Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Ill-Defined Domains - Philippe ...

71 Gauthier, Naismith, Lajoie, & Wiseman
the term case and problem interchangeably. If we consider that solving a problem is
defined as a state where one is trying to attain a goal for which no simple and obvious
means is known [25], solving a case can be seen as solving a problem.
1.4 Cases as Instances of Problem Solving
Typically the distinction between well-defined and ill-defined types of problem has
been made in the problem solving literature [25-27]. The difference has been made
between different domains, where domains like chemistry and physics are referred to
as well-defined [28] since they provide a well-defined framework to teach agreed
upon concepts. Medicine as a field has been identified as ill-defined [9]; solving
patient cases shares characteristics of ill-defined domains as reviewed by Lynch et al
[27] in that solving patient cases implies a) there is no one right or correct answer, b)
no empirical verification is possible (at least not short term in most cases), c) the task
structure involves novelty, d) and sub-problems are interdependent.
1.5 Using Visualization to Enhance Problem Solving
If we draw upon math education research where written problems have been used and
integrated into the curriculum for more than two decades, we can gain some insight
about how case-based instruction might be optimized in different contexts. Polya [29]
identifies four concrete steps involved in problem solving:
Table 1. Polya’s four phases of problem solving
Step Description
1 Understand the problem
2 Make a plan
3 Carry out our plan
4 Look back at the complete solution
These four steps are rarely given equal attention from learners and as Polya points
out "Many mistakes can be avoided if, carrying out his plan the student checks each
step". However for novice learners, their abilities and interests in planning and
monitoring the process are limited. Zeitz [30] and others [31, 32] emphasize that
psychological factors play a key role in successful problem solving. Educators all
recognize the importance of training learners on acquiring a good mix of strategies,
principles, and more focused tactical approaches but they often undermine
psychological factors and the importance of creativity in teaching problem solving.
Psychological factors like confidence, concentration and keeping an open mind in the
search of a solution are as important as rigorous arguments [30]. Polya [29] points
out that the "Looking back" phase is one of the most important aspects of learning and
understanding a problem. However due to lack of interest, boredom or lack of
challenge in this phase, a lot of problem solvers do not dedicate much time to postreflection.