David Hume on God ed by David W Purdie and Peter S Fosl sampler
David Hume’s writings on history, politics and philosophy have shaped thought to this day. His bold scepticism ranged from common notions of the ‘self’ to criticism of standard theistic proofs. He insisted on grounding understandings of popular religious beliefs in human psychology rather than divine revelation, and he aimed to disentangle philosophy from religion in order to allow the former to pursue its own ends. In this book, Professors David W Purdie and Peter S Fosl decipher some of Hume’s most challenging texts for the modern reader, while preserving the sharp intellect and undaunted nerve for which Hume is famous. Hume’s spirit is brought alive for contemporary times and his writing is made accessible for its intended audience: the general public.
David Hume’s writings on history, politics and philosophy have shaped thought to this day. His bold scepticism ranged from common notions of the ‘self’ to criticism of standard theistic proofs. He insisted on grounding understandings of popular religious beliefs in human psychology rather than divine revelation, and he aimed to disentangle philosophy from religion in order to allow the former to pursue its own ends.
In this book, Professors David W Purdie and Peter S Fosl decipher some of Hume’s most challenging texts for the modern reader, while preserving the sharp intellect and undaunted nerve for which Hume is famous. Hume’s spirit is brought alive for contemporary times and his writing is made accessible for its intended audience: the general public.
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
‘Sirius of the Scottish Enlightenment’<br />
Philosopher; Historian; Essayist; Extrovert; Executive Chef; b<strong>on</strong> viveur<br />
Friend to: Benjamin Franklin <strong>and</strong> Adam Smith<br />
Foe to: Autocracy, Oligarchy <strong>and</strong> religious Bigotry<br />
Francophile: Student in Anjou, Diplomat in Paris<br />
Advocat<strong>ed</strong>: Fre<strong>ed</strong>om of Trade, Speech <strong>and</strong> the Press<br />
Supporter of Independence for the Americans<br />
Believer in <strong>God</strong>, but not in Miracles or Prophecy<br />
Admir<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong>: Einstein, Voltaire <strong>and</strong> Kant<br />
Citizen of Edinburgh’s New Town <strong>and</strong> Saviour of Princes Street...<br />
In this book you will find <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s thought <strong>and</strong> arguments unalter<strong>ed</strong> – but<br />
with his mellifluous prose now attir<strong>ed</strong> in 21st century dress. Take him home <strong>and</strong>,<br />
as he suggests, apporti<strong>on</strong> your belief solely to the evidence present<strong>ed</strong>. Above all,<br />
follow his lifel<strong>on</strong>g fight with superstiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> ignorance – but nb ignore his<br />
hallux aureus.*<br />
DAVID W PURDIE was born privately in Prestwick <strong>and</strong> <strong>ed</strong>ucat<strong>ed</strong> publicly at<br />
Ayr Academy <strong>and</strong> Glasgow University. He is a Professor Emeritus of Hull<br />
University <strong>and</strong> is presently an H<strong>on</strong>. Fellow of the Institute for Advanc<strong>ed</strong><br />
Studies in the Humanities of the University of Edinburgh, where his field<br />
is the history <strong>and</strong> philosophy of the 18th century. <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> is Editor-in-Chief<br />
of The Burns Encyclopa<strong>ed</strong>ia, which covers the life <strong>and</strong> work of the poet<br />
Robert Burns, <strong>and</strong> <strong>ed</strong>itor of Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe <strong>and</strong> The Heart of<br />
Midlothian, both adapt<strong>ed</strong> for the modern reader. He is a former Chairman<br />
of the Sir Walter Scott Club. In n<strong>on</strong>-academic mode, he is the co-author of<br />
The Ancyent & Healthfulle Exercyse, a history of golf, <strong>and</strong> of The Dean’s<br />
Diaries, an exposé of the goings-<strong>on</strong> at the (ficti<strong>on</strong>al) St Andrew’s College<br />
in Edinburgh.<br />
<strong>Peter</strong> S <strong>Fosl</strong> is Professor of Philosophy at Transylvania University in Lexingt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Kentucky, where he chairs the PPE program. <strong>Fosl</strong> is co-<strong>ed</strong>itor of<br />
the Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary of Literary Biography volumes <strong>on</strong> the history of British<br />
* golden big toe!
Philosophy, co-author with Julian Baggini of The Philosopher’s Toolkit<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ethics Toolkit, <strong>and</strong> he is author of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Scepticism: Pyrrh<strong>on</strong>ian <strong>and</strong><br />
Academic (forthcoming with Edinburgh University Press). <strong>Fosl</strong> has publish<strong>ed</strong><br />
numerous articles <strong>on</strong> the history of philosophy <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> popular culture. He<br />
was a Fulbright student in Edinburgh <strong>and</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fellow of the<br />
University of Edinburgh’s Institute for Advanc<strong>ed</strong> Studies in the Humanities<br />
(IASH) during the 2013–4 academic year.
<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>God</strong><br />
Select<strong>ed</strong> Works Newly Adapt<strong>ed</strong><br />
for the Modern Reader<br />
Edit<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
DAVID W PURDIE <strong>and</strong> PETER S FOSL
First publish<strong>ed</strong> 2019<br />
ISBN: 978- 1- 913025- 06- 9<br />
The paper us<strong>ed</strong> in this book is recyclable. It is made from low<br />
chlorine pulps produc<strong>ed</strong> in a low energy, low emissi<strong>on</strong> manner from<br />
renewable forests.<br />
Print<strong>ed</strong> <strong>and</strong> bound <strong>by</strong> Ashford Colour Press, Gosport<br />
Typeset in 11 point Sab<strong>on</strong> <strong>by</strong> Lapiz<br />
The authors’ right to be identifi<strong>ed</strong> as authors of this work under the<br />
Copyright, Designs <strong>and</strong> Patents Act 1988 has been assert<strong>ed</strong>.<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> adaptati<strong>on</strong> © <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> W <strong>Purdie</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Peter</strong> S <strong>Fosl</strong>
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Timeline <strong>and</strong> Publicati<strong>on</strong>s 7<br />
Editors’ Preface 9<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong>12<br />
The Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong> 15<br />
Dialogues C<strong>on</strong>cerning Natural Religi<strong>on</strong> 82<br />
Of Miracles 172<br />
Of A Particular Providence <strong>and</strong> of A Future State 195<br />
Of Superstiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Enthusiasm 209<br />
Of Suicide 215<br />
Of the Immortality of the Soul 223<br />
Endnotes231
<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Timeline <strong>and</strong> Publicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
1711 Born in Edinburgh<br />
1721– 5 Studies at the University of Edinburgh<br />
1735– 7 Studies at Collège La Flèche, Anjou, France<br />
1739– 40 A Treatise of Human Nature (3 Vols.)<br />
1741– 2 Essays Moral <strong>and</strong> Political (2 Vols.)<br />
1745 Fails to gain the Chair of Moral Philosophy, Edinburgh<br />
1745– 6 Tutor to Marquis of Ann<strong>and</strong>ale<br />
1746– 7 Secretary to Gen. James St Clair. Assault <strong>on</strong> Lorient<br />
1748 Secretary of St Clair’s embassy to Vienna <strong>and</strong> Turin<br />
An Enquiry C<strong>on</strong>cerning Human Underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
A True Account of the Behaviour of Archd. Stewart Esq.<br />
1749– 51 At family seat of Ninewells, Scottish Borders<br />
1751 An Enquiry C<strong>on</strong>cerning the Principles of Morals<br />
1752– 3 Riddle’s L<strong>and</strong>, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh<br />
1752– 7 Keeper of the Advocates’ Library<br />
1753– 62 Resident in Jack’s L<strong>and</strong>, Can<strong>on</strong>gate, Edinburgh<br />
1752 Political Discourses<br />
1753 Essays <strong>and</strong> Treatises <strong>on</strong> Several Subjects. 4 Vols.<br />
1754– 62 The History of Great Britain: 4 Vols.<br />
1757 The Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong>. In: Four Dissertati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
1762– 71 Resident in James’s Court, Lawnmarket. Edinburgh<br />
1763– 6 Secretary, then Chargé d’Affaires, British Embassy, Paris<br />
1766 Escorts Jean- Jacques Rousseau to Engl<strong>and</strong>
8<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
1767– 8 Under- Secretary of State, Northern Department<br />
1769 Retirement to Edinburgh<br />
1771– 6 Resident at St Andrew Sq., New Town, Edinburgh<br />
1776 Death of <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1777 My Own Life<br />
1779 Dialogues C<strong>on</strong>cerning Natural Religi<strong>on</strong><br />
1783 Of Suicide <strong>and</strong> Of the Immortality of the Soul
Editors’ Preface<br />
david hume was a massive figure of the Enlightenment, both intellectually<br />
<strong>and</strong> physically. This brightest star in that c<strong>on</strong>stellati<strong>on</strong> of genius was<br />
describ<strong>ed</strong> in Bertr<strong>and</strong> Russell’s magisterial History of Western Philosophy<br />
as the greatest philosopher ever to write in the English language.<br />
A true polymath, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was also an historian, an essayist <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omics<br />
<strong>and</strong> politics, a diplomat <strong>and</strong> senior civil servant, who often entertain<strong>ed</strong><br />
friends <strong>and</strong> neighbours in Scotl<strong>and</strong>, Paris <strong>and</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>. A jovial host <strong>and</strong><br />
chef de cuisine, he spread the best table <strong>and</strong> kept the finest wine cellar<br />
in Edinburgh’s elegant New Town. Here he receiv<strong>ed</strong> guests such as the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omist Adam Smith, the jurist Lord Kames <strong>and</strong> the first American poly -<br />
math Ben Franklin. They were regal<strong>ed</strong> with wit, anecdote, philosophy<br />
<strong>and</strong> Soupe à la Reine, its recipe a present from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s French ladyfriend<br />
Marie- Charlotte Hyppolyte de Campet de Sauj<strong>on</strong>, Comtesse de Boufflers-<br />
Rouverel, no less.<br />
Born in 1711 into a family of minor Border gentry whose estate of<br />
Ninewells lay close to the Berwickshire town of Chirnside, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was<br />
<strong>ed</strong>ucat<strong>ed</strong> privately <strong>and</strong> then at the University of Edinburgh. Rejecting<br />
the law as a professi<strong>on</strong>, he decamp<strong>ed</strong> to Paris, Rheims <strong>and</strong> finally to the<br />
Loire valley in Anjou. There, after several years of study at the Collège<br />
Royal de La Flèche he publish<strong>ed</strong> in 1739, still ag<strong>ed</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 28, A Treatise of<br />
Human Nature his first great work of philosophy. This was an attempt<br />
to introduce into human affairs the then evolving empirical methods of<br />
scientific enquiry pi<strong>on</strong>eer<strong>ed</strong> in Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>by</strong> Francis Bac<strong>on</strong>, John Locke <strong>and</strong><br />
Isaac Newt<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There follow<strong>ed</strong> a series of Essays <strong>on</strong> moral <strong>and</strong> political <strong>and</strong> subjects<br />
<strong>and</strong> then his two great Enquiries. The first, An Enquiry C<strong>on</strong>cerning Human<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing (1748) was a revisi<strong>on</strong> of Part i of his original Treatise while<br />
his revisi<strong>on</strong> of Part ii, An Enquiry into the Principals of Morals (1751) was,<br />
in his own words, ‘of all my works, unquesti<strong>on</strong>ably the best.’ It was while<br />
the latter Enquiry was in press that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<strong>ed</strong> drafts of the two<br />
books <strong>on</strong> religi<strong>on</strong> which are at the core of the present work. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> carri<strong>ed</strong>
10<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
out a major critique of religious theory <strong>and</strong> practice <strong>on</strong> two broad fr<strong>on</strong>ts<br />
<strong>and</strong> in two major works: first, in the Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong> (1757),<br />
he examin<strong>ed</strong> the origin of religious beliefs <strong>and</strong> observances in human societies.<br />
In his subsequent Dialogues C<strong>on</strong>cerning Natural Religi<strong>on</strong>, publish<strong>ed</strong><br />
posthumously in 1779, he enquir<strong>ed</strong>: do such beliefs <strong>and</strong> behaviours have a<br />
foundati<strong>on</strong> in Reas<strong>on</strong>?<br />
In Secti<strong>on</strong> x of his Enquiry C<strong>on</strong>cerning Human Underst<strong>and</strong>ing (1748)<br />
which was entitl<strong>ed</strong> Of Miracles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> had examin<strong>ed</strong> the phenomen<strong>on</strong><br />
of miraculous occurrences, while in Secti<strong>on</strong> xi, entitl<strong>ed</strong> Of a Particular<br />
Providence <strong>and</strong> of a Future State, he address<strong>ed</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
existence of a definable <strong>and</strong> executive Deity <strong>and</strong> of an afterlife. In Four<br />
Dissertati<strong>on</strong>s (1757), his Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong> was publish<strong>ed</strong><br />
al<strong>on</strong>gside three Essays: On the Passi<strong>on</strong>s, On Trag<strong>ed</strong>y <strong>and</strong> On the St<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
of Taste. His initial intenti<strong>on</strong> had been to publish five essays, including<br />
On Suicide <strong>and</strong> On the Immortality of the Soul, but when advance<br />
copies of this work provok<strong>ed</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderable alarm am<strong>on</strong>g his friends as<br />
well as his publisher, Andrew Millar, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> had them remov<strong>ed</strong>. An allegati<strong>on</strong><br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sider<strong>ed</strong> the soul to be mortal, ie to perish at death,<br />
had been <strong>on</strong>e of the six ‘Rem<strong>on</strong>strances’ mount<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> the Kirk, successfully,<br />
against his 1745 applicati<strong>on</strong> for the Chair of Moral Philosophy at<br />
the University of Edinburgh.<br />
The central issue of whether religious belief has a logical foundati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
address<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> in his Dialogues c<strong>on</strong>cerning Natural Religi<strong>on</strong> (1779). It<br />
takes the form of a report, <strong>by</strong> an observer, of the dialogue between three ficti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
discussants examining the questi<strong>on</strong> of the existence <strong>and</strong>, in particular,<br />
the nature of a Deity.<br />
Loosely bas<strong>ed</strong> <strong>on</strong> Cicero’s celebrat<strong>ed</strong> De Natura Deorum (On the Nature<br />
of the <strong>God</strong>s), <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s participants in the Dialogues are:<br />
Demea, an orthodox believer who advances arguments a priori;<br />
Cleanthes, advocating the ‘Argument <strong>by</strong> Design’ ie a posteriori;<br />
Philo, a sceptic whose positi<strong>on</strong>s are generally close to those of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sider<strong>ed</strong> too sensitive for publicati<strong>on</strong> in his lifetime, the ms was c<strong>on</strong>sign<strong>ed</strong><br />
to his literary executor Adam Smith who likewise withheld it from<br />
the public. In 1779, some three years after <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s death it was finally publish<strong>ed</strong><br />
<strong>by</strong> his advocate nephew <strong>and</strong> namesake, later Professor of Scots Law<br />
at the University of Edinburgh.
Editors’ Preface11<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> kept his central religious positi<strong>on</strong>s to himself. He was no theist,<br />
but no atheist either. Most likely he was a mitigat<strong>ed</strong> deist, believing as do<br />
many scientists today, that some as yet undetermin<strong>ed</strong> agency trigger<strong>ed</strong> the<br />
massive det<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> subsequent inflati<strong>on</strong> of the ‘singularity’, popularly<br />
the Big Bang, which produc<strong>ed</strong> the Universe around us.<br />
In 1763, the perceptive Sir James MacD<strong>on</strong>ald of Sleat, Bar<strong>on</strong>et, wrote<br />
home from Paris where his friend ‘le b<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was Secretary to our<br />
Embassy, saying,<br />
poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>, who <strong>on</strong> your side of the water was thought to have too little<br />
religi<strong>on</strong>, is here thought to have too much…<br />
As always, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was the pers<strong>on</strong>ificati<strong>on</strong> of his own ‘just man, who proporti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
belief to the evidence.’ That evidence is set out in this work <strong>on</strong><br />
all aspects of religious belief <strong>and</strong> activity. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> invites you to be just – ie<br />
just that!
Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
a central problem for the n<strong>on</strong>- specialist reader over the works of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
today is that his mellifluous 18th century prose appears strange to our eyes<br />
<strong>and</strong> ears in terms of syntax, grammar <strong>and</strong> punctuati<strong>on</strong>. Sentences can be<br />
very l<strong>on</strong>g; commas terminate each phrase; sentences often end with the verb,<br />
as in German, while main <strong>and</strong> subordinate clauses jockey with each other<br />
for prec<strong>ed</strong>ence. These difficulties are relatively minor <strong>and</strong> may be obviat<strong>ed</strong><br />
without disturbing in any way the majestic flow of the man’s thought <strong>and</strong><br />
argument. There is, however, a much more serious problem: the very meaning<br />
of the words deploy<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
We may be clear <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>temporary 18th century meanings of all<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s terms through Samuel Johns<strong>on</strong>’s Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary of the English Language<br />
(1755) publish<strong>ed</strong> two years before The Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong><br />
(nhr) <strong>and</strong> available through the Advocates Library in Edinburgh of which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was the Keeper.<br />
Johns<strong>on</strong>’s title page proclaims the Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary to be a work:,<br />
In which the WORDS are d<strong>ed</strong>uc<strong>ed</strong> from their ORIGINALS<br />
AND<br />
ILLUSTRATED in their DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS<br />
Johns<strong>on</strong> was unwittingly stating the present problem. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s texts illustrate<br />
the different significati<strong>on</strong>s of words between his day <strong>and</strong> ours. The<br />
lapse of two <strong>and</strong> a half centuries has brought some dramatic <strong>and</strong> many subtle<br />
changes in the precise meaning of many of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s substantives, verbs,<br />
adjectives <strong>and</strong> adverbs. To remain true to his intent, the modern reader’s<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> requires to be drawn to shifts in meaning significant enough (nb<br />
the word’s own shift) to derail the flow of argument.<br />
Finally, it is clear both from his letters to his L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> publisher William<br />
Strahan <strong>and</strong> from his repeat<strong>ed</strong> revisi<strong>on</strong>s to his texts that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> himself was<br />
much c<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>ed</strong> with enhancing the lucidity of his work. We have sought to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinue that process <strong>by</strong> the following dual approach.
Introducti<strong>on</strong>13<br />
It is worth pointing out that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> himself <strong>ed</strong>it<strong>ed</strong> the texts of others.<br />
In Secti<strong>on</strong> xiii of the Natural History, an extract from Vol. ii of Chevalier<br />
Ramsay’s Philosophical Principles of Natural <strong>and</strong> Reveal<strong>ed</strong> Religi<strong>on</strong> has<br />
been alter<strong>ed</strong> both stylistically <strong>and</strong> to a lesser degree in substance.<br />
TL Beauchamp, <strong>ed</strong>itor of the Clarend<strong>on</strong> Editi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s works, states<br />
that his <strong>ed</strong>iting was ‘progressive’ over the eight <strong>ed</strong>iti<strong>on</strong>s of the Natural<br />
History of Religi<strong>on</strong> which appear<strong>ed</strong> in his lifetime.<br />
The problem of modernising a classic text for a modern readership is not<br />
new. It was articulat<strong>ed</strong> 22 centuries ago <strong>by</strong> Cicero, <strong>on</strong>e of whose dialogues,<br />
De natura deorum (On the Nature of the <strong>God</strong>s), serv<strong>ed</strong> as <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s<br />
models for his own Dialogues. In his Brutus, a history of Greek <strong>and</strong> Roman<br />
oratory Cicero says:<br />
Why must the works of Lysias <strong>and</strong> Hyperides 1 be so f<strong>on</strong>dly court<strong>ed</strong>, while<br />
Cato 2 is overlook<strong>ed</strong>? His language inde<strong>ed</strong> has an antiquat<strong>ed</strong> air… but that<br />
was the language of his time. If we change <strong>and</strong> modernise it, add improvements<br />
of number <strong>and</strong> cadence, give an easier turn to his sentences <strong>and</strong> regulate<br />
the structure <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> of his words… you will discover no- <strong>on</strong>e<br />
who can claim the preference to Cato… 3<br />
Throughout his life, <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinually revis<strong>ed</strong> his works to enhance their<br />
lucidity as describ<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> his fellow philosopher <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omist Adam Smith, also<br />
his literary executor. Here, Smith writes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s publisher William Strahan in<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> just after the philosopher’s death in the summer of 1776:<br />
Up<strong>on</strong> his return to Edinburgh… he c<strong>on</strong>tinu<strong>ed</strong> to divert himself, as usual,<br />
with correcting his works for a new Editi<strong>on</strong>. He felt that satisfacti<strong>on</strong> so sensibly<br />
when reading, a few days before, Lucian’s Νεκρικοι διαλογοι [Dialogues<br />
of the Dead]. Am<strong>on</strong>g all the excuses to Char<strong>on</strong> for not entering his boat, he<br />
could not find <strong>on</strong>e that fitt<strong>ed</strong> him…<br />
He divert<strong>ed</strong> himself with inventing jocular excuses he might make to<br />
Char<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> with imagining the surly answers.<br />
‘Good Char<strong>on</strong>, I have been correcting my works for a new <strong>ed</strong>iti<strong>on</strong>. Allow<br />
me a little time, that I may see how the public receives the alterati<strong>on</strong>s.’ But<br />
Char<strong>on</strong> would answer,<br />
‘When you have seen the effect of these, you will be for making other alterati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
There will be no end of such excuses; Step into the boat!’<br />
1 Two of the ten celebrat<strong>ed</strong> Greek ‘Attic Orators’ of the 5th <strong>and</strong> 4th centuries bce.<br />
2 M. Porcius Cato (The elder) 234– 149 bce. Statesman, moralist <strong>and</strong> orator.<br />
3 M. Tullius Cicero, Brutus, 67.
14<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
To paraphrase <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s subtitle to his Treatise of Human Nature, 1 this<br />
work is an attempt to introduce an experimental method of r<strong>ed</strong>acti<strong>on</strong> into<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>an subjects.<br />
Primary revisi<strong>on</strong>s were propos<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> a grammarian (<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>Purdie</strong>). Each<br />
revisi<strong>on</strong> was then critically examin<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> a professi<strong>on</strong>al philosopher <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> scholar (<strong>Peter</strong> <strong>Fosl</strong>) charg<strong>ed</strong> with ensuring that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s original intenti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> flow of argument are undisturb<strong>ed</strong>. Emendati<strong>on</strong> was kept to the<br />
absolute minimum requir<strong>ed</strong> for restorati<strong>on</strong> of clarity. For example, italicisati<strong>on</strong><br />
was us<strong>ed</strong> solely to maintain fidelity to the argument. We thus present a<br />
translati<strong>on</strong> of his works <strong>on</strong> religi<strong>on</strong> into modern English, while c<strong>on</strong>serving<br />
the streaming <strong>and</strong> precisi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s original thought. Also c<strong>on</strong>serv<strong>ed</strong>, we<br />
trust, is the eloquence <strong>and</strong> lucidity of the original, together with the literary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text of the neo- classical era of its compositi<strong>on</strong>. To this end, footnotes<br />
accompany those terms whose meaning has shift<strong>ed</strong> since <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> put quill to<br />
parchment. Virtually all footnot<strong>ed</strong> references to shifts of meaning, represent<strong>ed</strong><br />
<strong>by</strong> asterisks throughout, cite Samuel Johns<strong>on</strong>’s Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary of the English<br />
Language (SJ).<br />
The project underlying this book was stimulat<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> an exchange during<br />
the Press C<strong>on</strong>ference at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tercentenary Colloquium in 2011 at<br />
the University of Edinburgh. A journalist ask<strong>ed</strong> why <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s works were<br />
little read now <strong>by</strong> the general public for whom he wrote. He was told that<br />
although <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> wrote with great clarity, he did so in the language of the<br />
mid- 18th century. Subsequent evoluti<strong>on</strong> in English grammar, syntax <strong>and</strong><br />
punctuati<strong>on</strong> plus alterati<strong>on</strong>s in meaning <strong>and</strong> purposive expressi<strong>on</strong>, had<br />
veil<strong>ed</strong> his works from modern eyes. Undeterr<strong>ed</strong>, the journalist then ask<strong>ed</strong><br />
what was being d<strong>on</strong>e about this. To this there was no answer.<br />
What follows, therefore, is what the present <strong>ed</strong>itors did about it. The<br />
central purpose is to open to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s original target audience his writings<br />
<strong>on</strong> religious affairs; a subject which was of central importance to him – <strong>and</strong><br />
which remains of perennial interest to humankind.<br />
1 An Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reas<strong>on</strong>ing into Moral Subjects.
The Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>ed</strong>itors’ note: The text of <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s d<strong>ed</strong>icati<strong>on</strong> of this work to his<br />
friend <strong>and</strong> cousin 1 is unalter<strong>ed</strong>. In the interests of clarity, some footnotes<br />
have been provid<strong>ed</strong>.<br />
TO: The Reverend Mr <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Author of Douglas, a Trag<strong>ed</strong>y.<br />
My Dear Sir,<br />
It was the practice of the antients to address their compositi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong>ly to<br />
friends <strong>and</strong> equals, <strong>and</strong> to render their d<strong>ed</strong>icati<strong>on</strong>s m<strong>on</strong>uments of regard <strong>and</strong><br />
affecti<strong>on</strong>, not of servility <strong>and</strong> flattery. In those days of ingenious <strong>and</strong> c<strong>and</strong>id<br />
liberty, a d<strong>ed</strong>icati<strong>on</strong> did h<strong>on</strong>our to the pers<strong>on</strong> to whom it was address<strong>ed</strong>,<br />
without degrading the author. If any particular appear<strong>ed</strong> towards the patr<strong>on</strong>,<br />
it was at least the partiality of friendship <strong>and</strong> affecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Another instance of true liberty, of which antient times can al<strong>on</strong>e afford<br />
us an example, is the liberty of thought that engag<strong>ed</strong> men of letters, however<br />
different in their abstract opini<strong>on</strong>s, to maintain a mutual friendship <strong>and</strong><br />
regard; <strong>and</strong> never to quarrel about principles, while they agre<strong>ed</strong> in inclinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> manners. Science was often the subject of disputati<strong>on</strong>, never<br />
of animosity. Cicero, an Academic, 2 address<strong>ed</strong> his philosophical treatises,<br />
sometimes to his close friends Brutus, a Stoic; 3 or to Atticus, an Epicurean.<br />
1 Rev John Home (1722– 1808), minister of Athelstaneford, E. Lothian <strong>and</strong> cousin of <str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>. His play, Douglas: a Trag<strong>ed</strong>y, open<strong>ed</strong> successfully in Edinburgh in 1756, to the<br />
pious <strong>and</strong> vociferous outrage of the c<strong>on</strong>servative wing of the Kirk.<br />
2 The term ‘academic’ in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s time had acquir<strong>ed</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>notati<strong>on</strong> of ‘sceptic’. Here, ‘academic’<br />
associates Cicero with the philosophers of Plato’s Academy in Athens who had<br />
taken a sceptical directi<strong>on</strong>. These were: Philo of Larissa (c.154– c.84 bce), a teacher of Cicero’s;<br />
Clitomachus (187– 110 bce); Carneades (c.214– c.129 bce) <strong>and</strong> Arcesilaus (c.315– 240<br />
bce) before him. Cicero, more eclectic than sceptic, was, however, str<strong>on</strong>gly influenc<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
scepticism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> was an avid reader of Cicero.<br />
3 A follower of the philosopher Zeno of Citium (c.334– c.262 bce).
16<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
I have been seiz<strong>ed</strong> with a str<strong>on</strong>g desire of renewing these laudable<br />
practices of antiquity, <strong>by</strong> addressing the following dissertati<strong>on</strong>s to you, my<br />
good friend: For such I will ever call <strong>and</strong> esteem you, notwithst<strong>and</strong>ing the<br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong>, which prevails between us, with regard to many of our speculative<br />
tenets. These differences of opini<strong>on</strong> I have <strong>on</strong>ly found to enliven our<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>; while our comm<strong>on</strong> passi<strong>on</strong> for science <strong>and</strong> letters serv<strong>ed</strong> as a<br />
cement to our friendship. I still admir<strong>ed</strong> your genius, even when I imagin<strong>ed</strong>,<br />
that you lay under the influence of prejudice; <strong>and</strong> you sometimes told me,<br />
that you excus<strong>ed</strong> my errors, <strong>on</strong> account of the c<strong>and</strong>our <strong>and</strong> sincerity, which,<br />
you thought, accompani<strong>ed</strong> them.<br />
But to tell truth, it is less my admirati<strong>on</strong> of your fine genius, which has<br />
engag<strong>ed</strong> me to make this address to you, than my esteem of your character<br />
<strong>and</strong> my affecti<strong>on</strong> to your pers<strong>on</strong>. That generosity of mind which ever accompanies<br />
you; that cordiality of friendship, that spirit<strong>ed</strong> h<strong>on</strong>our <strong>and</strong> integrity,<br />
have l<strong>on</strong>g interest<strong>ed</strong> me str<strong>on</strong>gly in your behalf, <strong>and</strong> have made me desirous,<br />
that a m<strong>on</strong>ument of our mutual amity should be publicly erect<strong>ed</strong>, <strong>and</strong>, if<br />
possible, be preserv<strong>ed</strong> to posterity.<br />
I own too, that I have the ambiti<strong>on</strong> to be the first who shall in public<br />
express his admirati<strong>on</strong> of your noble trag<strong>ed</strong>y of Douglas; <strong>on</strong>e of the most<br />
interesting <strong>and</strong> pathetic pieces that was ever exhibit<strong>ed</strong> <strong>on</strong> any theatre.<br />
Should I give it preference to the Merope of Maffei, 1 <strong>and</strong> to that of<br />
Voltaire, 2 which it resembles in its subject; should I affirm, that it c<strong>on</strong>tain<strong>ed</strong><br />
more fire <strong>and</strong> spirit than the former, more tenderness <strong>and</strong> simplicity than<br />
the latter; I might be accus<strong>ed</strong> of partiality: And how could I entirely acquit<br />
myself, after the professi<strong>on</strong>s of friendship, which I have made you? But the<br />
unfeign<strong>ed</strong> tears which flow<strong>ed</strong> from every eye, in the numerous representati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
which were made of it <strong>on</strong> this theatre; the unparallel<strong>ed</strong> comm<strong>and</strong>,<br />
which you appear<strong>ed</strong> to have over every affecti<strong>on</strong> of the human breast:<br />
These are inc<strong>on</strong>testable proofs, that you possess the true theatrical genius of<br />
Shakespeare <strong>and</strong> Otway, 3 refin<strong>ed</strong> from the unhappy barbarism of the <strong>on</strong>e,<br />
<strong>and</strong> licentiousness of the other.<br />
1 Francesco Scipi<strong>on</strong>e Marchese di Maffei, Italian dramatist <strong>and</strong> classical scholar. His verse<br />
trag<strong>ed</strong>y Merope was stag<strong>ed</strong> at Modena in 1713.<br />
2 Voltaire’s play Mérope appear<strong>ed</strong> in 1743. In Greek mythology, Merope was a Queen of<br />
Messenia, in the Pelop<strong>on</strong>nese.<br />
3 Thomas Otway (1652– 85) Restorati<strong>on</strong> dramatist. His most celebrat<strong>ed</strong> work was Venice<br />
Preserv’d (1682).
The Natural History of Religi<strong>on</strong>17<br />
My enemies, you know, <strong>and</strong>, I own, even sometimes my friends, have<br />
reproach<strong>ed</strong> me with the love of paradoxes <strong>and</strong> singular opini<strong>on</strong>s; <strong>and</strong><br />
I expect to be expos<strong>ed</strong> to the same imputati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong> account of the character,<br />
which I have here given of your Douglas. I shall be told, no doubt, that I had<br />
artfully chosen the <strong>on</strong>ly time, when this high esteem of that piece could be<br />
regard<strong>ed</strong> as a paradox, to wit, before its publicati<strong>on</strong>; <strong>and</strong> that not being able<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>tradict in this particular the sentiments of the public, I have, at least,<br />
resolv<strong>ed</strong> to go before them. But I shall be amply compensat<strong>ed</strong> for all these<br />
pleasantries, if you accept this testim<strong>on</strong>y of my regard, <strong>and</strong> believe me to be,<br />
with the greatest sincerity,<br />
Dear Sir,<br />
Your most affecti<strong>on</strong>ate Friend & humble Servant,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>David</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Edinburgh, 3 Jan. 1757<br />
introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
While every enquiry regarding religi<strong>on</strong> is of the utmost importance, there are<br />
two questi<strong>on</strong>s in particular that challenge our attenti<strong>on</strong>: the questi<strong>on</strong> of religi<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
foundati<strong>on</strong> in reas<strong>on</strong>; <strong>and</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> of its origin in human nature.<br />
Happily, the first <strong>and</strong> most important questi<strong>on</strong> is also provid<strong>ed</strong> with the<br />
most obvious, or at least the clearest, soluti<strong>on</strong>. The whole fabric of Nature<br />
attests an intelligent Author. After serious reflecti<strong>on</strong>, no rati<strong>on</strong>al enquirer can<br />
suspend belief for a moment in the primary principles* of genuine theism 1<br />
<strong>and</strong> religi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
But the sec<strong>on</strong>d questi<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>cerning the origin of religi<strong>on</strong> in human<br />
nature, presents greater difficulty. Belief in invisible, intelligent power is diffus<strong>ed</strong><br />
generally am<strong>on</strong>g humanity at all places <strong>and</strong> in all ages. 2 However, it<br />
has neither been so universal as to preclude excepti<strong>on</strong>s, nor has it been to<br />
any degree uniform in the ideas that it has suggest<strong>ed</strong>. If travellers <strong>and</strong> historians<br />
may be believ<strong>ed</strong>, some nati<strong>on</strong>s have been discover<strong>ed</strong> that actually<br />
* Principles: Primordial substance; original cause. SJ<br />
1 The belief in a single, universal, creative Deity, actively engag<strong>ed</strong> in human affairs.<br />
2 Comm<strong>on</strong>ly known as the ‘c<strong>on</strong>sensus gentium’ (c<strong>on</strong>sensus of the people) argument for the<br />
existence of <strong>God</strong>.
18<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
entertain no sentiments* of religi<strong>on</strong>. 1 Furthermore, no two nati<strong>on</strong>s – <strong>and</strong><br />
scarcely any two people – have ever found their beliefs <strong>on</strong> the subject to<br />
agree precisely.<br />
It would appear, therefore, that religious sentiment does not spring from<br />
an original instinct or primary impressi<strong>on</strong> of human nature, such as that<br />
giving rise to self- love, affecti<strong>on</strong> between the sexes, love of progeny <strong>and</strong> gratitude<br />
or resentment. This is because every <strong>on</strong>e of this class of instincts has<br />
been found to be absolutely universal in all nati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> ages, as well as being<br />
invariably found in inflexible pursuit of a precisely determin<strong>ed</strong> objective.<br />
The most basic religious principles must thus be sec<strong>on</strong>dary. As such,<br />
they may easily be pervert<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> various accidents** <strong>and</strong> causes. Also, their<br />
operati<strong>on</strong> may be entirely prevent<strong>ed</strong> in some cases <strong>by</strong> an extraordinary c<strong>on</strong>currence<br />
of circumstances. What those principles are that give rise to original<br />
religious belief <strong>and</strong> what are those accidents <strong>and</strong> causes that direct its<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>, is the subject of our present enquiry.<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> i:<br />
That Polytheism was the primary Religi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
It appears to me that if we c<strong>on</strong>sider the improvement of human society from<br />
its rude beginnings to states of greater perfecti<strong>on</strong>, polytheism, or idolatry,<br />
was <strong>and</strong> necessarily must have been, the first religi<strong>on</strong> of humanity. 2 This<br />
opini<strong>on</strong> I shall attempt to c<strong>on</strong>firm <strong>by</strong> the following arguments.<br />
It is an inc<strong>on</strong>testable matter of fact that 1,700 years ago, all humankind<br />
were polytheists. 3 The doubtful <strong>and</strong> sceptical principles of a few philosophers,<br />
or the theism (a n<strong>on</strong>e too pure theism) of <strong>on</strong>e or two nati<strong>on</strong>s, form no<br />
objecti<strong>on</strong> worth regarding. Behold then, the clear testim<strong>on</strong>y of history. The<br />
farther we move back into antiquity, the more we find humanity plung<strong>ed</strong><br />
* Sentiment: Thought; Noti<strong>on</strong>; Opini<strong>on</strong>. SJ<br />
** Accident: That which happens unforeseen; <strong>by</strong> chance. SJ<br />
1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>and</strong> John Locke were aware of the religi<strong>on</strong>- free ‘Topinamboues’, properly the<br />
Tupinamba people of coastal Brazil, describ<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> the German explorer Hans Staden in his<br />
Wahrhaftige Historia, or True History (1557).<br />
2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes uses polytheism <strong>and</strong> idolatry syn<strong>on</strong>ymously. However, he c<strong>on</strong>sistently<br />
regards polytheism as idolatrous, but not idolatry as invariably polytheistic; eg in his<br />
History of Engl<strong>and</strong>, he reports that the Mass in general <strong>and</strong> the alleg<strong>ed</strong> transubstantiati<strong>on</strong><br />
of bread <strong>and</strong> wine in the Eucharist are held <strong>by</strong> Protestants to be ‘idolatry’.<br />
3 Probably an underestimate. Many scholars place the era of the biblical patriarchs:<br />
Abraham, Isaac <strong>and</strong> Jacob, in the Interm<strong>ed</strong>iate Br<strong>on</strong>ze Age, c.2200– 1800 bce.
the natural history of religi<strong>on</strong> 19<br />
into polytheism. There are no marks or symptoms of any more perfect*<br />
religi<strong>on</strong>. The most ancient records of the human race present us with the<br />
polytheistic system as the popular <strong>and</strong> establish<strong>ed</strong> cre<strong>ed</strong>. The north, the<br />
south, the east <strong>and</strong> the west give unanimous testim<strong>on</strong>y to the fact. Can there<br />
be any oppositi<strong>on</strong> to such comprehensive evidence?<br />
As far back as writing or history reaches, humankind in ancient times<br />
appears universally to have been polytheistic. Shall we assert that in still<br />
more ancient times, before the knowl<strong>ed</strong>ge of letters or the discovery of any<br />
art or science, people entertain<strong>ed</strong> the principles of pure theism? 1 In other<br />
words, shall we assert that, while still ignorant <strong>and</strong> barbarous, they discover<strong>ed</strong><br />
truth, but fell into error as so<strong>on</strong> as they acquir<strong>ed</strong> learning <strong>and</strong> politeness?<br />
Such an asserti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tradicts all appearances not <strong>on</strong>ly of probability,<br />
but also our present experience c<strong>on</strong>cerning the principles <strong>and</strong> opini<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
barbarous nati<strong>on</strong>s. The native tribes of America, Africa <strong>and</strong> Asia are all<br />
idolaters. There is not a single excepti<strong>on</strong> to this rule.<br />
Inde<strong>ed</strong>, let a traveller visit any unknown regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> find its inhabitants<br />
cultivat<strong>ed</strong> in the arts <strong>and</strong> sciences. While <strong>on</strong> that account there would still be<br />
odds against their being theists, the point could not be establish<strong>ed</strong> without<br />
further inquiry. However, were the inhabitants found to be ignorant <strong>and</strong><br />
barbarous, then without any religious enquiry the traveller might declare<br />
them idolaters with scarcely the possibility of error.<br />
It seems certain that according to the natural progressi<strong>on</strong> of human<br />
thought, people must first entertain a grovelling, familiar noti<strong>on</strong> of superior<br />
powers before advancing to the c<strong>on</strong>cept of <strong>on</strong>e perfect Being who bestow<strong>ed</strong><br />
order <strong>on</strong> the whole frame** of Nature. We may just as reas<strong>on</strong>ably imagine<br />
that people inhabit<strong>ed</strong> palaces before huts, or studi<strong>ed</strong> geometry before agriculture;<br />
as assert that the Deity appear<strong>ed</strong> to them a pure spirit, omniscient,<br />
omnipotent <strong>and</strong> omnipresent, before being c<strong>on</strong>ceiv<strong>ed</strong> as a powerful, though<br />
limit<strong>ed</strong>, Being with human passi<strong>on</strong>s***, appetites, limbs <strong>and</strong> organs. The<br />
mind ascends gradually from inferior to superior. By abstracting from what<br />
is imperfect, it forms an idea of perfecti<strong>on</strong>. Slowly distinguishing the nobler<br />
parts of its own frame from the grosser, it learns to transfer <strong>on</strong>ly the former<br />
parts, now much elevat<strong>ed</strong> <strong>and</strong> refin<strong>ed</strong>, to its Divinity.<br />
* Perfect: Finish<strong>ed</strong>; complete; c<strong>on</strong>summate. nb also fully inform<strong>ed</strong>. SJ<br />
** Frame: Fabric; System; Order. SJ<br />
*** Passi<strong>on</strong>s: Any of the affecti<strong>on</strong>s [emoti<strong>on</strong>s] of human nature: Love; Fear; Joy; Sorrow. SJ<br />
1 ie M<strong>on</strong>otheism.
20<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
Nothing could disturb this natural progress of thought, except some<br />
obvious <strong>and</strong> invincible argument that might lead the mind straight to the<br />
pure principles of theism <strong>by</strong> making it leap over, at <strong>on</strong>e bound, the vast gulf<br />
between the human <strong>and</strong> the divine nature. I accept that the order <strong>and</strong> frame<br />
of the Universe affords just such an argument when accurately examin<strong>ed</strong>.<br />
However, I cannot believe that this c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> could have influenc<strong>ed</strong><br />
humankind when forming its first crude noti<strong>on</strong>s of religi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The origins of objects familiar to us never strike our attenti<strong>on</strong> or curiosity.<br />
However extraordinary or surprising these objects may be in themselves,<br />
they are pass<strong>ed</strong> over <strong>by</strong> the raw <strong>and</strong> un<strong>ed</strong>ucat<strong>ed</strong> multitude with little<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> or enquiry. Adam, as describ<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> Milt<strong>on</strong>, 1 rising suddenly in<br />
Paradise in the full perfecti<strong>on</strong> of his faculties, would naturally be ast<strong>on</strong>ish<strong>ed</strong><br />
at the glorious appearance of Nature: the heavens; the air; the earth; his own<br />
organs <strong>and</strong> members*. He would be mov<strong>ed</strong> to ask: from whence had this<br />
w<strong>on</strong>derful world arisen?<br />
Barbarous <strong>and</strong> impoverish<strong>ed</strong> humanity, however, had no time to admire<br />
the regular** face of Nature at the first emergence of society. Oppress<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
numerous wants <strong>and</strong> passi<strong>on</strong>s, they had no time to enquire into the origins<br />
of objects to which they had been gradually accustoming from infancy.<br />
On the c<strong>on</strong>trary, the more regular <strong>and</strong> uniform, ie the more perfect that<br />
Nature appears, the more are people familiaris<strong>ed</strong> to it <strong>and</strong> the less inclin<strong>ed</strong><br />
to scrutinise <strong>and</strong> examine it. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the birth of an abnormal infant<br />
excites people’s curiosity <strong>and</strong> is deem<strong>ed</strong> a prodigy. 2 Its novelty alarms them<br />
<strong>and</strong> imm<strong>ed</strong>iately sets them a- trembling, sacrificing <strong>and</strong> praying. But an<br />
animal complete in all its limbs <strong>and</strong> organs is to them an ordinary spectacle.<br />
It produces no religious opini<strong>on</strong> or affecti<strong>on</strong>. Ask whence that animal<br />
arose, <strong>and</strong> you will be told: from the copulati<strong>on</strong> of its parents. And<br />
whence came these parents? From the copulati<strong>on</strong> of theirs. A few removes<br />
satisfy popular curiosity, setting the objects at such a distance that people<br />
lose sight of them entirely. Do not imagine that they will so much as ask<br />
whence came the first animal – much less, whence the whole system or<br />
unit<strong>ed</strong> fabric of the Universe? Or, if you were to put such a questi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
* Members: Limbs; any part append<strong>ed</strong> to the body. SJ. Lat. membrum, a limb.<br />
** Regular: Initiat<strong>ed</strong> <strong>and</strong> form<strong>ed</strong> according to establish<strong>ed</strong> rules or discipline. SJ.<br />
Implying a primary Ruler.<br />
1 John Milt<strong>on</strong>, Paradise Lost, viii. 250– 82.<br />
2 Prodigies in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s time were still generally reck<strong>on</strong><strong>ed</strong> to be omens or portents.
the natural history of religi<strong>on</strong> 21<br />
people generally, do not expect that they will employ their minds with any<br />
anxiety up<strong>on</strong> a subject so remote, so uninteresting <strong>and</strong> so greatly bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
the limit of their abilities.<br />
Furthermore, if <strong>by</strong> reas<strong>on</strong>ing from the model suppli<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> Nature, people<br />
were first l<strong>ed</strong> into the belief of <strong>on</strong>e supreme Being, they would never<br />
have ab<strong>and</strong><strong>on</strong><strong>ed</strong> that belief in order to embrace polytheism. Inde<strong>ed</strong>, those<br />
same principles of reas<strong>on</strong> that had first produc<strong>ed</strong> <strong>and</strong> then diffus<strong>ed</strong> so magnificent<br />
an opini<strong>on</strong> over humankind would have been easily capable of<br />
preserving it. The initial discovery <strong>and</strong> proof of any doctrine is much more<br />
difficult than the subsequent supporting <strong>and</strong> retaining of it.<br />
Just as there is a great difference between historical facts <strong>and</strong> speculative<br />
opini<strong>on</strong>s, so the knowl<strong>ed</strong>ge of the <strong>on</strong>e is not propagat<strong>ed</strong> in the same manner<br />
as the other. 1 An historical fact, pass<strong>ed</strong> down <strong>by</strong> oral traditi<strong>on</strong> 2 from the initial<br />
eye- witnesses <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>temporaries, is progressively disguis<strong>ed</strong>* <strong>by</strong> every<br />
successive narrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> may eventually retain very little, if any, resemblance<br />
to its original truth.<br />
Such human factors as the frailty of memories; love of exaggerati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
supine carelessness** so<strong>on</strong> pervert accounts of historical events, unless correct<strong>ed</strong><br />
<strong>by</strong> books <strong>and</strong> writing. Here, argument or reas<strong>on</strong>ing has little or no<br />
place, never recalling truth <strong>on</strong>ce it has escap<strong>ed</strong> from those narrati<strong>on</strong>s. It is<br />
thus that the fables of Hercules 3 Theseus 4 <strong>and</strong> Bacchus 5 are believ<strong>ed</strong> to have<br />
been originally true history, corrupt<strong>ed</strong> thereafter in transmissi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
But with regard to speculative opini<strong>on</strong>s, the case is far different. If<br />
these opini<strong>on</strong>s are found<strong>ed</strong> <strong>on</strong> arguments so clear <strong>and</strong> obvious that they<br />
c<strong>on</strong>vince the generality of humankind, then those very arguments that<br />
first diffus<strong>ed</strong> them will still preserve their original purity. If the arguments<br />
are more abstruse <strong>and</strong> more remote from comm<strong>on</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing,<br />
then the opini<strong>on</strong>s they support will remain c<strong>on</strong>fin<strong>ed</strong> to a few pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, as so<strong>on</strong> as people ab<strong>and</strong><strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong> of the arguments,<br />
their opini<strong>on</strong>s will imm<strong>ed</strong>iately be lost <strong>and</strong> buri<strong>ed</strong> in oblivi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
* To Disguise: to disfigure; to alter or change in form. SJ<br />
** Carelessness: Inattenti<strong>on</strong>; negligence. SJ<br />
1 This was relevant to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s other great work of the period: The History of Engl<strong>and</strong>, from<br />
the Invasi<strong>on</strong> of Julius Cæsar to the Revoluti<strong>on</strong> in 1688; 4 Vols. (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Andrew Millar,<br />
1754– 62).<br />
2 Us<strong>ed</strong> in the sense of transmissi<strong>on</strong>. Lat. tradere, to h<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>.<br />
3 Greek demi- god <strong>and</strong> hero of the Twelve Labours.<br />
4 Mythical founder- king of Athens, s<strong>on</strong> of Poseid<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> friend of Hercules.<br />
5 Latin alternative name for Di<strong>on</strong>ysus, Greek god of wine, ecstasy <strong>and</strong> drama.
22<br />
david hume <strong>on</strong> god<br />
Whichever side of this dilemma we take, it appears impossible that<br />
theism could, through the exercise of reas<strong>on</strong>, have been the primary<br />
religi<strong>on</strong> of the human race; <strong>on</strong>ly afterwards, through corrupti<strong>on</strong> of that<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>, giving birth to polytheism <strong>and</strong> the vari<strong>ed</strong> superstiti<strong>on</strong>s 1 of the<br />
heathen world.<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>, when self- evident, prevents these corrupti<strong>on</strong>s. When abstruse,<br />
however, it keeps its principles entirely bey<strong>on</strong>d the knowl<strong>ed</strong>ge of the comm<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
who al<strong>on</strong>e are liable to corrupt any principle or opini<strong>on</strong>.<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> ii:<br />
Origin of Polytheism.<br />
If we wish to indulge our curiosity <strong>by</strong> enquiring into the origins of religi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
we must turn our thoughts towards polytheism as the primitive* religi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
uninstruct<strong>ed</strong> humanity.<br />
Were people l<strong>ed</strong> into the apprehensi<strong>on</strong>** of an invisible, intelligent<br />
Power <strong>by</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong> of the works of Nature, they could never possibly<br />
entertain any c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> other than that of <strong>on</strong>e single Being who<br />
bestow<strong>ed</strong> both existence <strong>and</strong> order <strong>on</strong> the Universe, adjusting its parts<br />
according to a regular plan or c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>ed</strong> system. To pers<strong>on</strong>s of a certain<br />
turn of mind, it may not appear altogether absurd that several independent<br />
beings endow<strong>ed</strong> with superior wisdom might collaborate in the development<br />
<strong>and</strong> executi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e regular plan. This, however, is an arbitrary<br />
suppositi<strong>on</strong>. Even if accept<strong>ed</strong> as possible, it is admitt<strong>ed</strong>ly unsupport<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
probability nor necessity. All things in the Universe are evidently integral;<br />
everything is adjust<strong>ed</strong> to everything else; <strong>on</strong>e design prevails throughout.<br />
This uniformity leads the mind to acknowl<strong>ed</strong>ge <strong>on</strong>e Author because the<br />
idea of different authors, with no distincti<strong>on</strong> between attributes or operati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly perplexes the imaginati<strong>on</strong> while bestowing no satisfacti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the underst<strong>and</strong>ing.<br />
* Primitive: Ancient; Original; Establish<strong>ed</strong> from the beginning. SJ<br />
** Apprehensi<strong>on</strong>: A c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> in the mind. SJ. Lat. apprehendere, to lay hold <strong>on</strong>.<br />
1 To <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>, superstiti<strong>on</strong> was belief, usually religious unfound<strong>ed</strong> <strong>on</strong> reas<strong>on</strong>, together with<br />
practices arising from such beliefs.
the natural history of religi<strong>on</strong> 23<br />
The statue of Laocoön 1 was, as we learn from Pliny, the work of three<br />
artists. 2 If not told this, however, we should certainly never have imagin<strong>ed</strong><br />
that such a group of figures, cut from <strong>on</strong>e st<strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> unit<strong>ed</strong> in <strong>on</strong>e plan, was<br />
not the c<strong>on</strong>trivance <strong>and</strong> work of a single sculptor. It is surely not a natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> obvious suppositi<strong>on</strong> to ascribe a single effect to a combinati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
several causes.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, if we leave the works of Nature <strong>and</strong> trace the footsteps<br />
of invisible power in the various <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trary events of human life, we<br />
are necessarily l<strong>ed</strong> into polytheism <strong>and</strong> to the acknowl<strong>ed</strong>gment of several<br />
limit<strong>ed</strong> <strong>and</strong> imperfect deities. Storms <strong>and</strong> tempests ruin what is nourish<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
the sun. The sun destroys what is foster<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> the dews <strong>and</strong> rains. War may<br />
be favourable to a nati<strong>on</strong> afflict<strong>ed</strong> with famine through the inclemency of<br />
the seas<strong>on</strong>s. Illness <strong>and</strong> plague may depopulate a kingdom amidst the most<br />
profuse plenty. The same nati<strong>on</strong> is not, at the same time, equally successful<br />
at sea <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> l<strong>and</strong>. Currently triumphant over its foes, a nati<strong>on</strong> may later<br />
have to submit to the military success of those enemies. In short, the behaviour<br />
of events, or what we call the plan of a particular Providence, 3 is full of<br />
variety <strong>and</strong> uncertainty. Thus, if we suppose it to be directly c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong><br />
any intelligent beings, we must acknowl<strong>ed</strong>ge a c<strong>on</strong>trariety* in their designs<br />
<strong>and</strong> intenti<strong>on</strong>s. We must also accept a c<strong>on</strong>stant combat of opposite powers<br />
<strong>and</strong>, within the same power, a repentance or change of intenti<strong>on</strong> arising<br />
either from impotence or from levity.**<br />
Each nati<strong>on</strong> has its tutelary*** deity with each element being subject<strong>ed</strong> to<br />
its invisible power or agency. Not <strong>on</strong>ly is the province of each god separate<br />
from that of another, but also the operati<strong>on</strong>s of the same god are not always<br />
certain <strong>and</strong> invariable. Today it protects; tomorrow it ab<strong>and</strong><strong>on</strong>s us. Prayers<br />
<strong>and</strong> sacrifices, rites <strong>and</strong> cerem<strong>on</strong>ies, well or ill- perform<strong>ed</strong>, are the sources<br />
of favour or enmity <strong>and</strong> produce all the good or ill- fortune of humankind.<br />
* C<strong>on</strong>trariety: Inc<strong>on</strong>sistency. SJ<br />
** Levity: Inc<strong>on</strong>stancy, changeableness. SJ<br />
*** Tutelary: Protective; defensive. SJ. Lat. tutus, safe.<br />
1 Trojan prince, uncle of Aeneas <strong>and</strong> priest of Apollo. Kill<strong>ed</strong> with his two s<strong>on</strong>s <strong>by</strong> serpents<br />
sent <strong>by</strong> Athena for his famous warning about the Trojan Horse: Timeo danaos et d<strong>on</strong>a<br />
ferentes (I fear Greeks, even when bearing gifts.) Virgil, Aeneid 2. 49.<br />
2 Gaius Plinius Secundus (23– 79 ce) Known as Pliny the Elder. Roman natural historian<br />
kill<strong>ed</strong> <strong>by</strong> the erupti<strong>on</strong> of Vesuvius, which buri<strong>ed</strong> Pompeii. He claim<strong>ed</strong> that The Laocoön<br />
(now in the Vatican museum) was the work of the Rhodian sculptors Athenodoros, Ages<strong>and</strong>er<br />
<strong>and</strong> Polydoros. Pliny, Historia Naturalis 36. 37.<br />
3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Hume</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s term for a specific provider Deity or deities, active in human affairs.