species 

such as noddy tern, white tropic bird (Phaethon lepturus) and skua. The lesser-crested 

tern breeds in the islets of Adam’s Bridge. The other breeding species are great stone 

plover, Kentish plover, and little tern. Ecological investigations of the hermatypic 

corals of Palk Bay indicate the presence of 63 species belonging to 22 genera. The 

species diversity of this reef, however, is lesser than that recorded in other Indian 

Ocean reefs. The dominant genera are Favia, Acropora, Leptastera, Porites, 

Pocillopora, and Goniastrea. The genera Acropora and Montipora of the family 

Acroporidae are the most diverse with 25 species, whereas Porites is the most 

important genus in terms of abundance and reef-building. Preliminary underwater 

surveys of the extent and state of reefs in 19 islands of the Gulf of Mannar show that 

the eastern side of all these reefs supports active coral growth, whereas the western 

and northern shores are quarried for coral blocks. Collections made in some northern 

islands (Shingle, Krusadai, Pullivasal, Pulli, Manauli, New and Hare) record 88 

species, and, together with those of the Palk Bay reef, the total number of species 

recorded for the Mandapam area is 117 distributed among 32 genera, of which 110 

species belonging to 25 genera are hermatypic. Acropora is the most diverse genus 

(24 species), followed by Montipora (20 species) and Porites (12 species). New to 

science are five species under three genera; 25 species under four genera are new 

records. 


Land use: The area is managed as a nature reserve. 

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National 

Park, established in 1983 to conserve and restore the ecosystems of Palk Bay and the 

Gulf of Mannar. A ban has been imposed on the destruction of mangrove remnants in 

the Manauli and Kurusadai islands, and on the quarrying of coral, and steps have been 

taken to eradicate Prosopis juliflora on some of the islands. Under the National Coral 

Reefs Programme of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, a comprehensive 

management plan is being developed for the Gulf of Mannar coral reefs. The Central 

Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin (Kerala), has been identified as the nodal 

research institution. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made to replant some of 

the islands with native trees, such as Threesia populnea and Calophyllum inophyllum, 

in order to limit erosion by high winds and cyclones. 

Possible changes in land use and proposed developmental projects: The proposed 

Sethu canal project is expected to raise the sea level by one metre. This may result in

the submergence of a few islands, leading to the loss of some of the important 

wintering and staging sites of migratory and other waterfowl. 

Disturbances and threats: Indiscriminate destruction of the marine fauna and flora 

continues despite efforts to prevent it by the Fisheries Department. Populations of sea 

turtles and dugongs are declining as a result of direct persecution and destruction of 

the sea-grass beds. Birds are being caught by professional bird catchers from nearby 

towns, Rameshwaram and Ramanathapuram. The alien Prosopis juliflora has been 

flourishing on some of the islands nearer the coast at the expense of the native 

vegetation, and there have been proposals to plant other exotic tree species on some of 

the islands. The quarrying of coral for industrial use has now been banned, but several 

areas of reef have already been destroyed. Mangrove forests are being cut for 

firewood in the Kurusadai and Manauli islands. This, in turn, is seriously affecting the 

nursing grounds of several species of fish, prawn, and shrimp. 

Research and facilities: A marine biological station was established by the Fisheries 

Department on Kurusadai Island in 1928. The Bombay Natural History Society has 

been monitoring the islands for the movement of migratory birds by conducting birdringing 

experiments since 1985. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 

(CMFRI) and the Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI) are two other 

research organisations involved with research work on the Gulf of Mannar. The 

CMFRI has been carrying out seaweed, prawn, and fish culture experiments in the 

region. Ecological investigations and surveys of the distribution of corals in the Palk 

Bay and Gulf of Mannar have been carried out by C.S.G. Pillai and others. 

Reference: Silas et al. (1985); Balachandran (1990, 1991, 1992); Wafar (1986); 

WWF India (1993) 

WETLANDS OF NILGIRI DISTRICT 

The wetland includes three freshwater lakes, namely, Ooty lake (15 ha.), Pykara dam 

reservoir, and Tr. Bazaar (3 ha.). Ooty lake and Pykara dam are man-made. The 

maximum depth of Ooty lake is 10 m, average depth is 3 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with maximum temperature of 25ºC and 

minimum of 5ºC. 

Biotic factors: Biodiversity status 

Principal vegetation: The lake are surrounded by tea plantation, grasses and 

exotics. 

Birds: A waterfowl census conducted in 1993 revealed the following species: 


No 

No 

1 Alcedo atthis (10) 7 Motacilla cinerea (42) 

2 Amaurornis phoenicurus (50) 8 M. maderaspatensis (4) 

3 Bubulcus ibis (l) 9 Phalacrocorax niger (72) 

4 Egretta garzetta (64) 10 Tringa hypoleucos (47) 

5 Gallinula chloropus (19) 11 Vanellus indicus (13) 

6 Halcyon symrnensis (7) 

Other fauna include sambar, barking deer, panther, and jackal.

Land tenure: Ooty lake is owned by Tourism Development Corporation, Ooty 

Municipality. Pykara dam and Tr. Bazaar are under the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. 

The area surrounding Pykara dam is under the ownership of the Forest Department, 

whereas the land around Tr.Bazaar is a private tea estate. 

Land use: The lake is used for recreational purposes and hydroelectric power 

generation. 

Disturbances and threats: Silt and domestic wastes from Ooty Municipality are 

polluting Ooty lake. Pykara dam is facing pollution from industrial effluents. 

Socio-economic values: A substantial amount is earned from boating in Ooty lake, 

which is a major tourist attraction. 

Reference: Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, Nilgiris; WWF India 

(1993); Rao, et al. (1994). 

VEDANTHANGAL AND KARIKILI TANKS 

Two small tanks (old water-storage reservoirs which supply irrigation water to 

villages) in the Chengleput plains, especially important as breeding sites for large 

waterbirds. These tanks situated on Lat. 12° 32’ N and Long. 79° 52’ 

E. There are several much larger tanks, e.g. the 350 ha Madurantakam Tank, on the 

surrounding plains, but these are generally less important for wildlife. Vedanthangal 

Tank which is linked to Madurantakam Tank by a channel receives some water from 

the latter, but Karikili is wholly rain-fed. Vedanthangal has been developed and 

managed for wildlife; a number of elevated mud islands have been created and 

planted with trees to provide ideal nesting sites for herons, egrets, and other colonial 

nesting birds. By contrast, Karikili Tank is undeveloped and remains in much the 

same conditions as Vedanthangal was during the 1950s. It is situated about eight 

kilometres from Vedanthangal, and is in fact two small tanks with a combined area of 

about 50 ha. Both tanks fill during the northeast monsoon in October-November. The 

immediate vicinity of the tanks consists of barren flats, paddy fields, and scrub. 

During the rainy season, shallow pools form in many places and provide additional 

foraging areas for the waterbirds. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of about 

1000 mm, the majority of which falls during the northeast monsoon (October– 

November). 

Macrophytes: Common herbaceous plants in the marshy areas include 


No 

No 

1 Aeschynomene aspera 9 Heliotropium indicum 

2 Chrozophora rotleri 10 Lemna perpusiIla 

3 Cldenia procumbers 11 Limnophyton obtusifolium 

4 Cleome chelidomii 12 Marsilea minuta 

5 Echinochla colonum 13 Nechamandra alternifolia 

6 Eclipta alba 14 Ottelia alismoides 

7 Euphorbia serpens 15 Panicum repens 

8 Glirius oppositifolius 16 Phyla nodif1ora 

The principal vegetation along the bunds consists of trees such as Barringtonia 

acutangula, Acacia nilotica, Alangium salvifolium, Albizzia lebbek, Antidesm

ghaesembilla, Borassus flabeIlifer, Cassia fistula, Derris indica, Polyalthia suberosa, 

and Streblus asper, together with a dense growth of Calamus rotang, Derris 

scandens, and Solanum trilobatum. In the late 1970s, the islands in Vedanthangal 

were replanted to replenish the dead and dying Barringtomia acutangula trees, which 

are favoured by the nesting birds. 

Birds: Both tanks are very important breeding areas for colonial nesting waterbirds, 

and support unusually large numbers of Phalacrocorax spp., and Ardea cinerea. An 

estimated 30000 birds appear at Vendanthangal Tank at the beginning of the breeding 

season. The main species at both tanks are Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, P. niger, 

Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E. 

intermedia, Ardea cinerea, Anastomus oscitans, Threskiornis melanocephalus, 

Platalea leucorodia and, later in the season, Ardeola grayii. A few pairs of Egretta 

alba breed at both sites, and Phalacrocorax carbo breeds at Vedanthangal. Small 

numbers of Pelecanus philippensis visit both tanks, and a few pairs may still breed. 

Other breeding waterbirds include Tachybaptus ruficollis and Gallinula chloropus: 

The tanks are also important as roosting sites for many of the breeding birds, 

especially Phalacrocorax niger, outside the breeding season. Large numbers of 

migratory waterfowl occur on passage and in winter, particularly Anas acuta, A. 

querquedula, A. clypeata, Himantopus himantopus, other shorebirds, and Chlidonias 

hybrida, but no recent survey of their numbers appears to have been made. 

Land tenure: State-owned (Tamil Nadu Forest Department) 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation, bird-watching, and 9ther nature-oriented 

outdoor recreation. 

Conservation measures taken: Vedanthangal Tank is protected in the Vedanthangal 

Bird Sanctuary (30 ha), established by the Government of Madras in 1925. It is one of 

the oldest sanctuaries in India, and has been reorganized several times. For many 

centuries, public sentiment has protected the colony of waterbirds nesting in the 

Barringtonia trees in the tank. In the late l8th century, British soldiers regularly held 

shoots at the tanks. However, in 1790; after repeated attempts, the local villagers 

finally obtained a “cowle” (document of rights) from the first Collector of the East 

India Company for Chengelput in order to prevent the hunting of birds. The sanctuary 

continues to be managed for its waterbirds, but irrigation requirements have priority 

over all other interests. Karikili Tank has no legal protection, but its breeding colony 

of waterbirds had been protected for many years not only by local sentiment but also 

by the State Forest Department. 

Conservation measures proposed: Krishnan has recommended that Karikili Tank be 

given formal recognition as a sanctuary, and that the natural character of the tank be 

preserved. Some planting of Barringtonia trees is required to replace natural die-off. 

A variety of proposals have been made for further management at Vedanthangal 

Sanctuary, including the protection of an adequate area of thorn scrub in the vicinity 

of the nesting colony to provide a ready supply of nesting material for the birds, and 

the implementation of stricter controls on the large numbers of visitors. 

Disturbances and threats: Thousands of visitors who come to Vedanthangal, during 

the nesting season disturb the breeding birds. Recent viewing developments have not 

been managed as well as they might. The State Tourism Department’s proposal to a 

establish a hotel at the tank is being opposed by WWF INDIA and other 

environmental groups.

Socio-economic values: An important source of interest and recreation, for people 

from Madras and beyond; thousands of people visit Vedanthangal Tank each year to 

observe the breeding birds. 

Research and facilities: There is a forest resthouse at Vedanthangal, which can 

accommodate some visitors. A road has recently been built onto the main bund where 

there are extensive facilities for picnicing. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); Karpowicz (1985); Savage and Abdulali 

(1970); WWF India (1993). 

VETTANGUDI TANKS 

Three small village tanks, Vettangudi (18.4 ha), Peria Kollukudi Patti (13.7 ha), and 

Chinna Kollukudi Patti (6.3 ha) situated (10° 07’ N, 78° 35’ E) in a low-lying 

region of agricultural land and sparse scrub. They fill up during the northeast 

monsoon, and dry out completely during the dry season. The surrounding agricultural 

land is studded with innumerable pools which provide important feeding habitat for 

nesting waterbirds. The average water depth of the tanks is 5 m. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. Most of the rain falls during the 

northeast monsoon in October and November. The average annual rainfall is 600 m. 

Temperatures vary from 34°C in summer to 20°C in winter. 

Macrophytes: Acacia nilotica trees have been planted in the tanks during the past 

few decades. Trees of tamarind, Ficus spp., palmyra, and Prosopis grow on the bund. 

Birds: The tanks support sizeable breeding colonies of waterbirds, mainly 

cormorants, herons, and egrets. It appears that the birds colonised the area around 

1970, when suitable nesting trees became available: Migratory birds include white 

spoonbill, black ibis, white ibis, painted stork, openbill stork, and little grebe. 

Land tenure: The tanks are state-owned, under the control of the State Public Works 

Department. 

Land use: The tanks provide water for irrigation of surrounding paddy fields; 

grazing by domestic livestock, removal of silt for application in paddy fields, and 

some fishing are other uses. 

Conservation measures taken: Vettangudi tank alone was declared a Bird 

Sanctuary in 1977 and put under the control of a Forest Ranger stationed at Madurai. 

Supervisory control is now vested with the Forest Range officer at Triuppathur. The 

nesting waterbirds have since been protected by the State Forest Department and by 

public sentiment. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threat is intensification of agriculture in 

surrounding areas and resultant loss of feeding habitat for the birds. In particular, the 

increased application of pesticides to crops is polluting the surrounding water bodies. 

Erratic rainfall has resulted in several species of birds abandoning this area. During 

periods of low rainfall, farmers pump out water, depriving the resident bird 

population. Since the control of the tanks is under the Public Works Department, it 

has not been possible for the Forest Department to undertake habitat improvement 

measures. 

Socio-economic values: The tank is used as a fodder ground for livestock, for 

irrigation and, to some extent, for fishing. Local farmers believe that the birds help in

natural manuring of their cropped lands and cooperate with the authorities in 

protecting them. 


VETTAKUDI-KARAVETTI RESERVOIR 

Vettakudi-Karavetti (10° 30’ N, 78° 30’ E) is a large water-storage reservoir on the 

plains south of the Kaveri river; one of the largest freshwater lakes in southern Tamil 

Nadu. It is one of three interconnected reservoirs and is fed by the Pullambadi canal, 

from the Kaveri. It is subject to wide fluctuations in water level, and occasionally 

dries out completely during the summer months. The total area of the reservoir is 

about 8630 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring during 

the northeast monsoon in October and November. 

Macrophytes: The aquatic vegetation includes: Ipomoea spp., Cyperus sp., Typha 

and Hydrilla. Other vegetation includes Acacia nilotica, Aadiracta indica, Pongamia 

sp., and Casuarina sp. 

Birds: One of the most important wetlands for migratory waterfowl in southern 

Tamil Nadu. Over 5100 waterfowl of 37 species were recorded during a waterfowl 

census in January 1987. These included Pelecanus philippensis (18), Phalacrocorax 

niger (150), 630 herons and egrets of seven species, Anastomus oscitans (32), 

Threskiornis melanocephalus (28), about 4000 ducks (mainly cotton teal, common 

teal, spotbill, pintail, common pochard, garganey, and shoveler), 60 black-winged 

stilts (Himantopus himantopus), and 120 wood sandpiper (Tringa glareola). Very 

large numbers of ducks were present in late February 1988, mainly wigeon, spotbill, 

pintail, garganey, shoveler, and pochard. Also present were painted storks, and abput 

25 white storks (Ciconia ciconia). 

Land tenure: State-owned (under the control of the Public Works Department 

(PWD), Agriculture Department, and Fisheries Department). Cultivated areas around 

the reservoir are privately owned. 

Land use: Water supply for irrigation and domestic use. Fishing is carried out on 

lease basis. Grazing by domestic livestock. Paddy fields surround the reservoir. 

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection. The Social Forestry 

Department has planted Cassia trees along the northern and western shores of the 

reservoir. 

Conservation measures proposed: The Tamil Nadu Forest Department is examining 

the possibility of declaring Vettakudi-Karavetti as a Bird Sanctuary. The Tiruchi 

Wildlife Conservation Society has made a variety of recommendations concerning the 

management of the reservoir for its wildlife. These include the establishment of a 

single coordinating committee to oversee the development of a sanctuary, the raising 

and widening of the bund and removal of silt to ensure that water is retained 

throughout the year, and the provision of observation facilities for the general public. 

Disturbances and threats: Local villagers do not molest the waterfowl, but there are 

reports of illegal hunting by outsiders on a commerical scale. Siltation is a problem. 

Socio-economic values: The water of the tank is used for irrigation and fishing. The 

wetland has potential for nature education.

Research and facilities: The Tiruchi Wildlife Conservation Society has been 

gathering information on the birds of the reservoir. Mid-winter waterfowl censuses 

were carried out in 1986/87 and 1987/88. 

Reference: Wesley, (1990); WWF India (1993). 

WETLAND IN MADURAI AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

CAMPUS 

The wetland (9° 54’ N, 78° 54’ E) area extends over 57.40 ha, with a semi-permanent 

water tank, Chittankulam, occupying 6.7 ha. The tank receives water from the Periyar 

feeder canal. On the northeastern side of the wetland is a hillock of granite rock, 

Yanamalai, which has a large number of lain inscriptions and rock carvings. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 881.6 

mm, received during the northeast and southwest monsoon seasons. Maximum 

temperature is around 33.7°C and minimum around 23.8°C. Water is alkaline with a 

pH ranging from 7.5 to 7.7. 

Macrophytes Rice is the principal crop occupying most of the area. The dominant 

wetland weeds are: horse purselane (Trianthema protulacastrum), sticky cleome 

(Cleome viscosa), nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), and barnyard grass (Echinochloa 

crusgalli). The principal shrubs are madar (Calotropis gigantea) and mesquite 

(Prosopis chilensis). Important tree species include neem (Azadirachta indica), raintree 

(Samanea saman), copper pod (Peltophorum pterocarpum), Manila tamarind 

(Pithecelobium dulce), and a few banyan trees (Ficus benghalensis). The lesser Indian 

reed mace (Typha angustata) grows extensively in the water tank, and the banks are 

blanketed by para grass (Brachiaria mutica). 

Birds: An important area for about 14 species of waterfowl (both resident and 

migratory) in large numbers. Notable species are little grebe, pond heron, and coots. 

There is also a large resident population of peacocks. 

Land tenure: The wetland is owned by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University 

(established in 1965) and its constituent college, Madurai Agricultural College and 

Research Institute. 

Land use: Of the total area of 82.22 ha of land, including the wetland and 

surrounding areas, wetlands occupy 57.40 ha (single crop wetland 5.99 ha; double 

crop wetland 51.41 ha); garden land covers nearly 13.66 ha and orchard 

spreads over 11.16 ha. 

Conservation measures taken: Poaching of birds and quarrying of stones has been 

discontinued since the inception of the college. Desilting the tank and restrictions on 

fishing are also proposed. 

Disturbances and threats: Quarrying on the western side of Yanamalai rock and 

infrequent poaching of waterbirds and peacocks. 

Socio-economic values: Nearly 200 people depend on this wetland for fisheries and 

cultivation. 

Reference: Ranjit Daniels (1983); K. Gunathilagaraj, M.S. Venugopal, S.Suresh and 

R.Mohan (1990). 

KARUNGULAM AND SENGULAM TANKS

Karungulam and Sengulam are two large tanks (water-storage reservoirs) separated by 

the village of Karungulam, in flat arid scrubland on the plains of southern Tamil Nadu 

(8° 38’ N, 77° 51’ E). The tanks are fed by rainfall during the northeast monsoon 

(October and November), but also receive some river water at other times of the year. 

At maximum flooding, the average depth of Karungulam Tank is three metres; 

Sengulam is somewhat shallower. The total area of tanks is 240 ha. The tanks usually 

dry out in March or April and remain dry for about six months of the year. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 

mm. Temperatures range from 25°C to 40°C. 

Macrophytes: Karungulam has a lush growth of Cyperus sp., and other sedges, 

primarily along the shallow western and southwestern shores, and there are some 

patches of Lemna sp., and water lilies. Ottelia alismoides and Potamogeton sp., are 

thought to be present. 

Birds: In the vast assemblage of tanks that stud the entire southern plain of Tamil 

Nadu, Karungulam and Sengulam appear to shelter the most birds, both in terms of 

number of species and number of individuals. The two tanks support a wide variety of 

cormorants, herons, egrets, storks, and ibises, along with other resident species such 

as Gallinula chloropus, Porphyrio porphyrio, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, and Sterna 

aurantia. The tanks are also important for wintering waterfowl, notably 

Phoenicopterus ruber, Anser indicus, and migratory ducks, mainly Anas actua, A. 

querquedula, and A. clypeata. The site is particularly interesting for its wintering 

flock of bar-headed geese (Anser indicus), an unusual species this far south in India. 

Many thousands of waterfowl appeared in January 1987, including: 6 Pelecanus 

philippensis, 500 Phalacrocorax niger, 1200 herons and egrets, 230 Mycteria 

leucocephala, 150 Anastomus oscitans, 100 Phoenicopterus ruber, 500 Anser indicus, 

220 Fulica atra, 100 Chlidonias hybridus and many thousands of ducks and several 

hundred shorebirds. 


Land use: The tank is used for water supply for irrigation 

Conservation measures taken: None. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made for the establishment 

of a Waterbird Sanctuary. 

Disturbances and threats: Local villagers report that poaching is a problem. Illegal 

hunters who come from nearby towns have been observed to shooting Anser indicus 

and Phoenicopterus ruber. The bird communities are of great value to the local 

inhabitants from a socio-aesthetic point of view. 

Socio-economic values: The tanks provide water for irrigation and domestic use. 

Research and facilities: Krishnan has made a preliminary survey of the area, and 

waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987. 


PUTHUPALLI ALAM SWAMP 

The swamp is located (10° 36’ N, 79° 48’ E) 40 km north of the famous Point 

Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary and the Great Vedaranyam Salt Swamp and 7 km south 

of the notable tourist spot, Vailankanni (church) on the Bay of Bengal coast. It is a

ackishwater swamp, fed by monsoon rains as well as seawater flowing through 

inlets. During the monsoons, the swamp is particularly useful as it acts as a spill basin 

for water from the surrounding areas. Mean water depth is 0.5 m. and total area is 

590 ha. The swamp remains parched from April until the northeast monsoon sets in. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical climate, with narrow temperature fluctuations. The 

temperature ranges from a minimum of 22°C in December-January to a maximum of 

38°C in May-June. Salinity ranges from 38 ppt to 60 ppt. The area receives annual 

rainfall of about 1300 mm from the northeast monsoon which sets in during October. 

The southwest monsoon (May–July) also brings some rain. 

Macrophytes: Vegetation is scanty. The bund supports some scattered Suaeda 

maritima. 

Birds: About 59 bird species have been recorded. Species enumerated during a 

census conducted in February 1992 include: 


No 

No 

1 Anastomus oscitans (65) 9 Numenius arquata (34) 

2 Chlidonias hybridus (215) 10 N. phaeopus (8) 

3 Gelochelidon nilotica (160) 11 Philomachus pugnax (48) 

4 Hydroprogne caspia (41) 12 Platalea leucorodia (36) 

5 Ibis leucocephalus (18) 13 Pluvialis dominica (180) 

6 Limicola falcinellus (35) 14 P. squatrola (70) 

7 Limosa lapponica (19) 15 Recurvirostra 

(27) 

avosetta 

8 L. limosa (85) 16 Vanellus indicus (45) 

Land tenure: The wetland is under the control of the Panchayat. It is auctioned every 

year for fishing. 

Land use: Shell fish are caught on a large scale. Finfish are also harvested to some 

extent. 

Disturbances and threats: Reclamation of land for agriculture is one of the major 

threats faced by the swamp. Other threats are drainage of agricultural pollutants from 

the surrounding paddy fields, inflow of silt from irrigation canals and overfishing. 

People living in the vicinity of the swamp illegally hunt birds. 

Socio-economic values: Leasing of the swamp for fishing fetches the panchayat 

considerable revenue. 

Reference: Sampath and Krishnamurthy (1990); WWF India (1993). 

KULLUR SANDAI AND VEMBAKOTTAI TANKS 

Kullur Sandai and Vembakottai tanks situated on 9° 20’ N, 77° 46’ E, near about 45– 

70 km southwest of Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It is a small village tanks (water storage 

reservoirs) on the plains southwest of Madurai. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with most of the rainfall occurring during 


Flora: No information.

Birds: Known to be important wetlands for both resident and migratory waterfowl, 

but little information is available. Fifty-four Pelecanus philippensis were present in 

January 1987 along with: 43 Anhinga melanogaster; 80 Mycteria leucocephala; 37 

Anastonus oscitans; 37 Threskiornis melanocephalus; 50 Anas poecilorhyncha and 

small numbers of many other species. 





Economic and social values: No information. 

Special floral values: No information. 

Research and facilities: Waterfowl censuses were carried out in January 1987. 


CHITRANGUDI AND KANJIRANGULAM TANKS 

The Tanks situated (9° 20’ N, 78° 30’ E) near Mudukulathur, Ramanathapuram 

District, 70 km NNE of Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. Two large village tanks (water storage 

reservoirs) near Mudukulathur, on the plains north of the Gulf of Mannar. The tanks 

are mainly rain-fed, but also receive some water from a nearby irrigation canal. The 

total area of the Chitrangudi is 60 ha and Kanjirangulam tank is 62.2 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring during 


Macrophytes: Acacia nilotica trees have been planted in the tanks by the Tamil Nadu 







Birds: Both tanks are known to support very large mixed breeding colonies of herons, 

egrets and other large water birds including Pelecanus philippensis, but no details are 

available. 


PALLIKARANAI SWAMP

RUDRASAGAR LAKE 

Rudrasagar Lake is situated (Lat. 23° 29’ N and Long. 90° 01’ E) in the Melaghar 

Block under Soamura Sub-Division in the West Tripura District and at a distance of 

about 50 km from the state capital of Tripura. The lake is a natural sedimentation 

reservoir, which receives flow from three perennial streams namely, Oacherra, 

Durlavnaraya cherra and Kemtalicherra. After settling the sediment from the received 

flow, clear water discharges into the river Gomti through a connective channel 

namely Kachigang. The lake bed has been formed by silt deposition on seabed. As 

such no rock formation is found with 50 m is silt (Clay loam) and below formation is 

sandy. Surrounding hillocks are of soft sedimentary formation. The lake is naturally 

formed. The total area of this wetland is 240 ha. Annual rainfall is of the order of 

2500 mm. Spread over the months of June to September with 4/5 flood peaks. 

Substantial base flow in streams rounds the year. The soil in lake area is silty clay 

loam to clay loam. Lake water is fresh with insignificant pollution with a depth varies 

from 2 m to 9 m. Fluctuation in water level varies from EL 9 m to 16 m. 

Abiotic factors: The downstream area of the lake is 750 ha with a temperature 

variation from 37°C to 5°C and rainfall during May 15 to October 15. Geologically 

the area has been formed by silt deposition on seabed and soil in the catchment area is 

silty clay loam to clay loam. 

Macrophytes: The important species are 


No 

No 

1 Azolla pinnata 8 Pistia stratiotes 

2 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Salvania natans 

3 Hydrilla verticillata 10 Trapa natans 

4 Ipomoea aquatica 11 Typha angustifolia 

5 Lemna minor 12 Utricularia striatula 

6 Najas graminea 13 Vallisneria spiralis

7 Nelumbo nucifera 

Fishes: The lake is an ideal habitat for some unique species of fish like 


No 

No 

1 Amblypheryngodon spp. 15 Mastacembetus spp. 

2 Chanda spp. 16 Notopterus Chitala 

3 Cirrhinus spp. 17 Oxygstus spp. 

4 Esomus spp. 18 Palemon spp. 

5 Labeo spp. Endangered Species 

6 Ompok spp. 19 Channa marulius 

7 Otopterus spp. 20 Cirrhinus reba 

Rare species 21 Labeo bata 

8 Botia sp. 22 Macrobrachium 

rosenbergii 

9 Cylonia sp. 23 M. rude 

10 Gudusia spp. 24 Mystus aor 

11 Kachuga sp. 25 M. gulio 

12 Macrobrachium sp. 26 Notopterus chitala 

13 Macrognathus sp. 27 Ompak paba 

Endangered species (IUCN Red list): Three-striped Roof Turtle (Kachuga 

dhongka). 

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are Private owned. 

Land use: The lake is used for fishing, partly silted land used for seasonal paddy 

cultivation with uncertain fate due to flood and tourism. Surrounding plains are used 

for paddy cultivation. Uplands in catchment are used for horticulture and agroforestry 

and habitation. 

Conservation measures taken: This is unprotected area. Nature is playing role for 

changes. In surrounding area, plains and uplands the Department of Agriculture, Soil 

Conservation and Horticulture are working for scientific cultivation, soil stabilization, 

etc. Department of Forests is working with projects for afforestation of the catchment. 

Conservation measures proposed: A project about the conservation aspects of the 

wetland has been prepared and submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forests, 

Government of India alongwith Management Action Plan (MAP) and awaiting 

funding for implementation. 

Disturbance and threats: Commercial scale forest exploitation; Development/ 

expansion of settlements; Agricultural development impacts; Forest management 

measures leading to adverse change; Inappropriate farming practices 

Sedimentation/siltation; Habitat loss/destruction/fragmentation and Vegetational 

succession 

Socioeconomic values: (i) Present fish production: 26.449 MT (1999–2000). This 

may be improved by arranging appropriate project for maintaining permanent water 

area. (ii) Forestry: No forestry in the lake area. Forestry in upper catchment may be 

improved by afforestation project. (iii) Archaeological site: There is one heritage 

building of earlier kings of Tripura naming “Nirmahal”.

Research and facilities: Scientific research facilities are not well organized for the 

lake. Tripura University is working with some thesis work on this lake related issues. 

This lake is used for recreation and tourism. Every year on “Nirmahal” festival is 

celebrated with participation from various states of India. Local people organise 

swimming competition, boat race, mela on the auspicious occasion of “Vijaya 

Dashami”. Many people do sport fishing. Approximately 50,000 tourists from state 

and foreign state are visiting Rudrasagar every year. It has a rising trend. 

Management authority: Department of Fisheries, Government of Tripura, Agartala 

Importance: The wetland supports IUCN Red listed endangered Three-striped Roof 

Turtle (Kachuga dhongka). 

Aquatic plant species include rare Lemna sp., Azolla sp., Salvania sp., Pistia sp., 

Otellia sp., Najas sp., Typha spp. and endangered Azolla sp., Nelumbo sp., Utricularia 

sp., Ipmea sp. 

Fish species include 


No 

No 

Rare species 8 Cirrhinus reba 

1 Botia sp. 9 Labeo bata 

2 Cylonia sp. 10 Macrobrachium rosenbergii 

3 Kachuga sp. 11 M. rude 

4 Macrobrachium sp. 12 Mystus aor 

5 Notopterus chitala 13 M. gulio 

6 Oxygstus spp. 14 Notopterus chitala 

Endangered Species 15 Ompak paba 

7 Channa marulius 

The site is important for supporting the biological diversity in the area which include 

the floral species: 


No 

No 

1 Azolla pinnata 8 Pistia stratiotes 

2 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Salvania natans 

3 Hydrilla verticillata 10 Trapa natans 

4 Ipomoea aquatica 11 Typha angustifolia 

5 Lemna minor 12 Utricularia striatula 

6 Najas graminea 13 Vallisneria spiralis 

7 Nelumbo nucifera 

Important crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Palemon serratus, 

Macrobrachium rude. 

The lake has the perennial connection with one of the major rivers of the state 

facilitating the natural safe breeding ground of majority of the indigenous valuable 

species of fishes of the state. The progressive prominent species of fishes are Mystus 

aor, Ompok pabda, Wallago attu, Heterophneutes fossilis, including freshwater turtle 

and tortoise.

Past and Present status: Continuous siltation is causing loss of lake area and 

increased use for habitation, deforestation, increased agricultural use of land has 

caused higher rate of siltation. 

Reference: Ministry of Environment and Forests (1990); WWF India’s Handbook of 

Wetland Management, published by Avenash Datta for WWF India, New Delhi, 

August, 1995; Mitch and Gosselink. “Wetlands” Second Edition, published by Van 

Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993; http://www.wetlands.org/ (Ramsar website)

MANJHIRA IMPOUNDMENT AT GIRIJA BARRAGE 

A water reservoir at Girija Barrage (Lat. 28° 18’ N and Long. 81° 04’ E) on the 

Ghaghara river about 20 km downstream from Nepalese border, 12 km from 

Katerniaghat and 150 km north of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The maximum depth 

does not exceed 4 m. The total area of this wetland is about 1200 ha. 



1000 mm. 

Macrophytes: Mainly submergent vegetation, predominantly species of Chara, 

Vallisneria, and Hydrilla. 

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. 

During a brief survey in December 1986, some 50 Podiceps cristatus, over 12,000 

ducks, and a wide variety of other waterfowl were observed from a road which flanks 

the lake. The lake is particularly rich in Aythya species, and Netta rufina is very 

common. 


• 

MANJHIRA IMPOUNDMENT AT 

GIRIJA BARRAGE 

Land use: The reservoir is used for water supply and fishing 

Conservation measures taken: No habitat protection. Shooting has been prohibited 

and fishing operations are under government control. 

Disturbances and threats: Fishing activities cause a considerable amount of 

disturbance to waterfowl, and in years when the Government does not permit fishing, 

for example in 1986–87, larger numbers of waterfowl are present. 

Socio-economic values: The impoundment supports a valuable fishery. 

Research and facilities: A preliminary survey has been carried out by the Bombay 

Natural History Society.


PYAGPUR AND SITADWAR JHEELS 

Pyagpur and Sitadwar Jheels situated (Lat. 27° 25’ N and Long. 81° 

48’ E) in Bahraich district, 100 km northeast of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The lakes 

are shallow, freshwater (jheels) with associated marshes, situated some 20 km apart 

on the plains between the Rapti and Ghaghara rivers. Pyagpur is described as an 

excellent permanent jheel, 1-3 m in depth; the much smaller Sitadwar Jheel is 

somewhat shallower and prone to drying out in the dry season. The total area of the 

Pyagpur lake is 2800 ha and Sitadwar lake is 150 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Gangetic plain. 

Macrophytes: Virtually the whole of Pyagpur is covered with Eichhornia crassipes. 

Wherever the surface is open, there is a rich growth of submergents such as Chara sp. 

and Hydrilla sp. No information is available on the vegetation of Sitadwar. 

Birds: Both sites are important for migratory and resident waterfowl. Salim Ali 

recorded Crus leucogeranus at Pyagpur in the 1930s. A waterfowl survey of Sitadwar 

Jheel in January 1987 recorded; 28 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 51 Ardea cinerea, 230 

Platalea leucorodia, 250 Dendrocygna javanica, 300 Anthropoides virgo, 100 

Hydrophasianus chirurgus together with smaller numbers of many other species. 

Land tenure: Both jheels are state owned; the surrounding area is privately owned 

agricultural land. 

Land use: Fishing in Pyagpur Jheel, and waterfowl hunting at both sites. 

Conservation measures taken: No conservation measures have been taken at 

Pyagpur, but further agricultural encroachment and shooting have been prohibited at 

Sitadwar. 

Conservation measures proposed: The Uttar Pradesh Forest Department has plans 

to develop Sitadwar as a Bird Sanctuary. 

Disturbances and threats: The major threat to both wetlands is the gradual 

encroachment of agricultural land. Intensive fishing causes excessive disturbance at 

Pyagpur, and there is considerable disturbance at Sitadwar during religious festivals. 

Illegal trapping and shooting of waterfowl still take place at Pyagpur, and there is 

some illegal shooting at Sitadwar. 

Socio-economic values: Pyagpur Jheel supports a very important fishery, and 

Sitadwar is a site of religious pilgrimage and festivals. 

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys and waterfowl censuses have been 

carried out by the Bombay Natural History Society. 


NAWABGANI PRIYADARSHANI BIRD SANCTUARY 

Nawabgani Priyadarshani Bird Sanctuary situated (26° 50’ N, 81° 10’ E) on south and 

east of the Kanpur Lucknow highway, 45 km east of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. It is a 

permanent, shallow, freshwater lake and associated marshes with some adjacent 

riparian forest, on the upper Gangetic plain. The lake is fed by monsoon run-off, and 

has an average depth of 1.0–1.5 m at maximum water levels. The water level 

fluctuates considerably, and much of the lake dries out in early summer.

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the upper Gangetic plain. The 

pH varies between 7.6 and 7.9. 

Macrophytes: The lake supports a variety of aquatic plants typical of the upper 

Ganges system, including Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna minor, Azolla pinnata, Pistia 

stratiotes, Spirodela polyrhiza, Ipomoea aquatica, Enhydra fluctuans, and Nymphaea 

sp. Emergents include species of Cyperus, Scirpus, and Oryza sativa. There are 

several stands of riparian forest planted in the 1970s around the periphery of the lake. 

Birds: This region is important for both resident and migratory waterfowl. Large 

waterbirds started to nest at the lake in about 1980, and there is now a mixed breeding 

colony of night heron, two or three species of egret and spoonbill. Other resident 

species include purple moorhen and bronze-winged jacana. The lake is also important 

for wintering waterfowl, chiefly Anatidae (swans, geese and ducks) and Fulica atra. 

An avifauna count held in 1991 recorded the following: 


No 

No 

1 Anas acuta 300–400 11 Fulica atra 1000+ 

2 A. crecca 100+ 12 Gallicrex cinerea 40+ 

3 A. platyrhynchos 10+ 13 Hydrophasianus chirnrgus 

(50–100) 

4 A. poecilorhyncha 40+ 14 Marmaronetta 

angustirostris 1000+ 

5 A. strepera 1000+ 15 Metopidius indicus 30–50 

6 Anhinga melanogaster 4 16 Nettapus coromandelianus 

400+ 

7 Ardea cinerea 6 17 Phalacrocorax carbo 300+ 

8 A. purpurea 3 18 P. niger 200 

9 Bubulcus ibis 17 19 Tachybaptus ruficollis 3 

10 Dendrocygna javanica 100+ 

The raptors identified included shikra, pariah kite, and marsh harrier. In 1985- 86 

several open billed storks were seen nesting, which was not observed in 1991. 

Land tenure: The lake is state-owned; surrounding areas are privately owned. 

Land use: Outdoor recreation, including some boating on the lake. 

Conservation measures taken: The lake and adjacent riparian forests are protected 

in the Bird Sanctuary. Trees have been planted around the Sanctuary head-quarters, 

and various facilities have been provided for visitors, though boating is not allowed. 

The Forest Department removes Eichhornia crassipes periodically. The Sanctuary 

adjoins a deer park at its southwestern corner. 

Disturbances and threats: There has been a considerable amount of hunting of 

ducks and shorebirds in the past, but since 1972 the local bird market has become 

illegal. Eichhornia crassipes infestation is a problem as at most other wetlands in 

Uttar Pradesh. Visitors to the Sanctuary cause some disturbance, and this can be 

particularly damaging when the birds are nesting. 

Socio-economic values: A popular recreatioal area for the inhabitants of Lucknow 

and Kanpur, as well as tourists from further afield. If managed properly, the Sanctuary 

could evolve into an important educational and recreational centre for the people of 

neighbouring towns and cities.

Research and facilities: Some waterfowl censuses have been carried out. 

Observation facilities include a watch tower and a permanent hide. The Tourist 

Department has built a Guest House, and there is a restaurant and picnic area by the 

lake. 

Pollution status: Some pollution reaches the lake in waterways from a nearby town. 

Automobile pollution from a highway in the vicinity is a long-term threat. 

Reference: Anon (1982); WWF India (1993). 

DAHAR AND SAUJ (SOJ) JHEELS 

The Ganga (Ganges) and Ramganga rivers converge at 27° 10’ N, 79° 55’ E. 

Within 100 km of this confluence, there are many shallow freshwater lakes (jheels) 

which flood during the summer monsoon and generally retain water throughout the 

winter and into early spring. Some of the main jheels ate Dahar Jheel (27° 19’ N, 79° 

59’ E), Sauj Jheel (27° 01’ N, 79° 11’ E), Sheoja and Gaundial Jheels (27° 05’ N, 

79° 11’ E), and Mohri-Sothna Jheel (26° 56’ N, 79° 17’ E). The jheels range in size 

from a few hectares to about 600 ha, but fewer than 20% are larger than 400 ha. They 

are fed by monsoon rains flowing through natural water courses known as nadis. 

Some 52% of the jheels are shallower than 1.5 m and 77% have suffered at least 

moderate drainage. Jheels were once an abundant feature of the rich patchwork of 

forests, lakes, and cultivated areas which formerly extended throughout the western 

Ganges Basin. The inexorable increase in the region's human population has resulted 

in the conversion of virtually the whole area into agricultural land. The few scattered 

lakes which remain are the remnants of a very rich wetland environment that existed 

until the beginning of the 20th century. 

Abiotic factors: Rather dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges 

Plain. 

Macrophytes: The dominant aquatic vegetation at 29 jheels surveyed by Singh et al. 

in 1982-83 was as follows: (a) free floating: Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, 

Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza, and Azolla pinnata; (b) rooted floating: Ipomoea 

aquatica, I. rubens, Enhydra fluctuans, Eclipta prostata, ]ussiea repans, Nymphaea 

sp., and Euryale ferox; (c) submerged: Potamogeton crispus, Hydrilla verticillata, 

Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, and Najas graminea; (d) emergent: 

Cyperus sp., C. rotundus, Hygroryzea sp., Oryza sativa, Scitpus articulosus, S. 

littoralis, and Paspalidium geminatum. 

Birds: The region was once an extremely important area for both resident and 

migratory waterfowl, including the endangered Siberian white crane (Grus 

leucogeranus). However, in a recent survey only 23% of the jheels investigated held 

appreciable numbers of waterfowl, and 42% had no waterfowl at all. At two jheels, 

the local people gave good descriptions of G.leucogeranus and it would seem that the 

area still supports this species at least during years of drought when the Keoladeo 

Ghana Sanctuary (site 38) may be virtually dry. Four of the jheels surveyed in January 

1983, namely, Dahar, Mohri-Sothna, Sauj, and Sheoja-Gaundial, held large 

concentrations of waterfowl and were considered to be worthy of special attention. 


Conservation measures proposed: Of the many jheels surveyed in the winter of 

1982–83, four were considered to merit special attention from conservationists. These 

were Dahar (Saudi), Mohri-Sothna, Sauj (Soj), and Sheoja Gaundial. Dahar Jheel, in

particular, was thought to require urgent attention if this excellent condition were to 

be maintained. 

Land use: Water supply for agriculture and domestic use, fishing, hunting, the 

gathering of fodder and fuel, and the harvesting of certain aquatic plants for human 

consumption (notably the sedge, Cyperus rotundus, which forms large tubers relished 

by people and livestock alike). 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats to the wetlands are drainage for 

conversion to agricultural land, excessive hunting and fishing, and general overexploitation 

of all the wetland resource. Human activities such as shooting, trapping, 

fishing, washing, swimming and the watering of domestic animals cause a 

considerable amount of disturbance at most of the jheels. Of 48 jheels surveyed in 

January 1983, 440% were considered to be suffering from heavy disturbance, and a 

further 42% from moderate disturbance. Shooting was reported at over 80% of the 

sites, and at only 14% was disturbance described as light. The sedge Cyperus 

rotundus was obviously being heavily over-exploited; it was found to be abundant at 

only 14% of the wetlands investigated, and was completely absent at 67%. 

Socio-economic values: The jheels constitute a highly productive ecosystem capable 

of supporting large sustainable harvests of fish, waterfowl, edible plants, firewood, 

and fodder. However, unless the conversion of these wetlands into agricultural land is 

stopped and the present high levels of exploitation are reduced, the great economic 

value of the system will be lost. 

Research and facilities: Sauey et al. (1987) surveyed a total of 48 jheels in two 

regions of Uttar Pradesh in January 1983 during the course of a search for Grus 

leucogeranus, while Singh et al. (1987) investigated 29 jheels in the districts of 

Hardoi, Unnao, Kanpur and Itawa in the same Winter 

Reference: Sauey et al. (1987); Singh et al. (1987); WWF India (1993). 

CHHATA LAKES 

A group of at least three discrete lakes, Kamai, Nari, and Sankhi, surrounded by 

agricultural land. The lakes situated on (Lat. 27° 45’ N and Long. 77° 40’ E) east of 

Chhata town, about 100 km SSE of Delhi along the Uttar Pradesh-Rajasthan border. 

Kamai is a small water storage reservoir (tank), whereas Nari and Sankhi are natural 

lakes; all are fed by monsoon run-off and irrigation canals. Sankhi Lake is saline and 

the shallowest of the three, with a maximum depth of only 30 cm; the other two lakes 

are slightly brackish and some 60–80 cm deep. The total area of these wetlands are 

about 3000 ha. All three are usually dry by May but, in years of good monsoon, 

provide important habitat for waterfowl during the northern winter. The Jamuna river 

flows southwards through the eastern part of the area. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate 

Birds: When first surveyed in January 1987, the lakes were suffering from the 

monsoon failure of 1986; water levels were very low and few birds were present. 

Nevertheless, some 3170 waterfowl of about 75 species were present, including three 

Pelecanus crispus, 200 herons and egrets of ten species, 10 Ciconia episcopus, two 

pairs of Ephippiorhynch asiaticus, 100 ibises and spoonbills (Threskiornithidae), 350 

flamingos (Phoenicopteridae), 422 Anser indicus, over 600 ducks of 15 species, 42 

Grus antigone, 230 Fulica atra, and over 950 shorebirds of about 25 species.


Land use: The reservoir is used for fishing. 

Socio-economic values: The jheels constitute a highly productive ecosystem capable 

of supporting large sustainable harvests of fish, waterfowl, edible plants, firewood, 

and fodder. 

Research and facilities: A poorly known area, first surveyed in detail in January 

1987. 


JHEELS IN THE VICINITY OF HAIDERGARH 

A group of shallow, freshwater lakes and meandering water courses with associated 

marshes, subject to monsoon flooding and often dry by the end of the dry season. The 

Jheels are situated (Lat. 26° 35’ N and Long. 81° 15’ E) near the town of Haidergarh 

(Hydergarh) in Barabanki district, 50 km southeast of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. These 

jheels are typical of the jheels of the Gangetic plain of Uttar Pradesh and are 

representative of the wetlands of the entire Oudh region to the southeast. The total 

area of the Haidergarh Jheel is 100 ha and Madha-ki-jheel is 1600 ha. Virtually all of 

the surrounding areas are cultivated in small holdings, and many of the jheels have 

already been drained and converted into agricultural land. Most of the jheels are 

residual oxbow lakes, for the most part overgrown with emergent vegetation and often 

utilized as village ponds by the local human population. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Gangetic plain. 

Macrophytes: The jheels support a profuse growth of free-floating, rooted-floating, 

submerged, and emergent aquatic vegetation, typical of the region. Unfortunately, 

Eichhornia crassipes has invaded the area and is already dominant at many sites. 

Birds: Taken collectively, the jheels around Haidergarh are of great importance for 

many resident and migratory species of waterfowl. 

Land tenure: Probably privately owned throughout. 

• 

JHEELS IN THE VICINITY OF 

HAIDERGARH 



Conservation measures taken: No information except at Haidergarh Jheel where 

shooting has been prohibited. Unfortunately, enforcement is insufficient to prevent 

shooting taking place. 

Possible changes in land use: Wetlands throughout the region are being drained for 

conversion to agricultural land. 

Disturbances and threats: The jheels are rapidly being converted to agricultural use. 

Most are already partly drained; over 50% of Haidergarh Jheel has been drained, and 

agricultural land now extends to the edge of the open water. Other threats include 

illegal shooting and trapping of waterfowl, and pollution with domestic and 

agricultural effluents. The spread of Eichhornia crassipes is a major problem at many 

of the jheels. 

Socio-economic values: Several of the jheels are important regulators of the local 

water table. 

Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys have been carried out by the Bombay 

Natural History Society. 

Pollution status: Pollution caused by domestic and agricultural effluents. 


NAINITAL LAKE 

It is a crescent shaped natural water body of central Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh. Nainital 

lake (Lat. 29° 24’ N and Long. 79° 28’ E) is one of the most picturesque lakes in the 

Kumaum Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh. The length of the lake is 1432 m and breadth is 

42 m. The maximum depth is 27.3 m. and total area of the wetland is about 48.2 m 2 . 

The lake is surrounded on the north west side by the high and steep Naina peak, on 

the south west side by Tiffin Top, and on the north by peaks such as snow view. 

These hill tops are covered by coniferous forest trees. The lake receives water 

carrying the household refuge, garbage, silt and unmeasured amount of sewage 

through 24 open drains, out of which 2 are perennial and the rest 22 become active 

only during rainy season. 


and minimum of 0.5°C. The water is alkaline in nature (8.4–9.3). 

Fauna: No information. 


Land use: Drinking, Fishing and boating. 

Socio-economic values: The lake is multipurpose in character, far aside from its use 

as source of drinking water and fishing, boating, etc., it has a great bearing upon the 

economy of the region as a major tourist attraction. 

Pollution status: Nainital lake water is much more polluted by (a) human 

settlement on catchment leading to the construction of house, buildings and roads and 

addition of domestic sewage, (b) tourism leading to boating, rowing and other 

recreational activities and (c) removal of natural vegetation from shore line area 

which facilities addition of eroded materials.

Reference: Rai and Rathore (1993). 

BAGHLA RESERVOIR 

The Baghla reservoir situated near Barica and about 55 km southwest of the city of 

Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. The reservoir was constructed in 1952 on a small rivulet, 

the Barica situated about 5 km away from the Baghla lake. The reservoir enclosed an 

area of 250 ha at FRL (119 m) with a water retention capacity of about 9.58 mm 3 

which is minimized to 0.141 mm 3 at DSL. Water level in reservoir fluctuated between 

6.86 to 7.83 meters. The maximum discharge of water from reservoir takes place in 

December–January to irrigate the winter crop covering an area of about 2020 ha. 

Bundh length of the reservoir is 2.05 km and average depth is 3.89 m. 


and minimum of 20°C. The pH values ranged from 7.1–8.15. 

Phytoplankton: Most important flora encountered were: Microcystis aeroginosa, 

Aphanocapsa sp., Anabaena spp. among myxophyceae; Eudorina, Pediastrum, 

Pandorina, Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus and Spirogyra of chlorophyceae; Melosira, 

Synedra, Gyrosigma, Asterionella, Cymbella, Cyclotella and Navicula of 

bacillariophyceae. Ceratium sp. was the sole representative of dinophyceae. 

Periphyton: Cymbella, Navicula, Synedra, Melosira, Meridion, Ankistrodesmus, 

Protococcus, Oedogonium, Ulothrix, Oscillatoria, Merismopeida, Aphanocapsa, 

Cylindrospermum, Cosmarium, Cirrhina mrigala and Labeo calbasu. 

Zooplankton: The bulk of the zooplankton was constituted by rotifera (Brachionus 

spp., Keratella spp. and Fillnia sp.) followed by Cyclops sp., Diaptomus sp. and 

Mesocyclops (copepoda) and cladocera (Diaphanosoma spp., Bosmina sp. and 

Ceriodaphnis sp.) 

Macrobenthos: Main fauna encountered were: Chironomid spp.; Phylopotamus sp., 

among insects; and Pisidium, Corbicula sp., Gyraulus sp., Lymnaea sp. Indoplanorbis 

sp. and Viviparus bengalensis comprised molluscan fauna. 

Fishes: Labeo bata, Puntius sarana, Notopterus notopterus, Wallago attu and Mystus 

spp. 


Land use: Irrigation and fishing. 




Reference: Khan et al. (1996). 

SURHA WETLAND 

Surha wetland (Lat. 25° 48’–25° 52’ N and Long. 84° 8’–84° 15’ E) is a large ox-box 

shape perennial, freshwater lake in the middle Gangetic plain, Uttar Pradesh. 

Marginal exposed area is used for the cultivation of traditional varieties of ‘floating’ 

or deep-water rice. At the time of harvest, farmers chop off the awns only and rest of 

the portion was left to decompose. The lake is connected with river Ganga by a 

narrow and zig-zag seasonal stream named Kateher Nala. It brings floodwater from

the Ganga to the lake or carries off the overflow from the lake into the river Ganga. 

The total area of the lake is about 3500 ha during rainy season. 


Macrophytes: Dominant macrophytic species present in the wetlands are 


No 

No 

1 Ceratophyllum demersum 7 Oryza rufipogan 

2 Cyperus plantystylis 8 O. sativa 

3 Eichhornia crassipes 9 Polygonum amphibium 

4 Eleocharis plantaginea 10 Potamogeton crispes 

5 Hydrilla verticillata 11 P. pectinatus 

6 Ipomea aquatica 




Reference: Siddharth Singh and Ambasht (2001). 

MATATILLA RESERVOIR 

The reservoir situated (25° 15’ N, 78° 23’ E) on the river Betwa (a tributary of 

Chambal), Uttar Pradesh. It has gross capacity 964.72cm. The maximum depth of the 

reservoir is 27.5 m and depth at dead storage is 18.18 m. The volume development 

0.66, shore development 1.65, shore line 73.6 km and average rainfall 76.3 mm per 

annum. The total area of this lake is about 13,893 ha. 


and minimum of 19.4°C. The pH values ranged from 7.4–8.2. 



• 

MATATILLA RESERVOIR 


Land use: Irrigation for agriculture 


valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use 

Reference: Sherry and Jain (1992). 

WETLANDS OF EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH 

Numerous small lakes, ponds, marshes, and water courses in a vast low-lying region 

between the Ghaghara and Ganges rivers in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The region, 

formerly known as the “Oudh” (meaning between the two rivers), stretches for about 

370 km from east to west and up to 120 km from north to south. It contains more than 

500 freshwater wetlands of over 100 ha in area and a great wealth of smaller water 

bodies. A few of the wetlands exceed 500 ha, and most of the significant lakes are 

about 200–300 ha. Detailed information is lacking on this area, but it is likely that the 

wetlands are similar in many respects to those of northern Uttar Pradesh to the west 

and those of Bihar to the east. The cities of Kanpur, Allahabad, and Varanasi are 

situated on the Ganges on the southern edge of the region. The whole area is densely 

populated and under intensive cultivation. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the Ganges plain, with an 

average annual rainfall of about 1000 mm and a temperature range of 5°–45°C. 

Birds: Known to be an extremely important area for migratory waterfowl, especially 

Anatidae. Abdulali and Savage (1970) reported that “millions” of ducks used the area 

in winter, but no recent information is available. Some of the less disturbed wetlands 

probably support significant densities of breeding waterfowl as well. 

Land tenure: Largely under private ownership 

Land use: Fishing and water supply for irrigation and domestic use. The wetlands 

are also utilised by local people as a source of fodder for domestic livestock and fuel 

for cooking. 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats are over-exploitation of all the 

wetland resources by the ever-increasing human population of the region, drainage for 

conversion to agricultural land, infestation with Eichhornia crassipes, and pollution 

from domestic wastes. 

Socio-economic values: The wetlands act as natural water storage reservoirs for 

irrigation and domestic supply, and provide a wealth of natural foods, fuel, and fodder 

for the local people and their livestock. 

Research and facilities: Meagre research seems to have been carried out in this 

important region, and no recent information is available on the wetlands or their 

wildlife. 

Reference: Abdulali and Savage (1970); WWF India (1993). 

UPPER GANGA RIVER (BRIJGHAT TO NARORA STRETCH) 

The Ganga rises at 7,010 meters in Gangotri, Uttar Kashi District, Uttar Pradesh, on 

the Southern slopes of the Himalayan range. It flows through three different States - 

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal covering a distance of 2,525 km before it joins 

the Bay of Bengal. The entire river stretch from Brijghat to Narora is shallow with 

only intermittent small stretches of deep-water pools and reservoirs upstream

arrages. The bank of the entire river stretch up to Narora is sandy and muddy, but 

with significantly rich biodiversity and religious importance. Between Brijghat and 

Narora, both the banks are embanked with boulders to check erosion. 


The depth varies between 300–362 cm. and transparency ranges between 3–5 cm 

during monsoon season. During dry season the stretch has low quantity of water with 

a depth ranging from 50 cm to 150 cm. Irregular water flow from the reservoirs in the 

upper reaches and inconsistent rainfall in the area are responsible for the irregular flow 

of the Ganga River. The discharge record from the barrages shows a regular 

fluctuation in the water level causing disturbance to the natural habitat of different 

aquatic animals. It has a total water spread area of about 26,590 ha. 

Abiotic factors: During the major part of the year the climate of the total river stretch 

is influenced largely by the prevalence of dry air, extreme temperatures in summer and 

winter. It is only during the monsoon months that air of oceanic origin reaches, 

bringing with it increased humidity, cloudiness and rain. Climatologically, the year 

may be divided into three seasons. The cold season, from about the end of November 

to the beginning of March, followed by the hot season, which continues till about the 

end of June where the south-west monsoon arrives. The monsoon season lass until 

September and the next two months forming the transitional period. 

Plants: The dominating plants along the river stretch are Shesham (Dalbergia 

sissoo), Ashoka (Saraca indica), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Globulus), Banyan (Ficus 

bengalensis), Bamboo (Dendrocalamus Strictus), Teak (Tectona grandis) and Neem 

(Azadirachta indica), etc. Beside this, bamboo grasses and some aquatic flora like 

Eichhorina common. 

Phytoplankton: The density of Phytoplanktons varies from 36 to 2116 µ / l. 

A total of 15 species of molluscs belonging to 10 families was also recorded. 

Zooplankton: Zooplanktons species are dominated by four main taxonomic groups 

Protozoa, Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda. A total of 40 forms of zooplanktons are

identified in the stretch with 10 species of Protozoans, 16 Rotifers, 4 Cladocerans and 

5 Copepods. 

Fishes: In addition to the red listed species, these are endemic to the area, such as 

fishes - Tor tor, T. pitutora. Fish forms the largest group of living natural resources in 

this river stretch. Fishes like Wallago attu, Chela laubuca, Colisa fasciatus, Chanda 

ranga, Glossogobius giuris, Nangra punctata, Puntius sp. and P. sophore are 

common in the river. According to the survey conducted by WWF India, a total of 73 

species of fishes were identified. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Ailia colia 38 Mastacembelus armatus 

2 Amblypharyngodon melettinus 39 M. puncalus 

3 A. mola 40 Mystus bleekeri 

4 Badis badis 41 M. cavasius 

5 Bagarius bagarius 42 M. oar 

6 Barilus barila 43 M. seenghala 

7 B. bola 44 M. tangara 

8 B. modestus 45 M. vittatus 

9 B. vagra 46 Nandus nandus 

10 Botia Dario 47 Nangra nangra 

11 Catla catla 48 Nemochilus bevasni 

12 Chaca chaca 49 N. botia 

13 Chanda nama 50 N. corica 

14 C. ranga 51 N. montanus 

15 Channa gachua 52 N. multifasciatus 

16 C. marulius 53 N. savena 

17 C. punctatus 54 N. scaturingina 

18 C. slewartii 55 N. zonatus 

19 C. striatus 56 Notopterus chitala 

20 Chela laobuca 57 N. notopterus 

21 Cirrhinus mrigala 58 Ompok bimaculotus 

22 C. reba 59 O. pabda 

23 Clarias batrachus 60 Osteobrama cotio 

24 C. magur 61 Oxygaster bacaila 

25 Clupisoma garua 62 O. boopis 

26 Crossocheilus latius 63 Pungasium pungasius 

27 Danio dangila 64 Puntius chola 

28 D. devario 65 P. sarana 

29 Eutropiichthys vacha 66 P. sophore 

30 Glossogobius giuris 67 P. ticto 

31 Gudusia chapra 68 Rasbora daniconius 

32 Heteropneustes fossilis 69 Rita rita 

33 Labeo gonius 70 Tor putitora 

34 L. pangusia 71 T. tor 

35 Laubuca atper 72 Wallago attu 

36 Lepidocephalichthys guntea 73 Xenentodon cancila 

37 Mastacembelus acculatus

Reptiles: Two species of crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis gangeticus and 

vulnerable Crocodylus palustris. Under the national legislation these species are also 

protected as Schedule I of Wildlife protection Act 1972. Besides, out of 12 species of 

turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are considered as endangered including 

Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus). The following species of turtles 

(freshwater) are recorded in this wetland, i.e. 


No 

No 

1 Aspideretes gangeticus 7 K. kachuga 

2 A. hurum 8 K. smithii 

3 Chitra indica 9 K. tecta 

4 Geoclemys hamiltonii 10 K. tentoria 

5 Hardella thurjii 11 Lissemys punctata 

6 Kachuga dhongoka 12 Melanochelys trijuga 

Birds: The numerous water birds use the shallow water pools for roosting and 

breeding. More than 100 species of birds belonging to 34 families both aquatic and 

terrestrial avifauna were identified along with there population. More than 20,000 

birds are reported in the stretch which includes Pintails (Anas acuta) (1148), Brahmini 

Duck (Tadorna ferruginea) (1136), Coot (Fulica atra) (8000), Cormorant 

(Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) (3500), Purple moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (2000), 

Spoonbill (Platalea leucordia) (1500), Openbills (Anastomus oscitans) (500), Barheaded 

geese (Anser indicus) (600), Gulls (Larus ridibundus) (800) according to 2002 

survey conducted by WWF India. List of Birds is provided in Appendix 1. (Total 

yearly estimate is available in the annual dolphin survey reports of the Upper Ganga 

River - WWF-India 1997 – 2004). During the dolphin survey in the river stretch in 

winter, estimation of aquatic birds was collected. These are followes; 

Family Common Name Scientific Name 

Podicipitidae Little grabe Tachybaptus ruficollis 

Great crested grabe Podiceps cristatus 

Pelecanidae Grey pelican Pelecanus philippensis 

Phalacrocoracidae Indian Shag Phalacrocorax 

fuscicollis 

Large cormorant P. carbo 

Little cormorant P. niger 

Darter Anhinga rufa 

Ardeidae Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 

Pond Heron Ardeola grayii 

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis 

Little Egret Egretta garzetta 

Large Egret E. alba 

Intermediate Egret E. intermedia 

Ciconiidae White necked Stork Ciconia episcopus 

Black Stork C. nigra 

Black necked Stork Zzenorhynchus asiaticus 

Open billed Anastomus oscitans

Threskiornithidae Spoon bill Platalea ieucorodia 

Anatidae Bar headed goose Anser indicus 

Grey leg goose A. anser 

Brahmini Duck Tadorna ferruginea 

Tufted duck Aythya fuligula 

Common pochard A. ferina 

Pintail Anas acuta 

Common Teal A. crecca 

Shoveller A. clypeata 

Gad wall A. strepera 

Garganey A. querguedula 

Wigeon A. penelope 

Spotbill Duck A. poecilorhyncha 

Cotton Teal Nettapus 


Red crested pochard Netta rufina 

Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos 

Accipitridae Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus 

Pariah kite Milvus migrans 

Brahminy kite Haliastur indus 

Shikra Accipiter badius 

Indian white backed 

vulture 

Gyps bengalensis 

Scavenger vulture Neophron percnopterus 

Ringed 

fishingeagle 

tailed Halioeetus leucoryphus 

Phasianidae Common peafowl Pavo cristatus 

Gruidae Sarus Crane Grus antigone 

Common Crane G. grus 

Rallidae Whitebreasted 

Waterhen 

Amaurornis phoenicurus 

Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 

Coot Fulica atra 

Recurvirostridae Black winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus 

Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 

Burhinidae Stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus 

Great stone Plover Esacus magnirostris 

Small 

Pratincole 

Indian Glareola lactea 

Charadiidae Red wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus 

Spur Winged Plover V. spinosus 

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius 

Kentish Plover C. alexandrinus 

Western curlew Numenius arquata 

Red shank Tringa totanus 

Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos 

Laridae Brown headed gull Larus brunnicephalus 

Black headed gull L. ridibundus 

Indian River Tern Sterna aurantia

Black bellied Tern S. acuticauda 

Little Tern S. albifrons 

Columbidae Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia 

Indian Ring Dove Strerptopelia decaocto 

Red Turtle Dove S. tranquebarica 

Psittacidae Rose ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri 

Cuculidae Crow-Pheasant Centropus sinensis 

Strigidae Brown Fish Owl Bubo zeylonensis 

Apodidae House swift Apus affinis 

Alcedinidae White breasted Halcyon smyrnensis 

Kingfisher 

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis 

Meropidae Blue tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus 

Green Bee-eater M. orientalis 

Coraciidae Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis 

Upupidae Hoopoe Upupa epops 

Alaudidae Red winged Bush Lark Mirafra erythroptera 

Rufous tailed Finch Ammomanes 

Lark 

phoenicurus 

Hirundinidae Swallow Hirundo rustica 

Red rumped Swallow H. daurica 

Laniidae Brown shrike Lanius cristatus 

Grey shrike L. excubitor 

Rufous backed Shrike L. schach 

Dicruridae Black Drongo Dicrurs adsimilis 

Sturnidae Black headed Myna Sturnus pagodarum 

Pied Myna S. contra 

Common Indian Myna Acridotheres oristis 

Bank Myna A. ginginianus 

Corvidae Indian Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda 

House crow Corvus splendens 

Jungle Crow C. macrorhynchos 

Pycnonotidae Red vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer 

Muscicapidae Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus 

Large Grey Babbler T. malcolmi 

Magpie robin Copsychus saularis 

Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata 

Motacillidae Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea 

Large pied wagtail M. maderaspatensis 

Ploceidae House Sparrow Passer domesticus 

Mammals: Upper Ganga River supports mammalian species like Ganges river 

dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, IUCN Redbook as Endangered, 

common-otters (Lutra lutra). 

Endangered species: Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, 

IUCN Redbook as Endangered, common-otters (Lutra lutra), two species of 

crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis gangeticus and vulnerable Crocodylus palustris. 

Besides, out of 12 species of turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are 

considered as endangered including Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus). 

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding areas are Government and Private owned.

Land use: The wetland is used for irrigation, fishing, pilgrimage, mass religious 

bathing and post cremation activity and surrounding areas are used for agriculture and 

grazing, nesting and basking ground for turtles and crocodiles. 

Conservation measures taken: List national category and legal status of protected 

areas, including boundary relationships with the Ramsar site; management practices; 

whether an officially approved management plan exists and whether it is being 

implemented. 

There is no protected area created in the stretch from Brijghat to Narora to save the 

endangered species. To save the dolphins and other animals including endangered 

species, the Government of India have included these species in the Schedule I of the 

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. The Act prohibits killing/trapping of the species. The 

Ganges dolphin was also listed in Appendix II of the Convention of International 

Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES). 

Major threats identified in the river stretch includes: Pollution, Soil erosion and 

Fishing. WWF-India is carrying out the following activities to address the threats: 

1. Lobby with the Government to install Sewage treatment Plant at Anupsahar to 

reduce the domestic sewage. Motivating the villagers to reduce the use of 

chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the fields to control the Agricultural 

pollution. (It should be noted that significant reduction of agricultural pollutant 

has been recorded in this stretch). 

2. Plantation activities are carried out regularly along the bank of the river to 

minimize the soil erosion. (Last year we planted 3000 plants and this year 10,000 

plants is to be planted along the bank in village Farida to check the soil erosion). 

3. Lobbying with the Government to ban leasing of commercial fishing in this area. 

Out of six districts in this area (both bank of the river stretch) three districts has 

already issued notice to ban leasing on commercial of fishing. 

Conservation measures proposed: Already proposed for a status of wildlife 

sanctuary but yet not declared. 

Disturbance and threats: Domestic sewage pollution; Unspecified agricultural 

runoff; Over-fishing; Industrial waste pollution; Urban development; Development/ 

xpansion of settlements; Pesticide/herbicide pollution; Fertilizer pollution; Erosion 

and Fluctuation in water-level as a result of practice 

Socio-economic values: All the ways from Brijghat to Narora most of the ghats have 

religious importance and also importance for tourism, unspecified fishing, agriculture, 

water supply, hydro-electricity, livestock grazing and current scientific research. 

Large number of pilgrims use the river water for holy bath, cremation and post 

cremation activities. 

Pollution status: Overpopulation in the area in the recent years and subsequent 

population pressure for ritual activities has caused major pollution in the river. 

Research and facilities: WWF-India has involved in regular monitoring of the 

stretch since 1997. Before that 1991 to 1995 Jiwaji University, Gwalior has conducted 

the research on Bio-monitoring of the stretch Under the Ganges River Dolphin 

project. WWF-India is conducting annual surveys to monitor the dolphin population 

of the stretch. Beside river dolphins, data are also collected on the status of other 

aquatic biodiversity present in the stretch such as crocodiles, turtles and aquatic birds.

Data related to the hydrology and other biology of the river stretch is also recorded 

regularly. These data are regularly been updated in the satellite imagery (GIS maps). 

Along with this Education and Awareness Programme is conducted to address 

different target groups like students, villagers and fishermen communities. Education 

materials were prepared and awareness created by giving regular, lectures, slide 

shows, presentation and through street play. Measures have been taken to mitigate the 

identified threats in this habitat with the help of local NGO’s, State Forest Department 

and other relevant Government Departments. 

WWF-India has established a field office to carry out day to day research work and 

related activities in the river stretch and coordinating the work with NGO’s, villagers 

and various Government departments. 

Importance: Upper Ganga River supports mammalian species like Ganges river 

dolphins (Platanista gangetica) listed in CITES, IUCN Redbook as Endangered, 

common-otters (Lutra lutra), two species of crocodiles i.e. endangered Gavialis 

gangeticus and vulnerable Crocodylus palustris. Under the national legislation these 

species are also protected as Schedule I of Wildlife protection Act 1972. Besides, out 

of 12 species of turtles identified from this stretch, 6 species are considered as 

endangered including Indian Softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus). 

The Upper Ganga River supports a rich biodiversity. Besides, dominating plants along 

the river stretch are Shesham (Dalbergia sissoo), Ashoka (Saraca indica), Eucalyptus 

(Eucalyptus Globulus), Banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Bamboo (Dendrocalamus 

Strictus), Teak (Tectona grandis) and Neem (Azadirachta indica), etc. Beside this, 

bamboo grasses and some aquatic flora like Eichhorina common. 

Zooplanktons species are dominated by four main taxonomic groups Protozoa, 

Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda. A total of 40 forms of zooplanktons are identified 

in the stretch with 10 species of Protozoans, 16 Rotifers, 4 Cladocerans and 5 

Copepods. 

The density of Phytoplanktons varies from 36 to 2116 µ / l. A total of 15 species of 

molluscs belonging to 10 families was also recorded. 

In addition to the red listed species, these are endemic to the area, such as fishes - Tor 

tor, T. pitutora. The stretch is reported to be critical in their life cycle. The numerous 

water birds use the shallow water pools for roosting and breeding. 

More than 100 species of birds belonging to 34 families both aquatic and terrestrial 

avifauna were identified along with there population. More than 20,000 birds are 

reported in the stretch which includes Pintails (Anas acuta) (1148), Brahmini Duck 

(Tadorna ferruginea) (1136), Coot (Fulica atra) (8000), Cormorant (Phalacrocorax 

fuscicollis) (3500), Purple moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (2000), Spoonbill 

(Platalea leucordia) (1500), Openbills (Anastomus oscitans) (500), Bar-headed geese 

(Anser indicus) (600), Gulls (Larus ridibundus) (800) according to 2002 survey 

conducted by WWF India. 

Fish forms the largest group of living natural resources in this river stretch. According 

to the survey conducted by WWF India, a total of 82 species of fishes were identified. 

Fishes like Wallago attu, Chela laubuca, Colisa fasciatus, Chanda ranga, 

Glossogobius giuris, Nangra punctata, Puntius sp. and Puntius sophore are common 

in the river.

Management authority: Provide the name and address of the local office(s) of the 

agency (ies) or organisation(s) directly responsible for managing the wetland. 

Wherever possible provide also the title and/or name of the person or persons in this 

office with responsibility for the wetland. Chief Engineer, U.P. State Irrigation 

Department, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. 

Past and Present status 

Site: Sewage discharge between Anupsahar and Narora; Pesticides and fertilizers 

were also leached into the river through agriculture runoff from the bank-side 

agricultural fields; Mass bathing by Pilgrims during various festivals; Post cremation 

rituals; Washing of cloths at various sites were also recorded; Large scale fishing 

activities 

Surrounding area: Agricultural activities on the river bank side. 

Reference: Anderson, J. 1878; Behera, S.K. 1995; Jones, S. 1982; Murtiet et al., 

1991; Rao, R.J. 1995; http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website). 

WETLANDS IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK 

Corbett National Park situated (29° 25’–29° 40’ N, 78° 45’–79° 05’ E) in Ramnagar 

District, Kumaon Foothills, 80 km north of Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh. The Ramganga 

River flows from east to west through Corbett National Park into the Ramganga water 

storage reservoir behind the Kalagarh Dam. The construction of the Kalagarh Dam 

resulted in inundation of the lower riverine forested tracts together with important 

grasslands, known as "chaurs". This has been partially compensated by an extensive 

muddy margin around the reservoir which increases in width during the winter 

months as the water level falls. The river is a fast-flowing torrent for much of its 

course through the Park, but there are numerous backwaters, oxbow creeks and small 

ponds within the flood plain, particularly near to Dhikala, the visitor centre in the 

middle of the Park. Area of wetlands unknown; National Park 52,082 ha including a 

core zone of 31,998 ha and a buffer zone of 20,084 ha. 


Macrophytes: The emergent vegetation along sluggish backwaters and in ponds 

consists of species of Phragmites, Typha and Scirpus. 

Fishes: Several fish species occur including Barbus tor, B. chilinoides, Labeo 

calbasu, Oxygaster bacaila and Bagarius bagarius. 

Reptiles: The Marsh Crocodile or Mugger Crocodylus palustris is fairly common, 

and the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus was re-introduced into the Park in the early 

1980’s. 

Birds: Many species of waterfowl have been recorded, but mostly in small numbers. 

Ephippiorhynclius asiaticus probably breeds; Ciconia nigra is regular in spring (up to 

60 in March), and Ciconia episcopus occurs in small numbers. Winter visitors include 

Phalacrocorax carbo (up to 130), Mergellus merganser (common along the river) and 

Ibidorhyncha struthersii (scarce). Birds of prey are common; Pandion haliaetus is a 

common visitor, Ichthyophaga nana and Haliaeetus leucoryphus breed, and Aquila 

clanga occurs in winter. The two fish-owls Ketupa zeylonica and K. flavipes occur in 

the riverine forest.

Mammals: Mammals closely associated with the wetlands include the Common 

Otter Lutra lutra and Fishing Cat Felisviverrina. 


Land use: The area is a managed nature reserve and important tourist centre. Sport 

fishing with rod and line is permitted at certain points along the river. 

Conservation measures taken: Corbett National Park (52,082 ha) was first 

established in 1936. Most of the wetland habitat is situated in the central part of the 

Park and is well protected. The Gharial Gavialis gangeticus is the subject of a reintroduction 

programme; by January 1987, 27 young Gharials had been released in 

the Park. 

Disturbances and threats: The most serious threat to the wetland ecosystems is 

deforestation in the upper reaches of the river outside the Park and consequent 

increased silt load in the river. Tourists are a source of some disturbance at Dhikala, 

and there may be a small amount of pollution in the Ramganga River. 

Socio-economic values: The Ramganga is a fine scenic river flowing through 

relatively undisturbed forests with great wildlife interest. The area is very attractive to 

tourists, making Corbett one of the most visited National Parks in India (20,000 

visitors in 1983/84). 

Research and facilities: Corbett National Park has been part of Project Tiger since 

1974. Numerous studies have been undertaken on the wildlife in collaboration with 

the Zoological Survey of India. 


WETLANDS IN KISHANPUR PASHU VIHAR SANCTUARY 

Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Sanctuary is situated (28° 21’–28° 40’ N, 80° 20’–80° 24’ 

E) near the Nepalese border, 80 km NNE of Shah jahanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Wetland is 

a permanent and seasonal freshwater ponds, marshes and areas of seasonally 

inundated terai grassland in the Kishanpur Pashu Vihar Sanctuary. The wetlands are 

fed by monsoon run-off and a tributary of the Ghaghara River rising in the foothills of 

western Nepal, The water table is high; there are many artesian wells, and much of the 

area is prone to water logging. 


1,000 mm. 

Macrophytes: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The main forest 

type is North Indian tropical moist deciduous forest. 

Fishes: Fish species include Rohu. 

Birds: The rich avifauna probably includes Francolinus gularis and Houbaropsis 

bengalensis. 

Mammals: The Sanctuary supports a small population of the Swamp Deer Cervus 

duvaucelli. 


Land use: A managed nature reserve.

Conservation measures taken: The area was declared a Sanctuary in 1972 to 

conserve a population of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli. 

Disturbances and threats: Grazing by domestic livestock and forestry operations are 

the main problems in the Sanctuary. 



WETLANDS IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK 

Dudhwa National Park is sitaued on (28° 21’–28° 41’ N, 80° 30’– 80° 55’E) 

the Nepalese border about 180 km NNW of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. The wetland is a 

large National Park on a vast alluvial plain near the foothills of the Himalayas, with a 

fine selection of terai ecosystems. Much of the Park is a mosaic of tropical semievergreen 

forest, tropical moist deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, riparian forest 

and swamp forest. The wooded areas are fragmented by extensive areas of 

mesophyllous grassland known as phantas. Wetland habitats include a number of 

small perennial rivers, ponds, lakes (known as tals) and marshes. The most important 

lakes are Banki Tal and Kukra Tal. Together with Royal Sukla Phanta and Royal 

Bardia National Parks in Nepal, Dudhwa is an example of the often marshy, 

undulating alluvial lands between the Bhabar and the Gangetic Plain, an area that has 

been largely converted to agricultural use elsewhere in the sub-continent west of 

Assam. Area of wetland is unknown, however the National Park is 49,029 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate typical of the northern Indo-Gangetic 

plain, with an average annual rainfall of about 1,000 mm. The monsoon rains occur 

from June to October. 

Macrophytes: The phanta grasslands are composed of 


No 

No 

1 Apluda nuitica 8 Hygroryza aristata 

2 Bendosorghum sp. 9 Narenga porphyrocoma 

3 Cymbopogon flexuosus 10 Panicum paludosum 

4 Demostachya bipinata 11 Saccharum benghalensis 

5 Dichanthium annulatum 12 S. spontaneum 

6 D. glabrum 13 Themeda arundinacea 

7 Echinochloa spp. 14 Vetiveria zizanoides 

The riparian forest is principally composed of Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, 

Trewia nudiflora, Mallotus philippensis, occasional Syzygium cuminii and 

Barringtonia acutangula. The small lakes (tals) are eutrophic, with extensive 

submerged and emergent vegetation; stands of Phragmites sp. and Typha sp. fringe 

the lakes and Nymphaea spp. are abundant on the surface of the water. 

Special floral values: Some exceptionally fine stands of sal Shorea robusta growing 

in Dudhwa are often considered to be the best examples of this forest type in the 

Indian sub-continent. 

Fishes: Fishes include the Rohu. 

Birds: The wetlands support important wintering populations of waterfowl including 

Ciconia episcopus, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis melanocephalus,

Sarkidiornis melanotos and Grus antigone. A waterfowl census at Banki Tal in 

January 1987 recorded: 700 Anser anser; 1,500 Dendrocygna javanica; 200 Netta 

rufina; 200 Sarkidiornis melanotos; 500 Porphyrio porphyrio; 300 Pulica aira; 60 

Hydrophasianus chirurgus together with smaller numbers of many other species. 

Ciconia episcopus and Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus are both thought to breed in the 

Park. Aythya baeri is an occasional winter visitor; four birds were present at Kukra 

Tal in 1982. Other noteworthy wetland species recorded in recent years include 

Pandion haliaetus, Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Aquila clanga, Circus melanoleucos, 

Francolinus gularis, Saxicola leucura and Turdoides earlei. Phylloscopus fulgiventer 

is a common winter visitor to the tals. The endangered Bengal Florican Houbaropsis 

bengalensis is resident in the phanta grassland. 

Mammals: The Sanctuary supports an internationally significant population of the 

nominate race of the Swamp Deer Cervus duvaucelli, and there is a large population 

of the Common Otter Lutra lutra. Healthy populations of Panthera tigris, Cervus 

unicolor, Axis axis and Felis viverrina occur peripherally to the wetland areas, and 

there is a small population of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus in the park (not more 

than 20 individuals in 1987). The endangered Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus may 

occur in the grassland areas. 


Land use: A managed nature reserve. 

Conservation measures taken: A first working plan was developed in 1886. 

Sonaripur Sanctuary was established in 1958, and then in 1963, the sanctuary was 

extended to its present size of about 61,000 ha and declared the Dudhwa Sanctuary. In 

February 1977, the Government of Uttar Pradesh notified an area of 49,029 ha as 

Dudhwa National Park under the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). 

Conservation measures proposed: An area of 9,000 ha has been selected for the reintroduction 

of the rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis. It is predicted that this area could 

eventually accommodate 100 individuals. A buffer zone around much of the Park 

should absorb the majority of grazing incursions, but radical proposals are required to 

reduce conflicts along the southern boundary. 

Disturbances and threats: The major problems are poaching, illegal burning, grazing 

by domestic livestock and a railway line which runs through the Park. The Dudhwa 

forests are threatened by rising anti-tiger sentiments stirred by local politicians keen to 

exploit the potential gains should the Park be reduced in area. Serious encroachment 

has taken place in the past two decades resulting in increased confrontations between 

tigers and people. Several people have been killed, and at least 15 tigers were illegally 

shot or poisoned between December 1986 and December 1987. In order to reduce 

conflicts, the buffer zone may be increased, but public sentiment peripheral to the 

Park might prevent or even reverse any attempts to expand the area of the Park . 

Socio-economic values: Potentially an important site for tourism. Re-introduction of 

the Indian One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis has stimulated an interest in 

the Sanctuary, and the number of visitors is likely to increase. The site is almost 

contiguous with Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in Nepal. 

Research and facilities: Rhinoceros research is being funded by the Department of 

the Environment. A PhD student from Lucknow is studying the ecology of Cervus 

duvaucelli.


WETLANDS IN KATERNIAGHAT PASHU VIHAR SANCTUARY 

The Sanctuary is situated on 28° 07’–28° 20’ N, 81° 03’–8l° 20’ E, near the Nepalese 

border, 150 km north of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Katerniaghat Pashu Vihar 

Sanctuary includes a stretch of the Ghaghara (Girwa) River, below its confluence with 

the Kauriala River near the Nepalese frontier. The Ghaghara is a fast-flowing terai 

river with seasonal sand banks, gravel bars and stoney islands. The Sanctuary also 

includes several oxbow lakes (jheels), low-lying terai swamp lands along old 

watercourses and in hollows, and areas of seasonally flooded grassland. The area of 

the wetlands is unknown, however the Sanctuary is 40,000 ha. 


1,000 mm. 

Macrophytes: No information is available on the wetland vegetation. The Ghaghara 

River flows through an area of moist deciduous Bhabar forest, Terminalia forest, 

eastern seasonal swamp forest and low alluvial savanna woodland. The dominant tree 

species are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Diospyros 

tomentosa, Cassia fistula, Dalbergia sissoo and Bombax malabaricum. 

Fishes: Fishes include Barbus tor, Rohu, Bam and Bhakur. 

Reptiles: An important refuge for Gharials Gavialis gangeticus, which are restricted 

to a five km stretch of the river near the Nepalese border. In 1975, there were two 

males, seven females, two near-adults, four sub-adults, 11 juveniles and two young, 

i.e. 28 individuals, in the Sanctuary. This population increased in 1976 as animals 

moved out of the Nepalese section of the river as a result of disturbance there. A large 

number of captive-reared individuals (about eighteen months old and approximately 

1.2 m in length) have subsequently been released in the Sanctuary (129 by January 

1987). The Marsh Crocodile or Mugger Crocodylus palustris also occurs in the 

Sanctuary. 

Birds: No information is available on the waterfowl. 

Mammals: Large mammals known to occur in the Sanctuary include Panthera tigris, 

P. pardus, Melursus ursinus, Cervus unicolor, C. porcinus, Axis axis, Boselaphus 

tragocamelus, Muntiacus muntjak, Sus scrofa and Hyaena hyaena. 


Land use: The Sanctuary is a managed nature reserve. 

Conservation measures taken: The Sanctuary was established in May 1976 under 

the FAO/UNDP Crocodile Project, primarily to conserve a population of the 

endangered Gharial Gavialis gangeticus. A captive-rearing project was established, 

and by January 1987, some 129 Gharials had been released in the Sanctuary. The 

Ghaghara River section of the Sanctuary is maintained as a core area where 

disturbance is kept to an absolute minimum. 

Disturbances and threats: Grazing by domestic livestock, poaching and illegal 

burning are causing problems in the Sanctuary. 

Socio-economic values: Nature-oriented tourism and scientific research.

Research and facilities: A Gharial breeding centre has been established and this 

includes a research laboratory. A PhD student sponsored by the State Forest 

Department is working on the ecology and management of the crocodilians. 


NAINITAL LAKE 

It is a crescent shaped natural water body of central Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Nainital 

lake (Lat. 29° 24’ N and Long. 79° 28’ E) is one of the most picturesque lakes in the 

Kumaum Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh. The length of the lake is 1432 m and breadth is 

42 m. The maximum depth is 27.3 m. and total area of the wetland is about 48.2 m 2 . 

The lake is surrounded on the north west side by the high and steep Naina peak, on 

the south west side by Tiffin Top, and on the north by peaks such as snow view. 

These hill tops are covered by coniferous forest trees. The lake receives water 

carrying the household refuge, garbage, silt and unmeasured amount of sewage 

through 24 open drains, out of which 2 are perennial and the rest 22 become active 

only during rainy season. 


and minimum of 0.5°C. The water is alkaline in nature (8.4–9.3). 

Fauna: No information. 


Land use: Drinking, Fishing and boating. 

Socio-economic values: The lake is multipurpose in character, far aside from its use 

as source of drinking water and fishing, boating, etc., it has a great bearing upon the 

economy of the region as a major tourist attraction. 

Pollution status: Nainital lake water is much more polluted by (a) human 

settlement on catchment leading to the construction of house, buildings and roads and 

addition of domestic sewage, (b) tourism leading to boating, rowing and other 

recreational activities and (c) removal of natural vegetation from shore line area 

which facilities addition of eroded materials. 

Reference: Rai and Rathore (1993).

SUNDARBANS MANGROVE 

Sundarbans mangrove (Lat. 21° 32’–22° 40’ N and Long. 88° 85’– 89° 00’ E) 

covering the major portions of the north and south 24 parganas districts. The region is 

bounded by Bangladsh in the east, the Hugli river in the west, Dampier and Hodges 

line in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the south. With a considerable degree of 

marine characteristics in major portion of the ecosystem, the important morphotypes 

of deltaic Sundarbans are beaches, mudflats, coastal dunes, sand-flats, estuaries, 

creeks, inlets and mangrove swamps. The mangrove forests of the Indian Sundarbans 

have been variously estimated to cover 4,18,888 hectares, 2,00,000 – 3,00,000 

hectares and 4,26,300 hectares. It has further been estimated that approximately 

1,78,100 hectares are water areas. The discrepancy in the figures for forest cover 

possibly arises from the fact that some denote areas designated as forest land which 

includes both the water bodies and degraded forest, while others represent an 

assessment of the area covered with vegetations only. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate with an annual rainfall of 1500–2500 

mm. January is the coolest month with a mean temperature of 20°C and minimum 

temperature of 10°C. There is a pronounced dry season from December to April. 


S. 

No 

SUNDARBANS MANGROVE 


No 

Bacillaria paradoxa 

Bacteriastrum comosum 

B. hyalinum 

B. hyalinum var. princeps 

B. varians 

Biddulphia sinensis 

Ceratium extensum 

C. extensum f. strictum 

C. furca 

C. horridum 

C. trichoceros 

C. trichoceros var. contrarium 

C. tripos 


Species Name

Chaetoceros curvisetus 

C. eibenii 

C. lorenzianus 

C. peruvianus 

Coscinodiscus asteromphalus 

C. concinnus 

C. eccentricus 

C. jonesianus 

C. oculus-iridis 

C. perforatus var. pavillardi 

Diatoma vulgare var. lineare 

Ditylum brightwellii 

D. sol 

Eucampia sp. 

Hemidiscus cuneiformis 

Lauderia annulata 

Merismopedia glauca 

Nitzschia seriata 

Oscillatoria limosa 

Peridinium depressum 

Planktoniella sol 

Pleurosigma elongatum 

P. normanii 

Protoperidinium depressum 

Rhizosolenia alata 

R. robusta 

R. setigera 

R. stolterfothii 

Skeletonema costatum 

Thalassionema nitzschioides 

Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii 

Triceratium favus 

Trichodesmium thiebautii 

C. indicus 

Bluegreen algae: A total of 67 species were recorded. These are follows; 

S. 

No 


No 

Species Name 

Anabaena iyengarii A. fertilissima 

Aphanocapsa thermalis A. oryzae 

Arthrospira gomontiana A. roeseana 

Aulosira aenigmatica C. castellii 

Calothrix contarenii G. membranacea 

Chamaesiphon curvatus G. montana 

Crinalium magnum G. pleurocapsoides 

Dermocarpa hemisphaerica G. raciborskii var. kashiense 

Gloeocapsa calcarea H. meneghinianum 

Gloeotrichia raciborskii L. ceylanica 

Gloethece samoensis var. major L. martensiana

Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum L. rubida 

Johannesbaptistia pellucida M. pulverea var. incerta 

Lyngbya hieronymusii N. piscinale 

Merismopedia tenuissima O. chalybea 

Microchaete tenera O. jasorvensis 

Microcoleus chthonoplastes O. margaritifera 

Microcystis litoralis P. retzii 

Myxosarcina spectabilis 

Nostoc punctiforme 

Oscillatoria formosa 

Phormidium fragile 

Polychlamydum isigne 

Raphidiopsis indica 

Schizothrix penicillata 

Spirulina princes 

Stichosiphon sansibaricus 

Stigonema hormoides 

Trichodesmium thiebautii 

Xenococcus chaetomorphae 

Spirulina major 

Anabaena anomala 

Anabaena gelatinicola 

Aphanocapsa pulchra 

Gloeocapsa kuetzingiana 

Gloeocapsa rupestris 

Lyngbya lutea 

Lyngbya majuscula 

Lyngbya semiplena 

Lyngbya confervoides 

Oscillatoria limosa 

Microcystis bengalensis 

Nostoc linckia 

Oscillatoria curviceps 

Oscillatoria subbrevis 

Oscillatoria princes 

Phormidium stagnina 

Schizothrix lamyi 

Xenococcus cladophorae 

Mangroves: A total of 58 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 30 Dodonaea viscose 

2 A. volubilis 31 Exoecaria agallocha 

3 Acrostichum aureum 32 Heliotrophium curassavicum 

4 Aegialitis rotundifolia 33 Heritiera fomes 

5 Aegiceras corniculatum 34 Kandelia candel 

6 Aglaia cucullata 35 Lumnitzera racemosa 

7 Atalantia correa 36 Myriostachya wightiana 

8 Avicennia alba 37 Nypa fruticans

9 A. marina 38 Pandanus tectorius 

10 A. officinalis 39 Pentatropis capensis 

11 Brownlowia lanceolata 40 Phoenix paludosa 

12 Bruguiera cylindrical 41 Porteresia coarctata 

13 B. gymnorhiza 42 Rhizophora apiculata 

14 B. parviflora 43 R. mucronata 

15 B. sexangula 44 Ruppia maritima 

16 Caesalpinia bonduc 45 Salicornia brachiata 

17 C. crista 46 Sarcolobus carinatus 

18 Cerbera odollam 47 S. globosus 

19 Ceriops decandra 48 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea 

20 C. tagal 49 Sesuvium portulacastrum 

21 Clerodendrum inerme 50 Sonneratia apetala 

22 C. neriifolium 51 S. caseolaris 

23 Crinum defixum 52 S. griffithii 

24 Cryptocoryne ciliate 53 Suaeda maritima 

25 Cynometra ramiflora 54 S. nudiflora 

26 Dalbergia spinosa 55 Tamarix dioica 

27 Derris indica 56 T. gallica 

28 D. scandens 57 Xylocarpus granatum 

29 D. trifoliata 58 X. mekongensis 

Rare, Threatened and Endangered mangrove forest of the Indian Sundarbans: 

Species Status in Sundarbans 

Acanthus volubilis Very Rare 

Aglaia cucullata Rare 

Atalantia correa Very Rare 

Brownlowia lanceolata Occasional 

Bruguiera parviflora Occasional 

Ceriops decandra Occasional 

Cynometra ramiflora Rare 

Dalbergia spinosa Rare 

Heritiera fomes Threatened 

Hydrophyllax maritima Very Rare 

Kandelia candel Occasional 

Manikara hexandra Rare 

Nypa fruticans Occasional 

Rhizophora apiculata Occasional 

Scyphiphora hydrphyllacea Very Rare 

Xylocarpus granatum Threatened 

X. mekongensis Threatened 

Algae: A total of 39 species of algae are recorded. These are follows; 


No 

Chlorophyta 

No 

1 Boodleopsis sundarbanensis 21 Pediastrum boryanum 

2 Chaetomorpha aerea 22 P. duplex

3 C. brachygona 23 P. tetras 

4 C. gracilis 24 Radiococcus sp. 

5 Chara zeylanica 25 Rhizoclonium grande 

6 Chlorella vulgaris 26 R. hookeri 

7 Cladophora echinus 27 R. riparium 

8 Cladophorella 

28 Scenedesmus bijuga 

sundarbanensis 

9 Closterium acutum 29 S. quadricauda 

10 Cosmarium depressum 30 Spirogyra dubia 

11 C. striolatum 31 S. setiformis 

12 Enteromorpha clathrata 32 S. ternate 

13 E. compressa 33 Triplastrum abbreviatum 

14 E. intestinalis 34 T. simplex 

15 E. prolifera 35 Ulva fasciata 

16 Lola capillaries 36 U. lactuca 

17 L. implexa 37 U. patengensis 

18 L. tortuosa 38 Uronema confervicola 

19 Oedogonium undulatum 39 Volvox sp. 

20 Pandorina morum 

Chrysophyta 

1 Achnanthes microcephala 23 Cymbella ehrenbergii 

2 A. minutissima 24 Diatoma vulgare 

3 Amphora veneta 25 Fragilaria vaucheriae 

4 Anomoeoneis exilis 26 Gomphonema 

sphaerophorun 

5 Asterionella japonica 27 Gyrosigma acuminatum 

6 Bacteriastrum cosmosum 28 Hemidiscus cuneiformis 

7 B. delicatulum 29 Melosira moniliformis 

8 B. varians 30 M. sol 

9 Biddulphia mobiliensis 31 Navicula cryptocephala 

10 B. sinensis 32 N. radiosa 

11 Chaetoceros curvisetus 33 Nitzschia acicularis 

12 C. flexuosus 34 N. obtusa 

13 C. laciniosus 35 N. sublinearis 

14 C. subsecundus 36 Pinnularia viridis 

15 C. tenuissimus 37 Pleurosigma angulatum 

16 Climacodium 

38 Rhizosolenia imbricata 

frauenfeldianum 

17 Cocconeis placentula 39 R. setigera 

18 Corethron hystrix 40 Stauroneis phoenicenteron 

19 Coscinodiscus excentricus 41 Stephanopyxis palmeriana 

20 C. gigas 42 Synedra ulna 

21 C. granii 43 Vaucheria prescotti 

22 Cyclotella glomerata 44 Vaucheria sp. 

Phaeophyta 

1 Colpomenia sinuosa 2 Dictyota ceylanica 

Cyanophyta 

1 Anabaena anomala 25 L. majuscule 

2 A. doliolum 26 L. semiplena 

3 A. gelatinicola 27 Mastigocoleus testarum

4 A. iyengarii 28 Microcoleus chthonoplastes 

5 Anabaenopsis arnoldii 29 Microcystis bengalensis 

6 Aphanocapsa littoralis 30 Nostoc linckia 

7 A. pulchra 31 Oscillatoria chlorine 

8 A. stagnina 32 O. curviceps 

9 Arthrospira platensis 33 O. limosa 

10 Calothrix contarenii 34 O. nigroviridis 

11 Chamaesiphon curvatus 35 O. princeps 

12 Dermocarpa hemisphaerica 36 O. subbrevis 

13 D. leibleiniae 37 O. tenuis 

14 Gleocapsa aeruginosa 38 Phormidium fragile 

15 G. decorticans 39 P. stagnina 

16 G. kuetzingiana 40 Raphidiopsis curvata 

17 G. punctata 41 R. indica 

18 G. rupestris 42 Schitzothrix lamyii 

19 Hydrocoleum lyngbyaceum 43 Scytonema hofmanni 

20 Johannesbaptistia pellucida 44 Spirulina major 

21 Lyngbya birgei 45 S. princes 

22 L. confervoides 46 Stichosiphon sansibaricus 

23 L. hieronymusii 47 Xenococcus chaetomorphae 

24 L. lutea 48 X. cladophorae 

Rhodophyta 

1 Bostrychia tenella 8 Gelidiella acerosa 

2 Caloglossa adnata 9 Gelidium pusillum 

3 C. leprieurii 10 Herposiphonia dendroidea 

4 Catenella impudica 11 Heterosiphonia sp. 

5 C. nipae 12 Plerosiphonia pinnata 

6 C. repens 13 Polysiphonia denudata 

7 Compsopogon coeruleus 14 P. mollis 

Amphibian: Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana tigarina, Rana limnocharis, Rana 

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornata, Bufo malanostictus, Rhacophorus maculatus. 

Lichen species 


No 

No 

1 Arthonia antillarum 17 Lecidea caliginosa 

2 Arthopyrenia alboatra 18 Opegrapha laeta 

3 A. cinefaciens 19 O. martii 

4 Bacidia convexula 20 O. stironi 

5 B. medialis 21 Phaeographina grisea 

6 Bombyliospora leprolyta 22 Phaeographis leprosulans 

7 Buellia agrediens 23 Physcia aegialite 

8 Caloplaca aurantica 24 Pyrenula aspistea 

9 Chiodecton micrographum 25 P. nitida 

10 Collema pulcellum 26 P. nitidella 

11 Dirinaria confluens 27 Pyxine cocoes 

12 Graphina obtecta 28 Ramalina calicaris 

13 Graphis scripta 29 Rinodina intrusa 

14 Lecanactis salicina 30 Sarcographa labyrinthica

Fishes 

15 Lecania pertenera 31 Trypethelium luteum 

16 Lecanora distans 32 T. tropicum 

Fin-fish species 


No 

Chondrichthyes 

No 

1 Aetobatus narinari 8 D. zugei 

2 Carcharhinus limbatus 9 Eusphyra blochii 

3 Chiloscyllium griseum 10 Glyphis gangeticus 

4 Dasyatis bleekeri 11 Pristis microdon 

5 D. marginata 12 Rhinobatos anandalei 

6 D. sephen 13 Stegostoma fasciatus 

7 D. uranak 

Osteichthyes 

1 Acrichthys aor 64 L. johni 

2 Ambassis baculis 65 Megalaspis cordyla 

3 A. commersoni 66 Megalops cyprinoides 

4 A. nama 67 Mugil cephalus 

5 A. ranga 68 M. oligolepis 

6 Amphipnous cuchia 69 Mystus cavasius 

7 Anguilla bengalensis 70 M. gulio 

8 Anodonstoma chaeunda 71 M. vittatus 

9 Apocryptes bato 72 Nandus nundus 

10 Arius arius 73 Nematolosa nasus 

11 A. gagora 74 Nibea soldado 

12 A. jella 75 Odontamblyopus 

rubicundus 

13 A. sagor 76 Oesteogeniosus militaris 

14 A. sona 77 Oryzias melastigma 

15 A. sona 78 Otolithoides biauritus 

16 Awaonichthys menoni 79 Pama pama 

17 Bathygobins orbicularis 80 Pampus argenteus 

18 Batrachocephalus mino 81 P. chinensis 

19 Batrichthys grunnieus 82 Pangasius pangasius 

20 Boarius boarius 83 Pelona ditchela 

21 Boleophthalmus boddarti 84 Periophthalmodon 

schloserrri 

22 Brachygobius nunus 85 Periophthalmus 

chrysospiles 

23 Caranx carangus 86 P. koelreuteri 

24 Chanos chanos 87 P. malaccensis 

25 Chysocentrus dorab 88 P. vulgaris 

26 Coilia dussumierii 89 P. weberi 

27 C. neglecta 90 Platicephalus indicus 

28 C. ramearati 91 Plotosus canius 

29 C. reynaldi 92 Polydactylus indicus

Shell fish: 

30 Colea bleekeri 93 Polynemus paradiseus 

31 Corcia sabomia 94 Pseudapocrytes lanceolatus 

32 C. saborna 95 Psiodonopsis boro 

33 Cynoglossus cynoglossus 96 Raconda russeliana 

34 C. lingua 97 Rhinomugil corsula 

35 Daysciaena albida 98 Rita rita 

36 Drepane panculatus 99 Scartelaos histophorus 

37 Eleutheronema tetradactylum 100 Scatophagus argus 

38 Elops saurus 101 Scomberomorus 

commersoni 

39 Etroplus suratensis 102 Setipinnia phasa 

40 Eupleurogrammus muticus 103 S. taty 

41 Gazza minuta 104 Silago sihama 

42 Gerras oyena 105 Sillaginopsis panijus 

43 Gerreomorpha setifer 106 Stigamatogobius 

sadanundio 

44 Glossogobius giuris 107 Stolephorus indicus 

45 Gobiopterus chuno 108 Streinateus sinensis 

46 Gudusia chapra 109 Strongylura leiura 

47 Harpodon nehereus 110 S. strongylura 

48 H. tumbil 111 Tenualosa ilisha 

49 Ilisha elongata 112 T. toil 

50 Johnius belangerri 113 Terapon jarbua 

51 J. coitor 114 Thryssa hamiltonii 

52 Kurtus indicus 115 T. purava 

53 Lates calcarifer 116 Thycenophrya indicus 

54 Leiognathus blochi 117 Triacanthus brevirostris 

55 L. equulus 118 Trichiurus lepturus 

56 L. fasciatus 119 Trissocles hamiltonii 

57 Lepturacanthus gangeticus 120 T. purava 

58 L. pantuli 121 Tryoauchen vagina 

59 L. savala 122 Valamugil cunnesius 

60 Liza macrolepis 123 V. speigleri 

61 L. parsia 124 Xenentodon cancila 

62 L. tade 125 Zenarchopterus dispar 

63 Lutjanus argentimaculatus 


No 

Crustacea 

No 

1 Acetes erythraeus 12 M. brevicornis 

2 A. indicus 13 M. dobsonii 

3 Carydina gracilipes 14 M. monoceros 

4 Macrobrachium malcomsonii 15 Palaemon styliferus 

5 M. ruda 16 P. tenuipes 

6 M. scrobiculum 17 Parapenaeopsis sculptilis 

7 M. rosenburgi 18 P. stylifera 

8 M. lamarrei 19 Penaeus indicus

9 M. mirabilis 20 P. semisulcatus 

10 M. javanicum 21 P. monodon 

11 Metapenaeus affinis 

Decapod 

1 Calappa lophos 25 M. messor 

2 Charybdis marguiensis 26 Ocypoda macrocera 

3 C. orientalis 27 Paratelphusa hydrodromus 

4 C. ornate 28 P. jacquemontii 

5 C. rostata 29 P. spinigera 

6 Doclea canalifera 30 Philyra globulosa 

7 D. japonica 31 Portunus pelagicus 

8 Dorippa facchino 32 P. sanguinolentus 

9 Dotillopsis brevitarsis 33 Scopimera globosa 

10 Dottila blanfordi 34 Scylla serata 

11 Ethusa indica 35 Sesarma bidens 

12 Hymenicus inachoides 36 S. edwadrsi 

13 H. masoni 37 S. impressa 

14 Illyoplas gangeticus 38 S. longipes 

15 Leucosia craniolaris 39 S. quadrata 

16 Macropthalmus pectinipes 40 S. smithii 

17 Matuta victor 41 S. taeniolatum 

18 M. lunaris 42 S. tetragona 

19 M. plauipes 43 Uca acutus 

20 Metaplax crenulata 44 U. dussumieri 

21 M. dentipes 45 U. lactea annulipes 

22 M. distincta 46 U. triangularis 

23 M. intermedia 47 Varuna litterata 

24 

Reptiles 

Metapograpsus maculatus 


No 

Mammals 

1 Batagur baska 8 Lepidochelys olivacea 

2 Chitra indica 9 Lissemys punctata 

3 Eretmochetys imbricate 10 Morenia ocellata 

4 Geoclemys hamiltoni 11 Pelochelys bibroni 

5 Geomyda tricarinata 12 Trionyx gangeticus 

6 Kachuga kachuga 13 T. hurum 

7 K. tecta 


No 

Cetacea 

No 

1 Neophocaena phocaenoides 4 Sotalia plumbea 

2 Orcella brevirostris 5 Stanella malayana 

3 Platinista gangetica 

Carnivora 

1 Canis aureus 6 H. edwardsir 

2 Felis bengalensis 7 Panthera tigris tigris 

3 F. chaus 8 Paraodoxurus 

No

hermaphroditus 

4 F. viverrina 9 Vivericula indica 

5 Herpestes auropunctatus 10 Vulpes bengalensis 

Mustelidae 

1 Lutra lutra 2 Lutra perpicillata 

Insectivore 

1 Suncus murinus 

Rodentia 

1 Bandicota bengalensis 5 Hystrix indica 

2 B. indica 6 Mus musculus 

3 Cervus axis 7 Rattus rattus 

4 Funambulus pennanti 8 Sus scrofa 

Chiroptera 

1 Cynopterus sphinx 9 Pteropus gqiganteus 

2 Hipposideros bicolor 10 Rhinolophus lepidus 

3 H. lankadiva 11 Rhinopoma hardwickii 

4 Megadarma spasma 12 Scotophilus kuhli 

5 M. lyra 13 Taphozous longimanus 

6 Pipistrellus mimus 

7 Primate 

8 Macaca mulatta 

Pholidota 

1 Manis pentadactyla 

Extinct, endangered and threatened fauna of Sundarbans mangals 

Species Status in Sundarbans 

Ardea goliath Threatened 

Batagur baska Threatened 

Bos gaurus Extinct 

Bubalus bubalis Extinct 

Cervus porcinus Extinct 

C. unicolor Extinct 

C. duvaucelli Extinct 

Crocodylus porosus Threatened 

Felis bengalensis Threatened 

F. viverrina Threatened 

Kachuga tecta Threatened 

Lepidochelys olivacea Threatened 

Leptotilos dubius Threatened 

Lissemys punctata Threatened 

Manis pentadactyla Threatened 

Muntjanus muntjack Endangered 

Neophocaena phocaenoides Threatened 

Orcaella brevirostris Threatened 

Panthera tigris tigris Threatened 

Pelecanus phillippensis Threatened 

Platinista gangetica Threatened 

Python morulus Threatened 

Rhinoceros sondaicus Extinct 

R. unicornis Extinct


Trionyx gangeticus Threatened 

Varanus bengalensis Threatened 

V. flavescens Threatened 

V. salvator Threatened 

Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. The more 

robust mangrove species have been selectively felled. There are several human 

settlements within the mangrove forest, and villagers from outside enter the forest to 

collect wood. 

Conservation measures taken: Some 258,477 ha of the Indian Sunderbans, 

including almost all of the mangrove forest, were declared a Tiger Reserve in 1973 

under Project Tiger. The core area was declared a National Park in 1982. This region 

adjoins the Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary of Bangladesh. Management to date has 

included the provision of freshwater ponds for herbivores, and excavation of at least 

eleven ponds, 3.5 m deep and monsoon fed, to accustom tigers to a permanent source 

of fresh water. Various measures have been taken to minimize the number of people 

attacked by tigers. These include electrification of dummy wood-cutters, removal of 

settlements from the core area, and rationalization of wood-cutting. Men must work in 

groups of six and obtain a license from the Forestry Department. The cutting of 

Phoenix paludosa has been discouraged. Diversionary baiting with pigs and goats has 

been partially successful in drawing tigers away from the more densely populated 

areas. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, now much reduced in numbers 

through over-hunting, is the subject of re-introduction programme by the State Forest 

Department; the first release, of 40 individuals, was made in May 1979. 

Conservation measures proposed: All major surveys conducted during the last thirty 

years have indicated the urgent need for additional land-based studies combined with 

remote sensing techniques to determine more precisely the area of mangrove forest 

remaining, and to assess the magnitude of human interference in the region. 

Possible changes in land use: Approximately 50% of the Sunderbans mangrove 

forests have been cleared by man during the last two or three centuries, and about 

150,000 ha have been cleared since 1880. In addition, some 3,400 km of bunds have 

been built to prevent the ingress of salt water. In the past, gradual polderization has 

been considered to be the most satisfactory approach to the development of the 

Sunderbans. However, in recent years various engineering concerns have proposed 

major reclamation schemes involving closure dams across the main estuaries 

interconnected by reinforced dikes and encircling the entire Western Sunderbans. The 

preparation of a regional master plan for the large-scale development of the 

Sunderbans has been considered. 






Major problems in the Indian Sundarbans 

Following major problems were identified during field studies in the Indian 

Sundarbans, these are:

1. Large scale destruction of forest land, deforestation of mangroves for human 

settlements and rapid growing needs. 

2. Management problems: Protection vs. loss of Bio-diversity in the Sundarbans is 

acute. 

3. Self engagement of vast rural people in the large scale netting out of shrimp seeds 

vs. exploitation and damage of other fish, prawn and crab species and damage of 

river dykes and mangrove forest areas have created lot of problems and 

degradation of aquatic fauna. 

4. Large scale operation of fine mesh nylon nets and exploitation of estuarine fish 

juveniles indiscriminately, create problems towards loss of aquatic species 

diversity. 

5. Siltation on the river bed is alarming, which also cause frequent flood and over 

flow of the estuarine rivers and frequent saline water ingress in the human 

settlement areas and on the agricultural fields. 

6. Transport facilities is not developed, only the country boats are common means of 

transport. 

7. Uncontrolled population growth and very marginal socio-economic status of the 

rural people of Sundarbans is the main cause for all these aforesaid problems. 

8. Agriculture is not much developed in this areas due to lack of irrigation facilities, 

though these zones are very much potential. 

9. As such, pressure on the natural mangrove forest is enormous and protection of 

forest resource is not manageable. 

10. Last nut most common problem is that the Sundarbans is a frequent and severe 

cyclone prone area. 

In this context, mention may be made that these cyclones and the other natural 

calamities are inevitable and the mangrove forests cannot altogether stop these natural 

phenomenon, but can protect as buffer and minimize the devastating effects of these 

natural calamities in this deltaic region. 

As such, prior to undertaking any developmental activities in this coastal region, due 

considerations should be taken for proper planning and strict conservation or 

management practices for this important but threatened mangrove ecosystem. 

Research and facilities: There has been a relatively large amount of research 

conducted in the Sunderbans partly because of the valuable fish stocks, partly with a 

view to reclaiming the land, and partly because of the problems created by 

interactions between Tigers and men in the forest. Few facilities are, however, 

available for tourists, and the only mode of access is by chartering a boat through the 

Sunderbans Launch Association based in Calcutta. 

Reference: Nandi et al. (1993); Abhijit Mitra and Bhattacharryya (2001); 

Kumudranjan Naskar, et al. (2004). 

EAST CALCUTTA WETLANDS 

The wetlands to the east of Calcutta are well known over the world for their multiple 

uses. The wetland situated on Lat. 22° 27’ N and Long. 88° 27’ E, 5 km from the 

eastern edge of Calcutta, in the West Bengal. The resource recovery systems 

developed by the local people through ages using wastewater from the city is the 

largest in the world. In the process it treats the wastewater and has saved the city of 

Calcutta from constructing and maintaining a wastewater treatment plant. It also is the

only metropolitan city in the world where the Government has introduced 

development controls to conserve the water-bodies. These wetlands, however, are 

under an intense encroachment stress of urban expansion. The total area of this 

wetland is about 12500 ha. 


Abiotic factors: The climate shows features of a tropical region, with ample sunshine 

and vast water regime. There is a cold season (mid-November-end of February) with 

average temperatures of 20.2–20.6°C and precipitations amounting 76 mm. The hot 

season lasts from March to mid-June with average temperatures of 30.4–31.1°C. The 

rainy season starts in mid-June and ends in mid-September/October. The frequent 

rains are associated with thunderstorms and northwestern winds. The average 

temperature remains relatively high. Rainfall consists of hailing from the southwest 

monsoon and is associated with cyclonic disturbances from the Bay of Bengal. Total 

rainfall during the monsoon varies between 1,200–1,300 mm. 

Macrophytes: Floristic diversity of the wetland is mediocre particularly in the core 

area while the diversity of plants is rather high in the surrounding mesotrophic 

wetlands. Vegetation cover of the wetland areas is significantly low. Eichhornia 

crassipes and rarely Alternanthera philoxeroides are the only acceptable flora of these 

wetlands. In addition to significantly rich population of planktonic algae. Sagittaria 

sagittifolia, Rumex dentatus, Panicum spp., Brachiaria mutica and Colocasia 

esculenta are the dominant flora of the waste water canals. Cryptocoryne ciliata and 

several species of sedges are predominant in waste water canals receiving tidal flush. 

Eichhornia crassipes and S. sagittifolia may be considered as the indicator 

species of these wetlands. 

In the core area where netting is done regularly, Eichhornia crassipes, Sagittaria 

sagittifolia, Monochoria hastata, Alternanthera philoxeroides Polygonum barbatum, 

Lemna aequinoctialis, Spirodela polyrhiza are among the dominating flora of the core 

area in hydrophase, while Alternanthera paranichioides, Marsilea minuta are 

common in limosal ecophase. 

Amphibians: Among the amphibians Rana hexadactyla, Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana

tigenna and Rana limnocharis are significant. 

Reptiles: Threatened reptiles like, Indian mud turtle Lissemys punctuta (locally 

threatened) is also reported occasionally from the adjacent locality. Among the 

reptiles significant species are Xenochorphis sp., Enhydrus enhydrus, Varamus 

salvator and Cerberus rhynchops are significant. 

Birds: Presently more than 40 bird species comprising of both local and migratory 

types are reported to visit these clusture of wetlands. Among these grebe, coot, darter, 

shag, cormorant, teals, egrets, jacanas, snipes tern, eagle, sand piper, gulls, rails 

kingfishers, etc. are significant. 

Mammals: About 20 mammals are reported from this region. Amongst the rare 

mammals Marsh mongoose (Herpestes palustris), small Indian mongoose (Herpestes 

auropunctatus), Palm civet (Paradocurus hermaphroditus) and Small Indian civet 

(Viverricula indica) are significant in and around East Calcutta Wetland area. 

Endangered species: The site supports the IUCN red-listed species of mammal 

Herpestes palustris. 

Land tenure: State-owned; surrounding lands belong to private owners. 

Land use: The wetland is used for waste water fisheries and surrounding areas is 

used for vegetable farming on garbage substrate and effluent irrigated paddy 

cultivation. 

Conservation measures taken: The conservation area boundary for the east Calcutta 

wetlands and waste-recycling region was mapped in 1985 by the State Planning 

Board, Government of West Bengal. 

This wetland area is protected by order of the Calcutta High Court in 1992, which 

prohibits change in land use. High Court directed the State government to take 

recourse to statutory cover, if required, to prevent any private alienation of land. 

Recently the Director of land and Land Records, Govt. of West Bengal has issued a 

fresh order informing the prohibition of any conversion of land use within the 

conservation area boundary and all such conversions, if any such has taken place 

since 1992, as void. Filling up of water bodies in this area is not permissible under 

West Bengal Town and Country (Planning and Development) Act, 1979 as well as 

under the West Bengal Inland Fisheries Act, 1984 (with amendment in 1993). 

Conservation measures suggested: The development of environment of the 

government of West Bengal is well versed with the problems and potential of the east 

Calcutta wetlands. According to the understanding of this department these wetlands 

should be ‘basically conserved as an urban facility and demonstrated a rare example 

of using wetland functions subsidizing the life of one of the biggest cities in the 

world’. No other wetlands, the department has observed further ‘has any record of 

such organised practice of successively using the waste water from one land use to the 

other spread over 12500 hectares, comprising vegetable farms (150 tonnes per day), 

fish ponds (11,000 tonnes per year) and paddy fields (15,000 tonnes of additional 

paddy per year)’. 

The most significant function performed by this wetland area, according to this 

department, ‘is its capability to treat the entire city sewage of about 800 million litters 

per day’. 

While suggesting conservation measures for the east Calcutta wetlands, the

department observed that: ‘Form the standpoint of ecosystem stability as well as of 

social and economic significance the central water area of about 4000 hectares 

covering the fishponds deserves a priority attention. For the purpose of conservation, 

therefore, out of this total patch of land the area of about 4000 hectares comprising 

most of the bheris or water areas need most vigorous land use protection and is 

described as the Core Area (Zone A). No other economic activities can be introduced 

to disturb the core area. The area may however allow scientific study and work plans 

to reduce the risk or enhance the economic viability of the existing practices’. 

‘Accordingly the remainder of about 8000 hectares can be designated as Buffer Area 

for the interest of conservation and rational accommodation of marginal changes in 

the existing land use. This buffer Area can be further sub-divided into Inner Buffer 

Area (Zone-B) and Outer Buffer Area (Zone-C) depending upon the extent of 

waterbodies such designated area include. Permissible changes in land use will 

depend upon the category of Buffer Area within which a proposed activity is 

intended’. 

Disturbance and threats: The main adverse factor threatening the site is the 

significant change of waste water quality flowing out from the city. This has been on 

account of a large number of industries which make unauthorized connection of their 

waste water effluent without treatment to the recently laid storm sewers emptying into 

the city outfall channels flowing eastwards. This has caused substantial amount of 

heavy metal deposition in the canal sludge and rendered waste water incapable of 

ensuring the edible quality of the fish and vegetables grown in the wetlands. The 

surrounding areas are threatened by encroachment and urban expansion. Another 

advesre factor is the disappearing of know-how heritage. Because of institutional 

indifference, the traditional mix of cultural practices and wonders of ecological 

wisdom provided by the local people is slowly dying. 

Socio-economic values: The wetland provides food (150 t of fresh vegetables, per 

day; 10,500 t of fish, per year), sanitation (1,000 million l of city sewage can be 

treated, with at least 30 days retention time) and livelihood (to 50,000 persons, 

directly). The core area consists of fish ponds (4,000 ha), where waste water is treated 

and fishing activities take place. The garbage farm lands are used for cultivating 

different types of seasonal vegetables. They are irrigated with water from the 

intermittent ponds where the waste waters are settled for purification. The 

downstream area is mostly paddy growing (in regular course), with occasional patches 

of settlements. On the eastern boundary of the designated conservation area, there is 

an upcoming tannery complex. Significant amount of scientific study has been carried 

out on the site (e.g. State Planning Board, Department of Environment, Institute of 

Wetland Management and Ecological Design, Calcutta University). Conservation 

education occurs in the form of students and schoolchildren visiting the site. The site 

is frequently visited by birdwatchers during the winter. The surrounding area is used 

for vegetable farming on garbage substrate, effluent irrigated paddy cultivation, and 

aquatic sports. Recreational centres are coming up along the edge of the city. 

Scientific research and facilities: Significant amount of research and investigations 

has been carried out on the east Calcutta wetlands area. 1980 which marks the 

beginning of such initiatives triggered by a study conducted by the State Planning 

Board to search for the feasibility of using the wastewater of Calcutta. This study led 

to the identification of the world’s largest wetland area using wastewater to grow fish, 

vegetables and paddy in successive resource recovery practices developed by the

wisdom of local people. Initial task of research was to decipher the oral tradition and 

understand the local practice. This was difficult because it needed the researcher to 

gain the faith and confidence of the advanced and knowledgeable farmers who are 

most reluctant to pass on their know-how to anyone. This was followed by sufficient 

amount of studies in water quality and bacterial contamination in fishes. In both these 

set of studies nothing was found to be of any cause of concern. However, since the 

beginning of 90’s the water quality started deteriorating because of unauthorized 

introduction of untreated effluent from a number of small-scale industries. Extent and 

cause of damage has been fairly studied since last few years and it should be possible 

to take remedial action. 

Lately extensive study was carried out to understand the existing management system 

strictly using the Ramsar guidelines and a reliable primary data on this system is now 

available. Subsequently a detailed study instituated by the Department of 

Environment, of the hydraulic regime covering about 60 km of drainage network 

(most of which is constructed by the local people and is not in the record of the State 

Irrigation Department) has also been completed. Most of these studies have been 

taken up by the Institute of wetland management and ecological design, various 

departments of Calcutta University and the Creative Research Group engaged by the 

department of Environment of the Government of West Bengal. A list of major 

studies carried out so far is included in the Bibliographical resource that follows. 

Management authority: Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority 

Past and Present status 

Site Industrial effluent: A significant change has taken place in the wastewater 

quality flowing out from the city. This has been on account of a large number of 

industries making unauthorised connection of their waste water effluent without 

treatment to the recently laid storm sewers emptying into the city outfall channels 

flowing eastwards. This has caused substantial amount of metal deposition in the 

canal sludge and rendered the waste water incapable of ensuring the edible quality of 

the fish and vegetables grown in East Calcutta Wetlands. Available results form the 

ongoing studies indicate that the situation which is definitely worrisome, is still 

manageable and other than Pb remaining depositions can still be reduced and 

restrained well below permissible limits. 

Surrounding area 

Encroachment: The Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal 

constituted a high power committee to submit a report on Calcuttas’ Canals and 

Wetlands under the Chairmanship of Mr. C.D. Seshashri, Retired Engineer 

in Chief as ex-officio Secretary to the Government. It has marked the year 1956 as 

the beginning to losing stability in these vast wetlands. There had been instances of 

forcible attempts to take over the right of land by small farmers. Such actions were 

long overdue. For more than fifty years owners of small parcels of land were 

systematically and heinously forced to give up their property rights in favour of a few 

large landowners who clubbed and converted the land into large fisheries. The 

unfortunate fall-out of that was that after some years when conditions favoured the 

landless farmers, they retaliated. Fisheries were drained and cultivation of paddy was 

attempted. Fishery is the most efficient ecosystem for the local farmers who are 

natural growers of fish rather than paddy, apart from the multiplied benefit that the 

fishery provided. At present this realization is a growing trend amongst the village

people and forcible takeover has been largely on the wane. However and much more 

aggressively, the wetlands are under intense stress of urban expansion. There is an 

active ‘promoter-real-estate-developer’ lobby waiting to grab this vital open space. 

Disappearing heritage: The compiler of this form has been visiting the East 

Calcutta Wetlands since 1980 without any break. Even during the earliest years of 

going there and although the institutional indifference had already been pronounced 

by that time, the entire area provided a rich mix of brilliant interventions and wonders 

of ecological wisdom. A closer look would have always brought out a remarkable 

assortment of recycling practices and facinating use of local appurtenances. Today, 

after decades of sustained apathy for such basic matters like providing wastewater to 

the fish ponds or allowing hopes of real estate conversion to thrive, it seems that the 

aggregate effect of this uncertainty has flattened all the diverse crease of creativity 

and innovation in the East Calcutta Wetlands. The heritage, which we have failed to 

recognise, is now dying. The situation indeed is in need of a truly enabling 

governance. A governance that will bring back the confidence of the local people on 

their own wisdom and cultural practices that they have inherited from their 

forefathers, who were by all means the world’s foremost connoisseurs of wastewater 

wise use and conservation. 

Reference: Basic Manual (1995); Biswas (1969); Biswas (1927); Dasgupta (1973); 

David (1959); De et al. (1989); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1983); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and 

Christine Furedy (1984); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1985); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and Susmita 

Sen (1987); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1991); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti and Susmita Sen (1992); 

Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1993); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1994); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1996); 

Ghosh and Santra (1996); Ghosh Dhrubajyoti (1997); Mazumdar (1965); Roy 

Chowdhury (1984); Sen (1941); http://www.ramsar.org/ (Ramsar website). 

BRACE BRIDGE WETLANDS 

The wetlands located on Lat. 22° 31’–22° 33’ N and long. 88° 17’– 88° 18’ E, a 

14 km linear stretch in the Garden Reach area in southwestern Calcutta, West Bengal. 

An area of ponds interconnected by culverts to keep water in constant circulation. The 

profile till 1984–85 included, (i) a lake with an island (ii) swampy bed, (iii) 

transitional mudflat, and (iv) flatland which often becomes a low watery meadow 

during the monsoons. Land filling for garbage disposal was initiated by the Port Trust, 

deteriorating the water quality of the lake. The total area of this wetland is about 

494.2 (formerly more than 1235.5 ha (1960’s)). 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall 

occurring from May to September. 

Macrophytes: About 53 families of plants have been recorded from this wetland. 

Birds: The following bird species have been recorded from the Brace Bridge 

Wetlands between January 90 and January 91: Podiceps ruficollis, Phalacrocorax 

niger, Ardea cinerea, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E.alba, Larus 

brunnicephalus, L. ridibundus and Tringa glareola. 

Land tenure: The wetland and the adjoining area belongs to the Calcutta Port Trust 

(CPT). In the mid-50s, the CPT granted fishing rights on about 54 ha of these 

wetlands and in 1961, the Mudialy Fishermen’s Co-operative Society was formed.

Conservation measures taken: The area under the Mudialy Fishermen’s Cooperative 

Society has been developed into sewage-fed fisheries. Afforestation 

programmes have been carried out and a nature park has been developed. 

Land use: Principal activity is fishing 

Disturbances and threats: The Calcutta Port Trust has started distributing portions 

of the wetland area back to the dock authorities. Industrial effluents and silt from the 

River Bhagirathi enter the wetlands. 

Socio-economic values: These wetlands support a major fishery and help in 

improving water quality before release into the Hooghly. The total production of fish 

in 1989-90 was 285 tonnes, with a gross profit of Rs. 29,45,992. The Society also 

sells processed fish in polythene packs to selected retail stalls. The Wetlands have 

proved efficient in treating industrial wastewaters (70% of influent flow) as well as 

domestic wastewaters (30% of influent flow). Faecal coliform bacteria is reduced by 

99.9% 

Reference: Ghosh (1991); WWF India (1993). 

WETLANDS OF HUGLI DISTRICT 

Hugli district (Lat. 22° 39’–23° 01’ N and Long. 87° 30’–88° 30’ E) entirely fall 

under the physiographic subdivision known as ‘mature delta’ in the lower Ganga 

Plain. The vast plain of this district is endowed with fertile alluvial soils, 70 per cent 

of which is used for cultivation of paddy and kharif crops. Hugli is hemmed in 

between Hooghly (Bhagirathi) river on the east and Rupnarayan river on the southwest 

and interested by Damodar river. These rivers provide a network of waterways, 

notably the Damodar group with two branches viz., the Kana Damodar or Kausiki and 

the old Damodar; and the Bhagirathi group with its branch, the Saraswati. Numerous 

tributaries of the main rivers and creeks, called khals, which run dry or very shallow 

in summer months serve as the natural drainage system of the Damodar-Bhagirathi 

interriverine floodplain and Darakeswar-Damodar inter riverine floodplain areas of 

this district. The triangular portion west of the Darakeswar comprising of Goghat 

Police Station having an area of 378 sq. km. is the only upland region located in the 

Hugli district. The total area of this wetland is about 179.75 ha. The names of the 

wetland and nearest village/town are given bellow; 

1. Madrasipara jheel situated near Bandel town/village 

2. Locopara jheel situated near Bandel town/village 

3. Tribeni jheel situated near Tribeni town/village 

4. Hatgachha dighi situated near Kalitala town/village 

5. Khanyan jola situated near Khanyan town/village 

6. Jugihedo pond situated near Pandua town/village 

7. Kalipur jheel situated near Arambagh town/village 

8. Muktarpur jola situated near Bali-Dewanganj town/village 

9. Kaknan jheel situated near Badar town/village 

10. Jagatpur beel situated near Garerghat town/village 

11. Krishinanagar pond situated near Khanakul town/village

12. Radhanagar pond situated near Khanakul town/village 

13. Baligori jheel situated near Tarakeswar town/village 

14. Kamarkundu jheel situated near Kamarkundu town/village 

15. Dunkuni jola situated near Dunkuni town/village 


and minimum of 14°C. The pH value ranged from 6.5 to 8.5. 

Macrophytes: 

S. 

No 

Species Name 

Floating hydrophytes 

S. 

No 

Species Name 

Azolla Pistia 

Eichhornis crassipes 

Lemna 

Suspended hydrophytes 

Wolffia 

Ceratophyllum Utricularia 

Anchored 

hydrophytes 

submerged 

Hydrilla Ottelia 

Najas Vallisneria spiralis 

Anchored 

hydrophytes 

floating 

Nelumbo nucifera Nymphoides spp. 

Nymphaea spp. Trapa spp. 

Emergent 

hydrophytes 

amphibious 

Aeschynomene spp. Enhydra fluctuans 

Alternanthera sessilis Ipomea aquatica 

Aponogeton spp. 

Colocasia esculenta 

Reeds 

Marsilea quadrifoliata 

Phragmites karka 

Sedge 

Cypreus spp. 

Weeds 

Centenella asiatica 

Solitary unicellular algae 

Typha spp. 

Diatoms 

Euglena 

Colony forming algae 

Volvox 

Filamentons algae 

Microcystis 

Oscillatoria 

Branched coenocytic algae 

Spirogyra 

Chara Nitella 


S. Species Name S. Species Name

No No 

1 Alona affinis 26 Dunhevedia crassa 

2 A. davidi 27 D. serrata 

3 A. intermedia 28 Euryalona orientalis 

4 A. karua 29 Filinia sp. 

5 A. kwangsiensis 30 Ilyocryptus spinifer 

6 A. rectangular 31 Indialona globulosa 

7 A. verrucosa 32 Keratella sp. 

8 Alonella excise 33 K. tropica 

9 Asplancha sp. 34 Kurzia longirostris 

10 Bosmina longirostris 35 Latonopsis australis 

11 Branchionus calcyflorus 36 Macrothrix spinosa 

12 B. falcatus 37 M. triserialis 

13 Branchionus sp. 38 Mesocyclops hyalinus 

14 Camptocercus australis 39 M. leucarti 

15 Centrocypris sp. 40 Moina nicrura 

16 Ceriodaphnia cornuta 41 M. weismanni 

17 Chydorus barroisi 42 Oxyurella singalensis 

18 C. eurynotus 43 Paradiaptomus sp. 

19 C. ventricosus 44 Scapholeberis kingi 

20 Cyclesthera hislopi 45 Simocephalus expinosus 

21 Cypris spp. 46 S. latirostris 

22 Daphnia lumholtzi 47 S. vetulus 

23 Diaphanosoma brachyurum 48 Spicodiaptomus sp. 

24 D. excism 49 Stenocypris spp. 

25 Diaptomus spp. 50 Thermocyclops sp. 

Molluscan: 


No 

No 

1 Assiminea francesiae 9 Lamellidens marginalis 

2 Bellamya bengalensis 10 Lymnaea acuminata 

3 B. dissimilis 11 L. luteola 

4 Digoniostoma ceremeopoma 12 Pila globosa 

5 Gabbia orcula 13 Thiara granifera 

6 Gyraulus convexiusculus 14 T. scabra 

7 G. labiatus 15 T. tuberculata 

8 Indoplanorbis exustus 

Arachnids: Pardosa, Hippasa, Lycosa and Tetragnatha. 

Annelids: Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauriti, Perionyx excavatus, Glossiphonia 

weberi, Helodela nociva and Hemiclepsis marginata. 

Coleopteran: 


No 

No 

1 Amphiops spp. 9 Hydrocoptus sp. 

2 Berosus sp. 10 Hydrophilus sp. 

3 Canthydrus spp. 11 Hydrovatus spp. 

4 Clypeodytes spp. 12 Laccobius sp.

5 Cybister spp. 13 Laccophilius spp. 

6 Eretes sp. 14 Regimbertia spp. 

7 Helochares spp. 15 Sternolophus spp. 

8 Hydaticus sp. 16 Uvarus sp. 

Hemipteran: 


No 

No 

1 Anisops spp. 8 Limnogonus spp. 

2 Corixa spp. 9 Micronecta spp. 

3 Diplonychus spp. 10 Naboandelus sp. 

4 Gerris spp. 11 Plea spp. 

5 Hydrometra spp. 12 Ramatra spp. 

6 Laccotrephes spp. 13 Rhagadotarsus spp. 

7 Lethocercus sp. 

Crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, M. lamarrei, M. dayanum, Caridina sp., 

Varuna litterata, Paratelphusa hydrodromus and Sartoriana spinigera. 

Fishes: A total of 48 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Amblypharyngodon mola 25 Lepidocephalus guntea 

2 Anabas testudineus 26 Macrognathus aculeatus 

3 Aplocheilus panchax 27 Mastacembelus armatus 

4 Apocryptes bato 28 M. pancalus 

5 Badis badis 29 Monopterus cuchia 

6 Catla catla 30 Mystus cavasius 

7 Chanda nama 31 M. tengra 

8 C. ranga 32 M. vittatus 

9 Channa marulius 33 Nandus nandus 

10 C. orientalis 34 Notopterus notopterus 

11 C. punctatus 35 Oligolepis acutipinnis 

12 C. striatus 36 Ompak pabda 

13 Cirrhinus mrigala 37 Ophiocara porocephala 

14 Clarias batrachus 38 Oreochromis mossambica 

15 Colisa fasciatus 39 O. nilotica 

16 Ctenopharyngodon idella 40 Puntius gelius 

17 Cyprinus carpio 41 P. javanicus 

18 Esomus danricus 42 P. sarana 

19 Glossogobius giuris 43 P. sophore 

20 Heteropneustes fossilis 44 P. ticto 

21 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 45 Rasbora daniconius 

22 Labeo bata 46 Salmostoma bacaila 

23 L. calbasu 47 Wallago attu 

24 L. rohita 48 Xenentodon cancila 

Amphibians: Rana cyanophlyctis, R. tigerina, R. limnocharis, R. 

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornate and Bufo melanostictus.

Reptiles: Lissemys punctata, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens, Enhydris enhydris, 

Xenochrophis piscator and Naja naja kaouthia. 



No 

No 

1 Acrocephalus aedon 28 Haliastur indus 

2 A. dumetorum 29 Himantopus himantopus 

3 A. stentoreus 30 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 

4 Alcedo atthis 31 I. flavicollis 

5 Amaurornis phoenicurus 32 I. sinensis 

6 Anas acuta 33 Metopidius indicus 

7 A. clypeata 34 Nettapus coromandelianus 

8 A. crecca 35 Nycticorax nycticorax 

9 A. quequedula 36 Orthotomus sutorius 

10 A. strepera 37 Pelargopsis capensis 

11 Anastomus oscitans 38 Phalacrocorax niger 

12 Anhinga rufa 39 Phylloscopus collybita 

13 Ardea purpurea 40 P. fuscatus 

14 Ardeola grayii 41 P. inornatus 

15 Aythya ferina 42 P. trochiloides 

16 A. fuligula 43 Pluvialis dominica 

17 A. nyroca 44 Podiceps ruficollis 

18 Bubulcus ibis 45 Pycnonotus cafer 

19 Ceryle rudis 46 P. jocosus 

20 Densrocygna javanica 47 Rostratula benghalensis 

21 Egretta alba 48 Tadorna ferruginea 

22 E. garzetta 49 Tringa glareola 

23 Gallinago gallinago 50 T. hypoleucos 

24 G. stenura 51 T. ochropus 

25 Gallinula chloropus 52 T. tetanus 

26 Halcyon smyrnensis 53 Vanellus indicus 

27 Haliaeetus leucoryphus 54 V. malabaricus 

Mammals: Bandicota indica, Lutra sp., Lutra perspicillata and Felis viverrinai. 

Threatened Animals: Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Lissemys punctata, Varanus 

bengalensis, V. flavescens, Xenochrophis piscator, Naja naja, Rana hexadactyla, R. 

tigerina. 

Land tenure: Some wetlands are State-owned. 


Socio economic values: Hugli district are dominated by small and medium sized 

wetlands. These wetlands, besides day to day domestic use, support fisheries and offer 

a number of economic activities, namely, irrigation, jute-retting, brick-making, 

grazing as well as growing or cultivation of edible and economic species of aquatic 

plants. A few wetlands are also important in respect of waterfowl habitat. Each and 

every village and even its small units (paras) have a number of freshwater fish ponds. 

These fish ponds and floodplain wetlands are important source of sustenance for 

thousands of rural fisherfolks. They represent socially, economically and 

educationally backward communities of West Bengal. Majority of these active

fisherfolks are women who earn their daily bread using a scoop-net (Chhakni jal) or 

hand net in these wetlands. 

The entire Hugli district is a gift of waterways, notably the Damodar group, and the 

Bhagirathi group. This district is prone to frequent floods at Arambagh subdivision. In 

the floodplain areas of Khanakul, Arambagh and Goghat Blocks, human settlements 

are seen on high and raised land which remains above water during the monsoon 

floods. During this period, each settlement (para) exposes itself as an isolate island 

amidst vast expanse of flood water. 

However, Hugli district are important in respect to economic activities in and around 

the wetlands. In the Hugli district, a commercially important species of wetland plant 

locally known as paniphal (Trapa bispinosa) is widely grown these days in the 

hundred of railway jheels along Haora-Tarakeswar rail-link. Fruits of Trapa ispinosa 

and Trapa maximowiczii (pahiphal) are eaten as food. It is sold at Rs. 4/- to Rs. 10/- 

per kg. in the Calcutta market. While in and around Kulgachi-Birshibpur. 

Several wetland plants are used for a variety of purposes such as food, vegetables, 

fodder, (Nelumbium sp.) is cultivated at Kantapukur (near Kulgachia, Haora) and sold 

for ritualistic purposes. The seeds of shapla and saluk (Nymphaea sp.) are made into 

puffed grain by frying them like popcorn. The puffed seeds are eaten as such by the 

poor people or made into home-made confectionery. The stem and leaves of shapla, 

saluk, susni sak (Marsilea quadrifolia); kalmi sak (Ipomoea aquatica), kachu sak 

(Colocasia esculenta), etc., are used as vegetables. These vegetable plants are 

collected by the poor womenfolk for domestic consumption or for selling in the local 

market. These species are quite common in the derelict and semi-derelict wetlands of 

this district. The spongy petioles of shapla, saluki and kachu are made into delicious 

dishes even by the affluents as holiday-dish. 

The grasses belonging to the family Cyperaceae and Gramine, etc. are often used as 

fodder for the cattle in adition to mat-making. Two species of Cyperceae viz., 

Cyperus tegetum (Madurkathi) and Juncellus inundatus (Pati) grown in Balarampur 

(near Bishibpur) and Garbhabanipur (near Amta) respectively are used for matmaking. 

The plants, flowers and seeds of some Nymphaeaceae are used as tonic for fever, 

piles, skin disease and dysentery. The Brahmi sak (Herpestes monicria, Family 

Scrophulariaceae) and Kulekhara (Hygrophila spinosa, Family Acanthaeccae) 

naturally grown along the water edge of these wetlands are well known for their 

medicinal value. Some plants like Bera-kalmi (Ipomoea sp.), also grown along the 

water margin, are sun-dried and used as fuel by the poors. Dhanchi plant Coronitha 

(= Sesbania) cannabina is cultivated in floodplain wetlands of Hugli district for fire 

wood and often for natural manuring by making compost fertilizer. Water hyacinth, 

Azolla and other free floating species are also used as compose fertilizer or utilized 

for the bio-gas plant. These free floating species especially water hyacinth act as 

water purifers as they are known to treat sewage and polluted water. It is worthmentioning 

that Calcutta’s sewage has under gone natural purification in east Calcutta 

wetlands through this aquatic plant. 

The temporary wetlands and roadside ditches are extensively used as paddy seed bed 

(Bijtala) for boro (winter rice) cultivation and mostly for jute retting in late monsoon 

months. During this time the water of these temporary wetlands turn black with a foul 

smell due to jute steeping and, with the progress of steeping process, these place

prove to be notorius breeding grounds for mosquitoes. The floodplain wetlands of 

Khanakul, virtually, left fallow during monsoon since no cultivation could be possible 

due to flood water run-off. While in dry winter season robi (dry season, October to 

March) crops (potato, gourd, mustard, cucumber, etc.) are extensively grown with the 

supply of water from Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC). The cultivation of boro 

paddy follows the robi crops in these floodplain wetlands. 

Reference: Nandi et al. (1999). 

PURBASTHALI LAKE 

Purbasthali is a freshwater lake, situated in Kasthashali village, near Chupi of district 

Burdwan on bandel-Katwa route, West Bengal. The lake, which came into existence 

in the distant past by getting disjuncted form the main stream of river Bhagirathi- 

Hugli. Today it has lost much of the depth that it had in past. At present with a 

semilunar shape contour, it flows steadily north to south to connect the main stream 

on both the extremes exposing unyielding bed of weed and marsh vegetation in 

places. The total area of this wetland is 1600 ha. 


Macrophytes: The lake vegetation chiefly consists of Vallisneria natans, a floating 

leaf-rooted angiosperm, this occurs in abundance and flourishes all through the lake at 

varying depths. Common Water Hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes has choked 

substantial portion at the northernmost side whereas species of freshwater 

Cholorophycean algae is seen sparsely colonizing alongside the lake margins. 

Birds: The lake hosts over 70 spp. of birds (including other water dependent birds) 

during its peak migratory season and at least-18–20 of these are intercontinental 

migrants. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Accipiter badius 34 Halcyon smyrnensis 

2 Acridotheres fuscus 35 Haliaeetus leucogaster 

3 A. ginginiancus 36 H. leucoryphus 

4 Aegithina tiphia 37 Himantopus himantopus 

5 Alcedo atthis 38 Hirundo rustica 

6 Amaurornis phoenicurus 39 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus 

7 Anas acuta 40 Megalaima asiatica 

8 A. clypeata 41 Metopidius indicus 

9 A. strepera 42 Milvus migrans 

10 Anastomus oscitans 43 Motacilla alba 

11 Anthus novaeseelandiae 44 Nectarinia asiatica 

12 Ardea cinerea 45 N. zeylonica 

13 A. purpurea 46 Nettapus coromandelianus 

14 Ardeola grayii 47 Oriolus oriolus 

15 Aythya nyroca 48 Pandion haliaetus 

16 Bubulcus ibis 49 Pelargopsis capensis 

17 Calidris minuta 50 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 

18 Ceryle rudis 51 P. niger 

19 Charadrius dubius 52 Platalea leucorodia 

20 Circus aeruginosus 53 Podiceps ruficollis

21 Copsychus saularis 54 Porphyrio porphyrio 

22 Dendrocygna javanica 55 Recurvirostra avosetta 

23 Dicrurus adsimillis 56 Sterna aurantia 

24 D. caerulescens 57 Sturnus contra 

25 Dinopium benghalense 58 S. pagodarum 

26 Egretta garzetta 59 Tadorna ferruginea 

27 E. intermedia 60 Threskiornis aethiopica 

28 Elanus caeruleus 61 Tringa glareola 

29 Falco subbuteo 62 T. hypoleucos 

30 F. tinnunculus 63 Turdoides earlei 

31 Fulica atra 64 Tyto alba 

32 Gallinago gallinago 65 Upupa epops 

33 Glareola lactea 66 Vanellus indica 



Socio-economic values: It is protection of large number of migratory birds. 

Reference: Ghosh (2004). 

WETLANDS OF HAORA DISTRICT 

Haora district (Lat. 22° 13’–22° 47’ N and Long. 87° 51’–88° 22’ E) entirely fall 

under the physiographic subdivision known as ‘mature delta’ in the lower Ganga 

Plain. The vast plain of this two district is endowed with fertile alluvial soils, 70 per 

cent of which is used for cultivation of paddy and kharif crops. Haora district have a 

total area of 1467 sq. km. Haora hemmed in between Hooghly (Bhagirathi) river on 

the east and Rupnarayan river on the south-west and interested by Damodar river. 

These rivers provide a network of waterways, notably the Damodar group with two 

branches viz., the Kana Damodar or Kausiki and the old Damodar; and the Bhagirathi 

group with its branch, the Saraswati. Numerous tributaries of the main rivers and 

creeks, called khals, which run dry or very shallow in summer months serve as the 

natural drainage system of the Damodar-Bhagirathi interriverine floodplain and 

Darakeswar-Damodar inter riverine floodplain areas of this district. The total area of 

the all wetlands are about 125.08 ha. The name of the wetlands and nearest village are 

given bellow; 

1. Santragachi jheel situated near Haora town/village 

2. Paddapukur jola situated near Haora town/village 

3. Kulai jheel situated near Ranihati town/village 

4. Phuleswar jheel situated near Uluberia town/village 

5. Natibpur jheel situated near Uluberia Birshibpur town/village 

6. Birshibpur jheel situated near Birshibpur town/village 

7. Malanchberia jola situated near Birshibpur town/village 

8. Kashipur jola situated near Kashipur town/village 

9. Bagnan jheel situated near Bagnan town/village 

10. Goalpota pond situated near Garchumuk town/village

11. Sujan Saheber dighi situated near Bara Garchumuk town/village 

12. Gadiara pond situated near Gadiara town/village 

13. Amta pond situated near Amta town/village 

14. Siva daha situated near Amta town/village 

15. Dadkhali daha situated near Amta town/village 

16. Jhikhira pond situated near Jhikhira town/village 

17. Udaynarayanpur pond situated near Udaynarayanpur town/village 


34°C and minimum of 10°C. The pH range from 6.3–8.5. 

Macrophytes: 

S. 

No 

Species Name 

Floating hydrophytes 

S. 

No 

Species Name 

Azolla Pistia 

Eichhornis crassipes 

Lemna 

Suspended hydrophytes 

Wolffia 

Ceratophyllum Utricularia 

Anchored 

hydrophytes 

submerged 

Hydrilla Ottelia 

Najas Vallisneria spiralis 

Anchored 

hydrophytes 

floating 

Nelumbo nucifera Nymphoides spp. 

Nymphaea spp. Trapa spp. 

Emergent 

hydrophytes 

amphibious 

Aeschynomene spp. Enhydra fluctuans 

Alternanthera sessilis Ipomea aquatica 

Aponogeton spp. 

Colocasia esculenta 

Reeds 

Marsilea quadrifoliata 

Phragmites karka 

Sedge 

Cypreus spp. 

Weeds 

Centenella asiatica 

Solitary unicellular algae 

Typha spp. 

Diatoms 

Euglena 

Colony forming algae 

Volvox 

Filamentons algae 

Microcystis 

Oscillatoria 

Branched coenocytic algae 

Spirogyra

Chara Nitella 



No 

No 

1 Alona affinis 33 Dunhevedia crassa 

2 A. castata 34 D. serrata 

3 A. davidi 35 Euryalona orientalis 

4 A. intermedia 36 Filinia sp. 

5 A. karua 37 Graptoleberis testudinaria 

6 A. kwangsiensis 38 Grimaldina brazzai 

7 A. monacantha 39 Guernella raphalis 

8 A. pulchella 40 Ilyocryptus spinifer 

9 A. quadrangularis 41 Indialona globulosa 

10 A. verrucosa 42 Keratella sp. 

11 Alonella excise 43 K. tropica 

12 Asplancha sp. 44 Kurzia latissima 

13 Bosmina longirostris 45 K. longirostris 

14 Bosminopsis deitersi 46 Latonopsis australis 

15 Branchionus calcyflorus 47 Leydigia acanthocercoides 

16 B. falcatus 48 Macrothrix spinosa 

17 Branchionus sp. 49 M. triserialis 

18 Camptocercus australis 50 Mesocyclops hyalinus 

19 Ceriodaphnia cornuta 51 M. leucarti 

20 C. reticulata 52 Moina nicrura 

21 Chydorus barroisi 53 Oxyurella singalensis 

22 C. eurynotus 54 Paradiaptomus sp. 

23 C. faviformis 55 Pleuroxus denticulatus 

24 C. pubescens 56 P. similis 

25 C. ventricosus 57 Pseudosida bidentata 

26 Cyclesthera hislopi 58 Scapholeberis kingi 

27 Cypris spp. 59 Simocephalus expinosus 

28 Daphnia lumholtzi 60 S. latirostris 

29 D. similis 61 S. vetulus 

30 Diaphanosoma excism 62 Spicodiaptomus sp. 

31 D. sarsi 63 Stenocypris spp. 

32 Diaptomus spp. 64 Thermocyclops sp. 

Molluscan: 


No 

No 

1 Bellamya bengalensis 9 Lymnaea acuminata 

2 B. dissimilis 10 L. luteola 

3 Digoniostoma ceremeopoma 11 Neritina violacea 

4 Gabbia orcula 12 Pila globosa 

5 Gyraulus convexiusculus 13 Thiara granifera 

6 G. labiatus 14 T. scabra 

7 Indoplanorbis exustus 15 T. tuberculata 

8 Lamellidens marginalis

Arachnids: Pardosa, Hippasa, Lycosa and Tetragnatha. 

Annelids: Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauriti, Perionyx excavatus, Glossiphonia 

weberi, Helodela nociva and Hemiclepsis marginata. 

Coleopteran: 


No 

No 

1 Altica sp. 10 Hydaticus sp. 

2 Amphiops spp. 11 Hydrocoptus sp. 

3 Berosus sp. 12 Hydrovatus spp. 

4 Canthydrus spp. 13 Laccobius sp. 

5 Cassida sp. 14 Laccophilius spp. 

6 Clypeodytes spp. 15 Lema sp. 

7 Cybister spp. 16 Regimbertia spp. 

8 Eretes sp. 17 Sternolophus spp. 

9 Helochares spp. 18 Uvarus sp. 

Hemipteran: Diplonychus spp., Lethocercus sp., Corixa spp., Micronecta spp., 

Gerris spp., Limnogonus spp., Hydrometra spp., Rhagadotarsus spp., Ramatra spp., 

Laccotrephes spp., Plea spp. and Anisops spp. 

Crustaceans: Macrobrachium rosenbergii, M. lamarrei, M. dayanum, Caridina sp., 

Varuna litterata, Paratelphusa hydrodromus and Sartoriana spinigera. 

Fishes: A total 46 species were recorded. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Amblypharyngodon mola 24 Lepidocephalus guntea 

2 Anabas testudineus 25 Macrognathus aculeatus 

3 Aplocheilus panchax 26 Mastacembelus armatus 

4 Badis badis 27 M. pancalus 

5 Catla catla 28 Monopterus cuchia 

6 Chanda nama 29 Mystus cavasius 

7 C. ranga 30 M. tengra 

8 Channa marulius 31 M. vittatus 

9 C. orientalis 32 Nandus nandus 

10 C. punctatus 33 Notopterus notopterus 

11 C. striatus 34 Oligolepis acutipinnis 

12 Cirrhinus mrigala 35 Ompak pabda 

13 Clarias batrachus 36 Oreochromis mossambica 

14 Colisa fasciatus 37 O. nilotica 

15 Ctenopharyngodon idella 38 Puntius gelius 

16 Cyprinus carpio 39 P. javanicus 

17 Esomus danricus 40 P. sarana 

18 Glossogobius giuris 41 P. sophore 

19 Heteropneustes fossilis 42 P. ticto 

20 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 43 Rasbora daniconius 

21 Labeo bata 44 Salmostoma bacaila 

22 L. calbasu 45 Wallago attu

23 L. rohita 46 Xenentodon cancila 

Amphibian: Rana cyanophlyctis, R. tigerina, R. limnocharis, R. 

hexadactyla, Microhyla ornate and Bufo melanostictus. 

Reptiles: Lissemys punctata, Varanus bengalensis, V. flavescens, Enhydris enhydris, 

Xenochrophis piscator and Naja naja kaouthia. 



No 

No 

1 Acrocephalus aedon 28 Haliastur Indus 

2 A. dumetorum 29 Himantopus himantopus 

3 A. stentoreus 30 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 

4 Alcedo atthis 31 I. flavicollis 

5 Amaurornis phoenicurus 32 I. sinensis 

6 Anas acuta 33 Metopodius indicus 

7 A. clypeata 34 Nettapus coromandelianus 

8 A. crecca 35 Nycticorax nycticorax 

9 A. quequedula 36 Orthotomus sutorius 

10 A. strepera 37 Pelargopsis capensis 

11 Anastomus oscitans 38 Phalacrocorax niger 

12 Anhinga rufa 39 Phylloscopus collybita 

13 Ardea purpurea 40 P. fuscatus 

14 Ardeola grayii 41 P. inornatus 

15 Aythya ferina 42 P. trochiloides 

16 A. fuligula 43 Pluvialis dominica 

17 A. nyroca 44 Podiceps ruficollis 

18 Bubulcus ibis 45 Pycnonotus cafer 

19 Ceryle rudis 46 P. jocosus 

20 Densrocygna javanica 47 Rostratula benghalensis 

21 Egretta alba 48 Tadorna ferruginea 

22 E. garzetta 49 Tringa glareola 

23 Gallinago gallinago 50 T. hypoleucos 

24 G. stenura 51 T. ochropus 

25 Gallinula chloropus 52 T. tetanus 

26 Halcyon smyrnensis 53 Vanellus indicus 

27 Haliaeetus leucoryphus 54 V. malabaricus 

Mammals: Bandicota indica, Lutra sp., L. perspicillata and Felis viverrina. 

Threatened animals: Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Lissemys punctata, Varanus 

bengalensis, V. flavescens, Xenochrophis piscator, Naja naja, Rana exadactyla, and 

R. tigerina. 

Land tenure: Some wetlands are State-owned. 


Socio economic values: Haora district are dominated by small and medium sized 

wetlands. These wetlands, besides day to day domestic use, support fisheries and offer 

a number of economic activities, namely, irrigation, jute-retting, brick-making, 

grazing as well as growing or cultivation of edible and economic species of aquatic 

plants. A few wetlands are also important in respect of waterfowl habitat. Each and

every village and even its small units (paras) have a number of freshwater fish ponds. 

These fish ponds and floodplain wetlands are important source of sustenance for 

thousands of rural fisherfolks. They represent socially, economically and 

educationally backward communities of West Bengal. Majority of these active 

fisherfolks are women who earn their daily bread using a scoop-net (Chhakni jal) or 

hand net in these wetlands. 

However, Haora district are important in respect to economic activities in and around 

the wetlands. Haora district Typha (Hogla) species are widely grown in the derelict 

and semi-derelict wetlands. Typha elephantina is commercially exploited for making 

mats and screens. More than 300 bundles of hogla leaves are produced per hectare of 

wetlands and one bundle of dried leaves of this species costs Rs. 50–60/- in the local 

hogla shop. A large number of roadside shops are engaged in this trade. 

Several wetland plants are used for a variety of purposes such as food, vegetables, 

fodder, (Nelumbium sp.) is cultivated at Kantapukur (near Kulgachia, Haora) and sold 

for ritualistic purposes. The seeds of shapla and saluk (Nymphaea sp.) are made into 

puffed grain by frying them like popcorn. The puffed seeds are eaten as such by the 

poor people or made into home-made confectionery. The stem and leaves of shapla, 

saluk, susni sak (Marsilea quadrifolia); kalmi sak (Ipomoea aquatica), kachu sak 

(Colocasia esculenta), etc., are used as vegetables. These vegetable plants are 

collected by the poor womenfolk for domestic consumption or for selling in the local 

market. These species are quite common in the derelict and semi-derelict wetlands of 

this two district. The spongy petioles of shapla, saluki and kachu are made into 

delicious dishes even by the affluents as holiday-dish. 

The grasses belonging to the family Cyperaceae and Gramine, etc. are often used as 

fodder for the cattle in adition to mat-making. Two species of Cyperceae viz., 

Cyperus tegetum (Madurkathi) and Juncellus inundatus (Pati) grown in Balarampur 

(near Bishibpur) and Garbhabanipur (near Amta) respectively are used for matmaking. 

The plants, flowers and seeds of some Nymphaeaceae are used as tonic for fever, 

piles, skin disease and dysentery. The Brahmi sak (Herpestes monicria, Family 

Scrophulariaceae) and Kulekhara (Hygrophila spinosa, Family Acanthaeccae) 

naturally grown along the water edge of these wetlands are well known for their 

medicinal value. Some plants like Bera-kalmi (Ipomoea sp.), also grown along the 

water margin, are sun-dried and used as fuel by the poors. 

The temporary wetlands and roadside ditches are extensively used as paddy seed bed 

(Bijtala) for boro (winter rice) cultivation and mostly for jute retting in late monsoon 

months. During this time the water of these temporary wetlands turn black with a foul 

smell due to jute steeping and, with the progress of steeping process, these place 

prove to be notorius breeding grounds for mosquitoes. 

Reference: Nandi et al. (1999); Nandi et al. (2001). 

WETLANDS IN JALDAPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY 

Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary is situeted (Lat. 26° 45’ N and Long. 89° 20’ E) 

on the Bhutanese border, about six kilometres northeast of Hasimara, Jalpaiguri 

district, West Bengal. The total area of this sanctuary is about 11,563. The wetland in 

this sanctuary is a number of small, permanent, and seasonal pools with associated 

marshes and areas of seasonally inundated grassland on the alluvial plains of the

Torsa river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, rising in the mountains of western Bhutan. 

Over 50% of the area is still forested, the remainder being grassland and meandering 

water courses, most of which are seasonal. Perennial streams are a feature of the 

forest areas. 

Abiotic factors: Humid, tropical monsoon climate with hot summers and cool 

winters. Most of the rainfall occurs during the monsoon in June-October. 

Macrophytes: Marsh and grassland communities along water courses are dominated 

by species of Phragmites, Saccharum, and Imperata. The Sanctuary contains a 

residual area of high, dense forest dominated by Albizzia procera, but this is severely 

marred by the invasive exotic Mikania sp. 

Special floral values: The Sanctuary contains an important relict of the once 

widespread climax forests of the terai duars. 

Mammals: The Wildlife Sanctuary was established primarily to protect a population 

of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) of which at least 40 

members were surviving in 1983. Other large mammals include tiger (Panthera 

tigris), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus), swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelli) and 

possibly the rare pygmy hog (Sus salvanius). 

Birds: The rich avifauna includes a variety of uncommon or local marsh and 

grassland species such as the storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) and (Leptoptilos 

javanicus), Bengal florican, swamp francolin, Jerdon’s bush chat and Finn’s baya 

weaver (Houbaropsis bengalensis, Francolinus gularis, Saxicola jerdoni, and Ploceus 

megahynchus). Sixty-five of the latter were recorded in this area in January 1987. 


Land use: A managed nature reserve 

Conservation measures taken: Protected in the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary 

(11,563 ha), established in 1943. Attempts are being made to eradicate the exotic 

plant Mikania sp. 

Disturbances and threats: A nearby military camp causes noticeable disturbance 

and disruption within the Sanctuary, and the spread of Mikania is a serious problem. 

Poaching is reported to be on the increase. 

Socio-economic values: The Wildlife Sanctuary plays an important educational role 

in promoting regional and local understanding of the ecological value of the 

remaining forests. The Sanctuary is important for tourism, and provides a readily 

accessible alternative for tourists unable to visit similar sites in Assam. 

Research and facilities: There are good facilities for visitors in the Wildlife 

Sanctuary, including a forest rest house and a youth hostel. Visitors are encouraged to 

view wildlife from elephant-back. 

Reference: Krishnan (1977); WWF India (1993). 

DURGAPUR BARRAGE 

Durgapur Barrage is situated on 23° 28’ N, 87° 18’ E in the Burdwan District, about 

150 km northwest of Calcutta, West Bengal. In 1955 as part of the development of the 

Damodar River in West Bengal and Bihar, a barrage was constructed across the 

Damodar at Durgapur for flood control and irrigation purposes. This created a shallow 

lake about 1.5 km wide and four km long. Many islands, some of considerable size,

have been formed in the lake as a result of salutation. The water level is kept almost 

constant throughout the year, varying by only 50–75 cm. An area of about 13 ha along 

the south bank has been enclosed for use as a fish farm. The riverbed downstream of 

the barrage is similar to that of many of the larger rivers of the North Indian plains. In 

the dry season, there is very little flow of water and extensive mudflats and sand 

banks are exposed, but during the monsoon, the entire river becomes a raging torrent. 

Sand has been extracted from the northern shore of the river, creating an area of 

marshy land. The environs of Durgapur Barrage include several large industrial sites, 

particularly to the northeast. The total area of the barrage is about 600 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring in 

July-September. 

Macrophytes: Extensive reed-beds of Phragmites, Juncus and Carex spp., 

particularly on the islands, and broad fringes of Eichhornia crassipes. Rice paddies, 

villages and industrial sites in adjacent areas. 

Land tenure: The wetland is owned by the Damodar Valley Corporation. 

Land use: Primarily flood control and water supply for industrial and domestic 

consumption. There is some fishing in the lake, and one of the larger islands supports 

a village of reed-cutters. The reeds are harvested in rotation and are used for thatching 

purposes. Cattle graze on some of the islands. An area of 13 ha enclosed by the south 

bank efflux bund is used as a fish farm by the State Government. 

Conservation measures taken: No official protection, but the Damodar Valley 

Corporation has prohibited bathing, fishing and shooting on the lake, thereby creating, 

in effect, a wildlife sanctuary. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been suggested that the site be granted 

official recognition as a wildlife sanctuary in view of its importance to waterfowl and 

accessible location. 

Disturbances and threats: The only real disturbance comes from the small number 

of local people who fish the lake from boats. Periodical draining and dredging of the 

lake to restore its original storage capacity result in a temporary loss of breeding 

habitat for waterbirds but have no serious long-term effects on the wildlife. 

Socio-economic values: Water supply, flood control and fisheries production. The 

lake provides an easily accessible site for viewing water birds (a National Highway 

crosses the eastern bund), and thus has considerable potential for nature-oriented 

outdoor recreation. 

Birds: An important area for a wide variety of both resident and migratory waterfowl, 

particularly during winter. Gauntlett (1972) recorded 76 species of waterfowl in the 

late 1960s and early 1970s. Common residents included Tachybaptus ruficollis 

(maximum 100), Phalacrocorax niger (maximum 150), Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, 

Egretta garzetta (maximum 300), Dendrocygna javanica (maximum 3,000), Nettapus 

coromandelianus (maximum 150), Hydrophasianus chirurgus (maximum 200), 

Metopidius indicus (maximum 60), Vanellus indicus and Chlidonias hybridus. The 

lake regularly holds over 10,000 ducks in winter; 13 species were recorded by 

Gauntlett, the commonest being: Anas strepera (maximum 1,000); A. crecca (1,000); 

A. acuta (18,000); A. querquedula (500); Aythya fuligula (200); Sarkidiornis 

melanotos was also found to be a regular winter visitor, with up to 70 present at one 

time. About 25 species of shorebirds were recorded on passage and in winter. Peak

counts included: 50 Pluvialis dominica; 40 Tringa erythropus; 20 T. nebularia; 20 T. 

ochropus; 100 T. glareola; 100 Calidris minuta and several hundred C. temminckii. 

Up to 100 Anastomus oscitans have been recorded as occasional visitors. 

Research and facilities: Gauntlett made regular observations on the bird fauna from 

March 1968 into the early 1970s. 


SALT LAKES SWAMP 

It is situated on 22° 28’–22° 35’ N, 88° 24’–88° 30’ E immediately southeast of the 

Calcutta City boundary, West Bengal. A large area of saline lagoons, ponds and 

brackish marshes at the head of the Matha waterway on the southeastern periphery of 

Calcutta. The maximum depth of water is about 60 cm. A large proportion of the 

wetland has already been reclaimed for urban expansion and agriculture. 

Polderization began in 1953, and by 1968, 3,600 ha of the Northern Salt Lakes and 

3,400 ha of the Southern Salt Lakes had been reclaimed. Former area of the wetland is 

approximately 12,000 ha, now believed to have been reduced to 5,000 ha. 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, with most of the rainfall occurring 

in May-September. 

Macrophytes: No information. 

Birds: No recent information is available for the Salt Lakes Swamp, but large 

numbers of ducks, particularly Dendrocygna javanica, Anas acuta and A. 

querquedula, are known to winter at wetlands in and around Calcutta City (e.g. 

Calcutta Zoological Gardens and Santragachi Pond), and presumably occur at the 

Swamp as well. 


Land use: The principal activity is fishing. Many of the lagoons and ponds have been 

stocked with fish, mainly exotic carp and tilapias. The wetlands also act as natural 

sewage treatment plants, oxidizing effluents from Calcutta. This process is augmented 

by Eichhornia crassipes, which absorbs metallic ions. 


Possible changes in land use: The whole area is likely to be drained for conversion 

to industrial and housing land. 

Disturbances and threats: There are plans to reclaim all of the remaining wetlands 

for urban expansion of the Calcutta metropolis. 

Socio-economic values: The wetlands support a major fishery, and serve as a flood 

control mechanism. One area of 4,000 ha stocked with carp, tilapia and other species 

provides employment for 20,000 fishermen and produces an annual harvest of 6,000 

metric tonnes. The wetlands have also proved to be highly efficient oxidation ponds 

for the treatment of domestic sewage. Coliform bacteria from human faces are 

reduced by 99.9% in the well-stocked ponds. 

Research and facilities: The West Bengal Department of Fisheries is conducting 

research on sewage purification and fish production in the Swamp. The Institute of 

Wetland Management and Ecological Design has conducted research on public health 

issues such as fish culture using sewage, and has initiated studies on the ecological 

significance and history of wetland conversion around Calcutta.

Reference: Fernandes (1987); Ghosh (1983); Maltby (1986); WWF India (1993).

MANGROVE WETLANDS OF MIDDLE ANDAMAN 

Mangrove swamps are mainly located (12° 15’–12° 50’ N, 92° 40’– 93° 50’ 

E) along various creeks and sheltered areas of middle Andaman forest division, 

Andaman. Most of the mangroves occur toward eastern side of Middle Andaman 

Main Island and come under territorial jurisdiction of Bajalungta. Bakultala, Rangat, 

Betapur and Long Island forest ranges. The total area of the mangrove is about 233.95 

sq.km. 

Abiotic factors: The temperature range from 23°C–30°C and relative humidity 

varies from 70%–90%. Mean annual rainfall is 30.0 cm. 

Mangroves: Nineteen mangrove species have been recorded. These are follows: 


No 

No 

1 Acanthus ilicifolius 11 L. racemosa 

2 Acrostichum aureum 12 Nypa fruticans 

3 Aegiceras corniculatum 13 Phoenix paludosa 

4 Avicennia marina 14 Rhizophora apiculata 

5 A. officinalis 15 R. mucronata 

6 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 16 Sonneratia alba 

7 Ceriops tagal 17 S. caseolaris 

8 Excoecaria agallocha 18 Xylocarpus granatum 

9 Heritiera littoralis 19 X. moluccensis 

10 Lumnitzera littorea 

Land tenure: Andaman Forest Division 

Land use: Forest exploitation and fishing for finfish, prawns, and crabs. 

Conservation measures taken: Andaman Forest Division. 






Reference: Sunil Kumar (1998). 

WETLANDS IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 

The 348 islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (7° 00’–15° 00’ N, 92° 00’–94° 

00’ E) archipelagos are the peaks of a marine extension of the Arakkan Yomas in 

Burma and the mountains of Sumatra. Biogeographically, they form a link between 

the greater Sunda and Indo-Burmese faunas. Until recently, these islands constituted 

an almost undamaged and highly diversified natural environment, with luxuriant rain 

forests extending down from the hills to deserted beaches, fringing reefs and rich 

coastal waters almost unpolluted by soil erosion or industrial activity. Conditiçns 

have, however, changed considerably in recent years, with the recent colonization of 

the islands by large numbers of immigrants and refugees. Some unique natural 

environments persist, but the indigenous groups of hunter-gatherers are in immediate 

danger of cultural and/or physical annihilation. Much the most extensive wetland 

habitats in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are mangrove swamps, but there are 

many small freshwater ponds and marshes throughout the islands of considerable

interest in a regional context. The total area of the wetland is approximately 115,000 

ha of mangrove forest (total area of islands 813,600 ha). 

Abiotic factors: Humid tropical monsoon climate, with an average annual rainfall of 

between 2,750 mm and 4,550 mm. The islands receive precipitation from both the 

Southwest and Northeast Monsoons which together account for nine to ten months of 

the year. The dry months are February and March. Temperatures range from 19– 

32°C. 

Mangroves: There are an estimated 115,000 ha of Mangrove forest in the island, with 

a zonation greatly resembling that of the Pichavaram and Kaveri systems in southern 

India. Rhizophora mucronata is the commonest species and together with R. apiculata 

forms a canopy 10m high along the principal watercourses. Tidal mangrove forest is 

replaced upstream by riverine or lowland evergreen forest. Cerbera manghas, 

Heritiera littoralis, Brownlowia lanceolata and Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea are 

widespread transitional species. Towards the interior of the mangrove forest, 

Bruguiera parviflora and B. gymnorrhiza are abundant, the trees occasionally 

exceeding 25 m in height. Commonly there is an undergrowth of Ceriops tagal. The 

Rhizophoraceae form a distinct coastal fringe in which Aegiceras corniculatum and 

Xylocarpus granatum may also be found. This zonation varies in slight detail from 

one bay to another. These are the only mangrove formations in India where the Nipa 

Palm Nypa fruticans is common. 

Large areas of primary forest remain on some of the islands, but most of the lowland 

areas have now been cleared for agriculture. The flora has strong affinities with that 

of Southeast Asia. In all, some 3,000 species of plants have been identified, including 

about 150 species endemic to the islands. 

Special floral values: There are about 130 species of ferns and 100 species of orchids 

in an estimated 700,000 ha of forest (1984). 

Birds: The Grey (or Andaman) Teal was once abundant in the Andaman Islands, but 

numbers have fallen drastically in recent years. The endemic race of the Grey Teal 

Anas gibberifrons is found in the wetlands. Little is known of the ecology of this bird. 

Reptiles: The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and several species of marine 

turtles. 

Mammals: The wetlands support several rare and endangered wildlife species 

including the Dugong dugon. 

Many endemic species and races of terrestrial vertebrates remain in the unexploited 

forests of both island groups. 


Land use: Formerly subsistence agriculture in small areas and extensive huntergatherer 

utilization of the forested areas. These activities are now yielding to intensive 

commercial exploitation. Selective felling is widespread in the mangrove forest, and 

there is some clear-felling in 40 m strips. Two thirds of the strips are felled and the 

rest are left for coastal protection and as a source of seed. 

Conservation measures taken: Six National Parks and five Wildlife Sanctuaries 

have been established in the islands. The following reserves include some coastal 

habitat and mangrove forest:

1. South Butten Island Sanctuary (12° 13’–l2° 19’ N, 93° 01’–93° 52’ E); 300 ha; 0– 

70 m above sea level. 

2. Middle Butten Island National Park: 4,400 ha; 0–70 m above sea level; 

established in 1979. 

3. Andaman Crocodile Sanctuary: 10,200 ha; 0–l5 m above sea level; established in 

1983. 

4. North Reef Sanctuary: 13° 04’–13° 06’ N, 92° 36’–92° 38’ E; 348 ha; 0–30 m 

above sea level. 

5. South Sentinel Island Sanctuary (10° 44’–l0° 47’ N, 92° 05’–92° 07’ E); 161 ha; 

0-40 m above sea level; established in 1977. The Andaman Forest Department 

initiated a project on the conservation of the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus 

porosus in 1979, with the assistance of the Government of India. 

Possible changes in land use: Increasing external pressure on the islands is likely to 

result in further degradation of the remaining terrestrial ecosystems with concomitant 

damage to the mangrove forest, coral reefs and fisheries. The islands have been 

designated as a "specially backward" region where industry can claim general 

financial concessions in order to establish itself. 

Disturbances and threats: Since the 1970s, a vast expansion of the logging 

operations has clear-felled large areas with devastating ecological repercussions. For 

example, Little Andaman is already reported to be 75% deforested. The effects of this 

massive deforestation on the estuarine, mangrove and coral ecosystems has not been 

investigated. Some 12,000 ha of mangroves have been clear-felled, mainly for 

firewood, with detrimental effects on the offshore fisheries. Unrestricted persecution 

of Estuarine Crocodiles by local people in the past has greatly reduced their numbers. 

Choudhury and Bustard (1980) recorded 97% destruction of crocodile nests in the 

1977 nesting season, almost entirely as a result of egg-robbing by settlers. Seventeen 

per cent of the nest-guarding females were killed in that year alone. The creation of an 

Andaman Island Free Port has been proposed in order to accelerate the development 

of the islands; the outcome of meetings in Central Government on this topic are 

unknown. The immense potential of the forests for renewable resource utilization has 

been largely ignored in a rush to exploit the standing timber for powerhouse, 

matchwood and plywood factories. 

Socio-economic values: Under proper management, the terrestrial and mangrove 

forests of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands would be capable of supporting a major 

forestry industry on a sustainable basis. The mangrove forests are breeding and 

nursery grounds for many commercially important fishes and crustaceans, and are 

thus of crucial importance in maintaining the region's fisheries. The mangrove forest 

also provides valuable coastal protection from cyclonic storms. Many of the islands 

are of great scenic beauty and have tremendous potential for tourism. 

Research and facilities: The Bombay Natural History Society and Zoological Survey 

of India launched several expeditions to the Andaman Islands during the 1960s and 

1970s. 

Reference: Chatterjee (1977); Choudhury and Bustard (1980); FAO (1984); 

Fernandes (1987); Kar (1984); Untawale (1985); Whitaker (1985); WWF India 

(1993).

JAMUNA RIVER NEAR DELHI 

A 35 km stretch of the Jamuna river (28° 30’ N, 77° 22’ E to 28° 46’ N, 77° 13’ E) in 

the environs of Delhi, from approximately 10 km south to 10 km north of the city. 

Although largely contained within bunded embankments, the narrow floodplain along 

the Jamuna still constitutes a significant wetland environment. Small areas of marsh 

remain in a mosaic of arable land, pasture, waste ground, and urban development. 

Several dams and barrages, such as the Okhla Barrage, provide relatively large areas 

of open water. At low water levels, extensive mudflats and sand banks are exposed. 

There are undoubtedly other stretches of the Jamuna river that are as rich in wildlife 

as the Delhi section, and probably several other rivers in northern India just as rich as 

the Jamuna, but no information is available on these other sites. 

Abiotic factors: Dry tropical monsoon climate typical of the Upper Ganges Plain, 

with an average annual rainfall of 635 mm. Most of the rain falls during the monsoon 

in June-September, but some 50–100 mm may fall in winter. There is a marked 

annual range in mean temperatures (19°C), and a daily range of up to 17°C. January is 

the coldest month (16°C) and May the hottest (32°C). 

Macrophytes: There are large areas of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 

particularly near the barrages, and reed-beds with species of Typha and Phragmites, 

chiefly around the islands in the river. At low water levels, much of the exposed river 

bed is cultivated. 

Birds: A very important feeding and roosting area for a wide variety of both resident 

and migratory waterfowl. In winter, many thousands of ducks, chiefly Anas strepera, 

A. crecca, A. acuta, and A. clypeata, spend the daylight hours on the river and fly out 

at night to feed on wet arable land. In March 1980, de Block observed: 300 Anas 

penelope, 500 A. strepera, 700 A. acuta, 6500 A. clypeata, 400 Aythya 

farina and 2400 A. fuligula on one small dam on the river. The muddy islands provide 

secure roosting sites for large numbers of gulls and terns (2700 in January 1986), and 

there is a very large winter roost of swallows and martins (Hirundinidae) in the reedbeds 

(e.g. 20,000 in February 1982). Many shorebirds, especially Tringa glareola, 

Calidris minuta, C. temminckii, Philomachus pugnax, and Glareola maldivarum, 

occur on passage, and to a lesser extent also in winter. Waterfowl counts at several 

localities along the river and in the nearby Delhi Zoological Gardens in January 1986 

and January 1987 recorded: up to 


No 

No 

1 Anas acuta 1980 12 Gelochelidon nilotica 75 

2 A. clypeata 1100 13 Himantopus himantopus 50 

3 A. crecca 2090 14 Larus brunnicephalus 300 

4 A. poecilorhyncha 220 15 L. ridibundus 2,000 

5 A. strepera 200 16 Mycteria leucocephala 125 

6 Anhinga melanogaster 40 17 Nycticorax nycticorax 75 

7 Aythya farina 100 18 Phalacrocorax niger 200 

8 A. fuligula 100 19 Philomachus pugnax 50 

9 Calidris temminckii 50 20 Recurvirostra avosetta 75 

10 Chlidonias hybridus 200 21 Vanellus spinosus 44 

11 Fulica atra 350

along with smaller numbers of six species of herons and egrets, Ephippiorhynchus 

asiaticus, Platalea leucorodia, Phoenicopterus ruber, Anser indicus, Tadorna 

ferruginea, Sarkidiornis melanotos, Netta rufina, Rostratula benghalensis, and 11 

other species of shorebirds. Anas falcata has been recorded, and A. poecilorhyncha 

breeds. There is a large breeding colony of cormorants, Anhinga melanogaster, 

herons, egrets, and Mycteria leucocephala in trees in the Zoological Gardens, the 

birds commuting to the riverine marshes to feed. 

Land tenure: A mixture of private and public ownership. 

Land use: Primarily agricultural land providing vegetables and dairy products for the 

capital city. Water is taken from the river for a variety of industrial and domestic uses. 


Possible changes in land use: As the city of Delhi continues to expand, new urban 

and industrial developments and an intensification of current land use will continue to 

erode the few remaining areas of semi-natural marsh. 

Disturbances and threats: Pollution from domestic and industrial sources is a 

growing problem, and is already at a critical level along some stretches of the river. 

About 320,000 km of untreated sewage is discharged daily into the river. Factory 

wastes containing high concentrations of DDT and chloral hydrates, which are 

released into the river, have resulted in high toxicity. There is a considerable amount 

of disturbance from the intense human activity in the area, and some shooting and 

netting of waterfowl occurs. 

Socio-economic values: Important agricultural areas are scattered along the whole 

Jamuna river system. As pollution levels increase, the value of the river as a source of 

water for domestic consumption will undoubtedly diminish. The area is often visited 

by bird-watchers and, with a little management and the provision of basic facilities, 

could easily be developed for this type of outdoor recreation on a large scale. 

Research and facilities: Several waterfowl counts have been carried out, but no 

systematic study seems to have been undertaken, despite the proximity of the site to 

Delhi. 

Reference: Gole (1982); Karpowicz (1985); van der Yen (1987); Jhingran (1991); 

WWF India (1993).

OUSTERI LAKE 

Ousteri lake is situated (11° 57’ N; 79° 45’ E) near the village Oussudueri, partly in 

Tamil Nadu state and partly in Pondicherry Union Territory. Ousteri (derived from 

Oussudueri-Tamil for Ousudu lake) is the most important freshwater lake of 

Pondicherry region. It is also one of the most important wetlands of Asia. The total 

water spread area is about 700 ha. The water in Ousteri lake comes from the following 

sources: (i) the run-off from the lake basin and direct interception by the water body; 

(ii) the water which is diverted by the Suthukenni check dam through the Suthukenni 

channel to the lake. 

OUSTERI LAKE 

Abiotic factors: Tropical monsoon climate. The water is alkaline in nature (7.24- 

8.08). 

Macrophytes: Over 60 families with more than 195 species of plants and trees have 

been identified with Ousteri. These are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Abrus praecatorius 99 Ichnocarpus frustescens 

2 Abutilon indicum 100 Indigofera hirsute 

3 Abutilon sp. 101 Ipomoea carnea 

4 Acacia chundra 102 I. pecaprae 

5 A. leucophloea 103 I. pestigridis 

6 A. nilotica 104 Ixora paverra 

7 Acalypha indica 105 Jasmarium spp. 

8 Achyranthes aspera 106 Jatropha curcas 

9 Aerva lanata 107 Justicia simplex 

10 Agave americana 108 Lannea coromandelica 

11 Allophyllus serratus 109 Lantana camara 

12 Alysicarpus vaginalis 110 Lepidagathis cristata 

13 Amaranthus spinosus 111 Lepisanthes tetraphylla 

14 Apluda mitica 112 Leptadenia reticulate 

15 Asystasis ganetics 113 Leucas aspera 

• 


16 Atalantia monophylla 114 Lindernia sp. 

17 Atylosia sp. 115 Madhuca longifolia 

18 Azadirachta indica 116 Maerua oblongifolia 

19 Barleria buxifolia 117 Mallotus philippinensis 

20 Bauhinia racemosa 

118 Malvastrum 

coromandelianum 

21 Benkata malabarica 119 Maytenus emerginata 

22 Boerhavia diffusa 120 Melilotus indica 

23 Borassus flabellifer 121 Memecylon lushingtonii 

24 Borreria sp. 122 M. umbellatum 

25 Breynia vitis 123 Merremia emarginata 

26 Buchanania axillaries 124 M. tridentate 

27 Butea monosperma 125 Micrococca mercurialis 

28 Cadaba fruticosa 126 Mollugo disticha 

29 Calotropis gigantoa 127 M. pentaphylla 

30 Canavallia virosa 128 Morinds coreia 

31 Canthium parviflorum 129 Ochna obtusata 

32 Capparis brevispina 130 Ocimum tenuifolium 

33 C. sepiaria 131 Oldenlandia sp. 

34 Capparis spp. 132 Opuntia dillenii 

35 Cardiospermum halicacabum 133 Ormocarpum sennoides 

36 Carissa spinarum 134 Pandanus odoratissimus 

37 Carmona retusa 135 Parkinsonia aculeate 

38 Cassia auriculata 136 Passiflora foetida 

39 C. fistula 137 Pavetta indica 

40 C. kleinii 138 Pergularia daemia 

41 C. occidentalis 139 Phaseolus spp. 

42 Cassine glauca 140 Phoenix loureirii 

43 Cassytha filiformis 141 P. sylvestris 

44 Celastrus panicltus 142 Phyla nodiflora 

45 Celosia argentea 143 Phyllanthus gardeniarianus 

46 Cissampelos pareria 144 P. rotundifolius 

47 Cissus quardrangularis 145 Pitecellobium dulce 

48 C. setosa 146 Pithecanthus sp. 

49 C. vitiginea 147 Plumbago zeylanica 

50 Citrus sp. 148 Pogostemon sp. 

51 Clausena dentate 149 Polycarpon prostratum 

52 Cleome aspera 150 Polygala arvensis 

53 C. viscose 151 P. javana 

54 Cocculus hirsutus 152 Portulaca oleracea 

55 Coldenia procumbens 153 Prosopis juliflora 

56 Commelina sp. 154 Pterosperum suberifolium 

57 Corchorus sp. 155 Randia brandissi 

58 Corypha umbraculifera 156 R. dumetorum 

59 Crossandra infundibuliforms 157 R. malabarica 

60 Crotalaria medicagenia 158 Reissantia indica 

61 Croton boneplandianus 159 Ricinis communis 

62 Croton sp. 160 Saccharum sp. 

63 Cyanotis tuberose 161 Salacia chinesis 

64 Cynodon dactylon 162 Sanseviera sp.

65 Cypreus sp. 163 Sapindus emarginata 

66 Dalbergia paniculata 164 Sarcostemma acidum 

67 Datura metal 165 Sebestiana chamaelea 

68 Densrocalanmus stictus 166 Securinega leucopyrus 

69 Derris scandens 167 Sesbania sp. 

70 Derris sp. 168 Sida sp. 

71 Desmodium biarticulatum 169 Solanum sp. 

72 Dichrostachys cinerea 170 S. surattense 

73 Disopyros ferrea 171 Spermacoce hispida 

74 Dodonaea viscose 172 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 

75 Ecbolium viride 173 Striga asiatica 

76 Ehretia pubescebs 174 Strychnos colubrine 

77 Eulophia nuda 175 Stylosanthes fruticosa 

78 Euphorbia hirta 176 Synedrella nodiflora 

79 E. rosea 177 Syzygium caryophyllatum 

80 Ficus benghalensis 178 S. cumini 

81 F. hispida 179 Tamarindus indica 

82 F. religiosa 180 Tarenna asiatica 

83 Fimbristylis sp. 181 Tephrosia pulcherrima 

84 Flacourtia indica 182 Terminalia bellirica 

85 Garcinia spicata 183 Toddalia asiatica 

86 G. talbottii 184 Tragia involucrate 

87 Glinus oppositifolius 185 Tribulus terrestris 

88 Glorisa superba 186 Trichurus monsoniae 

89 Glycosmis mauritiana 187 Typha angustata 

90 Gmelina asiatica 188 Vitex sp. 

91 Gomphrena globosa 189 Waltheria indica 

92 G. celosiodes 190 Wattakaka volubilis 

93 Grewia tenax 191 Wrightia tinctoria 

94 Heliotropium sp. 192 Zizyphus mauritiana 

95 Hrmidesmus indicus 193 Z. oenoplia 

96 Hugonia mystax 194 Z. xyophyrus 

97 Hybanthes enneaspermus 195 Zornia gibbosa 

98 Hyptis suaveolens 

Aquatic weeds: Hydrilla verticillata, Ipomea sp. 

Fishes: No comprehensive account is available of the fish fauna of the lake, nor of 

the possible association between the various fish species and the predator birds. 

Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Argentius carpio, Catla catla, Labeo 

rohita, Cirrhina mrigala. 

Birds: An important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, Ousteri Tank is much 

more suitable for diving ducks than the nearby Kaliveli Tank. Peak counts in the 

winters of 1986–87 and 1987–88 included 13,500 dabbling ducks (mainly Anas 

querquedula. A. penelope, A. acuta, and A. clypeata) and: 100 Phalacrocorax spp., 

930 Egretta spp., 110 Ardea cinerea, 150 Anastomus oscitans, 320 Ciconia ciconia, 

160 Threskiornis melanocephalus, 74 Plegadis falcinellus, 600 Aythya farina, 800 A. 

fuligula, 100 Fulica atra, 250 Himantopus himantopus and 1000 other shorebirds. 

Ousteri Tank benefits from its proximity to Kaliveli Tank, and when the latter dries 

out, some species such as egrets, storks, and ibises, move to Ousteri. More than 103

species of native and migratory birds have been spotted in and around Ousteri. These 

are follows; 


No 

No 

1 Accipiter badius 53 Himantopus himantopus 

2 A. nisus 54 Hirundo rustica 

3 Acridotheres tristis 55 Lanius cristatus 

4 Acrocephalus dumetorum 56 L. excubitor 

5 Aegithina tiphia 57 Megalaima haemacephala 

6 Alauda gulgula 58 Merops orientalis 

7 Alcedo atthis 59 M. philippinus 

8 Anas poecilorhyncha 60 Milvus migrans 

9 Anastomus oscitons 61 Mirafra assamica 

10 Anthus hodgsoni 62 Motacilla flava 

11 A. novaeseelandiae 63 M. maderaspatensis 

12 Apus affinis 64 Muscicapa latirostris 

13 Arachnothera longirostris 65 Nectarinia asiatica 

14 Ardea alba 66 N. zeylonica 

15 A. cinerea 67 Neophron percnopterus 

16 Ardeola grayii 68 Numenius arquata 

17 Athene bramea 69 Oasser domesticus 

18 Bubo bubo 70 Oriolus oriolus 

19 Bubulcus ibis 71 Orthotomus sutorius 

20 Calidris minuta 72 Otus asio 

21 Caprimulgus asiaticus 73 Pelecanus philippensis 

22 Carocina melanoptera 74 Pellorneum ruficeps 

23 Ceryl rudius 75 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus 

24 Charadrius dubius 76 Phalacrocroax niger 

25 Chlidonias hybridus 77 Phoenicopterus roseus 

26 Ciconia ciconia 78 Phylloscopus collybita 

27 Circus aeruguinosus 79 Pitta brachyuran 

28 C. pygargus 80 Plataleu leucorodia 

29 Clamator jacobinus 81 Podiceps ruficollia 

30 Columba lilvia 82 Prinia subflava 

31 Copsychus saularis 83 Psittacula krameri 

32 Coracias benghalensis 84 Pycnonotus cafer 

33 Coracina novaehollandiae 85 Saxicoloides fulicata 

34 Corvus corax 86 Sterna acuticauda 

35 C. macrorhynchos 87 S. aurantia 

36 C. splendens 88 Streptopelia chinensis 

37 Cuculus various 89 Sturnus pagodarum 

38 Cypsiurus parvus 90 Sylvia curruca 

39 Delihcon dasypus 91 Tephrodronis pondicerianus 

40 Dendrocitta vagabunda 92 Terpsiphone paradise 

41 Dicaeum erythrorhycnchos 93 Threskiornis aethiopica 

42 Dicrurus adsimilis 94 Tringa glareola 

43 Dinopium benghalense 95 T. hypoleucos 

44 Egretta garzetta 96 T. ochropus 

45 Elanus caeruleus 97 T. stagnatilis

46 Eremopterix grisea 98 Turdoides affinis 

47 Eudynamys scolopacea 99 T. caudatus 

48 Falco tinnunculus 100 Tyro alba 

49 Francolinus pondicerianus 101 Upupa epops 

50 Gallinago gallinago 102 Vannellus indicus 

51 Halcyon samyrnensis 103 V. malanbaricus 

52 Haliaster indus 

Land tenure: Pondicherry State-owned 

Land use: The tank is used for Irrigation 

Conservation measures proposed: C. Perennou has recommended that the tank be 

declared a Bird Sanctuary and developed for bird-watching. Ousteri could then 

become the first area in Pondicherry Union Territory dedicated to wildlife protection. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive grazing of aquatic vegetation and some illegal 

hunting of waterfowl. 

Socio-economic values: Ousteri is one of the 93 Indian wetlands identified as highly 

important by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This 

importance emanates from ousteri’s rich ecosystem of which a lot is still to be studied 

and understood. Ousteri is a major wintering spot for a large number of migratory 

birds and is a rich source of inland fisheries. 

Pollution status: Quite a few of such industries are situated within an eye-shot of 

Ousteri. Industrial waste dumped at the bank of Ousteri 

Odour Offensive, caused dizziness 

Colour Dark, dingy 

pH 0.3 units 

Conductivity 45,00,00 m 

Sulphate 23,00,00 ppm 

Nickel 700 ppm 

Cobalt 380 ppm 

Mercury 110 ppm 

Research and facilities: C. Perennou conducted research on the aquatic avifauna of 

Ousteri Tank and the nearby Kaliveli Tank in 1986–88. 

Reference: Perennou (1987); WWF India (1993); Abbasi (1997).

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