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oriented towards the target text. In his preface to 'The Manipulation
of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation' (1985). Hermans, a
leading scholar of the Manipulation School writes: "From the point of
view of the target literature, all translation implies a degree of
manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose". Their primary
assumption is not 'intended equivalence', upon which the linguistically
oriented approach is premised, but 'admitted manipulation' based on the
concept of translation not as an equivalent reproduction of another
text but as a full-fledged text-type, an integral part of the target
culture, and a tributary to the mainstream of the literary polysystem
carrying into it new ideas and innovative methods.
From the above discussion, it seems that the Linguistically-
oriented School and the Manipulation School are in disagreement over
the issue of equivalence. The divergence is only apparent. Toury, an
Israeli literary scholar and a leading member of the Manipulation
School, bridges the gap between the two seemingly unidentical
approaches to equivalence in the following statement:
"The only construct that is a maximum equivalence requirement
as well as literary-specific and ST-based is the 'adequate
translation (AT), ie. the equivalence on the textemic level.
It is therefore most suitable to serve as the invariant in a
comparison of TT and ST proceeding from a theory of literary
translation. The object of this comparison could therefore be
re-defined as establishing the distance between the actual
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