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along the Euphrates River to unite all of southern<br />
Mesopotamia. The Hammurabi code of laws, a collection<br />
of 282 rules, established standards for commercial<br />
interactions and set fines and punishments<br />
to meet the requirements of justice.<br />
Hammurabi’s Code, which established the principle<br />
of “an eye for an eye,” was carved onto a massive,<br />
black stone stele (pillar). It laid the groundwork<br />
for subsequent legal systems, marking a significant<br />
milestone in the development of legal justice.<br />
Mathematics & Astronomy<br />
Mesopotamians were pioneers in mathematics and<br />
astronomy, making numerous groundbreaking<br />
contributions in these fields. They were the first to<br />
develop a numerical system based on sixty, one we<br />
still use today to count units of time. They also developed<br />
advanced arithmetic techniques including<br />
multiplication, division, and the concept of zero.<br />
These mathematical advancements enabled accurate<br />
astronomical calculations and played a vital<br />
role in various aspects of daily life. Mesopotamian<br />
astronomers mapped the stars, observed celestial<br />
bodies, and created the first known astronomical<br />
calendars.<br />
Trade & Commerce<br />
Mesopotamians were pioneers in long distance<br />
trade and commerce. They established extensive<br />
trade routes and connected not only with Egypt<br />
but regions as far away as the Indus Valley. Regular<br />
trade made it possible to plan purchases ahead and<br />
develop relationships with vendors.<br />
Their use of the clay tablet for record-keeping<br />
along with standardizing weights and measures<br />
made commercial transactions possible and laid the<br />
groundwork for a global trading system.<br />
City-States<br />
Another of Mesopotamia’s most noteworthy achievements<br />
was the development of the city-state system.<br />
Around 3000 BCE, city-states such as Uruk, Ur, and<br />
Lagash emerged, each with their own centralized<br />
government and complex administrative structures.<br />
By 3000 BC, Uruk was a walled city of over two<br />
square miles with about 1,000 inhabitants. These<br />
early city-states represented the first instances of<br />
urbanization, where dense populations settled in<br />
a central location, establishing the groundwork for<br />
future urban planning.<br />
Centralized Planning<br />
Mesopotamia’s cities were marvels of urban planning<br />
and engineering. They constructed monumental<br />
structures, such as ziggurats and temples, which<br />
served as religious and administrative centers. Ur,<br />
Babylon, and Nineveh were imperial capitals known<br />
throughout the ancient world.<br />
Centers of innovation and learning, these cities<br />
were where priests trained, poems and tales were<br />
studied and copied, laws were created, international<br />
treaties agreed upon, and financial contracts<br />
signed. When Alexander the Great conquered<br />
Mesopotamia in 331 BC, Babylon was considered<br />
the most spectacular of all cities.<br />
Art & Architecture<br />
Architecture on a grand scale is generally credited<br />
to have begun under the Sumerians, with<br />
religious structures dating back to 3400 B.C. The<br />
buildings are noted for their arched doorways and<br />
flat roofs.<br />
The society’s technical sophistication is evidenced<br />
in elaborate construction, such as terra<br />
cotta ornamentation with bronze accents, complicated<br />
mosaics, imposing brick columns and<br />
sophisticated mural paintings. Sculpture was<br />
used mainly to adorn temples. Facing a scarcity<br />
of stone, Sumerians made leaps in metal-casting<br />
for their sculpture work, though relief carving in<br />
stone was a popular art form.<br />
Ziggurats began to appear around 2200 B.C.<br />
These impressive pyramid-like, stepped temples,<br />
which were either square or rectangular, stood<br />
nearly two hundred feet high and featured no inner<br />
chambers. Ziggurats often featured sloping<br />
sides and terraces with gardens.<br />
The ‘hanging gardens’ were built in Nineveh<br />
by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Scholars today<br />
have largely abandoned the idea of the Babylon gardens,<br />
which are attributed to errors made by Greek<br />
historians.<br />
Sennacherib also built an aqueduct from the<br />
mountains north of Assyria to transport water into<br />
the growing city of Nineveh. The engineering feat<br />
was so spectacular that it can still be seen through<br />
Google Earth.<br />
First Royalty<br />
Sumerians introduced us to the concept of royalty<br />
and declared that the king (literally “great man”)<br />
was descended from Heaven. The ruler’s primary<br />
obligation was to lead in battle, please the gods<br />
through temple building and offerings, maintain<br />
city walls and irrigation canals, and enforce justice.<br />
Sumerians were organized as a patchwork of<br />
city-states until Sargon of Akkad established the<br />
first true and lasting empire, one that all future<br />
Mesopotamian kings would emulate. The strongest<br />
dynasties, those of Ur, the Babylonian kings Hammurabi<br />
and Nebuchadnezzar II, and the kings of Assyria<br />
saw invasions from the Iranian highlands and<br />
tribal nomads from the northwest, but these invaders<br />
for the most part adopted and sustained Mesopotamian<br />
culture.<br />
Tablet with<br />
a Bilingual<br />
Dictionary from<br />
King Ashurbanipal’s<br />
Library, Neo-Assyrian<br />
period, 668–627 BC, terracotta. Musée du Louvre,<br />
Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, Paris.<br />
Agriculture<br />
Mesopotamians developed sophisticated irrigation<br />
systems, including canals and levees, to control<br />
and distribute water for agriculture. These achievements<br />
in urban planning and infrastructure laid<br />
the foundation for future city development and resource<br />
management.<br />
Mesopotamians pioneered innovative agricultural<br />
techniques to sustain their growing population.<br />
They utilized irrigation systems to control the<br />
flow of water, improving crop yields and supporting<br />
surplus food production. They also introduced the<br />
use of the plow, enhancing agricultural efficiency.<br />
These advancements in agriculture allowed for the<br />
establishment of larger settlements and facilitated<br />
the growth of complex societies.<br />
Legacy Left<br />
In his 1988 book History Begins at Sumer, author<br />
Samuel Noah Kramer identifies 39 “firsts” that<br />
originated with the Sumerians, including the first<br />
schools, first Great Flood story, first heroic epic story,<br />
first historian, first library catalog, first aquarium,<br />
and first lullaby.<br />
Visionaries and trailblazers who left an indelible<br />
mark on human civilization through their pioneering<br />
achievements, Mesopotamians influenced current<br />
culture to a remarkable degree. By pushing the<br />
boundaries of human knowledge and ingenuity, the<br />
Mesopotamians created a legacy that will continue<br />
to endure.<br />
Today, the descendants of ancient Mesopotamians<br />
— Chaldeans, or Assyrians or Syriacs — take<br />
pride in their heritage both in their native homeland<br />
and throughout the world, where they have been<br />
forced to disperse due to persecution.<br />
PHOTO © MUSÉE DU LOUVRE, DIST. RMN-GRAND PALAIS.<br />
<strong>AUGUST</strong> <strong>2023</strong> CHALDEAN NEWS 27