A RIGHT TO LEAVE REFUGEES, STATES, AND INTERNATIONAL ...

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Table 6.1 Contributions made by member governments to the IRO Member Governments Accumulated Totals, 1 July 1947 to 7 Feb 1952, Contributions Due and Received Australia $9,194,156 Belgium $5,262,255 Canada $18,164,167 China $13,591,513 Denmark $2,491,948 Dominican Republic $209,826 France $21,652,462 Guatemala $209,926 Iceland $75,272 Italy $8,290,709 Luxembourg $147,002 Netherlands $4,766,750 New Zealand $2,299,784 Norway $2,299,784 Switzerland $4,033,698 United Kingdom $76,218,086 United States $237,116,355 Total Contributions Due $406,867,295 Unpaid Contributions $8,270,493 Contributions from UNRRA $15,140,541 Contributions from IGCR $517,326 Total Contributions Received Source: (Holborn 1956: 122-3) $414,254,669 The American abandonment of the IRO also reflected a deeper change in US foreign policy. Their goal by 1950 was to limit their activities within the UN, and to ensure that future action for refugees was handled outside of it. The United States did little to create the UNHCR. Rather, they saw the existing hard core to instead be the responsibility of the Western European governments, “now reluctant upon the termination of IRO to resume unilateral care for these persons and hold the view that they should continue to be provided for out of international assistance funds.” 374 The US, by contrast, held the opposite view: PCIRO to General Lucius Clay, Commanding General, EUCOM, 13 September 1948. NARA 501.MA/9-2948 The reason for limiting the change to only this one group was due to the burden the refugees placed on the German economy, and, indirectly, the financial obligation placed on the United States. Clay to Tuck, 28 September 1948. US NARA 501.MA/9-2948 374 “Refugees and Stateless Persons.” FRUS 1950 Vol. II. 539-40 257
The burden of caring for indigents among the residual refugees should not fall so heavily on any one country as to justify international assistance funds. Congress has made it clear that it does not propose to appropriate funds annually hereafter to cover United States contributions to such a fund. 375 They were prepared to engage in international cooperation, but it must be cooperation led by the United States. In planning for European economic recovery, Will Clayton, the Assistant Secretary of State, noted, that “we must avoid getting into another UNRRA. The United States must run this show.” (Clayton, cited in Acheson 1969: 231) This view extended to refugees. Rather than supporting the UNHCR, they instead created two separate programs over which they could exercise control and which would be focused on Communist refugees; “whenever possible, the US sought to find forums outside the UN for such activities and to restrict the role of the UN in handling such problems.” (Holborn 1975: 59) 376 The first of these was goals of the program were to: the United States Escapee Program, launched in 1952. The Establish better facilities of reception for escapees in the countries of first asylum; to supplement the care and maintenance already provided by the governments… and to assist the new escapees either to emigrate abroad or to establish themselves in the free European countries. (Warren 1953: 84, see also Rees 1953: 295-7) The first substantial contribution was authorized by President Truman in March 1952, for four million dollars. While resettlement may have been the priority, it was clearly understood that the main objective was political, to “facilitate the arrival in the free world for 375 “Refugees and Stateless Persons.” FRUS 1950 Vol. II. 539-40 376 Other authors have also pointed to this. Cronin notes that “American support for the refugee regime varied with its wavering support for multilateralism and international organization, while West European and Latin American support remained relatively strong and constant…”(Cronin 2003: 169) Salomon notes that the US focused increasingly on strengthening bilateral and regional ties with its allies through such cooperative initiatives as the Marshall Plan. The United States, he suggests “did not want to continue large-scale financial contributions through a multilateral organization.” (Saloman 1991) 258
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A RIGHT TO LEAVE REFUGEES, STATES,
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……..
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6.2.1 The Bermuda Conference and Re
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LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Refugees
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CAP United Na
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DEDICATION This dissertation is ded
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no longer count on the protection o
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While refugees may be an integral c
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those concerned about refugees to c
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1.2.3 The Role of Crises and a Punc
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When congruence between these views
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efugees, was built around different
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Convention definition, this is incr
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Figure 1.2: The Different Regimes a
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understandings are reflected in sta
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Chapter 2: Structures, Agency, and
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likely be replaced. But replacement
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created as states accept that they
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alone.”(Rust 2006: 14-15) Thus, t
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International law is also an area o
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sovereignty create refugees, these
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Multilateralism, too, has evolved a
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sovereignty emerged through the ste
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definition to focus directly on nor
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pattern of behaviour that legitimat
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exogenously, mutual understandings
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means that regime robustness depend
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institutionalized…” (1996: 159)
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e-evaluate a regime’s purpose, tr
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4) German Jews fleeing the Nazis (1
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or even ‘create’ issues by usin
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international reputations, are more
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occurred, decision-makers outside t
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than in the United States. In the U
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level and illustrates the conflict
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their dictates, or restructure and
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small measure due to its image as a
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Generally, constructivists understa
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Figure 2.1: Two Levels of Norm Entr
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Chapter 3: Refugees and the Emergen
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influenced their practice. Beyond t
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The pattern here is that territoria
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How refugees were viewed changed re
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Rather than a clean break, however,
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A right of emigration, Spitz argues
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The system of the union of church a
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common identity; in the century of
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Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) was critic
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protection, and the benefits of pub
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admit aliens when they pose no dang
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one state - France under Louis XIV-
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middle ages and sought to expand go
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Also important were the views of th
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“Protestant refugees ‘shall be
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The British government did take som
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the Dutch, Spain, Sweden, the Palat
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the wars of religion. The second wo
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The refugees arrived in poverty and
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the decision were substantial: “T
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Huguenots, with a degree of competi
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Chapter 4: The 19 th Century: A Lai
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It was the growth of extradition pr
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Jews in Russia and Eastern Europe.
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Equally important to this shift was
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nineteenth century, the consensus o
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In addition, the presence of open m
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efugee protection. When governments
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efugees. These protections were bas
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…and whereas the refuge and asylu
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His majesty has no desire that they
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By the 1850s, not only was there an
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come for putting us down as a nuisa
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included in an extradition treaty s
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Part of this shift was marked by gr
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were extremely lenient, 121 the Act
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the United States rather than in in
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Such a view remained true throughou
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While Congress enshrined a right of
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crimes. This occurred only after as
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crimes exception. The North German
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e subject to the same normative obl
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while refusing to extradite refugee
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Chapter 5: The Interwar Refugee Reg
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The first section examines the 1921
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Assistance was provided, once again
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conditions and close to starvation.
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he argued, could deal with all thes
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adequate support. League interventi
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Consequently, refugee flows were ge
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(Sundstrom 2005) The HCR became “
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of those who had repatriated, but m
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transfer some responsibilities for
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in principle, however, any refugee
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Country 1922 1924 1926 1928(I) 1928
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As the flight of refugees from Germ
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Even so, French refugee policy cont
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The migration discourse reflected c
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provide assistance, 196 it would no
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felt that foreigners could be mould
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with no separate protections for re
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death.” His intuition proved corr
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into both the problem at the time a
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duties of this new High Commissione
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1984: 7, Reimers 1998: 23) 229 The
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government officials as they sought
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(Skran 1995: 206) In the previous c
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to attack the problem on broad line
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George Warren, who served as Taylor
Page 217 and 218: Chapter 6: American Leadership and
Page 219 and 220: the International Refugee Organizat
Page 221 and 222: any doubt whatsoever. (Zucker and Z
Page 223 and 224: attitudes in favour of action to he
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Page 227 and 228: een given more funds and more pract
Page 229 and 230: Wyman 2002: 47) There were also con
Page 231 and 232: territories, over which it would ha
Page 233 and 234: against their will. These agreement
Page 235 and 236: effort proceeded in earnest once th
Page 237 and 238: The SHAEF had operational responsib
Page 239 and 240: Clearly, they could not be kept in
Page 241 and 242: eflected both within the War Depart
Page 243 and 244: Charlton, Farley and Kaye note, “
Page 245 and 246: In spite of these efforts, Congress
Page 247 and 248: from these countries; on the contra
Page 249 and 250: 6.4 The Regime Begins to Crystalliz
Page 251 and 252: 6.4.1.1 The British-American Divide
Page 253 and 254: (Economic and Social) meeting of th
Page 255 and 256: Thus Eleanor Roosevelt, serving as
Page 257 and 258: debate on the IRO constitution, arg
Page 259 and 260: asis of persecution or fear of pers
Page 261 and 262: meet the objections of the Soviet n
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Page 265 and 266: successful because it did not chall
Page 267: come to attempt solutions to the pr
Page 271 and 272: Director, and a board composed enti
Page 273 and 274: Yet, at this stage the regime was i
Page 275 and 276: community. Finally, as it reacted t
Page 277 and 278: These movements have triggered a tw
Page 279 and 280: 7.3 The Creation of the UNHCR The U
Page 281 and 282: Adding to these concerns were new r
Page 283 and 284: cooperate. 393 Complicating matters
Page 285 and 286: who foresaw the need for the UNHCR
Page 287 and 288: accepted that even if the agency’
Page 289 and 290: van Heuven Goedhart of the Netherla
Page 291 and 292: Thus Roosevelt argued that “the a
Page 293 and 294: international community.” (1989:
Page 295 and 296: esponsibility for refugees to the U
Page 297 and 298: The debate within the General Assem
Page 299 and 300: in West Germany. He justified these
Page 301 and 302: Nations, was hand-picked by the Sec
Page 303 and 304: In its first seven years in operati
Page 305 and 306: esettlement. Consequently, the gove
Page 307 and 308: in the international community, but
Page 309 and 310: will support us and provide the mea
Page 311 and 312: problems. (Elie 2007: 10) 452 While
Page 313 and 314: positively to the request. 457 Afte
Page 315 and 316: emains tied to the Refugee Conventi
Page 317 and 318: Yet, states did not accede to all U
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to minimize the agency’s autonomy
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Operations at the ICRC and was seen
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good breeding ground for the advoca
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humanitarian assistance provided to
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states which encouraged the UNHCR t
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international practice. While UNHCR
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ecast as “an alternative to asylu
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determined way the protracted situa
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and geographic restrictions from th
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about their global interests and ob
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esponsibility towards this goal. Th
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here, as Gibney and Hansen suggest,
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asylum seekers while their claims a
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as high as €10,000) as well as th
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economy and pushing many migrants a
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persecution from right wing or ‘a
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admissions from Communist countries
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entry to be paroled in as freedom f
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By 1956, the Republican Party platf
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This was followed three years later
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that they were identified as refuge
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emigration would make Congress more
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pieces of legislation in the post-W
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point that U.S. troops would have t
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government to deal with. Prior to t
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from Congress and domestic interest
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asylum. Thus, Secretary of State Ge
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terminating the screening process a
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Within American policy, there is a
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accepted some 20,000 Hungarian refu
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documentation. (Schuster 2003: 144)
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housing at public expense.” 558 H
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Convention definition does not mean
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The shadow Home Secretary, David Da
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This cycle does have two historical
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Chapter 9: Refugees and State Coope
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ecognized that individual states ha
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state if their religion differed fr
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ecause of concerns that the large r
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international sources of legitimati
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levels (1945-1951). Different types
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order in the international system.
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obligation, for without it refugees
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European Commission “Resolution o
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OCHA Internal Displacement Unit. No
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———. The State of the World's
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Anon. "The Case of the Poor French
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Björkdahl, A. "Norms in Internatio
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Clapham, Christopher S. Africa and
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Duke, K., R. Sales, and J. Gregory.
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———. US Detention of Asylum S
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Guest, Iain. "The United Nations, t
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———. Refugees, a Problem of O
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Kaye, Roland. "Redefining the Refug
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Kuhn, A. K. "Report on Extradition
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Malin, Patrick. "The Refugee: A Pro
Page 431 and 432:
Neuman, Gerald L. "The Lost Century
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Preuss, Ulrich K. "Migration- a Cha
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Roberts, Adam. "More Refugees, Less
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Sewell, William H. "Le Citoyen/La C
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Strang, David. "Contested Sovereign
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Wasserstein, Bernard. Britain and t
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———. A Nation by Design: Immi
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