AUGUST 2023

along the Euphrates River to unite all of southern
Mesopotamia. The Hammurabi code of laws, a collection
of 282 rules, established standards for commercial
interactions and set fines and punishments
to meet the requirements of justice.
Hammurabi’s Code, which established the principle
of “an eye for an eye,” was carved onto a massive,
black stone stele (pillar). It laid the groundwork
for subsequent legal systems, marking a significant
milestone in the development of legal justice.
Mathematics & Astronomy
Mesopotamians were pioneers in mathematics and
astronomy, making numerous groundbreaking
contributions in these fields. They were the first to
develop a numerical system based on sixty, one we
still use today to count units of time. They also developed
advanced arithmetic techniques including
multiplication, division, and the concept of zero.
These mathematical advancements enabled accurate
astronomical calculations and played a vital
role in various aspects of daily life. Mesopotamian
astronomers mapped the stars, observed celestial
bodies, and created the first known astronomical
calendars.
Trade & Commerce
Mesopotamians were pioneers in long distance
trade and commerce. They established extensive
trade routes and connected not only with Egypt
but regions as far away as the Indus Valley. Regular
trade made it possible to plan purchases ahead and
develop relationships with vendors.
Their use of the clay tablet for record-keeping
along with standardizing weights and measures
made commercial transactions possible and laid the
groundwork for a global trading system.
City-States
Another of Mesopotamia’s most noteworthy achievements
was the development of the city-state system.
Around 3000 BCE, city-states such as Uruk, Ur, and
Lagash emerged, each with their own centralized
government and complex administrative structures.
By 3000 BC, Uruk was a walled city of over two
square miles with about 1,000 inhabitants. These
early city-states represented the first instances of
urbanization, where dense populations settled in
a central location, establishing the groundwork for
future urban planning.
Centralized Planning
Mesopotamia’s cities were marvels of urban planning
and engineering. They constructed monumental
structures, such as ziggurats and temples, which
served as religious and administrative centers. Ur,
Babylon, and Nineveh were imperial capitals known
throughout the ancient world.
Centers of innovation and learning, these cities
were where priests trained, poems and tales were
studied and copied, laws were created, international
treaties agreed upon, and financial contracts
signed. When Alexander the Great conquered
Mesopotamia in 331 BC, Babylon was considered
the most spectacular of all cities.
Art & Architecture
Architecture on a grand scale is generally credited
to have begun under the Sumerians, with
religious structures dating back to 3400 B.C. The
buildings are noted for their arched doorways and
flat roofs.
The society’s technical sophistication is evidenced
in elaborate construction, such as terra
cotta ornamentation with bronze accents, complicated
mosaics, imposing brick columns and
sophisticated mural paintings. Sculpture was
used mainly to adorn temples. Facing a scarcity
of stone, Sumerians made leaps in metal-casting
for their sculpture work, though relief carving in
stone was a popular art form.
Ziggurats began to appear around 2200 B.C.
These impressive pyramid-like, stepped temples,
which were either square or rectangular, stood
nearly two hundred feet high and featured no inner
chambers. Ziggurats often featured sloping
sides and terraces with gardens.
The ‘hanging gardens’ were built in Nineveh
by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Scholars today
have largely abandoned the idea of the Babylon gardens,
which are attributed to errors made by Greek
historians.
Sennacherib also built an aqueduct from the
mountains north of Assyria to transport water into
the growing city of Nineveh. The engineering feat
was so spectacular that it can still be seen through
Google Earth.
First Royalty
Sumerians introduced us to the concept of royalty
and declared that the king (literally “great man”)
was descended from Heaven. The ruler’s primary
obligation was to lead in battle, please the gods
through temple building and offerings, maintain
city walls and irrigation canals, and enforce justice.
Sumerians were organized as a patchwork of
city-states until Sargon of Akkad established the
first true and lasting empire, one that all future
Mesopotamian kings would emulate. The strongest
dynasties, those of Ur, the Babylonian kings Hammurabi
and Nebuchadnezzar II, and the kings of Assyria
saw invasions from the Iranian highlands and
tribal nomads from the northwest, but these invaders
for the most part adopted and sustained Mesopotamian
culture.
Tablet with
a Bilingual
Dictionary from
King Ashurbanipal’s
Library, Neo-Assyrian
period, 668–627 BC, terracotta. Musée du Louvre,
Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, Paris.
Agriculture
Mesopotamians developed sophisticated irrigation
systems, including canals and levees, to control
and distribute water for agriculture. These achievements
in urban planning and infrastructure laid
the foundation for future city development and resource
management.
Mesopotamians pioneered innovative agricultural
techniques to sustain their growing population.
They utilized irrigation systems to control the
flow of water, improving crop yields and supporting
surplus food production. They also introduced the
use of the plow, enhancing agricultural efficiency.
These advancements in agriculture allowed for the
establishment of larger settlements and facilitated
the growth of complex societies.
Legacy Left
In his 1988 book History Begins at Sumer, author
Samuel Noah Kramer identifies 39 “firsts” that
originated with the Sumerians, including the first
schools, first Great Flood story, first heroic epic story,
first historian, first library catalog, first aquarium,
and first lullaby.
Visionaries and trailblazers who left an indelible
mark on human civilization through their pioneering
achievements, Mesopotamians influenced current
culture to a remarkable degree. By pushing the
boundaries of human knowledge and ingenuity, the
Mesopotamians created a legacy that will continue
to endure.
Today, the descendants of ancient Mesopotamians
— Chaldeans, or Assyrians or Syriacs — take
pride in their heritage both in their native homeland
and throughout the world, where they have been
forced to disperse due to persecution.
PHOTO © MUSÉE DU LOUVRE, DIST. RMN-GRAND PALAIS.
AUGUST 2023 CHALDEAN NEWS 27