Infantile Diarrhea
Infantile Diarrhea Infantile Diarrhea
Infantile Diarrhea SUN Mei Pediatric Dept. 2 nd Clinical College, China Medical University
- Page 2 and 3: 1. Definition: Introduction Infanti
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- Page 18 and 19: Etiology Noninfectious factors Diet
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<strong>Infantile</strong> <strong>Diarrhea</strong><br />
SUN Mei<br />
Pediatric Dept. 2 nd Clinical College,<br />
China Medical University
1. Definition:<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>Infantile</strong> diarrhea is one of the most<br />
common diseases in infants and toddlers. It<br />
is not a definitely disease but a syndrome<br />
caused by infectious and non-infectious<br />
non infectious<br />
factors. Clinical manifestations are mainly<br />
diarrhea and vomiting, in severe cases it<br />
usually associated with dehydration and<br />
electrolyte and acid-base acid base disturbances.
Major causes of death among children under five in<br />
developing countries, 2002<br />
25%<br />
23%<br />
Deaths associated<br />
with malnutrition<br />
54%<br />
4%<br />
5%<br />
18%<br />
10%<br />
15%<br />
Acute respiratory infection <strong>Diarrhea</strong><br />
Malaria Measles<br />
HIV/AIDS Perinatal<br />
Other Sources: The world health report 2003, WHO,Geneva.
2.Nomenclature: 2. Nomenclature: Infectious<br />
Noninfectious.<br />
The infectious diarrhea dose not include<br />
that having legal name such as bacillary<br />
dysentery, cholera and so on. <strong>Diarrhea</strong> caused<br />
by other infectious agents and unknown<br />
pathogens may all be named “enteritis enteritis” and<br />
should be defined with the name of the<br />
specific pathogen. Such as enteropathogenic E.<br />
Coli. enteritis, rotavirus enteritis.
3. Predisposing age<br />
Peak incidence occurs in infants<br />
under two to three years of age.<br />
Especially under one year, which<br />
account for about half of the<br />
patients.
4. Prevalent seasons<br />
Bacterial enteritis is most prevalent in<br />
summer.<br />
Viral enteritis in autumn and winter months<br />
but they may be occur all year round.<br />
Noninfectious diarrhea may occur at any<br />
season.
Predisposing factors<br />
1. Immature digestive function<br />
Low gastric acidity: Normally in adults and<br />
adolescents the majority of ingested bacterial<br />
pathogens will be killed at the acid environment<br />
of stomach (pH 1.5-2.0, 1.5 2.0,
2. The rapid growth. growth.<br />
The body<br />
weight of one year old children is 3<br />
times of birth weight. The nutrient<br />
requirements are relatively great,<br />
the gastrointestinal tract is usually<br />
overburdened and commonly<br />
encounter stress.
3. Poor immune function (host<br />
defenses)<br />
Immunoglobulins especially the level<br />
of IgM and secretory IgA from<br />
gastrointestinal mucosa are very low.<br />
The SlgA could resist the local<br />
infection of mucosa and IgM could<br />
resist infection of gram-negative<br />
gram negative<br />
bacilli.
4. Disturbed enteric bacterial flora:<br />
Normal bacterial flora is highly effective<br />
in resisting colonization by potentially<br />
pathogenic invaders. The newborn infants<br />
have not acquired a normal enteric flora.<br />
In infants, the GI normal flora can easy<br />
lose or shift in their balance by antibiotics<br />
or other factors, which may increase the<br />
infants’ infants susceptibility to enteric infections.
5. Formula feeding:<br />
Bottle-fed Bottle fed infant has much more<br />
opportunities of contamination;<br />
Breast milk contains many factors such as<br />
SIgA, SIgA,<br />
complement C3, C4, lysozyme, lysozyme<br />
lysosome, lysosome lectoferrin and some cells, these<br />
factors are less in animal milk or have been<br />
destroyed after boiling.
Etiology<br />
Infectious factors<br />
1. Intestinal infection<br />
Viruses.<br />
– Rotavirus is the most common cause of infantile<br />
diarrhea especially in autumn and winter.<br />
– Norwalk virus is more responsible for diarrhea<br />
among older children and adults.<br />
– Others such as calicivirus (杯状病毒 杯状病毒),enteric enteric<br />
adenovirus, astrovirus, astrovirus,<br />
corona-like corona like viruses,<br />
small round viruses, ECHO, Coxsackie, CMV.
Bacteria<br />
Etiology<br />
Escherichia coli (E. coli)<br />
Enteropathogenic E. coli EPEC<br />
Enterotoxigenic E. coli ETEC<br />
Enteroinvasive E. coli EIEC<br />
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli EHEC<br />
Enteroadherent-aggregative Enteroadherent aggregative E. coli EAEC
Campylobacter jejuni, jejuni<br />
Yersinia enterocolitica.<br />
enterocolitica.<br />
Other bacteria: such as staphylococcus<br />
aureus, aureus,<br />
pseudomonas aeruginosa, aeruginosa proteus, proteus<br />
Klebsiella, Klebsiella,<br />
Salmonella typhymurium and<br />
citrobacter. citrobacter.
Etiology<br />
Fungi: especially Candida albicans<br />
Protracted use of broad-spectrum broad spectrum antibiotics may<br />
alter the normal enteric flora, that may allow the<br />
emergence of resistant organisms such as<br />
staphylococcus aureus or Candida albicans, albicans,<br />
especially<br />
in debilitated children and those with immunologic<br />
deficiency.<br />
Protozoa<br />
Entamoeba histolytic, Giardia Lamblia<br />
Balantidium coli.
Etiology<br />
2. . Extraintestinal infections<br />
Otitis media, upper respiratory infection,<br />
meningitis, pneumonia, urinary infection, cutaneous<br />
infection or other acute infectious diseases may<br />
associate with diarrhea and vomiting.<br />
Extragastrointestinal infections cause a temporary<br />
upset of gastrointestinal function (toxin, fever).<br />
Pathogens infect intestine directly.<br />
Local irritation of the rectum (bladder infection).
Etiology<br />
Antibiotic-associated Antibiotic associated diarrhea, AAD:<br />
Some antibiotics decrease<br />
carbohydrate transport and intestinal<br />
lactase levels.<br />
Eradication of normal gut flora and<br />
overgrowth of other organisms may<br />
cause diarrhea.
Etiology<br />
Noninfectious factors<br />
Dietary factor :<br />
Excess or irregular feeding<br />
Sudden alteration of diet. Feeding starch or fat<br />
too early, changing food or weaning suddenly.<br />
Allergy to cow's milk or disaccharidase<br />
deficiency.<br />
Weather factor<br />
Cool �� increased bowel peristalsis<br />
Hot �� secretion of digestive juice may decrease<br />
thirsty �� excess drinking �� over burdened GI tract.
Pathogenesis<br />
Each kind of diarrhea has different pathogenesis,<br />
such as:<br />
“secretary secretary”<br />
“effusive effusive”<br />
“osmotic osmotic”<br />
“abnormal abnormal GI peristalsis”<br />
peristalsis
Rotavirus invade the mucosa of small intestine<br />
↓<br />
Mucosa shows patchy inflammation,<br />
microvilli are irregular, swollen and shortened<br />
↓<br />
Epithelial cells are swollen, microvilli are damaged<br />
Glucose-coupled Glucose coupled Decreased activity of The total absorptive<br />
sodium transport disaccharidase area decrease<br />
decreased ↓<br />
↓ Lactose can not be<br />
watery stools digested and absorbed<br />
↓<br />
Organic acid increased<br />
↓<br />
Osmolarity is increased in IT<br />
Figure 1. Pathogenesis of rotaviral enteritis
Ingested ETEC (ID=10 8 )<br />
↓<br />
adhere to and colonize in upper intestinal mucosa<br />
via colonization factors (CF) and multiply<br />
↓<br />
Produce enterotoxins (ST and/or LT)<br />
↓ ↓<br />
heat-stable heat stable enterotoxin heat-labile heat labile enterotoxin<br />
↓ bind to receptors and activate ↓<br />
Guanyl cyclase Adenyl cyclase<br />
↓ ↓<br />
GTP → cGMP↑ cGMP<br />
cAMP↑← cAMP↑←<br />
ATP<br />
↓ ↓<br />
→→ Promote ←←<br />
secretion of sodium, chloride, water<br />
↓↓<br />
watery diarrhea<br />
Figure 2. Pathogenesis of ETEC enteritis
Invasive pathogens<br />
↓<br />
invade and multiply within intestinal mucosa<br />
↓<br />
inflammatory changes<br />
(congestion, swollen, inflammatory cells<br />
infiltration, effusion and ulcer)<br />
↓<br />
water and electrolyte are not absorbed entirely<br />
↓<br />
diarrhea<br />
/ \<br />
WBC,RBC increase severe general<br />
in stools toxic symptoms<br />
Figure 3. Pathogenesis of invasive enteritis
Feeding fault (overfeeding, unsuitable nutrients)<br />
↓immature immature digestive function<br />
↓ overburdened GI tract<br />
Disturbances of digestive function<br />
↓<br />
Nutrients can not be digested and absorbed properly<br />
↓<br />
Accumulated in upper intestinal tract. Acidity of contents decrease decrease<br />
↓<br />
Bacteria resided in lower IT immigrate into and multiply in upper upper<br />
IT<br />
↓ (endogenous infection)<br />
Nutrients are resolved by bacteria<br />
↓ ↓<br />
Fermentative process putrid process<br />
↓ ↓<br />
Organic acids are increased toxic products(amines etc.)<br />
(Lactic and acetic acid) ↓<br />
↓ ↓ liver<br />
Hyperosmolarity irritate ↓<br />
↓ ↓ Blood stream<br />
hyperperistalsis of intestinal wall ↓<br />
↓ General toxic symptoms<br />
<strong>Diarrhea</strong><br />
Figure 4. Pathogenesis of dietary diarrhea
Clinical manifestations<br />
Classification by the course of diarrhea<br />
Acute diarrhea: continuous course < two weeks<br />
Prolonged diarrhea: continuous course varies<br />
Chronic diarrhea: > 2 months.<br />
between 2 weeks ~ 2 months
According to severity of diarrhea it may be<br />
divided into 2 types:<br />
Mild diarrhea: diarrhea caused by dietary factors or extra-<br />
gastrointestinal infections.<br />
Gastrointestinal symptoms: The stools become<br />
frequent but usually no more than ten times a day,<br />
gruel-like gruel like or watery, yellow or greenish yellow in<br />
color, smell sour, Vomiting is less common and<br />
abdominal pain is mild.<br />
Systemic symptoms: There is no obvious systemic<br />
symptoms. Infants may be restless or irritable,<br />
temperature is normal or slight high.<br />
There is no dehydration, electrolyte and acid-<br />
base disturbances.
Severe diarrhea: caused by intestinal infections.<br />
Gastrointestinal symptoms: The stools become<br />
more frequent, >10 times daily, watery in consistency,<br />
yellow or greenish yellow, sometimes with mucus, pus<br />
and blood. Vomiting is severe even blood in vomitus. vomitus.<br />
Other symptoms include: anorexia, nausea,<br />
abdominal pain and abdominal distention.<br />
Systemic symptoms: Obvious bvious systemic toxic<br />
symptoms. Infants may be very irritable, lethargy<br />
even coma. The temperature may be high or low.<br />
Water and electrolyte disturbances: usually<br />
present moderate even severe dehydration, acidosis<br />
and electrolyte disturbances.
Dehydration: Excessive Loss of Water<br />
and Electrolytes Due to <strong>Diarrhea</strong> and Vomiting.<br />
Some signs are usually used as criteria.<br />
Dryness of lips, skin and mucous membranes.<br />
Poor skin turgor (elasticity).<br />
Depressed anterior fontanel.<br />
Lack of tears.<br />
Sunken eyes socket.<br />
Signs of shock: poor peripheral circulation. They may<br />
show tachycardia, thin and thready pulse, a low or<br />
falling blood pressure, pallor, cool extremities, delayed<br />
capillary refilling, hypothermia, oliguria
Severity of dehydration: classified into 3<br />
degrees: mild, moderate and severe degree.<br />
Table 1. Severity of dehydration<br />
water loss mild moderate severe<br />
10%<br />
(% of BW)
(go go on)<br />
mild moderate severe<br />
mucosa slightly dry dry very dry<br />
eye socket slightly sunken sunken deep sunken<br />
fontanel slight depression depression deep depression<br />
tears present decreased absent<br />
urine present oliguria anuria<br />
peripheral fair slight poor collapse<br />
circulation cool extremities<br />
thin pulse<br />
low and dull H.S
The types of dehydration<br />
According to the osmolarity of remainder of body<br />
fluid followed dehydration, the dehydration can be<br />
divided into three types:<br />
–Isotonic, Isotonic,<br />
–hypotonic hypotonic<br />
–hypertonic hypertonic dehydration.<br />
During diarrhea, both water and electrolyte are<br />
lost but may not be proportional. The three types of<br />
dehydration may be classified by the serum sodium<br />
concentration, because sodium is the main component<br />
of ECF.
Table 2. The types of dehydration<br />
Isotonic hypotonic hypertonic<br />
causes vomiting, diarrhea wrong rehydration excessive intake<br />
and poor intake diarrhea associated sodium sodium<br />
or<br />
with malnutrition malnutrition<br />
excessive sweat<br />
proportional sodium loss= loss of sodium > water loss ><br />
loss of water loss of water water loss sodium loss<br />
and sodium ECF↓, ECF , no ECF→ ECF ICF ICF→ECF ICF ECF<br />
change in ICF ECF↓ ECF ICF↑ ICF circulation is<br />
better maintained<br />
Serum Na (mmol mmol/L) /L)<br />
130-150 130 150 < 130 >150<br />
ECF=extracellular<br />
ECF= extracellular fluid ICF= intracellular fluid
Isotonic hypotonic hypertonic<br />
volume of ECF decreased severely decreased less severely<br />
decreased<br />
volume of ICF not changed increased decreased<br />
symptoms more severe less severe<br />
and signs shock occurs easily shock is rare<br />
skin color gray gray<br />
temperature cold cold cold or warm<br />
turgor poor very poor fair<br />
feel dry clammy thickened doughy<br />
mucosa dry slight moist parched<br />
psyche lethargy coma irritability<br />
pulse rapid rapid slightly rapid<br />
Bp low very low slightly low<br />
thirsty yes yes or no polydipsia
Metabolic acidosis<br />
The more severe the acidosis will be. causes:<br />
excessive loss of bicarbonate in intestinal<br />
juice.<br />
starvation ketosis due to poor intake and<br />
malabsorption<br />
hypoperfusion and hypotension lead to tissue<br />
hypoxia and accumulation of lactic acid<br />
decreased excretion of fixed acid due to<br />
oliguria.<br />
oliguria
According to the severity of acidosis it could be<br />
divided into three degrees.<br />
CO 2 CP<br />
normal 18-27 18 27 mEq/L mEq/L<br />
40-60 40 60 vol% vol<br />
mild acidosis 13-18 13 18 30-40 30 40<br />
moderate 9-13 9 13 20-30 20 30<br />
severe
Clinical manifestations:<br />
lassitude, lethargy, coma or irritability.<br />
Deep, rapid respiration (Kussmauls<br />
( Kussmauls<br />
breathing) and cool expiratory air.<br />
The expiratory air smells like 'acetone.‘ 'acetone.<br />
Cherry lips.<br />
Nausea, vomiting.
Hypokalemia<br />
Normal serum potassium is 4-4.5 4 4.5 mmol/L. mmol/L.<br />
When<br />
serum potassium is less than 3.5mmol/L<br />
hypokalemia can be diagnosed.<br />
Causes:<br />
excessive loss of potassium<br />
poor intake<br />
The capacity of the kidney to retain K is not as<br />
good as that for sodium. During K deficiency, the<br />
kidney still excrete certain amounts of potassium.
Prior to rehydration,<br />
rehydration,<br />
serum K usually<br />
remains normal,<br />
because:<br />
① Hemoconcentration.<br />
Hemoconcentration<br />
② During acidosis K<br />
moves from ICF into<br />
ECF.<br />
③ Oliguria reduce the<br />
excretion of K.<br />
Along with rehydration<br />
serum K will gradually fall,<br />
because:<br />
① Hemodilution.<br />
Hemodilution<br />
②Acidosis Acidosis is being corrected, K<br />
returns from ECF to ICF.<br />
③ K excretion is increased<br />
along with urine discharge.<br />
④ Synthesis of glycogen with<br />
infused glucose needs K.<br />
⑤Ongoing Ongoing loss of potassium<br />
due to diarrhea.
Clinical manifestations of hypokalemia<br />
Central nervous system: lassitude<br />
Skeletal muscle: weakness, hypotonia , diminished<br />
reflexes and even paralysis.<br />
Smooth muscle: Abdominal distention with diminished<br />
or absent peristalsis. Bowel sound is decreased.<br />
Heart: Increased myocardial irritability, presenting as<br />
tachycardia, arrhythmia, dull heart sounds. ECG shows<br />
prolonged Q-T Q T interval, flat or inverted T waves,<br />
prominent u wave and depressed S-T S T segments.<br />
2Na+1H<br />
Alkalosis: ICF �� ECF<br />
3K
Hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia<br />
Normal value:<br />
Serum calcium is 9-11 9 11 mg/dl or 2.2-2.7 2.2 2.7 mmol/L. mmol/L.<br />
When the value is < 7 mg/dl (1.75 mmol/L) mmol/L)<br />
hypocalcemia is diagnosed.<br />
Serum magnesium: 2.0-3.0 2.0 3.0 mg/dl or 0.8-1.2 0.8 1.2 mmol/L. mmol/L.<br />
If the concentration is < 1.5mg/dl (0.6 mmol/L) mmol/L)<br />
hypomagnesemia is defined.<br />
Causes:<br />
poor intake.<br />
malabsorption.<br />
malabsorption<br />
excessive loss of Ca, Mg via diarrhea.<br />
prolonged diarrhea or active rickets.
Hypocalcemia and<br />
hypomagnesemia<br />
Prior to rehydration there may be no any<br />
hypocalcemic symptoms and sighs due to:<br />
① hemoconcentration.<br />
hemoconcentration<br />
② increased ionic calcium during acidosis.<br />
After rehydration and acidosis being corrected<br />
symptoms occur, because:<br />
① hemodilution.<br />
hemodilution<br />
② Ionic calcium decreased after acidosis is corrected
Hypocalcemia and<br />
hypomagnesemia<br />
Manifestations:<br />
Tetany and convulsion.<br />
If the patient has been given calcium the<br />
tetany or convulsion arenot relieved,<br />
hypomagnesemia should be considered.
Some enteritis caused by<br />
specific pathogens.<br />
1. Rotavirus enteritis or autumn diarrhea.<br />
Pathogen: Human rotavirus (HRV).<br />
Predisposing age: 6 - 24 months.<br />
Predisposing seasons: autumn and winter.<br />
Suddenly onset with low-grade low grade fever and<br />
symptoms of common cold, no obvious toxic<br />
symptoms.
Vomiting usually precedes diarrhea. The<br />
diarrhea is typically acute in onset and<br />
generally watery in character, frequent and<br />
in large amount, odorless.<br />
It is usually associated with dehydration<br />
which is usually isotonic and associated with<br />
electrolyte, acid-base acid base disturbance.<br />
It is a self-limited self limited disease, the clinical<br />
illness generally lasts for 3-8 3 8 days,
Some enteritis caused by<br />
specific pathogens.<br />
2. ETEC enteritis<br />
Sudden onset without significant fever or<br />
other systemic symptoms.<br />
Main symptoms are diarrhea and vomiting.<br />
Frequent diarrhea in large amount. The<br />
stool is watery.<br />
Dehydration, electrolyte disturbances and<br />
acidosis may develop.<br />
Self-limited Self limited disease with nature course of<br />
3-7 7 days.<br />
days
3. Invasive bacterial enteritis.<br />
a dysentery-like dysentery like syndrome that is the<br />
same as that caused by shigellar. shigellar<br />
It is usually abrupt in onset and is characterized<br />
by high fever.<br />
Frequent diarrhea with mucus, pus and blood.<br />
Microscopic findings of stools are leukocytes and<br />
erythrocytes in varying amount.<br />
Other gastrointestinal symptom includes nausea,<br />
vomiting, crampy abdominal pain, tenesmus, tenesmus,<br />
fecal<br />
urgency.<br />
There are sometimes severe systemic toxemia, such<br />
as chills, malaise, hyperpyrexia even convulsion or<br />
infectious shock.<br />
Stool bacterial culture may find the pathogen.
Some enteritis caused by<br />
specific pathogens.<br />
4. Candid albicans enteritis<br />
Patients who have chronic debilitating illness,<br />
malnutrition or prolonged treated with<br />
antibiotics may catch this disease.<br />
It occurs predominately in infants under two<br />
years of age.<br />
The patient may be associated with thrush.<br />
<strong>Diarrhea</strong>, stool with mucus and many frothes. frothes.<br />
Chlamydospore,<br />
Chlamydospore,<br />
blastospore,<br />
blastospore,<br />
candidal filament<br />
may be seen under microscope.
Differential diagnosis<br />
1.Physiologic 1. Physiologic diarrhea<br />
It occurs in infants apparently fatty,<br />
younger than six months, usually breast<br />
feeding.<br />
Accompanied by eczema.<br />
Beside diarrhea the infants have no other<br />
symptom and have good appetite and<br />
normal weight gain.<br />
After solid foods (supplemental food )<br />
are added the stools turn to normal.
Differential diagnosis<br />
2. Bacillary dysentery<br />
Epidemic data (contact history).<br />
Stool bacteria culture.
Differential diagnosis<br />
3. Acute necrotizing enterocolitis:<br />
enterocolitis:<br />
which must be treated with surgical<br />
therapy in time.<br />
Severe systemic toxic symptoms.<br />
Obvious bloody diarrhea.
Treatment<br />
Principle:<br />
Regulating and continue feeding.<br />
Correcting water and electrolyte<br />
disturbances.<br />
Reasonable medicine administration.<br />
Good care and symptomatic treatment.
Dietary therapy<br />
Oral fluids may be given unless there is severe<br />
vomiting or in advanced condition.<br />
For breast-fed breast fed infants reduce the frequency of<br />
feeding or shorten the feeding time.<br />
For bottle-fed bottle fed infants may start with rice porridge,<br />
gruel, diluted milk or skimmed milk.<br />
In viral enteritis because of lactase deficiency and<br />
defected sodium-coupled<br />
sodium coupled-glucose glucose transport. it is<br />
necessary to use lactose-free lactose free diet. (replace milk<br />
with soybean milk or lactose-free lactose free formula ).
Reasonable medicine administration<br />
Antibiotics: is not effective for viral and<br />
non-invasive non invasive bacterial enteritis. But in<br />
cases with severe systemic symptoms<br />
such as high fever, antibiotics should be<br />
given early, specifically and in full dose.<br />
Microcological therapy: restore normal<br />
enteric bacteria flora.
Reasonable medicine administration<br />
Intestinal mucosa protector: which can<br />
absorb pathogen and toxin, improve the<br />
barrier function of GI wall.<br />
WHO/UNICN recent recommendation<br />
Provide children with 20mg/d of zinc<br />
supplementation for 10-14 10 14 days (10mg/d<br />
for infants under 6 months old).
Reasonable medicine administration<br />
Antidiarrheal medicines are ineffective<br />
or even dangerous. Such as loperamide,<br />
loperamide,<br />
tincture of opium, which may inhibit GI<br />
motility, increase the multiplication of<br />
bacteria and absorption of toxin.
Good care and symptomatic treatment<br />
Monitoring water intake and loss.<br />
Control infusion rate in different<br />
period.<br />
Vomiting manage.<br />
Abdominal distension manage.
FLUID THERAPY<br />
Common used fluids and tonicity<br />
Non-electrolyte Non electrolyte solutions:<br />
5%, 10% Glucose (GS). Because the glucose is<br />
discomposed for energy supply after enter the<br />
body, the solutions are known as no tonic<br />
solution only used in providing water and<br />
calorie.
Electrolyte solutions<br />
0.9% Natri chloride (Normal saline, NS). It is<br />
isotonic. But its chlorine component is more than<br />
that in plasma, large amount infusion of NS may<br />
lead to hyperchloremia and acidosis.<br />
Natri bicarbonate (NB). It is a basic solution<br />
with two concentrations that are commonly used:<br />
5% NB is 3.6 tonic solution and 5% NB 1 ml/kg<br />
could elevate 1 mEq/L mEq/L<br />
CO2 CP. The isotonic<br />
concentration for NB is 1.4%.<br />
10% Kalii chloride. It is 8.9 tonic solution.
Oral rehydration salt (ORS)<br />
It was advocated by the WHO.<br />
Formula of oral rehydration salt:<br />
Component amount (grams)<br />
NaCl 3.5<br />
NaHCO 3<br />
KCl<br />
2.5<br />
1.5<br />
KCl 1.5<br />
Glucose 20<br />
Water 1000ml<br />
It is 2/3 tonic and potassium concentration is 0.15%.
Mixed solution<br />
Table 3. Components and ingredient of mixed solution<br />
Solution component ratio ingredient(ml)<br />
NS 10%GS 1.4%NB 10%GS 10%NaCl 10% NaCl 5%NB 10%KCl 10% KCl<br />
2:1 isotonic sol. 2 1 500 30 47<br />
1:1 sol (1/2tonic) 1 1 500 500<br />
20<br />
2:3:1 sol (1/2) 2 3 1 500 15 24<br />
4:3:2 sol (2/3) 4 3 2 500 20 33<br />
1:2 sol (1/3) 1 2 500 15<br />
1:4 sol (1/5) 1 4 500 9<br />
normal maintenance<br />
solution (1/3) 1 4 500 9 7.5
Indications:<br />
Oral fluid therapy<br />
Mild or moderate dehydration.<br />
No severe vomiting nor abdominal distention.<br />
Replacement volume of deficit requirements is<br />
50ml/kg in mild dehydration, 50-100ml/kg 50 100ml/kg in<br />
moderate dehydration, is given within 4-6 4 6 hrs.<br />
Replacement of abnormal maintenance<br />
requirements which is ongoing abnormal loss here<br />
is about 30ml/kg, is given within 18 hrs.
ORS may be used with unlimited water intake. The<br />
fluid is best given in small amount frequently.<br />
Potassium concentration in ORS is 20<br />
mEq/L(0.15%), mEq/L(0.15%),<br />
a general dosage for diarrhea. For<br />
patients with hypokalemia, hypokalemia,<br />
additional potassium<br />
should be added.<br />
Patients with obvious acidosis should be corrected<br />
with additional Nat bicarb. bicarb<br />
For viral enteritis ORS is effective. In viral enteritis<br />
stool sodium is about 50 mEq/L, mEq/L,<br />
while in the ORS<br />
the sodium is 90mEq/L. When administering,<br />
additional water should be given.
Indications:<br />
Intravenous fluid therapy<br />
Moderate or severe dehydration.<br />
The illness is not relieved by Oral fluid therapy or<br />
complicated with severe vomiting.
The therapy for the first day.<br />
When fluid therapy is talked, the amounts<br />
of fluid, the kind of fluid and the infusion<br />
rate are three key points in this topic.<br />
The total amount of fluid needed for<br />
replacement of:<br />
preexisting losses<br />
ongoing abnormal losses<br />
normal losses.
Preexisting losses means the body water deficits due<br />
to diarrhea and vomiting, by the deficits we<br />
evaluated the severity of dehydration.<br />
Ongoing abnormal losses due to ongoing diarrhea.<br />
The amount of the stools is not readily measurable,<br />
it is about 10-30 10 30 ml/kg/day,<br />
Normal losses means normal maintenance<br />
requirements that include urine, feces, sweat and<br />
insensible water losses through skin and lungs. This<br />
requirement is about 60-80 60 80 ml/kg.
In summary the total volume of fluid:<br />
for mild dehydration 90-120 90 120 ml/kg<br />
moderate dehydration 120-159 120 159 ml/kg<br />
severe dehydration 150-180 150 180 ml/kg
Kind of fluids<br />
For preexisting losses:<br />
Isotonic dehydration: 1/2 tonics<br />
Hypotonic dehydration: 2/3 tonics<br />
Hypertonic dehydration: 1/3 tonic<br />
For ongoing abnormal losses 1/2 tonic solution is<br />
used,<br />
For ongoing normal loss 1/3 tonic solution is used.<br />
These two ongoing losses go together replenished<br />
with 1/2 -1/3 1/3 tonic solution.
Infusing rates<br />
Phase Ⅰ: : rapid expansion of plasma volume, which<br />
is used in patient with poor peripheral circulation.<br />
This phase of treatment is aimed at rapid<br />
expansion of extracellular fluid volume, to relieve or<br />
prevent shock and to restore renal function.<br />
2:1 solution or 1.4% NB should be used in this<br />
phase. This isotonic sodium-containing sodium containing solution must<br />
be given immediately after admission to the hospital.<br />
The amount given is 20 ml/kg and injected<br />
intravenously within 0.5-1 0.5 1 hr.
Infusing rates<br />
Phase Ⅱ: : For replacement of remaining fluid deficit.<br />
It is aimed at correction of dehydration over the next<br />
8-12 12 hours.<br />
The amount and formulation of this phase are<br />
dependent upon the severity and type of dehydration. The<br />
amount = preexisting losses-the losses the amount of expansion .<br />
This amount is about half of total amount.<br />
This stage should be completed during the first 8-12 8 12<br />
hrs or at an infusing rate of 8-10 8 10 ml/kg/hr.
Infusing rates<br />
Phase Ⅲ: For replenish of ongoing normal and<br />
abnormal losses.<br />
The infusing rate is decreased to 5 ml/kg/hr in this<br />
stage and the remaining fluid would then be given<br />
during the following 12-16 12 16 hours.<br />
The amount = total amount-preexisting amount preexisting losses.<br />
(about half of total amount).<br />
The kind of fluids: 1/3 tonic solution.
Correcting acidosis<br />
There are two formulas for calculating the amount<br />
of alkaline solution needed:<br />
(40-CO (40 CO2 CP)×0.5 CP) 0.5×BW(kg)=ml BW(kg)=ml (of 5% N.B)<br />
ABE×0.5 ABE 0.5×BW(kg)= BW(kg)= ml (of 5% N.B)<br />
We usually give half of the amount calculated and<br />
further regulate base on further CO 2 CP or blood gas<br />
analysis.
Replacement of potassium<br />
For mild hypokalemia: hypokalemia:<br />
200-300 200 300 mg/kg. day or<br />
3-4 mEq/kg,d mEq/kg,d<br />
(KCl ( KCl)<br />
severe hypokalemia: hypokalemia:<br />
300-450 300 450 mg/kg.day or 4-8 4<br />
mEq/Kg.d mEq/Kg.d<br />
Generally the concentration of potassium in the<br />
infusion is 27 mEq/L mEq/L<br />
(=KCl (= KCl 0.2%) and should not<br />
exceed 0.3%. For mild cases it may be given orally.
Some key points should be paid<br />
attention to:<br />
K + should not be administered until the kidneys are<br />
functioning (there are urine in bladder or passed urine<br />
during 6 hours before admission)<br />
The concentration of KCl should be 0.15 -0.3%, 0.3%, < 0.3%.<br />
The solution containing K + can not be injected<br />
intravenously.<br />
The duration of intravenous infusion of K + containing<br />
solution should > 6-8 6 8 hrs.<br />
In order to balance K + between ECF and ICF, K + losses<br />
are usually replaced > 4-6 4 6 day's period.
Supplement of Calcium and magnesium<br />
If patient shows the symptoms of hypocalcemia<br />
(tetany tetany or convulsion) calcium should be<br />
administered:<br />
10% Cal gluconate 10ml + 10% or 25% glucose<br />
10ml intravenous injection slowly.<br />
If the symptom is not improved, magnesium<br />
should be given.
For the second day:<br />
The fluid therapy on the second day is mainly<br />
composed of replacement of ongoing normal and<br />
abnormal losses with 1/2 or 1/3 tonic Sodium-<br />
containing solutions.<br />
The volumes of ongoing abnormal maintenance<br />
requirements are dependent on the amount of<br />
diarrhea stools.<br />
Correcting acidosis and hypokalemia if necessary.
CHECKPOINTS<br />
Predisposing factors for infants suffering diarrhea.<br />
Classification of infantile diarrhea by course and by<br />
severity.<br />
Mild, moderate and severe dehydration.<br />
Characters haracters of rotavirus rotavirus<br />
enteritis.<br />
Physiologic diarrhea.<br />
Principle for treatment of infantile diarrhea.<br />
Formula of oral rehydration salt.<br />
Some key points of replacement of potassium.