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mass immigration blew the population

into the cities. In 1790, only 3 percent

of Americans lived in cities; in 1840,

only 8 percent did; by 1920, more than

a third of the country were urbanites.

“We cannot all live in cities,” wrote the

news editor Horace Greeley in 1867,

“yet nearly all seem determined to do

so.”

Americans found themselves working

no longer with neighbors but with

strangers. “Citizens” morphed into “employees,”

facing the question of how to

make a good impression on people to

whom they had no civic or family ties.

“The reasons why one man gained a

promotion or one woman suffered a social

snub,” writes the historian Roland

Marchand, “had become less explicable

on grounds of long-standing favoritism

or old family feuds. In the increasingly

anonymous business and social

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