Avenches – Roman Museum – Permanent Exhibition
Avenches – Roman Museum – Permanent Exhibition Avenches – Roman Museum – Permanent Exhibition
Avenches – Roman Museum – Permanent Exhibition Translation Sandy Hämmerle © Musée Romain Avenches
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- Page 22 and 23: First Floor The Early Days of Avent
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- Page 30 and 31: First Floor Theatre, Games and Musi
- Page 32 and 33: First Floor Trade and Money Genuine
- Page 34 and 35: First Floor Rome and Aventicum The
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- Page 38 and 39: First Floor Religion Oriental Cults
- Page 40 and 41: First Floor Religion Roman Religion
- Page 42 and 43: First Floor Religion The Local Gods
- Page 44 and 45: First Floor The Sanctuaries of Aven
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- Page 48 and 49: Second Floor Body and Health Care 1
- Page 50 and 51: Second Floor Games 33-34. Finger-sh
<strong>Avenches</strong> <strong>–</strong> <strong>Roman</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>–</strong> <strong>Permanent</strong> <strong>Exhibition</strong><br />
Translation Sandy Hämmerle<br />
© Musée Romain <strong>Avenches</strong>
<strong>Avenches</strong> <strong>–</strong> <strong>Roman</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>–</strong> <strong>Permanent</strong> <strong>Exhibition</strong><br />
Table of contents<br />
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction 3<br />
Aventicum, Capital of the Helvetii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<br />
Switzerland in <strong>Roman</strong> Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<br />
Chronology of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5<br />
Ground Floor 7<br />
The Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> Population of Switzerland and Their View of Death . . . . . . . 7<br />
Funerary Urns 9<br />
Child Burials 10<br />
Cremation Burials 10<br />
Inhumation Burial 11<br />
Christian Burial 11<br />
The Extraordinary Finds from the Necropolis of En Chaplix 12<br />
The Funerary Monuments of En Chaplix 13<br />
The Northern Monument 14<br />
The Southern Monument 15<br />
The Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />
Stone Inscriptions of <strong>Avenches</strong> / Aventicum 17<br />
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19<br />
First Floor 21<br />
The Early Days of Aventicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21<br />
The Indigenous Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22<br />
Language and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23<br />
The Division of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25<br />
Weights and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26<br />
The Dodecahedron, a Measuring Instrument? 27<br />
Theatre, Games and Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28<br />
Trade and Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30<br />
The Monetary System from the 1 st <strong>–</strong> 3 rd Century 30<br />
Prices and Remuneration 31<br />
Genuine Coins and Counterfeits 31<br />
Money Saving and Spending Reflected in Coin Finds 32<br />
Rome and Aventicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
The Imperor, the Imperial Family and the Province 33<br />
Table of Contents<br />
1
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37<br />
Oriental Cults 37<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> Religion 38<br />
Mythology and Heroes 41<br />
The Local Gods 41<br />
Housegods and Their Cult: Lararia and Domestic Chapels 43<br />
The Sanctuaries of Aventicum 43<br />
From Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44<br />
Second Floor 45<br />
A Typical <strong>Roman</strong> Town House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br />
Clothes and Jewellery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46<br />
Body and Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />
Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49<br />
Games of Chance 49<br />
Strategic Games 49<br />
Games of Skill 49<br />
Textile Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50<br />
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />
Furniture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />
Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
Life in Town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53<br />
Town Layout 53<br />
Houses 53<br />
Protective Gods of the Household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54<br />
Pottery. An Indispensable Tool for Archaeologists as Regards ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
... Quantities 55<br />
... a Means for Dating other Finds 55<br />
... its Various Uses 55<br />
An Important Contribution to the Understanding of Local History 55<br />
Kitchen and Tableware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57<br />
A Big Market 57<br />
Drinking and Eating 57<br />
The Table of the Poorer People 58<br />
The Table of the Wealthy 59<br />
The Kitchen 59<br />
Eating Habits 59<br />
Types of Tableware 60<br />
Table of Contents<br />
2
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction Aventicum, Capital of the Helvetii<br />
<strong>Avenches</strong> <strong>–</strong> <strong>Roman</strong> <strong>Museum</strong><br />
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction<br />
Aventicum, Capital of the Helvetii<br />
The founding of Aventicum can probably be linked to the unsuccessful migration of<br />
the Helvetii in 58 BC and the subsequent return to their homeland. The name of the<br />
town is derived from Aventia, a Celtic protective goddess. Aventicum was the capital<br />
of the Helvetii.<br />
No precise indications are available as to when the town was founded. Over the<br />
past number of years, Late Celtic (1st century BC) tombs (1) and ditches southeast<br />
of what would later become <strong>Avenches</strong> have been discovered on several occasions.<br />
During the second half of the 1st century BC, an oppidum was located further south,<br />
on the Bois de Châtel.<br />
There is evidence of a harbour in <strong>Avenches</strong> dating from around AD 5/6 at<br />
the latest (plan, no. 4). The orthogonal grid of streets, which was characteristic of<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> towns, had also been set up. Until the 2nd century AD, more than 60 insulae<br />
(rectangular living areas) were created. The town had a forum (public square),<br />
several thermae (public baths) and at least eight temples. The cemeteries were<br />
located along the roads leading into and out of the town.<br />
Stone from the Jura Mountains was the main building material used. Large parts<br />
of the town were built on rather humid ground. For this reason it was necessary to<br />
stabilise the foundations by driving oak piles into the ground (2). This wood is often<br />
still preserved and can be dated precisely using dendrochronology (method for<br />
dating based on measuring tree rings).<br />
Aventicum experienced a first “golden age” around AD 30 <strong>–</strong> 50 during the reigns<br />
of the emperors Tiberius and Claudius. A group of larger than life-sized sculptures of<br />
the members of the imperial family decorating the forum of the town bear witness<br />
to this.<br />
In AD 71/72 emperor Vespasian whose father and sons spent part of their lives<br />
in Aventicum elevated the town to the rank of a colony named Colonia Pia Flavia<br />
Constans Emerita Helvetiorum Foederata. At that time a town wall measuring 5.5 km<br />
in length was erected around the 563-acre territory. Shortly afterwards the theatre,<br />
the amphitheatre and the Cigognier sanctuary were built; these three buildings are<br />
typical examples of <strong>Roman</strong> public architecture.<br />
Far away from the borders of the Empire and spared of regional political<br />
crises, Aventicum prospered over a long period of time until the beginning of<br />
the 3rd century AD. Although the invasions of the Alamanni seem to have caused<br />
Aventicum around 180 AD<br />
B. Gubler, Zurich<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
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Introduction
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction Switzerland in <strong>Roman</strong> Times<br />
considerable damage, building activities were still ongoing in the 4 th century AD, in<br />
particular fortification work around the theatre.<br />
A large part of the population of Aventicum probably belonged to the tribe of<br />
the Helvetii. The members of the local elite undoubtedly preserved their status;<br />
they were the first to obtain <strong>Roman</strong> citizenship. These notables guaranteed both<br />
the survival of <strong>Roman</strong> culture and the maintenance of a certain degree of political<br />
stability.<br />
Until the 6th century AD <strong>Avenches</strong> was a bishop’s see. In the 7th century AD the<br />
town received the new name Wibili, which, later on, became Wiflisburg.<br />
Interest in the archaeological remains of the <strong>Roman</strong> city of <strong>Avenches</strong> began to<br />
arise in the 16th century. A few excavations were carried out from the 18th century<br />
onwards (1), but systematic investigations only started with the foundation of the<br />
Pro Aventico Association in 1885. The <strong>Roman</strong> museum was created in 1824. Since<br />
1838, it has been installed in this medieval tower, which was built at the end of the<br />
11th century on the remains of the <strong>Roman</strong> amphitheatre and using stones from that<br />
monument.<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> Empire<br />
Over a period of eight centuries, Rome created an empire from a small nucleus<br />
founded in 753 BC. Around 300 BC, the conquest of Italy was achieved and by<br />
around 50 BC large parts of Europe, the Near East and North Africa had been<br />
annexed. In AD 117 the Empire had reached its zenith. Large sections of the Empire<br />
were protected against incursions from neighbouring peoples by a network of<br />
border fortifications (limes).<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> domination over the conquered territory was based on five pillars: a<br />
strong army, an homogenous legislation, a common administration, one common<br />
currency and one or <strong>–</strong> more precisely <strong>–</strong> two official languages, namely Latin in the<br />
west and Greek in the east.<br />
During the 3rd century AD the deterioration of the climatic conditions as well as<br />
a number of economic and political upheavals marked the beginning of the decline,<br />
which led to the fall of the Western Empire in AD 476.<br />
However, <strong>Roman</strong> civilisation in Europe stayed very much alive for a further<br />
thousand years. Until the 16th century Latin remained the common language of<br />
educated people. <strong>Roman</strong> Law was the basis of quite a number of present-day legal<br />
systems and, with a few slight adjustments, the <strong>Roman</strong> calendar is still in use today.<br />
Switzerland in <strong>Roman</strong> Times<br />
The territory of present-day Switzerland became part of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire in 15 BC<br />
at the latest and was integrated into five different provinces: The Grisons and a<br />
large section of eastern Switzerland were part of Raetia, the Ticino and the southern<br />
valleys of the Grisons belonged to Italia, the Valais to the Alpae Graiae et Poeninae,<br />
1<br />
Map of <strong>Avenches</strong> (J. C. Hagenbuch, 1727)<br />
4<br />
Ground Floor<br />
Introduction
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction<br />
the so-called Alpine Provinces, and Geneva was part of Gallia Narbonensis. The<br />
midlands between the Jura Mountains and the Alps (the territory of the Helvetii) as<br />
well as the region around Basle (the territory of the Rauraci) were initially attached<br />
to Belgica and then to Germania Superior.<br />
An important network of roads criss-crossed what is now Switzerland: a major<br />
route led from south to north via the St. Bernard pass and the passes in the Grisons<br />
while another arterial road connected western and eastern parts. In addition,<br />
there were navigable waterways from the Lakes of Neuchâtel and Morat via the<br />
Rhine towards the North Sea and from the Lake of Geneva via the Rhone to the<br />
Mediterranean. These different transport axes were used for moving troops,<br />
transporting civilians as well as for short and long distance trade exchanges.<br />
During the 1st century AD, a legion, i.e. 6’000 soldiers and auxiliary troops, was<br />
stationed at Vindonissa (Windisch, Canton Argovia).<br />
Urban settlements were a new development. Examples of such urban<br />
settlements were Nyon (Colonia Iulia Equestris), Augst (Augusta Raurica) (1),<br />
Martigny (Octodurus / Forum Claudii Vallensium) and <strong>Avenches</strong> (Aventicum). Smaller<br />
towns were dependent on these cities and a variety of farms and rural settlements,<br />
in turn, depended on these smaller towns.<br />
Masonry was another innovation introduced by the <strong>Roman</strong>s. While initially, this<br />
technique was reserved for public buildings, it gradually became more popular for<br />
private buildings both in urban and rural settings.<br />
The regional economy was mainly based on agriculture, but various specialised<br />
skills and crafts developed simultaneously, sometimes even reaching an industrial<br />
scale. The incorporation into a vast trading network resulted in many products that<br />
had been unknown until then being imported such as foodstuffs like olive oil, fish<br />
sauces, dates and oysters.<br />
Chronology of Events<br />
753 BC Founding of the City of Rome (2)<br />
509 BC Founding of the <strong>Roman</strong> Republic<br />
3 rd <strong>–</strong> 1 st centuries BC Expansion of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire (Italian Peninsula,<br />
Iberian Peninsula, Greece, parts of Asia Minor and North<br />
Africa).<br />
58 BC Unsuccessful exodus of the Helvetii and battle against<br />
Julius Caesar at Bibracte<br />
58 <strong>–</strong> 51 BC <strong>Roman</strong> conquest of Gaul<br />
27 BC Beginning of the Imperial period<br />
27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14 Reign of Augustus (3)<br />
25 BC Opening of the Great St. Bernard route<br />
16 / 15 BC Subjugation of the Alpine regions<br />
1<br />
Augusta Raurica (Augst)<br />
M. Schaub, Römermuseum Augst<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Chronology of Events<br />
5<br />
Ground Floor<br />
Introduction
Ground Floor <strong>–</strong> Introduction Chronology of Events<br />
AD 5 / 6 Oldest constructions found to date at Aventicum<br />
AD 14 <strong>–</strong> 101 Legionary camp at Vindonissa (Windisch, Canton<br />
Argovia)<br />
AD 43 Conquest of Britannia (Great Britain) under the reign of<br />
emperor Claudius<br />
AD 71 / 72 Aventicum obtains the status of a colony under the reign<br />
of emperor Vespasian and is called Colonia Pia Flavia<br />
Constans Emerita Helvetiorum Foederata<br />
AD 117 Largest expansion of the Empire under the reign of<br />
emperor Trajan<br />
2 nd century AD Height of power of Rome and its provinces<br />
AD 275 Incursions by the Alamanni into Helvetian territory;<br />
major destructions<br />
4 th century AD Earliest Christian evidence at Aventicum (1)<br />
AD 395 Split of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire into western and eastern<br />
sections<br />
AD 476 Fall of the Western <strong>Roman</strong> Empire<br />
6 th century AD Aventicum becomes an Episcopal see<br />
AD 592 Marius (Saint-Maire), the last bishop of Aventicum, moves<br />
to Lausanne<br />
7 th century AD <strong>Avenches</strong> is also called Wibili, later becoming<br />
germanised into Wiflisburg<br />
11 th century AD onwards Development of the medieval town still visible today (2)<br />
2<br />
1<br />
6<br />
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Introduction
Ground Floor The Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> Population of Switzerland and Their View of Death<br />
Ground Floor<br />
The Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> Population of Switzerland and Their View of Death<br />
The Helvetii believed in some form of life after death.<br />
Before they died, some drew up a will settling their succession and giving<br />
instructions concerning their funeral, the choice of their grave and its upkeep, the<br />
funerary banquets, etc. The executor made sure that the will of the deceased was<br />
adhered to.<br />
The funerals were paid for either by the deceased or by their families. Less well<br />
off people joined a collegium funeraticium and regularly contributed to a funerary<br />
fund to cover their burial costs (purchase of ground, construction and upkeep of the<br />
tomb, periodical meals and offerings). Important people within a community were<br />
sometimes granted the honour of a public funeral.<br />
As stipulated by <strong>Roman</strong> law, the necropolises were situated along the main<br />
roads leading into and out of the towns. The deceased were taken to the cemetery<br />
on a bier carried by members of their immediate family and friends. Inhumation<br />
and cremation coexisted. However, the latter was predominant during the first<br />
two centuries AD. Infants whose teeth had not yet erupted were never cremated<br />
regardless of the period they lived in (display case 2). From the 3rd century AD<br />
onwards, inhumation became the rule, undoubtedly due to the influence of oriental<br />
cults and the rise of Christianity (display case 5).<br />
Cremations were carried out in the open air (1) where the dead were placed<br />
on a pyre along with their personal belongings (clothes, jewellery) and vessels<br />
containing food (display case 3). During the cremation, small flasks with aromatic<br />
plants and perfumes were thrown into the fire. Afterwards the bones were gathered<br />
and placed in urns, which were put into a grave together with some of the burnt<br />
objects (2). In most cases the urns were ceramic or glass vessels (display case 1),<br />
originally intended for domestic use, and sometimes wooden caskets were used<br />
(display case 3); such containers were rarely produced specifically for funerary<br />
purposes.<br />
In the case of inhumation (3) the deceased was placed in a wooden coffin<br />
(display case 4); sarcophagi made of stone or lead <strong>–</strong>were rare in this region <strong>–</strong>and<br />
only later became popular. The deceased was usually laid on his or her back, less<br />
frequently on the stomach or on the side. Offerings were often deposited in the<br />
coffin or the grave, but our perception remains incomplete since usually only<br />
objects made of non-perishable materials such as ceramics, glass or metal survived;<br />
traces of food are rarely found and basketry or objects made of leather, wood or<br />
cloth do not often survive.<br />
Once the tomb was closed, its location was marked, in order to remind the living<br />
to respect its inviolability and to honour the memory of the deceased (nos. 1 <strong>–</strong> 8).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
7<br />
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Ground Floor The Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> Population of Switzerland and Their View of Death<br />
The markers for burial places varied considerably: stone or wooden tombstones,<br />
simple stones, small mounds as well as “aedicules” or mausoleums. In most cases<br />
tombstones were engraved with an epitaph and sometimes further decorations<br />
were added. The beginning of the inscription Dis Manibus, often abbreviated to DM,<br />
dedicated a grave to the Manes of the departed or to the spirits of the dead; then<br />
followed the name of the deceased, sometimes his or her filiation, age, profession<br />
or training, honorific titles and, finally, the name of the person who erected the<br />
monument. The deceased was usually represented alone or perhaps accompanied<br />
by his wife or his son; sometimes he was depicted at work. In the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire the<br />
funerary portraits assumed the function of preserving the memory of the deceased.<br />
Some tombstones were decorated with symbols referring to the immortality of<br />
the soul: laurel leaves, birds, celestial bodies. Wealthy people often paid tribute to<br />
their memory by erecting monuments with the statues of the deceased. This can be<br />
seen in the cemetery of En Chaplix. Such monuments were surrounded by gardens,<br />
embellished with statues and sometimes water basins and protected by walls.<br />
The tomb and its surroundings were looked upon as being sacrosanct and holy<br />
and they remained the property of the deceased. The cult of the deceased included<br />
funerary celebrations held at regular intervals on the occasion of the parentalia<br />
(from 13th to 21st February), at which food and drink were given to the dead and<br />
libations (act of pouring out a liquid as a sacrifice) were offered.<br />
Several necropolises are known at Aventicum. The most impressive and richest<br />
of them seems to have been that at the west gate where the remains of several<br />
small funerary chapels, a considerable number of tombstones and the burial place<br />
of a young Christian girl were found. The port necropolis, situated near the lake<br />
and containing approximately forty modest burials, may have been reserved for<br />
the workers in the port. The En Chaplix necropolis, situated beside the road outside<br />
the town at the northeast gate, contained approximately two hundred burials,<br />
which, according to the offerings, must have belonged to people of a higher socioeconomic<br />
standing.<br />
1. Tombstone of Visellia Firma (1)<br />
Erected by her parents. The little girl died aged one year and 50 days.<br />
Limestone. En Chaplix necropolis.<br />
2nd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 13.<br />
2. Pinecones as tomb decorations<br />
Placed on top of a little mound covering a tomb. Pinecones symbolised immortality.<br />
Limestone. West gate necropolis.<br />
3. Tombstone of Iulia Censorina<br />
Erected by her father.<br />
Limestone. Second quarter of the 1st century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 15.<br />
4. Tombstone of Marcus Alpinius Virilis (2)<br />
Limestone. West gate necropolis.<br />
1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 14.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
8<br />
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Ground Floor The Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> Population of Switzerland and Their View of Death<br />
Funerary Urns<br />
5. Tombstone of Decimus Iulius Iunianus (1)<br />
Erected by his wife.<br />
Limestone. West gate necropolis.<br />
1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 11.<br />
6. Tombstone of Flavia Severilla<br />
Erected by her husband. She passed away at the age of 36 (?).<br />
Limestone. West gate necropolis.<br />
Probably 3rd AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 12.<br />
7. Tombstone fragment<br />
Bust of a couple with only the head of the man preserved. The names of the deceased<br />
were inscribed on the base, which, however, was lost.<br />
According to the hairstyle and stylistic features of the head, the tombstone dates from<br />
the beginning of the 2nd century AD.<br />
Limestone. West gate necropolis.<br />
8. Funerary monument of a family<br />
Limestone block with sculptures. Originally the funerary monument of a family consisted<br />
of three blocks placed on top of each other in a pilaster-framed niche. Only the badly<br />
preserved top block still remains. The sculpture depicted a couple facing each other. This<br />
type of representation is not rare and, a child was often placed between the man and the<br />
woman. In this instance, only the top of the child’s head is still visible. The mother has put<br />
her right hand on her son’s head while the father, in a similar gesture, is holding a scroll in<br />
his left hand. The pose of the couple is reminiscent of the gesture of uniting right hands<br />
(dextrarum iunctio) symbolising marriage. In a funerary context, this gesture symbolises<br />
the couple being united in life and death.<br />
Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
Funerary Urns (2)<br />
(Display case and drawer 1)<br />
1. Urn with ceramic cover<br />
Ceramic cooking pot covered with a mortarium and turned into an urn.<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. AD 100/150 <strong>–</strong> 200.<br />
2. Cover of a marble urn (?)<br />
This probably came from a child burial. In fact, figurines of the child-like God Eros on<br />
tombs for children symbolised their becoming god-like. Sleeping Amor or Somnus (the<br />
god of sleep) on a lion skin are images of Hellenistic origin. Sleep, usually interrupted by<br />
waking up, was set in close context with death and resurrection.<br />
Late 1st century AD.<br />
3. Lead urn<br />
Hammered lead vessels are rather rare finds; most of them were made of several pieces.<br />
West gate necropolis.<br />
4. Glass urn<br />
This bellied pot originally served as a storage vessel.<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. AD 150 <strong>–</strong> 200/250.<br />
5. Glass urn with lid<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. AD 70 <strong>–</strong> 100/120?<br />
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Cremation Burials<br />
Child Burials (1)<br />
(Display case and drawer 2)<br />
Inhumation burial of an infant aged four to six months<br />
Port necropolis. Late 1st <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries AD.<br />
1. Ceramic feeding bottle as grave offering. The infant was buried in a wooden coffin.<br />
Inhumation burial of a few month old infant<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. AD 120 <strong>–</strong> 140.<br />
2. The tableware, consisting of a glass jug and bottle and a small ceramic bowl was<br />
deposited on the coffin.<br />
Inhumation burial of a child aged one to two years<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. Approximately AD 150.<br />
3. The grave goods placed in the lead sarcophagus consisted of two bowls (only one of<br />
which is exhibited) and a glass bead.<br />
Cremation Burials<br />
(Display case and drawer 3)<br />
Cremation burial of a child aged three to four years (2)<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. Approximately AD 125 <strong>–</strong> 130.<br />
The urn, together with a ceramic pot (not burnt), was deposited in a grave as an<br />
offering. Three coins and a silver pendant were found among the burnt and washed<br />
human bone in the urn. Apart from charcoal the grave also contained the remains<br />
of many other offerings, which were burnt on the pyre but only some of which are<br />
exhibited.<br />
1. Glass bottle with two handles, used as urn.<br />
2. Silver pendant and three bronze sestertii (two of Hadrian and one of Domitian),<br />
deposited in the urn with the ashes.<br />
3. Locally produced ceramic pot, not burnt, deposited in the glass urn in the grave.<br />
4. Ceramic tableware, imported from southern Gaul, partly or totally burnt, a bowl, a dish,<br />
a plate and three cups).<br />
5. Locally produced pottery, partially or totally burnt, comprising two jugs, two bowls and<br />
a pot.<br />
6. Several burnt glass vessels including a ribbed cup and a green vessel decorated with<br />
small yellow and brown-red rosettes.<br />
7. Two iron hinges and nails.<br />
8. Penannular fibula, a handle and various other bronze items, all burnt.<br />
9. Two burnt bronze dupondii of Hadrian.<br />
Cremation burial of an adult male, perhaps a shipwright<br />
Port necropolis. Early 2nd century AD.<br />
A wooden box measuring about 35 by 35 cm (not preserved) was used as an urn.<br />
Apart from the burnt bones it contained fragments of iron objects, some of which<br />
may have belonged to the box, as well as three tools, which had not been burnt<br />
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Christian Burial<br />
with the deceased (1). The proximity to the port and the presence of two tools used<br />
for woodworking gave the archaeologists reason to speculate that the deceased<br />
may have been a shipwright buried in his ”tool box“. Numerous offerings burnt on<br />
the pyre such as animal bones (mainly from pigs) were placed on top of the box.<br />
10. Wooden box as container for the ashes. Only three iron hinges, four iron fittings with<br />
nails, an iron clip and an iron hook have been preserved.<br />
11. Bronze handle of the box (?).<br />
12. Iron saw, folded so that it would fit into the box.<br />
13. Iron adze.<br />
14. Iron pliers with the spring reinforced by a bronze strip.<br />
15. Iron key.<br />
16. Numerous ceramic vessels, totally or partially burnt. Imported tableware (dish,<br />
plates, cups, bowls), locally produced pottery (pots, goblets, jug, bowl), kitchen crockery<br />
(mortarium).<br />
17. Fragment of handle from glass bottle.<br />
18. Glass paste bead.<br />
19. Bronze coin, probably dating from the second half of the 1st century AD.<br />
20. Iron nails.<br />
Inhumation Burial (2)<br />
(Display case and drawer 4)<br />
Tomb of a man<br />
En Chaplix necropolis. AD 150 <strong>–</strong> 180.<br />
The deceased was buried in a nailed wooden coffin (180 by 60 cm). He wore shoes<br />
with nailed soles. Two jugs, a small bowl and a goblet, all produced locally, as well<br />
as an imported plate and two cups were placed beside his right leg. This tableware<br />
was used for eating and drinking.<br />
1-2. Ceramic jugs.<br />
3. Ceramic goblet.<br />
4. Ceramic bowl.<br />
5-6. Ceramic cups.<br />
7. Ceramic plate.<br />
8-9. Iron nails from two soles.<br />
10. Iron coffin nails.<br />
Christian Burial<br />
(Display case and drawer 5)<br />
Inhumation burial of a young girl<br />
West gate necropolis. Mid 4th century AD.<br />
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The Extraordinary Finds at the Necropolis of En Chaplix<br />
The deceased was buried in an oak trunk. The rich grave goods given to her (1)<br />
consisted of a bronze jug, a glass bottle and two glass goblets, a pot or goblet made<br />
of soapstone, a ceramic cup, a partly silver-plated bronze spoon, a necklace made of<br />
glass and jet beads, a jet bracelet as well as four bone sticks (not exhibited).<br />
The glass goblets bear engravings, which are among the earliest evidence of the<br />
Christian faith found in western Switzerland. On the bigger vessel, the Latin inscription<br />
Vivas in Deo<br />
«May you live in God»<br />
clearly refers to the hope of resurrection. The smaller goblet shows an inscription in<br />
Greek, partly preserved, abbreviated and transcribed with Latin letters,<br />
Pie zezes<br />
«Drink that you may live»<br />
which affirms that eternal life is obtained by holy communion.<br />
1. Bronze jug.<br />
2. Glass bottle.<br />
3. Glass goblet with the inscription Vivas in Deo (“May you live in God”)<br />
4. Glass goblet with the inscription pie zezes (“Drink that you may live”)<br />
5. Bronze spoon.<br />
6. Pot or goblet made of soapstone.<br />
7. Ceramic cup.<br />
8. Glass and jet bead necklace.<br />
9. Jet bracelet<br />
The Extraordinary Finds at the Necropolis of En Chaplix<br />
During the construction of the motorway important archaeological remains were<br />
discovered in En Chaplix (2), situated at a distance of approximately 150 m from the<br />
north-east gate of Aventicum.<br />
The first sanctuary was erected around 15/10 BC, during the reign of the<br />
emperor Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14). In the middle of an open square, bordered by<br />
a ditch, a wooden aedicule (small wooden temple) sheltered the cremation burial<br />
of a woman and probably her child. The discovery of two fibulae originating from<br />
regions either along the Danube or in the eastern Alps indicate that the deceased<br />
may have come from that area. The numerous coin offerings prove that this tomb<br />
had become a place of veneration.<br />
During the reign of Tiberius (AD 14 <strong>–</strong> 37) the En Chaplix site grew in a rapid<br />
and spectacular way (3). The construction of a road leaving Aventicum in the<br />
northeast was followed by the reconstruction and extension of the first sanctuary.<br />
The aedicule was replaced by a small Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> temple (fanum) and a chapel.<br />
A similar complex was erected directly beside it. The timber walls were probably<br />
inserted into masonry foundations. These sanctuaries were frequently visited in the<br />
1st century in particular and remained intact well into the 4th century AD.<br />
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The Extraordinary Finds at the Necropolis of En Chaplix<br />
Between AD 23 and 28, a first funerary monument was erected on the other side<br />
of the road.<br />
Around AD 40, a second monument (1) was built on an adjacent fenced-in piece<br />
of land.<br />
From the second half of the 1st century AD onwards, a necropolis was set up and<br />
enclosed by ditches in the immediate surroundings of the funerary monuments.<br />
The graves date mainly from the 2nd century AD, but some were still being added at<br />
the beginning of the 3rd century.<br />
In the second half of the 2nd century AD, two capstones from the wall<br />
surrounding the funerary monuments were used to mark the tombs of the<br />
necropolis, a sign that the site began to fall into disuse and that the veneration of<br />
the deceased may have been abandoned.<br />
Towards the end of the 3rd century (?), the two monuments were dismantled in<br />
order to recover the stones.<br />
The Two Funerary Monuments of En Chaplix<br />
Between AD 23 and 40, two funerary monuments (mausoleums), 23 and 25 m high,<br />
were erected along the main road leaving Aventicum through the northeast gate.<br />
Their architecture and decoration was inspired by Greco-<strong>Roman</strong> examples.<br />
From these Jura limestone constructions, enclosed by brick walls, only the<br />
foundations and a few hundred scattered elements are preserved. Towards the<br />
end of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire the monuments had probably already been dismantled<br />
by people salvaging construction material. Architectural pieces and sculptures<br />
considered unsuitable for reuse were left behind.<br />
The mausoleums were of similar height and consisted of three tiers. The base<br />
was a massive semicircular podium bearing an inscription, which is lost today. The<br />
inscription contained the names of the deceased and the highpoints of their military,<br />
political and professional careers. The identity of these noblemen will probably<br />
remain a mystery forever. The main tier consisted of an aedicule with columns, which<br />
sheltered three statues of the deceased and their families. The person in the middle<br />
was always slightly taller than the other two. The top tier consisted of a pyramidshaped<br />
spire decorated with scales carved into the stone. The image would have<br />
been imposing to passers-by at the time. The harmonious lines cleverly drew the<br />
attention of the onlookers towards the aedicule and the statues.<br />
The decoration of the two monuments demonstrated strong Hellenistic<br />
influence. Although no traces of colour have been found, it cannot be ruled out that<br />
certain parts were painted, as this was the case with other similar monuments.<br />
The enclosures guaranteed peace for the deceased and were perhaps arranged<br />
as gardens and decorated with statues. They afforded families a place to carry out<br />
commemorative ceremonies and funerary banquets. No grave for either of these<br />
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The Extraordinary Finds at the Necropolis of En Chaplix<br />
deceased has been discovered, but it is possible that the urns containing their ashes<br />
stood on top of the monuments or that these were cenotaphs (empty tombs) and<br />
that the remains were buried elsewhere.<br />
The connection between these two monuments built at an interval of twelve<br />
years is not known. However, it seems plausible that the deceased were related and<br />
perhaps owned the suburban villa situated on the nearby site called Le Russalet.<br />
The villa and the monuments may have belonged to a large native Helvetian family,<br />
thus confirming the rapid integration of the local aristocracy into the new <strong>Roman</strong><br />
order. These two monuments reflected the prosperity of <strong>Avenches</strong> during the<br />
Tiberian period.<br />
The Northern Monument<br />
During the construction of the first monument the unstable ground forced the<br />
builders to set the foundations on a number of oak piles driven deep into the<br />
ground. Thanks to the humidity of the ground the wood was preserved and it was<br />
possible through dendrochronological analyses to establish that the felling dates of<br />
the trees lay between AD 23 and 28.<br />
The sculptures (1) decorating the upper part of the podium on both sides of<br />
the exedra represented two symmetrical groups each consisting of a Triton seizing<br />
a Nereid. The concave part was most probably decorated with friezes as proven by<br />
three rather badly preserved male portraits, one of which was probably part of a<br />
retinue.<br />
Judging by the shape of the roof, the ground plan of the aedicule must have<br />
been octagonal. Only a few fragments of the three statues are preserved. The<br />
central figure was a woman <strong>–</strong> probably the owner and donator of the monument <strong>–</strong><br />
flanked by two men wearing togas.<br />
The crown of the roof was decorated with a group consisting of a Satyr carrying<br />
the Child Bacchus, thus symbolising the elevation of the deceased to higher spheres.<br />
9. Satyr Carrying the Child Bacchus (2)<br />
Satyrs, recognisable by their long horses’ ears and their scruffy hairstyles, belong to the<br />
retinue of the wine god Bacchus. In this instance, Bacchus is depicted as a child and has<br />
wings. This particular feature indicates that he is assimilated with Amor-Somnus who<br />
personifies sleep.<br />
In funerary symbolism groups comprising Satyrs and Bacchus represent the<br />
exhilarating and carefree life in the hereafter. Placing such a group on the roof of the<br />
monument implies that the deceased had achieved a divine existence and was enjoying<br />
life after death. This is very important because it is one of the earliest examples of this<br />
Hellenistic theme having been taken over by the <strong>Roman</strong>s (3rd <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries BC).<br />
Group, in limestone, crowning the northern monument of En Chaplix. Around 30 AD.<br />
10. Head of a Drunken Silenus (3)<br />
Like the Satyrs, the Sileni belong to the retinue accompanying Bacchus. Their particular<br />
features are horses’ ears, bald heads and bulbous noses. Comparisons with other known<br />
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The Extraordinary Finds at the Necropolis of En Chaplix<br />
statues indicate that this Silenus was depicted in a resting pose with legs crossed and<br />
his head turned to the right. He wears a crown of ivy leaves and flowers. Like in the case<br />
of the Satyr carrying the Child Bacchus, the movement of the Silenus’ head and the<br />
rapturous expression in his face point to an Hellenistic model (3rd <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries BC). The<br />
Silenus statue, which stood in the funerary garden of a necropolis, symbolises carefree<br />
life after death.<br />
Fragment of limestone statue, belonging to the northern En Chaplix monument. Around<br />
AD 30.<br />
11. Nereid Bust<br />
The Nereids are sea deities, daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea. Of this group<br />
only the bust of the Nereid from the upper block and a fragment of Triton’s fish tail<br />
belonging to the lower part are preserved. Regarding the model and the symbolic<br />
meaning, please refer to the group on the right (no. 12), which is better preserved.<br />
Limestone. Group situated in the upper left-hand corner of the façade of the northern En<br />
Chaplix monument. Around AD 30.<br />
12. Triton Seizing a Nereid (1)<br />
Tritons are sea deities. Their upper bodies have human form while they are fish-shaped<br />
from the stomach down. They belong to the retinue of Neptune, the God of the Sea. In<br />
this case, a Triton is using both his hands to pin down a terrified Nereid on his fish tail. Her<br />
coat is billowing in the wind.<br />
Models for the Triton and Nereid group can be found in the Hellenistic period<br />
(3rd <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries BC). The motif is often used for funerary decorations, in particular on<br />
sarcophagi. The sea creature theme symbolises blissful and carefree life after death.<br />
Made of limestone, this group was placed in the upper right-hand corner of the façade of<br />
the northern En Chaplix monument. Around AD 30.<br />
The Southern Monument<br />
The second monument was modelled on the same pattern as the first. Built on more<br />
stable ground it did not require the use of piles, so this monument cannot be dated<br />
as precisely as the first one.<br />
The very similar decoration is better preserved. In the upper part of the base,<br />
the Nereids are carried by griffins instead of Tritons. On the pedestal, two so-called<br />
”dancing“ Attis statues, followed by a clipeus (circular decorative motif), may have<br />
once framed the lost inscription.<br />
A man wearing a toga, flanked by a second man and a woman was depicted in<br />
the middle of the square column-framed aedicule. The pointed, square shaped roof<br />
ended in a pinecone symbolising immortality.<br />
13. Male Portrait (2)<br />
The preserved fragments allow for the restitution of the statue as depicting one of<br />
the deceased, represented as a <strong>Roman</strong> citizen wearing a toga and holding a scroll<br />
(volumen); at his feet lies a box (scrinium) containing other scrolls. Holes in his forehead<br />
indicate that he wore a metal crown, which, however, was lost. The hairstyle with curls is<br />
inspired by representations of emperor Tiberius (AD 14 <strong>–</strong> 37). The realistic features of his<br />
face correspond to the concept of expressive art prevailing at the end of the Republic<br />
(1st century BC). This very carefully executed effigy is one of only a small number of<br />
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portraits of a private person found to date in Switzerland.<br />
Limestone. Funerary statue situated left of the middle statue in the aedicule of the<br />
southern En Chaplix monument. Around AD 40.<br />
14. Head of Attis<br />
Attis, the Phrygian god of vegetation and lover of Cybele, a goddess from Asia Minor, is<br />
represented here in a pensive and sad mood. His usual attributes are the Phrygian cap<br />
and Barbarian dress. In a funerary context he symbolises mourning caused by death<br />
and the anticipation of resurrection. This statue and its counterpart, of which only a few<br />
fragments were found, stood in the funerary garden.<br />
Limestone. Statue belonging to the southern En Chaplix monument. Around AD 40.<br />
15. Dancing Attis and Edge of a Clipeus (1)<br />
The limestone block shows a relief depicting Attis as a dancer with his left arm in the air<br />
and his right arm posed on his hip. He is wearing a Phrygian cap and Barbarian dress<br />
consisting of a long-sleeved tunic held together by a double belt and trousers plus a coat.<br />
The inside of the clipeus (round decorative motif) on the adjacent block (not preserved)<br />
was decorated either with a floral motif or with a mask.<br />
The presence of such a motif and the image of the dancing Attis, which appeared<br />
from the 3rd century BC onwards, clearly show the influence from southern Gaul.<br />
The clipeus motifs are widespread along the River Rhone. While, on the other hand,<br />
representations of a dancing Attis are frequently found in Provence, they are not known<br />
in the provinces along the Rivers Rhine and Danube.<br />
In the Cybele cult Attis dies every winter to be reborn in spring and in the funerary<br />
context he is a symbol for death followed by resurrection.<br />
The reliefs with Attis and the clipeus were situated in the corners near the base,<br />
probably framing the lost inscription.<br />
Limestone. Relief from the lower corner of the podium of the southern En Chaplix<br />
monument. Around AD 40.<br />
16. Nereid Riding on a Sea Griffin (2)<br />
A Nereid with her coat blowing in the wind is sitting on a bearded sea griffin and holding<br />
a shell in her hand. Nereids often ride on sea griffins with eagle or lion heads. The latter<br />
belong to the thiasus (retinue) of sea deities. Like in the case of the group of Triton and<br />
Nereids, models for <strong>Roman</strong> representations can be found in the Hellenistic period (3rd <strong>–</strong><br />
2nd centuries BC). These groups symbolise blissful life after death.<br />
Limestone. Group placed in the upper right-hand corner of the façade of the southern En<br />
Chaplix monument. Around AD 40.<br />
The Inscriptions<br />
Among other sources, written messages have always been the most important<br />
evidence on which to base our interpretation of the past.<br />
Today, several hundred thousand inscriptions from all provinces of the <strong>Roman</strong><br />
Empire are known; they are preserved on various types of materials. The texts were<br />
carved in stone or put together as mosaics, engraved on metal objects, stamped<br />
or scratched onto pottery or tiles, written in ink on papyrus sheets or simply<br />
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The Stone Inscriptions of <strong>Avenches</strong> / Aventicum<br />
painted onto walls. Inscriptions offer various kinds of information; they may serve<br />
as self-portraits or propaganda, but they also reflect the wealth or reputation of<br />
corporations and individuals.<br />
In the western part of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire representative stone inscriptions were<br />
mainly written in Latin and more rarely in Greek. They offer an excellent insight<br />
into the different areas of social life in antiquity. According to their contents <strong>Roman</strong><br />
inscriptions can be grouped into building, honorific, funerary and dedicatory<br />
inscriptions. The contents of a text may also refer to the original location of the<br />
inscription. Dedicatory inscriptions were linked with the various districts of worship,<br />
honorific inscriptions were located on the forum and could belong to statues in<br />
public areas, building inscriptions adorned public buildings such as baths, theatres<br />
or bridges and funerary inscriptions were found in the official cemeteries outside<br />
the living quarters.<br />
The 21 letters of the Latin alphabet, some of which were also used to express<br />
numbers, were generally written in capitals. Decorative elements such as framing,<br />
the use of colour or the addition of pictures were used to enhance the impact of the<br />
text. The messages were often encoded and abbreviations were common. Although<br />
a good knowledge of the many <strong>Roman</strong> abbreviations is useful for decoding certain<br />
parts of the texts, there are still phrases, which cannot be deciphered precisely.<br />
Considering that in those days many people were illiterate <strong>–</strong> hence the visual<br />
presentation of a text being more important than its contents <strong>–</strong> it can be assumed<br />
that the majority enjoyed looking at a lavishly presented public inscription without<br />
understanding exactly the message it conveyed.<br />
Carving inscriptions in stone was rather expensive. Apart from the costs incurred<br />
by the choice of material and the size of the epigraph, the salaries of various<br />
specialists usually had to be added as well. First a scribe (auctor) composed the<br />
text, then, taking into account the dimensions of the stone, a designer (ordinator)<br />
prepared the layout, which afterwards was transferred by a painter (pictor) onto the<br />
future monument so that the stonemason (lapidarius) could do the sculpting. While<br />
it is impossible today to identify exactly the various cost components, one can<br />
assume that the donator or donators must have belonged to the wealthier section<br />
of the population.<br />
The Stone Inscriptions of <strong>Avenches</strong> / Aventicum<br />
Approximately 150 stone inscriptions are known to date from the <strong>Roman</strong> town of<br />
Aventicum. Some of them have such monumental dimensions that they cannot be<br />
exhibited within the museum space presently available.<br />
Honorific inscriptions for individual citizens referring to their professional careers<br />
and their services to the Helvetian community or the <strong>Roman</strong> colony are frequent.<br />
It becomes apparent that, at least at certain times, family clans played a dominant<br />
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The Stone Inscriptions of <strong>Avenches</strong> / Aventicum<br />
role in administrative and political positions. The influence and personal interests<br />
of some families, therefore, determined the destiny of the town to a considerable<br />
extent.<br />
The numerous dedications show that, while the population took on the <strong>Roman</strong><br />
pantheon, they also maintained the Gallo-Celtic belief system. It is interesting that a<br />
relatively large number of people held an office as priests within the imperial cult.<br />
At least three roads leading into the town of Aventicum can be identified as socalled<br />
funerary roads lined with tombstones.<br />
Besides the fact that the design of the preserved tombstones was very varied,<br />
it is also striking that the inscriptions were relatively brief and some of them were<br />
engraved in a rather careless way. Some texts refer to the considerable financial<br />
commitment of individual people regarding the maintenance or extension of public<br />
buildings. It also stands out that the so-called scholae are mentioned rather often.<br />
They may have been honorary halls or gathering places. It seems that outstanding<br />
citizens of Aventicum were publicly honoured not only by erecting statues on<br />
pedestals with inscriptions but also by granting them permission to erect a schola.<br />
17. Architrave with dedication (1)<br />
Donated by the navigators on the Aar and the Aramus in honour of the imperial family<br />
Limestone. Discovered east of insula 33 at the edge of the forum.<br />
Late 2nd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 9.<br />
18. Base of a statue with dedication in honour of Quintus Cluvius Macer<br />
Limestone. Discovered in the eastern section of insula 28, the eastern portico of the<br />
forum.<br />
Second quarter or mid 2nd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 7.<br />
19. Capital of pilaster with dedication to the Lugoves (2)<br />
Limestone. Lugoves are Celtic gods who can be equated with Mars and Mercury.<br />
The capital served as a pedestal for several statues<br />
Discovered between the enclosures of the Grange des Dîmes and the Cigognier temples.<br />
Late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 2.<br />
20. Architrave with inscription commemorating the construction of a hall for ball games<br />
Limestone. Discovered between insula 19 and the enclosure of the Grange des Dîmes<br />
temple.<br />
First half of the 2nd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 10.<br />
21. Altar with dedication to the goddess Aventia and to the genius of the townspeople<br />
(incolae) of <strong>Avenches</strong> (3)<br />
Limestone. Original location unknown.<br />
2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 18<br />
22. Marble dedication to the goddess Aventia<br />
Original location unknown.<br />
2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 17.<br />
23. Altar with dedication offered to doctors and teachers<br />
Limestone. Original location unknown.<br />
Second half of the 2nd or early 3rd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 4.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
18<br />
Ground Floor
Ground Floor Miscellaneous<br />
24. Marble inscription in honour of [---] dius Flavus<br />
Discovered in insula 40, at the edge of the forum.<br />
Last quarter of the 1st century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 1.<br />
25. Dedication in honour of Septimius Severus<br />
Discovered in insula 40, at the edge of the forum.<br />
AD 193-211. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 8.<br />
27. Inscription on mosaic adorning a semi-public building (1)<br />
Discovered in insula 29, next to the forum.<br />
Early 3rd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions no. 19. Catalogue of mosaics no. 2.<br />
Miscellaneous<br />
28. Mosaic depicting Hercules and Antaeus (2)<br />
The tessellated floor consists of a series of pictures with the central laurel-framed image<br />
representing the fight between Hercules and Antaeus. Hunting and animal fight scenes<br />
are depicted in the centre, at each side of the main medallion.<br />
Antaeus was an African king, who drew his enormous strength from the earth and had<br />
to touch soil in order to be able to defeat his enemies. When Hercules was threatened by<br />
Antaeus, they began to wrestle; Hercules grabbed his opponent by the shoulders and lifted<br />
him up so that he could not renew his strength, and then he squashed and destroyed him.<br />
Here, Hercules is wearing a wreath and is thus depicted as a triumphant athlete.<br />
The corner squares show people that look like wrestlers because of their broad<br />
shoulders, muscular chests and thick necks. They are wearing wreathes made of leaves<br />
similar to that of Hercules. They are quite obviously victorious wrestlers.<br />
All the figurative motifs combined convey an image of triumph of bodily strength.<br />
Original dimensions: 5 m by 4.5 m. Private house situated in insula 59.<br />
Second quarter of the 3rd century AD. Catalogue of mosaics no. 20.<br />
29. Mosaic depicting gladiators<br />
This almost square piece of tessellated floor decorated the centre of a room, perhaps<br />
a dining room with three beds arranged in a U-shape (triclinium) along the walls.<br />
The geometric design is conceived in such a way that ones attention is drawn to the<br />
centrepiece. The badly damaged central scene depicts two fighting gladiators. While only<br />
their legs are preserved, they are easily recognised as gladiators because of the coloured<br />
bands tied around their knees indicating which troupe they were part of.<br />
Original dimensions: 2 m by 2.5 m. Northern suburb, private house situated north of<br />
insula 5.<br />
Second half of the 2nd century AD. Catalogue of mosaics no. 5.<br />
30. Limestone relief with head of the god Sol<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> representations of this god are inspired by the Hellenistic iconography of Helios.<br />
This relief may have belonged to a large bust placed in the centre of the gable of a building.<br />
Probably from insula 19. Late 1st century AD.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
19<br />
Ground Floor
Ground Floor Miscellaneous<br />
31. Limestone statue of a lion (1)<br />
The lion’s paw is resting on the head of an animal, maybe a bull or a horse. This is a<br />
decoration of a fountain; the front base is hollow so that a water pipe could be inserted.<br />
Discovered in the region of Derrière la Tour, originating probably from the western part<br />
of insula 16.<br />
First half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
32. The so-called «Red Drawing Room» mural<br />
This mural decorated the living room or dining room of a private house, located in the<br />
northeastern part of the town. While the painting is relatively modest for a reception<br />
room, the work was carried out by experienced artisans.<br />
The dark red background colour, which is rarely found north of the Alps, takes up<br />
a large area of the wall. The dividing decorative elements, placed at regular intervals,<br />
consist of ornamental stands entwined by tendrils and ribbons, candelabra with crossed<br />
thyrsi and pilaster-strips. These vertical motifs are surrounded by small pictures or<br />
medallions containing female busts, a comedy mask and a bird. The lower part was<br />
redesigned approximately 15 to 25 years later and is divided into yellow panes with tufts<br />
of plants and narrower panels in flecked wine red marble imitation.<br />
This mural is a good example of the Pompeian Third Style as it developed in Gaul with<br />
certain characteristics of the Fourth Style already appearing. The Pompeian paintings<br />
were classified into four styles in the late 19th century. The classification is still used<br />
today as a basis for the chronology and typology of paintings throughout the <strong>Roman</strong><br />
Empire. The Pompeian Third Style appeared around 20 <strong>–</strong> 15 BC, during the reign of the<br />
emperor Augustus. It is characterised by the rejection of the illusionist architecture of<br />
the preceding Second Style and by large colour panels decorated with various motifs,<br />
often miniatures. The Fourth Style, which began under Claudius (AD 41 <strong>–</strong> 54), preferably<br />
consisted of symmetrically placed motifs and architectural dividing elements.<br />
Insula 18. Around AD 45.<br />
1<br />
20<br />
Ground Floor
First Floor The Early Days of Aventicum<br />
First Floor<br />
The Early Days of Aventicum<br />
(Display cases 1-2)<br />
The name Aventicum derives from a local Celtic water deity, Aventia, tutelary of the<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> city (display case 2, no. 1).<br />
Because of its central position on the Swiss Plateau, the region of Aventicum has<br />
been inhabited for a very long time; its easy access to the river and lake network<br />
favoured the expansion of commerce and trade.<br />
On several occasions, settlement traces dating from periods prior to the <strong>Roman</strong><br />
conquest have been found both inside and outside the city walls (Late Bronze<br />
Age, Hallstatt and La Tène periods). In 58 BC, the Helvetii who had entrenched<br />
themselves in the oppidum of the Mount Vully (1) left their homes and migrated<br />
towards southeastern Gaul. After their defeat by Julius Caesar’s army at Bibracte<br />
(present-day Mount Beuvray in Burgundy), they were forced to return. It is likely that<br />
some of them settled on the heights of the Bois de Châtel hill south of <strong>Avenches</strong>.<br />
The hill of <strong>Avenches</strong> may also have served as a refuge.<br />
Only a small number of remains date from the period immediately preceding<br />
the establishment of the first urban complex, namely from the 1st century BC. They<br />
were discovered in religious contexts such as sanctuaries or tombs (display case 1,<br />
no. 1) situated on the slopes of the <strong>Avenches</strong> hill. These early finds are indigenous<br />
Celtic objects such as fibulae (display case 1, nos. 6-7), painted ware (display case 1,<br />
no. 5) or fine grey ware (display case 1, no. 4) as well as coins (display case 1, nos. 9-12).<br />
Some of them also provide evidence of trade relations with Italy (display case 1,<br />
no. 2) and Gaul (display case 1, no. 3).<br />
The Celtic coin punch (display case 1, no. 8) is of particular interest. A mere 30<br />
such objects are known in the Celtic world including that discovered on Mount<br />
Vully. It is a bronze punch, which was used to strike the obverse of a Celtic denarius.<br />
A cremation burial, which was discovered in the area of the settlement,<br />
dates from the beginnings of Aventicum, i.e. from the late 1st century BC or early<br />
1st century AD (display case 1, no. 14). The urn, a small ceramic bowl, contained the<br />
ashes of a woman and two bronze fibulae were deposited on top. The coin no. 13<br />
(display case 1) dates from the same period.<br />
Thanks to wood preserved in the ground (2) it is possible in several cases to<br />
establish the exact felling dates of the trees used for the construction of the first known<br />
buildings of Aventicum. In this instance, the assistance provided by dendrochronology<br />
(dating of the tree rings of a piece of timber) is particularly efficient. Accordingly, the<br />
construction of the port began in AD 5; the trees used to build the earliest houses<br />
discovered to date were felled in autumn/winter AD 6/7. These houses were already<br />
part of the orthogonal road network typical of <strong>Roman</strong> towns.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
21<br />
First Floor<br />
1<br />
2
First Floor The Indigenous Population<br />
Display case 1<br />
Items 1 - 5 were found in the area of the Derrière La Tour sanctuary.<br />
1. Ceramic urn containing cremated human bone. Early 1 st century BC.<br />
2. Terra sigillata plate from Central Italy. The centre shows the potter’s stamp of L. Tetti<br />
Crito. Late 1 st century BC. (1)<br />
3. Ceramic plate from the region of Lyons. Late 1 st century BC.<br />
4. Ceramic pot with vertical comb decoration. 1 st century BC.<br />
5. Ceramic pot or bottle, decorated with painted bands. 1 st century BC.<br />
6. Bronze fibula. Late 1 st century BC / early 1 st century AD.<br />
7. Bronze fibula. 1 st century AD.<br />
8. Celtic coin punch (2).<br />
9. Celtic coin: Quinarius of Vatico. Second half of the 1 st century BC.<br />
10. Celtic coin: Quinarius of Caletedu. Second half of the 1 st century BC.<br />
11. Celtic coin: Büschel type Quinarius. Second half of the 1 st century BC.<br />
12. Celtic coin: Sequanian potin. 1 st century BC.<br />
13. <strong>Roman</strong> coin: Quadrans of Germanus Indutilli. After 15 BC.<br />
14. Burnt ceramic bowl, signed Atei. It contained two bronze fibulae placed on tiny<br />
fragments of cremated human bone. Late 1 st century BC / early 1 st century AD.<br />
Display case 2<br />
1. Dedication to the goddess Aventia (3) :<br />
Deae /<br />
Aventiae Cn(aeus)Iul(ius)<br />
Marcellinus<br />
Equester<br />
d(e) s(ua) p(ecunia)<br />
« To the goddess Aventia. (Monument erected and) paid for by Gnaeus Iulius Marcellinus<br />
from the equestrian colony »<br />
Limestone. 1 st <strong>–</strong> 3 rd century AD.<br />
Catalogue of inscriptions : no. 16.<br />
The Indigenous Population<br />
(Display cases 3-5)<br />
Most of the inhabitants of the <strong>Roman</strong> city of Aventicum were native Celtic Helvetii<br />
already living in the region prior to the conquest; a smaller portion of the inhabitants,<br />
however, were <strong>Roman</strong>s sent by the emperor in order to advance the city’s<br />
development (merchants, businessmen, civil servants). The indigenous population,<br />
who outnumbered them by far, were <strong>Roman</strong>ised within a few generations. Rome<br />
granted citizenship to a considerable number of Celtic aristocratic families, perhaps<br />
in exchange for certain services or land (display case 4, no. 1).<br />
The population underwent a process of fast <strong>Roman</strong>isation and rapidly adopted<br />
the customs and habits of the conquerors.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
22<br />
First Floor<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5
First Floor Language and Writing<br />
Nevertheless, Celtic culture and traditions survived. The Celtic heritage is apparent<br />
in art (display case 3, no. 1; display case 5, nos. 1-2), religion, writing, craftsmanship<br />
(display case 5, nos. 3-6), hairstyles and clothing (display case 3, no. 1).<br />
Display case 3<br />
1. Bust of woman (1) wearing a torque, a typical Celtic piece of jewellery, as well as a tunic<br />
and a cloak fashionable among the native population. Limestone. Early 1st century AD at<br />
the latest.<br />
Display case 4<br />
1. Dedication in honour of Caius Valerius Camillus:<br />
C(aio) Valer(io) C(ai) f(ilio) Fab(ia)Ca<br />
millo quoi publice<br />
funus Haeduorum<br />
civitas et Helvet(i)decre<br />
verunt et civitas<br />
Helvet(iorum)<br />
qua pagatim qua publice<br />
statuas decrevit<br />
I[u]lia C(ai)Iuli Camilli f(ilia) Festilla<br />
ex testamento<br />
« To Caius Valerius Camillus, son of Caius, of the Fabia tribe, for whom the communities<br />
of the Haedui and Helvetii ordered an official funeral; furthermore, the community of the<br />
Helvetii dedicated statues to him, in the name of each pagus as well as in the name of<br />
the entire civitas. Iulia Festilla, daughter of Caius Iulius Camillus, (erected this inscription)<br />
according to the last will of the deceased »<br />
Marble block, discovered near the forum. Second quarter of the 1st century AD.<br />
Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 5.<br />
Display case 5<br />
1. Head of woman, limestone. Cigognier sanctuary. Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
2. Gilt bronze head of a dead Helvetian (2). Cigognier sanctuary. 2nd century AD.<br />
3. Ceramic pot, painted according to local tradition.<br />
4-5. Ceramic goblets, with figurative decoration. Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
6. Ceramic goblet with erotic scene. Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
Language and Writing<br />
(Display case 6)<br />
The Helvetii spoke Gaulish, a Celtic language, which probably varied from one region<br />
of Gaul to the next. It was mainly a spoken language. The rare evidence at our<br />
disposal consists of written documents of lesser importance, which offer only limited<br />
information about Celtic culture. In the beginning, the Celts used Greek letters to<br />
transcribe their language. The arrival of the <strong>Roman</strong>s led to the dissemination of Latin,<br />
a new language, which, depending on the density of the <strong>Roman</strong> immigrants, was<br />
more or less understood and adopted.<br />
1<br />
2<br />
23<br />
First Floor<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
6
First Floor Language and Writing<br />
No inscriptions in Gaulish have been discovered in Aventicum. From time to time,<br />
Celtic names are found, written in a mixture of Greek and Latin alphabets (display<br />
case 6, no.9, display case 23, no. 1). It can be assumed that, from the 1st century<br />
AD onwards, the inhabitants of Aventicum understood Latin. This is confirmed by<br />
funerary, honorific and votive inscriptions dating from this period as well as graffiti<br />
carved on various types of surfaces.<br />
They used a stylus (stilus) for writing (display case 6, nos. 19-21) which had one<br />
sharp end for incising the letters into a wax-covered wooden tablet. The other end<br />
was spatula-shaped so that the text could be erased by smoothing out the wax.<br />
Several tablets could be tied together with a string (display case 6, no. 18).<br />
For writing on papyrus or parchment they used a calamus or quill with a<br />
sharpened point, which was dipped into an inkwell (atramentarium). The latter<br />
could be made of glass (display case 6, no. 10), pottery (display case 6, no. 11) or<br />
bronze. The ink was diluted with water before its use and was either derived from<br />
cuttlefish, from lees of wine or consisted of a mixture of soot and resin.<br />
A book (volumen) consisted of several pages of papyrus or parchment glued<br />
together, which were then rolled onto a wooden stick (display case 6, no. 1).<br />
Capital letters were used for inscriptions on stone and for hallmarks on mortars<br />
(display case 6, no. 8), vases (display case 6, no. 9), amphorae, tiles, and also on various<br />
metal objects.<br />
Engraved (display case 6, nos. 2-3) or painted inscriptions (display case 6, nos. 4-<br />
5) were generally written in italics (small letters); the same applied to everyday<br />
correspondence. Occasionally graffiti were written in capital letters (display case 6,<br />
nos. 6-7).<br />
Seal-boxes (display case 6, nos. 12-16) served as protection for seals used for<br />
closing up writing tablets or parcels. In order to seal something, the intaglioengraved<br />
signet ring was pressed into wax (display case 6, no. 17).<br />
Display case 6<br />
1. Marble statue of a sitting philosopher or poet holding a volumen in his left hand.<br />
2. Fragment of a grey ceramic storage vessel bearing the inscription, in italics, ...icco<br />
immallobrocus, the meaning of which is not clear.<br />
3. Majuscule inscription on painted wall plaster.<br />
4. Neck of amphora (1st century AD) with painted inscription indicating its contents (1):<br />
Excel(lens) / flos... « Excellent flower » ... (referring to the quality of garum, a sauce<br />
containing pieces of fish pickled in salt).<br />
5. Amphora neck bearing a painted inscription indicating its capacity (LXX probably<br />
70 <strong>Roman</strong> pounds or the equivalent of approximately 32.8 litres) as well as the merchant’s<br />
name in genitive case: Felicionis (Felicio). 2nd century AD.<br />
6. Jug fragments (2) with a graffito in capital letters:<br />
LAGO(NA) NICOMIIDIIS QVI ILLA IIMIIRIT<br />
« The (wine)jug of Nicomedes who really deserves it »<br />
1<br />
2<br />
24<br />
First Floor<br />
6
First Floor The Division of Time<br />
It is worth noting that two vertical bars were used to transcribe the letter E, which had<br />
been a frequently used sign in the former Celtic region. The name Nicomedes points to<br />
Greek origin and he was probably a slave.<br />
7. Goblet bearing an engraved graffito in capital letters: SIIXTVS. According to Celtic<br />
tradition, the letter E is written with two vertical bars in this rather typical Latin name.<br />
2nd century AD.<br />
8. Mortar (mortarium) manufactured in Aventicum and bearing the stamp of the potter<br />
Ruscus. 2nd century AD.<br />
9. Fragment of plate manufactured in Aventicum and bearing the stamp of the potter<br />
Cinced. It is worth noting that the name is written with a barred D as used in the very rare<br />
Celtic inscriptions. Second half of the 1st century AD.<br />
10. Glass inkwell (1).<br />
11. Ceramic inkwell.<br />
12-16. Bronze seal-boxes (2).<br />
17. Bronze ring with intaglio depicting a dolphin.<br />
18. Facsimile wooden tablets, filled with wax.<br />
19-21. Iron styli (writing implements).<br />
The Division of Time<br />
(Display cases 7-8)<br />
With the exception of a few minor changes, the <strong>Roman</strong> calendar introduced by<br />
Julius Caesar in 46 BC, is still in use today and continues to regulate our lives. The<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> year began on January 1st and was divided into twelve months, the names<br />
and sequence of which have remained unchanged. Determining the day of a<br />
month was complicated because, unlike in present times, this was not achieved by<br />
counting from 1 to 31; instead, the <strong>Roman</strong>s counted backwards from one of the<br />
three fixed points within a month: the calends (first day of the month), the nones<br />
(5th or 7th day depending on the month) (display case 8, no. 2) and the ides (13th or<br />
15th day, again depending on the month).<br />
Every day had 24 hours. The day, from sunrise to sunset, comprised twelve<br />
hours, as did the night. Therefore, the length of an hour varied depending on the<br />
time of year and one’s geographical position. Only noon, the sixth hour (sexta hora),<br />
remained the same.<br />
In several modern languages directly derived from Latin like Italian or French,<br />
some weekdays still reflect the <strong>Roman</strong> influence such as the days named after the<br />
gods Mars (Tuesday - mardi) or Mercury (Wednesday - mercredi).<br />
In general, an hour was determined according to brightness. In order to measure<br />
time more exactly, three instruments were used: the sundial (display case 8, no. 1,<br />
drawing), which was either fixed or portable, the hourglass or the water clock<br />
(clepsydra).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
25<br />
First Floor<br />
6<br />
7<br />
8
First Floor Weights and Measures<br />
The Zodiac is the celestial sphere divided into twelve equal sections. In linking<br />
astronomy with astrology, they are named after their nearest star constellations. The<br />
zodiac was imported from the Orient and became popular in Rome in the 1st century<br />
BC. From then on it soon spread across the whole of Italy and the provinces and it<br />
is often found on reliefs, mosaics (display case 7, no. 1) or jewellery.<br />
Display case 7<br />
1. Fragment of mosaic representing the twelve signs of the zodiac. Only Pisces,<br />
Capricornus and Taurus are original, the sign of Gemini is reconstructed.<br />
Around AD 200, Derrière La Tour Palace. Loan from the Historical <strong>Museum</strong> in Bern.<br />
Display case 8<br />
1. Inscription, in italics, engraved on a wall fresco (1):<br />
IIII nonas / Apriles / die / Martis<br />
« Fourth day before the April nones, the day of Mars », referring to Tuesday April 2nd AD....<br />
Between AD 35 and 80.<br />
2. Limestone sundial (2).<br />
Weights and Measures<br />
(Display case 9)<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> measuring unit for length was the foot (pes); it varied over time<br />
and from one region to the next. At the beginning of our time it measured<br />
approximately 29.6 cm. A foot was subdivided into twelve ounces (unciae); three<br />
ounces were a palm (palmes), the equivalent of the breadth of the palm of a<br />
hand. Two and a half feet were a pace (gradus) and one thousand double-paces<br />
(passus) were a mile (mille passus) or the equivalent of approximately 1478.5 m.<br />
The distances between towns were calculated in miles and indicated on big stone<br />
pillars, the so-called milestones. The league (leuca), a Gaulish measure, never<br />
completely disappeared in this region.<br />
Short distances were measured using rulers (regula) and dividers (circinus)<br />
(display case 9, nos. 1-2). The latter were not only used to draw circles, but also<br />
to measure or transcribe distances. Together with the protractor, the plumb<br />
line (perpendiculum) (display case 9, nos. 3-4) was used to mark out vertical and<br />
horizontal surfaces.<br />
The basic measuring unit for weight was the pound (libra), which corresponds<br />
to 327.45 g (display case 9, no. 7); it was subdivided into twelve ounces (unciae) of<br />
27.3 g each (display case 9, nos. 16-17). Sometimes it is possible to identify the value<br />
of a weight thanks to a letter or sign inscribed on it. “I” was the abbreviation for a<br />
pound (display case 9, no 7) and “S” (semis) for half a pound (display case 9, no. 5).<br />
Merchants used two types of scales. The most common was the steelyard<br />
(statera) with one balance pan (display case 9, nos. 10 and 12). It is still known today<br />
as ”<strong>Roman</strong> scales“. An object was weighed by moving the suspended steelyard<br />
weight along a balance arm with engraved markings (sketch 1). The counterweights<br />
1<br />
2<br />
26<br />
First Floor<br />
7<br />
8<br />
9
First Floor Weights and Measures<br />
The Dodecahedron, a Measuring Instrument ?<br />
were of different shapes; the more simple ones looked like an acorn or sphere<br />
(display case 9, nos. 10, 13-14), the more elaborate ones were human busts. The<br />
second type of scales (libra) had two parallel, equidistant scale pans (display case 9,<br />
no. 11). An object was weighed by choosing weights of different sizes (display case 9,<br />
nos. 5-9, 16-20) (sketch 2).<br />
The measuring unit used for capacity was the quadrantal which was the<br />
equivalent of an amphora containing 26.2 litres. Half an amphora was an urn (urna)<br />
or 13.1 litres and a third was a modius or 8.7 litres. Small quantities were measured<br />
with a spoon (cochlear) containing 0.0011 litres (display case 9, no. 21).<br />
Display case 9<br />
1-2. Iron dividers.<br />
3. Bronze plump.<br />
4. Iron plump or steelyard weight.<br />
5. Bronze weight, stamped IIS which is two and a half pounds (librae), i.e. 818.6 g.<br />
6. Bronze weight, stamped II which is two pounds, i.e. 654.9 g (1).<br />
7. Bronze weight, stamped I which is one pound, i.e. 327.4 g.<br />
8. Stone weight of almost one pound and a third, i.e. 436.6 g.<br />
9. Bronze weight, stamped :: indicating one third of a pound (triens), i.e. 109.1 g.<br />
10. Iron steelyard (2) with a counterweight made of iron filled with lead and weighing<br />
close to two and two third pounds, i.e. 873.2 g.<br />
11. Bronze scales with two arms and two scale pans.<br />
12. Bronze steelyard with engraved graduated scale.<br />
13. Lead-filled bronze counterweight with chain weighing close to five ounces (quincunx),<br />
i.e. 136,4 g.<br />
14. Lead counterweight with chain weighing close to seven pounds, i.e. 2292.1 g.<br />
15. Bronze scale pan, stamped BANAIV.<br />
16-17. Stamped bronze weight of close to one ounce (uncia), i.e. 27.3 g.<br />
18. Bronze weight of close to half an ounce (semuncia), i.e. 13.6 g.<br />
19. Bronze weight of close to a quarter pound (quadrans), i.e. 81.9 g.<br />
20. Bronze weight of close to a sixth of a pound (sextans), i.e. 54.6 g.<br />
21. Bronze spoon (cochlear) holding about 0.011 litres. This quantity represents the<br />
smallest measuring unit.<br />
The Dodecahedron, a Measuring Instrument?<br />
(Display case 10)<br />
Bronze dodecahedron (3) found in a house in Aventicum.<br />
The dodecahedron is a geometrical, three-dimensional solid, i.e. a regular<br />
polyhedron with twelve equal pentagonal faces. The object is hollow; each face is<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
27<br />
First Floor<br />
9<br />
10
First Floor Theatre, Games and Music<br />
perforated and has a round opening of varying dimension (0.9 cm to 2.6 cm). Ten<br />
openings are surrounded by concentric circles. The two largest openings, located<br />
on opposite faces, do not show any decoration. According to present knowledge,<br />
all recorded dodecahedra were found on Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> sites, mainly north of the Alps<br />
and in particular in central and northeastern Gaul. More than sixty examples are<br />
known to date. While dodecahedra are not rare objects they are not very common<br />
either, which explains the exceptional interest they attract.<br />
Generations of intrigued archaeologists have been trying to discover the possible<br />
use of dodecahedra. They are often classified as decorative objects, games or<br />
measuring instruments. It has also been suggested that they were used for religious<br />
purposes, but so far, no dodecahedron has been found inside or near a sanctuary.<br />
Nowadays, archaeologists think that they might be have been astronomical<br />
instruments. Thus, the twelve faces would have represented the twelve months<br />
and the thirty edges the days of the month. According to one recent theory, the<br />
dodecahedron served to determine a range of dates in relation to the spring and<br />
autumn equinoxes.<br />
Theatre, Games and Music<br />
(Display cases 11-14)<br />
Panem et circenses - ”bread and games” - were what the people wanted; this<br />
demand was met by the emperor and the local officials who, by means of donations<br />
and other generous gestures, contributed to the organisation of games and other<br />
entertainment with the aim of keeping the masses quiet, suppressing protest and<br />
revolt and ensuring the support and sympathy of the people.<br />
Tragedies and, above all, comedies were performed in the theatre. The actors<br />
(display case 12, no. 5; 1) recited verses accompanied by music and were called<br />
histriones or cantores. Usually they were slaves or freedmen. They wore tragic or<br />
comic masks, which we are familiar with because they were often reproduced in<br />
marble or terra-cotta decorations (display case 12, no. 3), and also on ceramic vases,<br />
terra-cotta oil lamps (display case 12, nos. 6-9), ivory objects (display case 12, no. 4),<br />
wall paintings, mosaics (display case 11, no. 1) or stone monuments (display case 12,<br />
nos. 1-2). According to ancient written sources there were as many as 28 types of<br />
tragic and 46 types of comic masks.<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong>s also loved mime and pantomime. The latter was a kind of dance<br />
and most of it was based on Greek mythology. The actors wore richly embroidered<br />
tunics and some of them represented five different characters. The narrative part<br />
was sung by a choir accompanied by musicians playing flutes (display case 14,<br />
no. 10), lyres (display case 14, nos. 3 and 9), citharas (display case 14, nos. 4-6) or<br />
cymbals (display case 14, nos. 1-2).<br />
In mime the musical accompaniment resembled that of the pantomime but<br />
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28<br />
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10<br />
11<br />
12<br />
13<br />
14
First Floor Theatre, Games and Music<br />
the dancers did not wear any masks and sang the verses themselves. Instead of<br />
referring to Greek mythology, the subjects presented were based on real events<br />
and were inspired by everyday life. In general, the performances were comic and<br />
sometimes even vulgar.<br />
Display case 11<br />
1. Mosaic depicting the scene of a play, with two actors, one of whom is wearing a comic<br />
mask representing a young girl.<br />
Display case 12<br />
1. Funerary mask of a tragic heroine, limestone. Early 2nd century AD.<br />
2. Satyr mask on a marble relief. Last quarter of the 1st century AD.<br />
3. Terra-cotta antefix decorated with a mask.<br />
4. Ivory box in the shape of a comic mask. 1st <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries AD.<br />
5. Bronze statuette of tragic actor (p. 28, 1); his belt shows an inscription, probably<br />
Dovecus which might be his name. Early 3rd century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 22.<br />
6-9. Medallions of various terra-cotta oil lamps decorated with comic masks (1).<br />
In the amphitheatre one watched gladiatorial combat (munera) where two men<br />
fought to the death (display case 13, nos. 1-9) to the sound of horns or organs<br />
(display case 14, no. 7). As a rule, gladiators were slaves, prisoners of war, criminals<br />
sentenced to death or young men from noble families who had fallen from grace<br />
and had been attracted by fame and easy money. They were trained in barracks<br />
specifically built for that purpose (ludi).<br />
Hunting scenes (venationes) (display case 13, no. 11) were also staged in sets<br />
representing wilderness. Wild animals were set on each other, for instance large<br />
game on dear, lions (display case 13, no. 12) on tigers, bears on bulls (display case 13,<br />
no. 10), or men on animals such as bulls, bears, panthers, tigers or lions.<br />
The circus was another form of entertainment, but so far no such structure has<br />
been discovered at Aventicum. A circus was mainly used for chariot races, but also<br />
for sports competitions such as boxing, wrestling or running.<br />
Display case 13<br />
1. Fighting gladiator (2). Lead glazed pottery decoration, originally part of a vessel.<br />
Mid 1st century AD.<br />
2. Ivory handle of a flick knife decorated with two gladiators (p. 30, 1). 3rd century AD.<br />
3. Gladiator. Bronze statuette. 2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
4. Gladiator. Bronze fitting.<br />
5. Fragment of glass goblet, depicting scenes of gladiatorial combat. Two names of<br />
gladiators are partly preserved: (Colu)mbus and (Calam)us.<br />
6. Fragment of glass goblet, depicting scenes of gladiatorial combat. Three names are<br />
partly preserved (Calam)us, Orie(n)s and Petr(aites).<br />
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2<br />
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11<br />
12<br />
13<br />
14
First Floor Trade and Money<br />
The Monetary System from the 1 st to the 3 rd Century<br />
7. Gladiator armed with a trident and a knife. Terra-cotta oil lamp.<br />
8. Two gladiators fighting each other. Terra-cotta oil lamp.<br />
9. Bowl in terra sigillata, with gladiator scene. Late 1st century AD.<br />
10. Ceramic drinking vessel decorated with a bull. Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
11. Hunting scene. Terra-cotta oil lamp.<br />
12. Ceramic pottery bowl, decorated with a lion. Second half of the 2nd century AD.<br />
Music was ever-present in everyday <strong>Roman</strong> life. It not only accompanied plays<br />
and combat, but also public and private festivities, banquets, weddings, funerals,<br />
triumphal parades, processions and religious sacrifices.<br />
The organ fragments (display case 14, no. 7) discovered in Aventicum are<br />
particularly important since, to date, only three instruments of this type have been<br />
found within the boundaries of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire.<br />
Display case 14<br />
1-2. Small bronze cymbals.<br />
3. Arm of a lyre (?) made of antler. Early 1st century AD.<br />
4. Sitting Cupid, playing the cithara. Ivory medallion.<br />
5. Sitting Cupid, playing the cithara. Terra-cotta oil lamp (2).<br />
6. Ivory cithara. This object may have served as a decorative element on a piece of<br />
furniture.<br />
7. Bronze parts of a water organ (3). Chest and bronze key showing the figure VIIII, which<br />
identifies it as the ninth key. Derrière la Tour Palace.<br />
8. Plectrum, probably made of tortoise shell, used for playing the strings of a lyre or<br />
cithara.<br />
9. Right arm of a bronze statue. The thumb and index finger are holding a plectrum in the<br />
shape of a lion’s paw.<br />
10. Right hand of a bronze statue representing a flute player; found in the refuse dump of<br />
a bronze smith.<br />
Trade and Money<br />
(Display case 15)<br />
The Monetary System from the 1 st to the 3 rd Century<br />
Reorganised by Augustus, the monetary system of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire was<br />
comprised of gold, silver, brass and copper coins. The relationships between<br />
these metals and the coin weights were clearly defined (display case 15, no. 1).<br />
Therefore, the different values of the coins could easily be distinguished (display<br />
case 15, nos. 2-8) by the colour of the metal. The brass coins (sesterces and semis),<br />
for instance, were worth twice as much as the copper coins (as and quadrans).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
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13<br />
14<br />
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First Floor Trade and Money<br />
Genuine Coins and Counterfeits<br />
The Augustan monetary system was quite stable and was still used well into the<br />
3rd century. During the first two centuries, slight reductions in weight and precious<br />
metal content brought about some minor changes. The accelerating devaluation<br />
from the late 2nd century onwards prompted Caracalla in AD 214 to introduce the<br />
antoninianus, a new coin, which was worth two denarii. With increasing inflation the<br />
antoninianus rapidly lost its value in the 3rd century and, under Claudius II the Goth<br />
(AD 268 <strong>–</strong> 270), it contained little more than 2% silver. A series of antoniniani reflect<br />
this evolution (display case 15, nos. 9-12).<br />
The emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 270 <strong>–</strong> 275) tried to slow down devaluation by<br />
creating a new antoninianus (display case 15, no. 13). However, this monetary reform<br />
was not successful and Diocletian (AD 284 <strong>–</strong> 305) introduced fundamental changes.<br />
The new system (display case 15, no. 14) remained in use for several centuries but<br />
also suffered devaluation (see 4th century AD coins (display case 25, nos. 20-39).<br />
Prices and Remuneration<br />
Not many written documents contain information on prices and salaries in <strong>Roman</strong><br />
times and only a very small number refer to the regions situated within the<br />
present-day Swiss borders. However, in Pompeii, which was totally destroyed by the<br />
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, graffiti found on house walls do give some<br />
indication of prices (display case 15, nos. 15-20):<br />
Food<br />
oil 1/3 litre 1 sesterce<br />
bread (small) 1/2 kg ¼ sesterce = 1 as (display case 15, no. 15)<br />
table wine 1 measure ¼ sesterce = 1 as<br />
wine from Falerne 1 measure 1 sesterce<br />
Pottery<br />
oil lamp ½ sesterce = 2 as (display case 15, nos. 16-18)<br />
a simple plate ¼ sesterce = 1 as<br />
small drinking vessel ¼ sesterce = 1 as (display case 15, nos. 19-20)<br />
Clothes<br />
tunic 15 sesterces<br />
washing of tunic 4 sesterces<br />
Miscellaneous<br />
mule 520 sesterces<br />
slave 2524 sesterces<br />
Genuine Coins and Counterfeits<br />
The value of a coin was guaranteed by the portrait and the name of the emperor<br />
on it. Imperial money was personified in MONETA AVGVSTA (the imperial coin) who<br />
1<br />
Aureus of Hadrian<br />
31<br />
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15
First Floor Trade and Money<br />
Money Saving and Spending Reflected in Coin Finds<br />
was depicted with scales, symbolising both the imperial power and the concern to<br />
exercise a rigorous control over monetary value (display case 15, no. 21).<br />
An extraordinary find during the excavations of the temple at Derrière la Tour in<br />
1996 was a coin balance with a predetermined weight (display case 15, no. 22), which<br />
confirmed that the weight of coins was monitored in <strong>Avenches</strong> itself. By means of<br />
such a balance, denarii that were too light could be identified and subsequently<br />
withdrawn from circulation. However, it was impossible with these scales to<br />
distinguish a good silver denarius (display case 15, nos. 23-24) from a counterfeit<br />
denarius made of silver-plated copper (display case 15, nos. 25-26) or from a cast<br />
denarius with far too little silver content (display case 15, no. 27). After all, these types<br />
of counterfeits could indeed have the official weight. Like everywhere within the<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> Provinces, numerous counterfeit denarii were in circulation in <strong>Avenches</strong>.<br />
There were even counterfeits that contained no precious metals at all, such as<br />
copper-plated iron coins (display case 15, nos. 28-29).<br />
Money Saving and Spending Reflected in Coin Finds<br />
Just like people nowadays, the inhabitants of a <strong>Roman</strong> town would have used their<br />
money in various ways. They would have had to spend money on their everyday<br />
needs such as food, household utensils or clothes; those who could afford to tried<br />
to save money.<br />
The most frequent coin finds during excavations are those made of copper, brass<br />
or bronze (display case 15, nos. 30-36). They reflect the daily monetary exchange.<br />
Together with other archaeological finds, these often badly corroded coins offer<br />
precious information, for instance, for the purpose of dating a layer. However,<br />
archaeologists are sometimes lucky enough to find a coin hoard (display case 15, no.<br />
43), a collection of coins, which are still in a purse (display case 15, nos. 37-42), or a<br />
moneybox (display case 15, no. 44).<br />
Display case 15<br />
1. The monetary system of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire from the 1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
2. Aureus, gold, Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14) (1).<br />
3. Denarius, silver, Antoninus Pius (AD 141 <strong>–</strong> 161), for his wife Faustina the Elder.<br />
4. Sestertius, brass, Marcus Aurelius (AD 161 <strong>–</strong> 180), for the deified Faustina the Younger.<br />
5. Dupondius, brass, Domitian (AD 81 <strong>–</strong> 96).<br />
6. As, copper, Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14), for Tiberius<br />
7. Semis, brass, Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14), for Tiberius.<br />
8. Quadrans, copper, Domitian (AD 81 <strong>–</strong> 96).<br />
9. Antoninianus, Gordianus III (AD 238 <strong>–</strong> 244).<br />
10. Antoninianus, Valerian I (AD 253 <strong>–</strong> 260).<br />
11. Antoninianus, Claudius II the Gothic (AD 268 <strong>–</strong> 270).<br />
1<br />
Aureus of Augustus<br />
32<br />
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First Floor Rome and Aventicum<br />
The Emperor, the Imperial Family and the Province<br />
12. Antoninianus, Tetricus I (AD 271 <strong>–</strong> 274).<br />
13. Antoninianus, Aurelian (AD 270 <strong>–</strong> 275).<br />
14. Follis, Diocletianus (AD 284 <strong>–</strong> 305).<br />
15. A loaf of bread costs 1 as.<br />
16-18. An oil lamp costs 2 as ( = 1 dupondius = 1/2 sestertius).<br />
19-20. A goblet costs 1 as.<br />
21. As, reverse depicting the personification of Money holding scales.<br />
22. Coin balance with predetermined weight, Julio-Claudian period.<br />
23. Denarius, silver, Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14).<br />
24. Official denarius, silver (with a Z-shaped mint mark), Tiberius.<br />
25. Denarius, counterfeit, silver-plated copper, Nero (1).<br />
26. Denarius, counterfeit, silver-plated copper, Domitian.<br />
27. Denarius, cast counterfeit, alloy with low silver content.<br />
28. Sesterce, counterfeit, copper (?)-plated iron, Marcus Aurelius.<br />
29. Dupondius or as, counterfeit, copper (?)-plated iron, Marcus Aurelius for Faustina the<br />
Younger.<br />
30-36. Isolated finds from archaeological excavations.<br />
37-42. Contents of a purse: 6 sesterces.<br />
43. Hoard (?) of denarii.<br />
44. Moneybox, 2nd century AD (2).<br />
Rome and Aventicum<br />
(Display cases 16-18)<br />
The Emperor, the Imperial Family and the Province<br />
Rome exercised its power and influence over its territory in various ways. A rigorous<br />
organisation ensured the administration of the provinces. In general, the official<br />
language (Latin in the West, Greek in the East), legislation, monetary and fiscal<br />
systems as well as standard measures and weights were imposed upon the<br />
provinces. Loyalty and obedience towards Rome and the emperor were expected.<br />
The Latin term urbs, originally just the Latin word for “town”, was synonymous<br />
for Rome, the capital of the Empire. It is often represented by the she-wolf feeding<br />
the twins Romulus and Remus, the emblem illustrating the myth of the foundation<br />
of the capital.<br />
The power of the emperor and his family became very apparent in the imperial<br />
cult (display case 17, no. 6), introduced by Augustus. The living emperor was<br />
considered to be divine. At Aventicum the imperial cult was probably celebrated in<br />
the Cigognier sanctuary where the gold bust of Marcus Aurelius was found. Images<br />
of the emperor and of members of his family were present in the form of statues<br />
1<br />
2<br />
33<br />
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15<br />
16<br />
17<br />
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The Emperor, the Imperial Family and the Province<br />
and busts throughout the town. However, only a few examples have survived.<br />
While certain portraits can clearly be identified (Marcus Aurelius, Agrippina the<br />
Elder), this is not the case for others (display case 17, nos. 1-5). The emperor could be<br />
represented naked like a god, wearing a toga like a philosopher or in armour as the<br />
most senior general in the army.<br />
The image of the emperor was omnipresent on coins and medallions thus<br />
guaranteeing their authenticity (display case 17, nos. 11-23). Coins were a means<br />
of propaganda not only to convey the portrait of the ruler, but also to remind the<br />
population of political or family events as well as to spread moral and political<br />
values (display case 17, nos. 24-33).<br />
The imperial family also played a role in the economy. They owned quarries,<br />
vineyards and estates producing olive oil, for instance. The lead medallion bearing<br />
the portrait of Antonia the Younger (display case 17, no. 7), mother of the emperor<br />
Claudius, probably belonged to a seal from a shipment of goods that was under<br />
imperial protection.<br />
Display case 16<br />
1. Dedication to the educator of an emperor:<br />
[D(is)] M(anibus)<br />
Pomp(eiae)Gemell[(ae)<br />
Pomp(eia) Dic[a]ea l(iberta)<br />
et Primu[l]ia s(erva)<br />
educat(ricis) [A]ug(usti)n(ostri)<br />
« To the Manes Gods. The manumitted Pompeia Diacaea and slave Primulia (erected this<br />
monument) to Pompeia Gemella, educator of our Emperor »<br />
This is probably a funerary inscription for the educator of the emperor Titus (AD 70 <strong>–</strong> 81).<br />
Second half of the 1st century AD. Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 3.<br />
Display case 17<br />
1-5. Fragments of a bronze statue probably representing the emperor Hadrian (AD 117 <strong>–</strong><br />
138) wearing armour. First half 2nd century AD.<br />
6. Votive bronze plaque dedicated to Mars Caisivus:<br />
Mart[i] Caisiv[o]<br />
Pomp(onius or -eius ? ) Optatus<br />
fl(amen)Aug(usti) {e}x stip(e)<br />
« To Mars Caisivus. Pomponius (?), Optatus, priest of the imperial cult, had this (statuette?)<br />
made after having collected funds »<br />
This plaque was certainly linked to an offering dedicated to Mars Caisivus by a priest of<br />
the imperial cult. 1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 23.<br />
7. Portrait of Antonia the Younger (36 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 37), mother of the emperor Claudius<br />
(AD 41 <strong>–</strong> 54). Lead plaque.<br />
8. Portrait of the emperor Hadrian (AD 117 <strong>–</strong> 138). <strong>Roman</strong> period reworking of a bronze<br />
coin into a medallion (1).<br />
9. Portrait of the emperor Commodus (AD 180 <strong>–</strong> 192). Bronze medallion (2).<br />
10. Portrait of a princess? Medallion in cast glass (3).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
34<br />
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16<br />
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First Floor Rome and Aventicum<br />
The Emperor, the Imperial Family and the Province<br />
11-33. Coins<br />
Top row, from left to right :<br />
11. Augustus (27 BC <strong>–</strong> AD 14).<br />
12. Tiberius (AD 14 <strong>–</strong> 37).<br />
13. Antonia the Younger. Mother of the emperor Claudius. Dupondius.<br />
14. Claudius I (AD 41 <strong>–</strong> 54) (1).<br />
15. Vespasian (AD 69 <strong>–</strong> 79).<br />
16. Domitian (AD 81 <strong>–</strong> 96).<br />
17. Antoninus Pius (AD 138 <strong>–</strong> 161).<br />
18. Marcus Aurelius (AD 161 <strong>–</strong> 180).<br />
19. Faustina the Younger (approximately AD 130 <strong>–</strong> 176), wife of Marcus Aurelius.<br />
20. Septimius Severus (AD 193 <strong>–</strong> 211).<br />
21. Julia Domna (approximately AD 170 <strong>–</strong> 217), wife of Septimius Severus.<br />
22. Maximinus Thrax (AD 235 <strong>–</strong> 238).<br />
23. Philip the Arab (AD 244 <strong>–</strong> 249).<br />
Bottom row, from left to right:<br />
24. Altar of Lyons. Augustus.<br />
25. Templum Divi Augusti restitutum. Issued by Antoninus Pius on the occasion of the<br />
renovation of the temple of Augustus.<br />
26. Virtuti Augusti. Domitian.<br />
27. Concordia: clasped hands symbolising harmony. Nerva.<br />
28. Concordia Augustorum. Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus announce their<br />
intention to rule together in harmony. Sesterce (2).<br />
29. Adlocutio: Marcus Aurelius addressing the troops.<br />
30. Stack of arms; memorial to Marcus Aurelius’ victory over Germanic tribes (3).<br />
31. Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius, with six of their thirteen children.<br />
32. One of the pairs of twins of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina: the future emperor<br />
Commodus and his brother.<br />
33. The funeral of Antonia the Younger, the mother of the emperor Claudius.<br />
Display case 18<br />
13. Dedication to Britannicus (AD 41 <strong>–</strong> 54), son of the emperor Claudius and his wife<br />
Messalina.<br />
Ti(berio) Claud(io) Caesari<br />
Ti(beri) Claudi Caesaris<br />
[Aug(usti)Germanici] p(atris) p(atriae)f(ilio)<br />
[Britannico]<br />
[Helveti public]e<br />
« To Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus, son of the emperor Tiberius Claudius bearing<br />
the title the German and father of our country. The Helvetii (erected this monument)<br />
upon public decision »<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
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The Emperor, the Imperial Family and the Province<br />
This is one of the rare dedications to the young Britannicus murdered at the age of 14<br />
by his stepbrother Nero who became emperor in AD 54. This inscription was found on a<br />
block, which probably served as the plinth for a statue.<br />
Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 6.<br />
Freestanding objects at the back and in the centre of the hall<br />
Back, from left to right :<br />
Capitoline She-Wolf Feeding the Twin Brothers Romulus and Remus (1)<br />
The limestone low relief was discovered in the courtyard of the Derrière la Tour palace.<br />
2nd century AD.<br />
This relief depicts the symbol of the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire, the myth of the miraculous rescue of<br />
the founder of Rome and his brother. This motif was very popular and was still used on<br />
Late Antique coins (display case 25, no. 20).<br />
Portrait of a Princess (2)<br />
Marble bust, discovered in the <strong>Roman</strong> theatre of Aventicum in 1847. Copy; the original is<br />
exhibited in the Archaeological <strong>Museum</strong> of Neuchâtel.<br />
The face, hair and clothes of the princess were painted. Remnants of red colour still<br />
visible in her hair were undercoat for the original gold plating. The features of the<br />
princess were enhanced by careful colour modelling. She was wearing a blue-green<br />
dress.<br />
The identification of this high quality portrait remains controversial. It could be Julia,<br />
the daughter of Drusus the Younger and Livilla. In AD 21 at the age of 15, she married<br />
Nero Julius Caesar, the son of Germanicus, designated crown prince in AD 23, but then<br />
declared a public enemy and exiled by the Senate.<br />
According to another interpretation this portrait represents the mother of emperor<br />
Claudius, Antonia the Younger, who lived from 36 BC to AD 37.<br />
The presence of this bust underlines the close relations that existed between Rome and<br />
Aventicum at the time of the emperor Tiberius.<br />
Agrippina the Elder<br />
Marble statue, discovered in the northern part of the forum of Aventicum. Second quarter<br />
of the 1st century AD.<br />
Monumental statue, approximately 2.75 m high and probably showing the features of<br />
Agrippina the Elder, the wife of Germanicus. She was the mother of the emperor Caligula<br />
(AD 37 <strong>–</strong> 41) and of Agrippina the Younger, who would later have a son, the emperor<br />
Nero (AD 54 <strong>–</strong> 68). Agrippina the Elder is represented here as the goddess Fortuna. She<br />
is wearing a chiton (woman’s garment of Greek origin) and <strong>Roman</strong> shoes and is holding<br />
a cornucopia. Despite the poor state of preservation of the statue, the high quality<br />
craftsmanship of the sculptor is apparent.<br />
This sculpture belongs to a group of statues representing three or four members of the<br />
imperial family. The public display of images of the emperor and his family was part of<br />
Rome’s political propaganda.<br />
Male Statue<br />
Marble foot discovered in the northern part of the forum of Aventicum. Second quarter of<br />
the 1st century AD.<br />
This foot comes from the same group of statues as the sculpture of Agrippina the<br />
Elder. The type of shoe indicates that the person represented was a member of the<br />
1<br />
2<br />
36<br />
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Oriental Cults<br />
imperial family and that he was wearing armour. The original height of the statue was<br />
approximately 3 metres.<br />
Equestrian Statue (1)<br />
Gilt bronze leg, discovered in the area of the Derrière La Tour Palace. 2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
Only the right leg of the horseman is preserved. He is wearing shoes called calcei patricii,<br />
which were reserved for <strong>Roman</strong> patricians. The equestrian statue type follows a wellknown<br />
pattern. The best-preserved example is the equestrian statue of the emperor<br />
Marcus Aurelius from the Capitol in Rome, which was the model for our reconstruction.<br />
Gilt equestrian statues, of normal or monumental size, often decorated public places.<br />
Emperor Statues?<br />
Fragments of three or four monumental statues in gilt bronze. 1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
The dimensions indicate that the statues represented emperors or high dignitaries of the<br />
Empire.<br />
The reconstruction of the statues, however, has to date proved impossible. The fragments<br />
probably belonged to one or the other type of statue presented here.<br />
Display case in the central part of the hall :<br />
Marcus Aurelius (2)<br />
Gold bust, discovered in a sewer underneath the Cigognier sanctuary in 1939 (3).<br />
Hammered object. Around AD 180.<br />
The identification of this statue as a portrait of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161<strong>–</strong>180)<br />
was, for a long time, viewed as controversial.<br />
His face, known from a great number of representations, generally shows more slender<br />
proportions. The forehead is far too low, the cheeks are very broad and the hair at the<br />
back of the head is straight. While none of these features correspond with the known<br />
portraits of Marcus Aurelius, the <strong>Avenches</strong> portrait, from the eyebrows downwards, is<br />
consistent with the official image of the emperor during the later years of his life. Marcus<br />
Aurelius never came to Aventicum. He spent approximately 17 of his 19 years of reign<br />
along the Danube, which, at that time, was the most threatened border of the Empire.<br />
The imperial portrait, symbol of divine power, was used in religious services dedicated to<br />
the emperor; in court, it represented his presence and supreme justice.<br />
Religion<br />
(Display cases 19-24)<br />
Oriental Cults<br />
(Display case 19)<br />
From the mid 2nd century AD onwards, the Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> religion began to lose its<br />
appeal and no longer satisfied the profound spiritual needs of the faithful. This<br />
explains the success enjoyed by new cults arriving from the East; they managed to<br />
appease the anguish of people by offering the prospect of eternal life even to the<br />
most deprived.<br />
While the cults of the Egyptian deities Isis and Serapis or that devoted to Jupiter<br />
Amon (display case 19, nos. 1-2) or to Sabazius (display case 19, nos. 3-4) seem to<br />
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<strong>Roman</strong> Religion<br />
have enjoyed limited success in Gaul, the mystery cults of Cybele, Attis and Mithra<br />
attracted a great number of followers.<br />
Display case 19<br />
1. Jupiter Amon. Terra cotta oil lamp.<br />
2. Jupiter Amon, recognizable thanks to his ram’s horns. Decorative piece, bronze.<br />
3. Bronze votive hand dedicated to Sabazius (1). The hand shows a pinecone on the<br />
thumb, the bust of Sabazius on the inside of the hand between the index finger and the<br />
middle finger, and a bust of Mercury between the bent ring finger and the little finger.<br />
A twig is draped along the right outer side of the hand and the wrist is decorated with a<br />
small bell and a snake. On the exterior of the hand there is a bust of Cybele between the<br />
thumb and the index finger, a bust of Bacchus between the index finger and the middle<br />
finger and a ram’s head between the ring finger and the little finger. The back of the hand<br />
shows a lizard, a cantharos, a tortoise and a frog. A reclining woman holding a child is<br />
depicted at the lower end of the wrist. 1st <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries AD.<br />
4. Ceramic vessel, probably from the cults of Sabazius or Mithra. There is a snake wrapped<br />
around each handle while lizards and tortoises are depicted on the body of the vessel.<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> Religion<br />
(Display cases 20-21)<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong>s worshipped many gods in public life as well as in private. Their religion<br />
was rather complicated, as it contained the old <strong>Roman</strong> cults as well as Greek and<br />
Etruscan elements, which are sometimes difficult to tell apart. Besides a multitude<br />
of secondary deities the main gods were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, the Capitoline<br />
triad. Other popular gods were Mars, Venus, Apollo, Mercury and Bacchus.<br />
Religion and mythology in the provinces were not practised in the pure <strong>Roman</strong><br />
form. In fact, <strong>Roman</strong> and native deities merged. It is difficult to tell whether it was<br />
the <strong>Roman</strong>s who blended the native gods they encountered with their own deities,<br />
as did Julius Caesar in Gaul, or whether it was the vice versa.<br />
Some of the best examples of such blending can be found on inscriptions,<br />
which associate the name of a <strong>Roman</strong> god with that of a Gaulish deity like Mercury<br />
Cissonius (display case 24, no. 13), Mars Gradivus (display case 20, no. 13) or Mars<br />
Caisivus (display case 17, no. 6).<br />
Jupiter (display case 20, nos. 1-3 and display case 21) was the supreme deity.<br />
Caesar mentioned him as one of the five main gods of the Gauls. The Jupiter cult<br />
is well documented in this region thanks to inscriptions and numerous depictions.<br />
One of the most common representations shows him on horseback tearing across a<br />
defeated giant holding a flash of lightening in his hand. Such a statue, perched high<br />
up on a column, existed in Aventicum. Jupiter symbolised the victory of the sky god<br />
over the powers of the underworld.<br />
Mercury (display case 20, nos. 4-9, 14) was the patron of travellers and merchants<br />
and, for the Gauls, the inventor of all the arts. According to Julius Caesar he was<br />
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<strong>Roman</strong> Religion<br />
the most important god in Gaul. Mercury can be recognised by his traveller’s hat<br />
(petasus) and the little wings attached to either side of the hat or in his hair, his staff<br />
(caduceus) and the moneybag, which he always grasps tightly.<br />
Bacchus (display case 20, no. 10) was the god of wine; he was accompanied<br />
by Sileni, Satyrs and Maenads (display case 20, nos. 11-12, 15-16). His cult does not<br />
seem to have enjoyed much success in this region, but he was quite popular as<br />
an iconographic subject. He can be recognised by the grapes and vine-leaves<br />
decorating his hair.<br />
Minerva (display case 20, nos. 17-22) was the goddess of justice and wisdom.<br />
According to Julius Caesar, the Gauls considered her to be the protectress of crafts.<br />
She is always represented according to the original Greek pattern, wearing a helmet<br />
and the aegis adorned with the head of Medusa and she always carries a lance and<br />
a shield.<br />
Apollo (display case 20, no. 23), god of the arts and music, was a healing deity<br />
with both the <strong>Roman</strong>s and the Gauls. He was often linked to spas and public<br />
baths. At Aventicum his name is mentioned in an inscription dedicated to doctors<br />
(catalogue of inscriptions: no. 4).<br />
Mars (display case 20, no. 13) was the god of war. He belonged to the five great<br />
deities of the Gauls, but is less frequently represented than Mercury; he is, however,<br />
mentioned in many inscriptions, and his name was often associated with different<br />
bynames of Celtic origin.<br />
Display case 20<br />
1. Bronze eagle associated with Jupiter. 2nd century AD.<br />
2-3. Jupiter. Bronze statuettes. 2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
4. Dedication to Mercury, engraved on a sheet of bronze. 2nd century AD.<br />
Deo Mer[curio Iu[lius Sextus<br />
v(otum) s(oluit) [l(ibens)<br />
m(erito)<br />
« To God Mercury deservedly, Iulius Sextus freely fulfilled his vow »<br />
5. Silver caduceus (Mercury’s staff) (1). Grange des Dîmes sanctuary.<br />
6-8. Mercury. Bronze statuettes.<br />
9. Mercury accompanied by a cock and a goat. Bronze statuette.<br />
10. Bacchus. Bronze statuette. 2nd century AD.<br />
11. Silenus. Bronze statuette (2). Late 2nd century AD.<br />
12. Silenus carrying a goatskin bottle. Bronze statuette.<br />
13. Dedication to Mars Gradivus, engraved on a silver-plated bronze plaque.<br />
Mars Gradive pate[r--hanc<br />
patriam civ[esque---]<br />
inclute bellator[-imperio<br />
monitus m[erito---?]<br />
Sex(tus) Tetricius donum [dedit---?]<br />
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<strong>Roman</strong> Religion<br />
« Mars Gradivus, father ... my mother country and its citizens, ... glorious warrior; as he was<br />
rightly so ordered (?) in his dream, Sextus Tetricius offers you this donation »<br />
Late 2nd or early 3rd century AD.<br />
Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 24.<br />
14. Jasper intaglio. Head of Mercury and two letters: TI, standing for Tiberius?<br />
Early 1st century AD.<br />
15. Nicolo intaglio. Satyr holding a flute in his left hand and a crook (pedum) in his right,<br />
and wearing a fawn skin (nebris). There is a star at the bottom on the right.<br />
Early 1st century AD.<br />
16. Garnet intaglio. Dancer in the retinue of Bacchus. In his right hand, he is holding a<br />
cantharos and he has a fawn skin (nebris) draped over his arm. With his left hand, he is<br />
waving a staff embellished with ribbons (thyrsus). A tipped over wine crater is lying on the<br />
floor on the right-hand side. Early 1st century AD.<br />
17. Cornelian intaglio. Minerva holding a lance in her left hand and the sheath of a sword<br />
in her right. Her shield is placed on the ground in front of her. 2nd century AD.<br />
18. Bronze owl; bird associated with Minerva.<br />
19. Bone pin with bust of Minerva.<br />
20-22. Three bronze coins with Minerva depictions. 1st century AD.<br />
23. Apollo. Bronze statuette. 2nd century AD.<br />
Statue of the Goddess Minerva (1)<br />
Head, right forearm, feet and fingers of the left hand; marble. Original height of statue:<br />
2.8 m.<br />
So-called acrolith statue. Only the visible parts of the statue are sculpted in marble.<br />
Remnants of wood in the groove at the neck and an iron hook on the forearm of the<br />
statue indicate that the rest of the body was probably made of wood and was hidden<br />
under a dress made of cloth. Minerva is wearing armour decorated with a marble head of<br />
Medusa. The helmet on Minerva’s head bears a face with closed eyes.<br />
The fragments of the statue had been carefully buried in a so-called favissa, a type of<br />
ritual ditch inside a building right beside the forum. This building might have been a<br />
library or a meetinghouse. As the goddess of wisdom, of the arts and of science, Minerva<br />
was often placed in that kind of location. 2nd century AD?<br />
The two mosaic glass discs, found nearby, may have been used to decorate a wooden<br />
chest.<br />
Display case 21<br />
Fragment of sitting statuette, limestone. 2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
This representation of Jupiter resembles the cult statue of Jupiter Optimus Maximus,<br />
which stood in the temple of the Capitol in Rome.<br />
This statuette may have adorned a column similar to the one found in Mayence (see<br />
drawing on the other side). Should this assumption be correct, the original height of the<br />
column would have been 3.9 metres approximately.<br />
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The Local Gods<br />
Mythology and Heroes<br />
(Display case 22)<br />
Hercules (display case 22, nos. 1-3) is the equivalent of the Celtic god Ogmios. His<br />
attributes <strong>–</strong> a lion skin and a club <strong>–</strong> were identical to those of Hercules, but he was<br />
depicted as an older man.<br />
The Dioscuri (Display case 22, no. 4), as the twins Castor and Pollux are also<br />
called, were particularly venerated in Gaul as astral gods and the protectors of<br />
navigators and horsemen.<br />
Display case 22<br />
1. Head of Hercules, limestone.<br />
2. Hercules, with a lion skin draped over his arm. Bronze statuette (1).<br />
3. Gilt bronze lion skin, belonging to a statue of Hercules. Late 2nd / early 3rd century AD.<br />
4. Dioscurus. Bronze piece of chariot. 2nd century AD.<br />
The Local Gods<br />
(Display cases 23-24)<br />
Celtic religion, like <strong>Roman</strong> religion, was polytheistic. Due to the lack of written<br />
sources, our knowledge of this religion is based mainly on a text by Julius Caesar<br />
(Gallic Wars Book VI, 17) listing and briefly describing the five great gods of the<br />
Gauls. However, Caesar gave them the names of those <strong>Roman</strong> gods who had<br />
the most similar attributes, so he mentioned Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter and<br />
Minerva.<br />
There were numerous other Gaulish deities, who survived <strong>Roman</strong>isation. In<br />
some cases we do not know their names or functions (display case 23, no. 3). Some<br />
were known everywhere in the <strong>Roman</strong>ised Celtic world like Sucellus (display case 23,<br />
no. 16), Epona (display case 23, nos. 8-9) or Lug (catalogue of inscriptions: no. 2); others<br />
seem to have been more local gods such as Anextlomara (display case 23, no. 1) or<br />
Aventia who gave her name to Aventicum (display case 2, no. 1).<br />
Anextlomara (display case 23, no. 1) means “the great protectress”. She was<br />
associated with the deities of prosperity (display case 23, nos. 10-11 and 13-14).<br />
The Hooded Genius (genius cucullatus) (display case 23, no. 2) was dressed in<br />
traditional Gaulish garments. Fertility and healing were his specialities; he also<br />
accompanied the dead to the hereafter.<br />
Epona (display case 23, nos. 8-9), the equestrian goddess, was extremely popular<br />
with horsemen and, in particular, with soldiers. She was not associated with any<br />
other <strong>Roman</strong> deity. Epona is always represented as an Amazon sitting on her horse.<br />
Female deities of prosperity and fertility. They are represented in various<br />
ways, either as naked young women, whose iconography resembles that of Venus<br />
(display case 23, nos. 10-11), as more mature women holding a cornucopia, which<br />
corresponds with the attributes of Fortuna (display case 23, no. 13), or as mothers or<br />
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The Local Gods<br />
wet-nurses feeding a child (display case 23, no. 14).<br />
The three-horned bull (display case 23, no. 12) was widely known in Gaul; the<br />
third horn symbolises the power of reproduction.<br />
Sucellus (display case 23, no. 16) whose name means ”he who hits hard“ is<br />
holding a mallet in one hand and a vessel in the other; a dog is at his side. Certain<br />
depictions also show him with a barrel or an amphora. Sucellus was the forest god.<br />
In certain regions he was associated with Silvanus. He also seems to have been the<br />
patron of craftsmen.<br />
Display case 23<br />
1. Inscription dedicated to Anextlomara, Celtic deity (1). The use of the Greek letter X<br />
illustrates the Celtic origin of this name.<br />
Anextlomarae / et<br />
Aug(usto) / Public(ius) Aunus<br />
« To Anextlomara and the emperor. Publicius Aunus (erected this monument) »<br />
Limestone. 1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD. Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 25.<br />
2. Limestone head of a genius cucullatus (hooded genius).<br />
3. Bronze bust of a local deity (2). 2nd <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD.<br />
4-5. Iron miniature votive axes (3).<br />
6. Iron miniature votive axe with an engraved X.<br />
7. Bronze miniature votive axe, engraved with Δ.<br />
8. Bronze horse wearing a charm around its neck, probably linked to the goddess Epona.<br />
9. Double-faced terra cotta statuette representing the goddess Epona on her horse (4).<br />
10-11. Female deities linked to Venus. White earthenware statuettes.<br />
12. Three-horned bull in bronze. 1st <strong>–</strong> 2nd centuries AD.<br />
13. Deity of prosperity, linked to the goddess Fortuna. Bronze statuette.<br />
14. Mother goddess. White earthenware statuette.<br />
15. Bull and genius, limestone.<br />
16. Libation scene probably dedicated to the god Sucellus. The upright figure is holding a<br />
bowl; he is wearing a torque, a typical Celtic piece of jewellery around his neck. A second,<br />
kneeling, figure is holding a barrel and a pail closely to his chest. A dog is lying at their<br />
feet. Limestone.<br />
Display case 24<br />
17. Votive deposit consisting of approximately 120 ceramic artefacts (jugs, drinking<br />
cups, stands, lamps) and a limestone altar bearing an inscription dedicated to Mercury<br />
Cissonius.<br />
Deo<br />
Mercur(io) Cisso(nio) L(ucius) C.<br />
Patern(us)<br />
ex voto<br />
« To Mercury Cissonius. Lucius C. Paternus, (erected this monument) after a vow »<br />
Catalogue of inscriptions: no. 26.<br />
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First Floor The Sanctuaries of Aventicum<br />
Housegods and Their Cult: Lararia and Housechapels<br />
The Lares and Penates were of great importance to the <strong>Roman</strong>s as protectors of<br />
house and home. The family altar, lararium, was normally placed in the centre of<br />
the house, in the atrium. Once a day, during the main meal, the head of the family<br />
prayed in front of the statues of various deities. Usually, the god Lar was amongst<br />
these and sometimes also the portrait of an ancestor. A rich lararium (1), discovered<br />
in a private house in Aventicum, is exhibited on the second floor, next to the<br />
entrance to the exhibition room.<br />
The Sanctuaries of Aventicum<br />
As many as seven temples were<br />
located in the area between the hill<br />
of <strong>Avenches</strong> and the theatre (2).<br />
Another temple was situated on the<br />
forum, while two further temples and<br />
a shrine were discovered near the<br />
northeastern exit of the town, opposite<br />
the necropolis of En Chaplix.<br />
The imperial cult was most probably<br />
celebrated in the Cigognier sanctuary<br />
where the gold bust of Marcus Aurelius<br />
was found. To date, it is still unknown<br />
which gods the other temples were<br />
dedicated to.<br />
1 Derrière la Tour Temple<br />
2 Round Temple<br />
3 Grange des Dîmes Temple<br />
4 Cigognier Sanctuary<br />
5 Northern Temple En Lavoëx<br />
6 Southern Temple En Lavoëx<br />
7 Sanctuary ?<br />
8 Amphitheatre<br />
9 Theatre<br />
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First Floor From Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages<br />
From Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages<br />
(Display case 25)<br />
Around the mid 3rd century, the <strong>Roman</strong> Empire began to show signs of a general<br />
weakening. The incursions of the Alamanni in the Swiss midlands from AD 260<br />
onwards, stopped Aventicum from prospering, but did not totally destroy the town.<br />
In our region the <strong>Roman</strong> reign officially ended in AD 455 when Rome gave up its<br />
Germanic provinces. The town retained a certain regional importance and was a<br />
bishop’s see until AD 594.<br />
From the late 3rd century onwards, the inhabited area of Aventicum shrank<br />
to the section between the western gate, the theatre and the amphitheatre.<br />
Archaeological finds dating from the 4th , 5th and 6th centuries are rare. Only a small<br />
number of architectural structures have been found. The fragments of a wall coating<br />
(display case 25, nos. 1-4) show a marble decoration, which may have belonged to a<br />
church or an official building dating from the late 4th or from the 5th century AD.<br />
Everyday life is illustrated by numerous objects (1). The pottery of the<br />
4th century AD (display case 25, nos. 14-19) still included imports while 6th and<br />
7th century pottery seems to have been of local origin (display case 25, nos. 5-6).<br />
Glassware (display case 25, nos. 40-47) was still available. Other objects such as a<br />
comb (display case 25, no. 11), a pin (display case 25, no. 10) and a knife (display case<br />
25, no. 13) were made of bone. Unlike the fibulae exhibited on the second floor of<br />
the museum, which date from the 1st <strong>–</strong> 3rd centuries AD and which were part of the<br />
female wardrobe, the two fibulae (display case 25, nos. 8-9) were garment fasteners<br />
worn exclusively by members of the authorities. A 4th century bronze buckle<br />
(display case 25, no. 12) reflects Frankish culture. Coin finds from that period were<br />
particularly abundant (display case 25, nos. 20-39).<br />
Display case 25<br />
1-4. Marble pilasters. Interior mural decoration. 4th <strong>–</strong> 5th centuries AD.<br />
5-6. Pottery, 6th <strong>–</strong> 7th centuries AD.<br />
7. Fragment of a marble relief depicting a person wearing a coat. 5th century AD ?.<br />
8-9. Bronze fibulae. Late 3rd to 4th centuries AD.<br />
10. Bone pin.<br />
11. Bone comb (2). 4th to 5th centuries AD.<br />
12. Bronze belt buckle with inlaid decoration (3). Frankish. 6th century AD.<br />
13. Knife with bone handle. 4th <strong>–</strong> 5th centuries AD.<br />
14-19. 4th century pottery.<br />
20-39. Coins. Late 3rd <strong>–</strong> 4th centuries AD.<br />
20. Coin depicting she-wolf feeding Romulus and Remus.<br />
40-47. Fragments of glass vessels. 3rd <strong>–</strong> 4th centuries AD.<br />
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Second Floor A Typical <strong>Roman</strong> Town House<br />
Second Floor<br />
A Typical <strong>Roman</strong> Town House<br />
(Display case 1)<br />
This model (1-2) represents an upper-class house of the Mediterranean type<br />
(domus) as is found in Pompeii. This domus covers a quarter of an insula (37 by 55 m)<br />
and is two storeys high. Although it does not exactly correspond to the layout of a<br />
house from Aventicum, it still displays the main elements.<br />
From the open portico (2) facing the street (1), and in the case of merchants’<br />
houses (3-4), containing small shops (tabernae), a passageway leads to the atrium<br />
(5), characterised by an opening in the roof. This central courtyard could be used<br />
for receiving visitors. From there, one had access to the reception rooms (6), some<br />
of which were equipped with floor heating (hypocaustum), or to the private living<br />
quarters of the house (10-14). The area reserved for the family surrounded a garden<br />
(13) bordered by a peristyle (14). The upper storey (9) contained several rooms.<br />
Depending on the importance of the rooms, the walls were decorated with<br />
more or less elaborate wall paintings and the floors were decorated with mosaics or<br />
terrazzo (tessellated flooring).<br />
The roof, which was covered with tiles, had no chimney because the smoke of<br />
the hypocaust could escape through special perforated tiles or directly through the<br />
roof.<br />
Layout of a <strong>Roman</strong> House (3):<br />
1. Street<br />
2. Portico (covered porch)<br />
3. Shop (taberna)<br />
4. Tavern (thermopolium)<br />
5. Interior courtyard (atrium)<br />
6. Heated reception room<br />
7. Heating room (praefurnium)<br />
8. Latrines<br />
9. Staircase leading to the second floor<br />
10. Kitchen<br />
11. Living room<br />
12. Bedroom (cubiculum)<br />
13. Garden<br />
14. Peristyle<br />
15. Partition wall<br />
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Second Floor Clothes and Jewellery<br />
Clothes and Jewellery<br />
(Display case 2)<br />
Just like today, the inhabitants of <strong>Roman</strong> Switzerland adapted their clothes and<br />
shoes to the season, the region and to types of activities as well as their social<br />
environment.<br />
The basic outfit was the tunic, which was worn by men, women and children.<br />
The length of this T-shaped garment could vary; it consisted of two rectangular<br />
pieces of cloth, which covered the body and it had either long or short sleeves.<br />
Clothes were mainly made of linen or wool; leather or fur coats were also worn.<br />
Women’s tunics reached down to the ankles, while young girls and servants wore<br />
them down to their calves. To protect themselves against the cold they wore a cloak<br />
or a shawl and woollen stockings.<br />
Some women held on to traditional Celtic clothing: a dress was worn over a<br />
shirt-like undergarment and held together at the shoulders by fibulae.<br />
Men’s tunics were shorter and stopped at the knee or just below. To protect<br />
themselves against bad weather they had different types of cloaks made of wool<br />
such as the cucullus, a type of short cape with a hood. They protected their legs by<br />
wrapping them in puttees. The toga, a long draped cloth, was reserved for <strong>Roman</strong><br />
citizens; it was used in town during official ceremonies. Craftsmen mainly wore<br />
a short sleeveless tunic, sown together only at the left shoulder so that the arms<br />
could move freely; it was held together with a belt. Children’s tunics reached down<br />
to their knees.<br />
The shoes, made of leather, were open or closed; they could be quite high or<br />
were combined with gaiters. Some shoe soles were studded with hobnails.<br />
Men, women and children liked to wear jewellery, most of which was made of<br />
bronze or gold coloured brass. However, jewellery could also be made of iron, glass,<br />
bone or <strong>–</strong> less frequently <strong>–</strong> silver or gold and it could be decorated with precious<br />
stones.<br />
Fibulae were widely used. They are a type of brooch of Celtic origin, and were<br />
used to pin clothes together at the shoulders and to fasten coats. When sewing<br />
clothes together became more common, the fibulae took on a purely decorative<br />
function (1). Since their shapes evolved during the course of time, fibulae can be<br />
dated rather precisely and represent precious chronological evidence.<br />
The inhabitants of <strong>Roman</strong> Switzerland were fond of beads and pendants.<br />
The latter were not only adornments but may sometimes also have had a special<br />
function as talismans (nos. 98-101). Rings were usually worn on the left hand; rings<br />
with intaglios were used for sealing documents and others were a token of love<br />
(nos. 114-116). Women liked to wear necklaces and bracelets, often in pairs. Unlike<br />
Mediterranean fashion, earrings only became popular from the 3rd century AD<br />
onwards. Hairpins were generally made of bone and held together women’s hair.<br />
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Second Floor Body and Health Care<br />
1-52. Fibulae (brooches) in bronze and silver.<br />
53. Man’s coat; fragment of a bronze statuette.<br />
54-55. Ivory box (copy) with bronze ring.<br />
56. Ivory jewellery (?) box.<br />
57-63. Boxwood bowl with faience beads and a bronze fibula.<br />
64-83. Bronze and bone hairpins.<br />
84. Gold earrings.<br />
85. Bronze necklace with small glass plaques.<br />
86-97. Amber, glass, crystal and jet beads.<br />
98-99. Bronze phallic charms.<br />
100. Silver pendant.<br />
101. Bronze coin, turned into a pendant.<br />
102. Gold necklace with blue glass beads.<br />
102-107. Jet and bronze bracelets.<br />
108-120. Silver, gold, iron, bronze and glass rings (1-2).<br />
121. Bronze statuette of a female dancer.<br />
Body and Health Care (3)<br />
(Display case 3)<br />
Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong>s liked to take care of their bodies. Since houses with running water<br />
were very rare, personal hygiene at home was kept to a minimum. More thorough<br />
personal hygiene was taken care of at public baths where one bathed, had<br />
unwanted hair removed, got a massage or took exercises. Aventicum had at least<br />
three public baths, the oldest dating from AD 29.<br />
Bad body odour was easily camouflaged by perfumes, which were preserved<br />
in small pottery, bronze or glass vessels (nos. 9-19). While the most expensive<br />
perfumes contained exotic products such as cinnamon or myrrh, rose and honey<br />
scents were much more common. Women liked to use make-up according to the<br />
fashion decreed by Rome: pale face, red lips, black eyebrows and painted eyelids.<br />
Various instruments were used to prepare, mix and apply the make-up (nos. 33 and<br />
34, 42-54).<br />
Throughout the entire <strong>Roman</strong> Empire, including Gaul, women always wore<br />
their hair long. Young girls tied it at the neck or plaited it while married women had<br />
more elaborate hairdos. Some even coloured their hair. Men often had their hair,<br />
beard and moustache styled the same as the reigning emperor. Most men went to a<br />
barber for a shave.<br />
Make-up and hairdos were checked with the help of small mirrors consisting<br />
of a polished bronze or silver plaque attached to a handle (nos. 5-7) or placed in a<br />
wooden frame (no. 55).<br />
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Second Floor Body and Health Care<br />
Ancient medicine was developed in Greece, where Hippocrates (460 <strong>–</strong> 370 BC)<br />
was the most famous physician. Both in Rome itself and in the provinces doctors<br />
were often of Greek origin. A great number of practitioners were itinerant; some<br />
worked close to sanctuaries, military hospitals (valetudinarium) or in private<br />
practices (taberna medica). In some towns <strong>–</strong> amongst them Aventicum <strong>–</strong> the doctors’<br />
guild owned a meeting place (schola) (inscription no. 23 on the ground floor; 1). The<br />
profession was also open to women.<br />
Medical training was obtained by working with a renowned doctor for several<br />
years. At the end of this apprenticeship the new doctor knew how to reset a<br />
fracture, amputate a foot or a hand and then cauterize the wound with a red-hot<br />
iron, ligature a blood vessel and operate on a cataract. To carry out these various<br />
operations he would have used scalpels with interchangeable blades (nos. 21-23),<br />
hooks to lift or separate flesh, sounds (tubes) to cauterize or probe wounds (nos. 42-<br />
46), spatulas for scooping out or spreading a product, removing a cyst or even the<br />
whole eye (nos. 42-51).<br />
The best-known medications were eye creams. In fact, the eye doctors in Gaul<br />
even used seals (no. 30; 3), which they pressed into the solid substances. These<br />
stamps usually contained the name of the doctor, the composition of the cream, the<br />
type of medical condition it was to heal and its expected effect. These medicines<br />
were based on plant, metal and animal substances and had to be diluted before<br />
use; some of the components had therapeutic properties, which are still recognised<br />
today.<br />
1-2. Bronze heads.<br />
3. Stone male head (Pan).<br />
4. Iron razor or knife with bone handle.<br />
5-6. Fragments of bronze mirror.<br />
7. Lead back of a mirror depicting the three Graces (2).<br />
8. Bone comb (copy).<br />
9-19. Glass, bronze and ceramic perfume flasks.<br />
20. Bronze ointment mortar.<br />
21-23. Bronze scalpel handles.<br />
24. Bronze medical hook.<br />
25. Bronze needle, used for treating cataract (?).<br />
26. Silver probe with eyelet hole for inserting a thread.<br />
27. Bronze forceps.<br />
28-29. Bronze tweezers.<br />
30-31. Oculist’s stamp (3) with the inscription COE[N?] used for sealing cakes of eye<br />
ointment to identify the type of medicine; small stone grinding plate.<br />
32. Mosaic depicting the face of a woman (personification of summer).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
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Second Floor Games<br />
33-34. Finger-shaped pestle and stone tablet.<br />
35-37. Blue pigment balls from Egypt, amongst other things, used as make-up.<br />
38-39. Glass perfume flasks.<br />
40-41. Glass stirring sticks.<br />
42-51. Bronze sounding rods, used for various purposes.<br />
52-54. Bone toiletries.<br />
55-56. Bronze mirror and stone tablet, found in a grave.<br />
Games<br />
(Display case 4)<br />
In <strong>Roman</strong> times games were widespread. One can distinguish games of chance,<br />
strategy and skill. These three categories were popular with both children and adults.<br />
Games of Chance<br />
Single or multiple dice offered many occasions to defy chance and pass time. Some<br />
dice were manipulated or loaded so that they fell right more often. People have<br />
always tried to cheat in order to win.<br />
Playing knucklebones was very popular (no. 33). Each side of the small bone<br />
from the hind leg of a sheep had a particular shape, which corresponded to a<br />
specific value. The bones were placed on the back of the hand and then thrown off:<br />
The player obtained the points shown on the visible side facing up.<br />
Strategic Games<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong>s particularly appreciated strategic games. They sharpened the mind<br />
and required reflection, foresight and concentration.<br />
Nine Men’s Morris games are regularly found. Just like today it was played by<br />
two players with nine counters each.<br />
The game of twelve lines combined chance and strategy. Two players threw two<br />
or three dice and advanced their 12 or 15 counters across the game board. Discover<br />
the reconstructed game in our museum!<br />
Games of Skill<br />
Many of the games of skill involved items made from organic material, which are<br />
rarely found: spinning tops, hoops and wooden pins, ropes and even nuts, all these<br />
objects are often known only from depictions.<br />
Nuts were omnipresent in children’s games: they built piles, which they had to<br />
hit with another nut, they tried to aim for an amphora, or they painted a triangle on<br />
the ground and divided it into different sections with different values (delta game).<br />
1. Marble head of a child (Amor).<br />
2. Marble head of a girl.<br />
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Second Floor<br />
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Second Floor Textile Production<br />
3. Limestone head of a girl.<br />
4-6. Bone counters.<br />
7-9. Glass counters.<br />
10-12. Counters made from pottery or glass sherds; coin turned into counter.<br />
13-27. Glass, bone and ceramic counters, coin turned into counter (1).<br />
28-30. Bone and bronze dice.<br />
31. Ceramic beaker.<br />
32. Fragment of stone game board used for playing ”Twelve Lines” (p. 49, 1).<br />
33. Five lamb bones for playing knucklebones.<br />
Textile Production (2)<br />
(Display case 5)<br />
In <strong>Roman</strong> times, textiles were used to make clothes, tents, blankets, cushions, sails<br />
for boats, sacks, etc.<br />
Wool and linen were the most widely used materials. Silk was very costly as it<br />
was imported from the Orient and it did not appear before the end of the <strong>Roman</strong><br />
Empire. Hemp was mainly used to make ropes, while cotton from the Orient was a<br />
rare commodity.<br />
First, the raw material was prepared for spinning. The plant fibres were obtained<br />
by soaking, beating and drying processes. Then they were combed like wool; it is<br />
possible that carding combs (no. 37), used to disentangle wool, were also used in<br />
linen production. Once the fibres were organised in strands they were wrapped<br />
around distaffs.<br />
For spinning, the strands placed on the distaff were pulled and twisted in order<br />
to obtain a thread wound around a spindle, which was weighted with a spindle<br />
whorl (nos. 1-9).<br />
Weaving was done on a vertical loom where the warp threads were attached at<br />
the top, and straightened by loom-weights usually made of earthenware (nos. 10-12).<br />
Sometimes, patterns such as squares were woven into the cloth or it was<br />
embroidered or painted.<br />
Various items of clothing were made from the cloth. The clothes were sewn<br />
with iron, bronze or bone needles (nos. 13-36). Thimbles protected the dressmakers’<br />
fingers (no. 38).<br />
1-9. Bone spindles; stone and ceramic spindle whorls, two of which were cut from pottery<br />
sherds.<br />
10-12. Terra cotta loom weights used for tightening the warp threads.<br />
13-36. Iron, bronze and bone needles.<br />
37. Iron carding comb.<br />
38. Bronze thimble (3).<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
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4<br />
5
Second Floor Furniture<br />
Lighting (1)<br />
(Display case 6)<br />
A Gallo-<strong>Roman</strong> house was naturally lit through its doors and only a few windows,<br />
which were closed at night with wooden shutters. Glass windowpanes were only<br />
found in rich private houses and in the public baths. These windowpanes (nos. 3-5)<br />
with side lengths of 20 to 40 cm were fitted into the openings either in wooden<br />
frames or directly with mortar.<br />
For artificial lighting they used lamps made of pottery, bronze or iron with oil or<br />
tallow being used as a burning agent.<br />
Pottery lamps of Mediterranean origin (nos. 13-20) were often decorated and<br />
bore the maker’s stamp (no. 18). The wick was inserted through a closed nozzle<br />
into the oil chamber, where it was soaked in poor quality olive oil. Some metal<br />
lamps had fittings for suspension so that they could be hung from the ceiling or a<br />
candelabrum. Local types of lamps (nos. 8-12, 24) included open bowls with a wick<br />
swimming in tallow protruding from a lip. Candles, placed in ceramic or, sometimes,<br />
metal candlesticks (nos. 9 and 11), were also used to light the interior of the house.<br />
Those who dared to leave the house at night used torches or lanterns.<br />
Drawing of a lantern and a candelabrum<br />
(Not true to scale)<br />
1-2. Legs of a bronze lantern.<br />
3-5. Windowpane fragments.<br />
6-7. Shaft and foot of bronze candelabrum.<br />
8. Iron tallow lamp.<br />
9-12. Ceramic tallow lamps.<br />
13-20. Ceramic oil lamps (2).<br />
21. Arm of bronze lamp in the shape of a panther.<br />
22-23. Bronze oil lamps.<br />
24. Bronze tallow lamp.<br />
25. Bronze candleholder (?) in the shape of a peacock.<br />
Furniture (p. 52, 1)<br />
(Display case 7)<br />
<strong>Roman</strong> furniture included seats, tables, beds, chests and cupboards mainly made of<br />
wood or wickerwork. Practically nothing has survived, with the exception of metal<br />
fittings such as hinges (nos. 25-27), locks (nos. 13 and 14, 19, 36 and 38) or decorative<br />
elements (nos. 1- 6, 15), sometimes made of bone (nos. 29 <strong>–</strong> 32), ivory (nos. 39-42)<br />
or glass (no. 28). Some pieces of furniture could be directly built into the walls<br />
(benches, dining room couches or shelves).<br />
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6<br />
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Second Floor Gardens<br />
There were various types of seats: stools, benches, chairs and armchairs,<br />
sometimes made more comfortable by adding cushions.<br />
The tables placed next to the dining room couches in Mediterranean style were<br />
round and low, while rectangular and high tables, around which one could sit,<br />
represent local custom.<br />
The couches, on which one lay down for meals, were often quite elaborately<br />
decorated with bronze or <strong>–</strong> less frequently <strong>–</strong> bone or ivory fittings and were covered<br />
with mattresses and cushions.<br />
For stowing away ones belongings, one mainly used different sizes of chests, which<br />
were often decorated. In certain houses precious objects or family archives were<br />
placed in a cupboard, the upper part of which could be used as a lararium (small<br />
house altar). Chests and cupboards were closed with locks, some of which had<br />
rather complicated mechanisms (no. 38).<br />
1-5. Bronze busts attached to furniture or doors.<br />
6. Bronze bust, decorating an armrest.<br />
7-12. Iron and bronze keys (2).<br />
13-14. Bolts from iron and bronze locks.<br />
15. Iron decorative element inlaid with gold and copper.<br />
16-18. Bronze handles.<br />
19. Box of silver-plated bronze lock with niello decoration.<br />
20-24. Bronze key rings.<br />
25-27. Bronze, iron and bone furniture hinges.<br />
28-32. Fragments with glass and bone inlay.<br />
33-35. Bronze nails with figurative heads.<br />
36. Bronze lock back plate.<br />
37. Bronze leg of a piece of furniture or a brazier.<br />
38. Lock with bronze and iron key.<br />
39-42. Ivory plates (copies).<br />
Gardens (3)<br />
A great number of the houses in Aventicum included a green space, for instance a<br />
vegetable patch or an ornamental garden. The latter were often situated where they<br />
could be enjoyed from the reception rooms. Decorated round discs (oscilla) (no. 1),<br />
which swung in the wind, were sometimes suspended between the columns of<br />
the portico surrounding the garden. Statues, fountains, stone benches and tables,<br />
water basins or arbours, which could be used as dining rooms in the summer, were<br />
all part of the usual fittings of these gardens. A variety of plants were used to form<br />
geometric patterns.<br />
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2<br />
3<br />
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7
Second Floor Life in Town<br />
Houses<br />
1. Marble disc with mask of river god (p. 52, 3).<br />
2. Alabaster cantharos (p. 52, 3).<br />
Life in Town<br />
The inhabitants of Aventicum, most of whom belonged to the tribe of the Helvetii,<br />
were strongly influenced by <strong>Roman</strong> lifestyle. This became apparent at an early stage<br />
in all areas of everyday life, particularly from the mid 1st century AD onwards.<br />
Houses, construction techniques, interior and exterior decorations as well as<br />
gardens all mirror the infatuation of the local population with <strong>Roman</strong> style.<br />
Town Layout<br />
Like all <strong>Roman</strong> towns, Aventicum was organized into residential quarters of<br />
regulated size, which fitted into an orthogonal grid of streets (1). Each of these<br />
quarters contained approximately 40 regular blocks (lat. insulae) on average<br />
measuring 110 by 75 m. Two main perpendicular roads <strong>–</strong> the cardo (running northsouth)<br />
and the decumanus (running east -west) <strong>–</strong> ran through these quarters. The<br />
forum, which was the civic and religious centre, was situated at their intersection.<br />
Although it is difficult to estimate the density of the population in these “blocks”,<br />
it can, nevertheless, be assumed that approximately 20,000 inhabitants lived in the<br />
ancient city.<br />
In general, a “block” contained between two and six houses; in rare cases one<br />
house could extend over a whole insula.<br />
Houses<br />
In the beginning, the houses were timber-framed constructions with mud<br />
bricks. The foundations consisted of timber sill beams on corner stones and the<br />
roofs were usually thatched.<br />
Towards the mid 1st century AD, houses began to appear, which showed the<br />
influence of the <strong>Roman</strong> style (2) in as much as they were built entirely of stone,<br />
had tiled roofs and plastered or painted walls.<br />
It was only when Aventicum was elevated to the rank of a colony in<br />
the 70s AD, that masonry was commonly used. The traditional indigenous<br />
construction techniques, however, were not entirely replaced.<br />
The size of a house, its amenities, decorations and furniture were determined<br />
by the wealth of its owners. To date, more modest houses have not been very<br />
well researched, because, so far, none have been completely excavated. Most<br />
would have definitely been rather small; they would have included a kitchen,<br />
perhaps a shop facing the street plus perhaps a workshop and a few bedrooms<br />
upstairs. There may have been a vegetable patch in the backyard.<br />
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Second Floor Protective Gods of the Household<br />
It is difficult to estimate the number of people that would have lived in one<br />
house. It can be assumed that there would have been at least three generations:<br />
grandparents, parents and children, but also aunts and uncles, and, of course, all the<br />
servants.<br />
The Interior Decoration of a Room Situated on insula 10 East<br />
Reconstruction of the “White Room” (1)<br />
The walls inside most houses in Aventicum were decorated with either simple or rich<br />
ornaments depending on the function of the rooms and the wealth of the owner.<br />
These murals were found in a room heated by a hypocaust (floor heating). The backs<br />
of the fragments still show traces of the heating system in the walls and the framework of<br />
the vaulted ceiling.<br />
Since limited space in the museum does not permit the reconstruction of the room in<br />
its original height of 3.75 m, the bottom 1.6 m of the wall are not represented.<br />
The floating couple Amor and Psyche are depicted above a window in the back<br />
wall of the room. The long walls are decorated with female heads representing the four<br />
seasons <strong>–</strong> here spring and summer <strong>–</strong> framing a still life consisting of pears and an apple,<br />
which are attributes of the summer. Further still lifes were painted on the vaulted ceiling:<br />
a lemon on the left, a pomegranate and figs on the right, and between them a woman<br />
holding a torch, placed in the centre of a veil draped over a bed of roses.<br />
The style, the artistic technique and the archaeological context date this room, which<br />
was part of a house owned by a wealthy person, to the first third of the 3rd century AD.<br />
Model of the Murals in the “White Room”<br />
The model illustrates how fresco wall paintings were made in a workshop of the<br />
3 rd century AD: A worker is covering the wall with the first layers of mortar, a painter is<br />
applying the colours while the master is discussing the design. The painting is applied on<br />
the topmost and finest layer of mortar, while it is still wet.<br />
This room would have been heated by a hypocaust, a system heating the floor and<br />
the walls. The hot air emanating from a furnace (praefurnium) circulated between two<br />
layers of tile flooring. The lower layer rested on pillars (pilae) between 50 and 70 cm in<br />
height and set at original intervals. The hot air could also move up through the walls in<br />
vertical flue tiles (tubuli) fitted into the walls.<br />
Scale 1:10.<br />
Protective Gods of the Household<br />
The six bronze statuettes (2) belong to a small domestic altar (lararium) from<br />
insula 27. Such altars were usually placed either in the atrium (inner courtyard), in<br />
the peristyle garden or sometimes in the kitchen.<br />
These statuettes of <strong>Roman</strong> deities represent (from top to bottom and left to right)<br />
Fortuna, Minerva, Juno, another Minerva, Mercury and Lar to ensure the protection<br />
of the family members during their daily routine. This group was assembled<br />
between the 1 st and 2 nd centuries AD.<br />
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2<br />
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Second Floor Pottery<br />
Pottery<br />
An indispensable tool for archaeologists as regards ...<br />
... Quantities<br />
Hundreds and even thousands of sherds come to light in every excavation. The<br />
palace Derrière La Tour for instance extended over an area of approximately<br />
7,000 m 2 and provided more than 80,000 sherds representing approximately<br />
20,000 vessels.<br />
... a Means for Dating Other Finds<br />
Pottery has several traits that make it one of the most reliable chronological tools.<br />
It does not really decay and is often found in a good state of preservation by the<br />
archaeologists; even after having been buried for several thousands of years it<br />
generally shows very little change.<br />
Pottery is very susceptible to fashion trends. Since the material is fragile, the<br />
objects break easily and must, therefore, be frequently replaced. Thus, it is easy<br />
to observe the evolution of shapes and decorations over the years. Unlike objects<br />
made of glass or metal, pottery was not recycled.<br />
... its Various Uses<br />
Pottery provides us with information about many sectors of everyday life: eating<br />
habits (kitchen and tableware), storage (storage vessels), transportation of food<br />
(amphorae), lighting (lamps), cosmetics and hygiene (perfume and ointment<br />
bottles), writing (inkwell), crafts (paint pots, crucibles, moulds and other potter’s<br />
accessories), games and toys (counters, dolls, small animals), construction (tiles,<br />
pipes, hearths, floors).<br />
An Important Contribution Towards the Understanding of Local History<br />
In the study of imported tableware on the one hand and of amphorae on the other,<br />
pottery gives us indications as regards commercial trends. Amphorae served as<br />
containers for transporting all kinds of goods (olive oil, wine, exotic fruit, fish sauce)<br />
from the Mediterranean area (Italy, Greece, North Africa, Near East).<br />
The study of pottery produced in local workshops informs us about the needs of the<br />
population, fashion trends and technological progress.<br />
Pottery tells us about the preparation of meals and eating habits, hygiene and body<br />
care, lighting and all sorts of aspects of everyday life (piggy-banks, inkwells, etc.).<br />
Sometimes pottery even supplies the names of the potters who produced it or<br />
those of the workshop owners.<br />
Graffiti found on certain vessels tell us about their contents, about writing and they<br />
give us names of the local inhabitants who marked their crockery.<br />
The study of the shapes and decorations also offers information on regional<br />
predilections and trends, which the local people were exposed to.<br />
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Second Floor Kitchen and Tableware<br />
Kitchen and Tableware<br />
(Display case 8)<br />
Upon the arrival of the <strong>Roman</strong>s, the local population <strong>–</strong> while continuing to use their<br />
traditional kitchen and tableware <strong>–</strong> began to adopt new types of vessels, which<br />
were either imported or inspired by Mediterranean customs: mortaria, jugs, terra<br />
sigillata pottery. It seems that wooden vessels were not very popular and were<br />
mainly used by poorer people. Pottery, most abundant and best known thanks to<br />
numerous discoveries made practically all over <strong>Roman</strong> Switzerland, was used by<br />
everybody and at all times. Coarser tableware was mainly used by people from the<br />
lower and middle classes, while imported fine ware like terra sigillata, was rather<br />
expensive and probably bought only by the middle and upper classes. The same<br />
applies to bronze and brass objects. There is no doubt that besides gold, silver was<br />
the most valuable material. During certain periods, glass was also highly sought<br />
after and certain objects were traded at the price of silver items.<br />
1-3. Bronze serving platters.<br />
4-16. Silver, bronze and bone spoons.<br />
17. Combined foldable spoon and knife with a bronze handle in the shape of a lion; the<br />
blade of the knife is missing.<br />
18-20. Pewter, bronze and ceramic serving bowls.<br />
21-23. Silver, glass and ceramic bowls.<br />
24. Glass serving bowl.<br />
25-26. Glass and ceramic serving bowls.<br />
27-28. Glass storage vessels.<br />
29. Glass goblet.<br />
30. Ash wood plate.<br />
31. Iron ladle.<br />
32-35. Iron kitchen knives (?) with bone and bronze handles.<br />
36-38. Handle fittings of bronze vessels.<br />
39. Handles of a bronze pail.<br />
40-43. Glass beakers and cup.<br />
44-45. Earthenware and glass folded beakers.<br />
46. Silver beaker decorated with two scenes: ship builders at work and fishermen (2).<br />
1st century AD.<br />
47-49. Bronze and glass perfume flasks.<br />
48. Flask decorated with two scenes linked to the Dionysos myth (p. 57, 1).<br />
2nd-1st centuries BC.<br />
50-54. Glass drinking cups.<br />
55-62. Mosaic glass vessel fragments.<br />
63-67. Handles from bronze jugs.<br />
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2<br />
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Second Floor Food<br />
Drinking and Eating<br />
68. Bunch of grapes made of bronze.<br />
69. Bronze authepsa, used to keep liquids warm by putting hot coal into its interior<br />
compartment.<br />
70-72. Square glass bottles.<br />
73-75. Neck and handle of glass bottle.<br />
Food<br />
The <strong>Roman</strong> period differed from previous times because of the abundance and<br />
diversity of foods available. North of the Alps, however, the staple diet was still<br />
cereals, vegetables and legumes.<br />
A Big Market<br />
With the <strong>Roman</strong> conquest, new types of food, which were rare and unknown to<br />
the indigenous population, appeared on the local markets. These were mainly<br />
luxury products coming from distant regions. Oysters were imported from the<br />
Mediterranean or Atlantic coasts; olive oil, olives, fish and shellfish-based sauces,<br />
mackerel, figs, dates, pine kernels, and pomegranates originated from different<br />
Mediterranean countries as well as nuts and grapes, which were grown locally<br />
probably from the 1 st century AD onwards. Cinnamon, pepper, ginger, cardamom,<br />
aniseed, oriental caraway, sesame, and rice <strong>–</strong> all these products were imported from<br />
India, Arabia or Ethiopia.<br />
Drinking and Eating<br />
The main cereals grown locally were barley, spelt, millet and wheat. These provided<br />
flour for baking wafers and bread or for preparing porridge (puls).<br />
Most people cooked with animal fat (lard) or, less frequently, with butter. Olive oil,<br />
imported in large quantities from southern Spain, was mainly used by wealthy people.<br />
However, oil produced locally from linseed or poppy seed was still used as well.<br />
Honey was used to sweeten food, especially for baking cakes and pastry as well<br />
as for preparing various sauces. The dishes were often spiced with aromatic sauces<br />
(garum) based on fish and shellfish pickled in salt. Salt came from saline springs or<br />
rock salt mines; along the coastlines sea salt was used.<br />
Coriander, aniseed, celery and indigenous caraway were the most frequently<br />
used spices and aromatic plants in this region. There is little evidence of fennel, pine<br />
kernels, wild basil, mustard, poppies and garlic as well as marjoram / oregano, wild<br />
thyme, verbena and mint.<br />
With the arrival of the <strong>Roman</strong>s wine quickly became popular, but beer, the<br />
traditional Gaulish beverage, remained much appreciated in this region. The most<br />
widespread and renowned type was barley ale based on spelt. They also drank mead,<br />
a beverage made of fermented wheat, water and honey.<br />
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Second Floor Food<br />
The Table of the Poorer People<br />
The Table of the Poorer People<br />
The staple diet of poor people consisted of puls, a porridge based on cereals, bread<br />
and legumes especially beans and lentils. In addition, they used various aromatic<br />
herbs and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, amaranth, mountain spinach, celery,<br />
sorrel, lamb’s lettuce, turnips and beetroot.<br />
Types of fruit that were eaten by people of all classes included apples, pears,<br />
cherries, plums, nuts, hazelnuts, wild strawberries, raspberries, blackberries and<br />
elderberries. Mushrooms were also much appreciated.<br />
Places of production of the major<br />
foodstuffs in <strong>Roman</strong> times<br />
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Second Floor Food<br />
Eating Habits<br />
The consumption of cheese was widespread if one chooses to believe the<br />
ancient texts, which particularly praise alpine cheese. Earthenware cheese moulds<br />
found during excavations provide evidence of cheese production.<br />
Meat such as pork, mutton, goat and less frequently poultry and fish were added<br />
to the menu as a treat on festive days.<br />
The Table of the Wealthy<br />
The best pieces of meat were reserved for the richest, who liked to eat lamb, poultry<br />
and venison. They also appreciated luxury food such as oysters and mackerel from<br />
the Mediterranean as well as “exotic” products such as pepper, melons, dates,<br />
almonds, pine kernels, garlic, bottle gourds and olives. It is certain that peaches,<br />
grapes and figs were also on the menu of the middle classes. In this region there is<br />
evidence of fishing from the 1 st century AD onwards.<br />
The Kitchen<br />
The kitchens discovered in the area were very simple. In most cases they were<br />
situated in a room at ground level with a hearth in the centre. Food was cooked in<br />
different types of vessels, which were either placed directly on the embers or on a<br />
tripod. Food was sometimes also prepared in a cauldron suspended above the fire<br />
on a hook attached to a wooden stand that could be rotated.<br />
Small supplies of honey, fruit, vegetables or dried herbs as well as certain spices<br />
and condiments were kept in storage vessels in the kitchen. More substantial<br />
supplies for the winter months were stored in amphorae or dolia (large earthenware<br />
jars) in appropriate storage rooms.<br />
Eating Habits<br />
The living quarters of poorer families were usually so cramped that the meals could<br />
not be eaten lying down; as a rule, there was no separation between the kitchen<br />
and the room where the meals were eaten.<br />
On the other hand, the villae and town houses of the rich had separate dining<br />
rooms (triclinium), which usually contained three couches arranged in a U shape<br />
(lectus triclinaris). Each couch provided room for three people.<br />
The dining room floors were often covered with mosaics and the walls were<br />
decorated with different types of murals.<br />
Women generally sat on a chair next to the couches while children and servants<br />
ate elsewhere.<br />
The different dishes were put on a small table in the middle. People usually ate<br />
with their fingers. They did not use forks or knives, but some used small spoons with<br />
pointed handles.<br />
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Second Floor Food<br />
Types of Tableware<br />
Types of Tableware<br />
Vegetables and stews as well as the various sauces accompanying <strong>Roman</strong> dishes<br />
were served in bowls of different sizes. Different types of small dishes were used<br />
for spices, herbs, salt and condiments. Meat, poultry, venison, fish, vegetables, fruit<br />
or cakes were served on boards or plates. Wine and water was served in ceramic or<br />
glass bottles or jugs. The latter were occasionally made of bronze or silver. Beakers<br />
of various sizes were used for drinking water, wine, cider, milk or beer. Cups and<br />
small casks were widely used; they often bore inscriptions referring to wine such as<br />
“Fill the glass, landlord, pour!” or “I am the king of drinkers”.<br />
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