Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
life of people of the collectivity”political2003).(Thompsonan item of cultural property is veryWhenlinked to the identity of an existingcloselyit may be referred to as “culturalcollectivity,According to James Cuno, thispatrimony”.not something owned by a people, but“isof them, a part of their definingsomethingidentity” (Cuno 2001). The morecollectivethe item, the more likely it is to passimportantwho counts as a member of a culturalHowever,It might be pointless to argue about agroup?owning property if the members of thatculturecannot be identified. But this shouldculturebe used as an easy excuse to dismiss claimsnotpatrimony. Kwame Anthony Appiah pointstoas an issue, is much more tangibleOwnership,the issue of appropriation, which can havethanfor the authenticity of a work, andimplicationsrewards accruing to it. In its technicallytheform, appropriation is recognized as alegitimateof artistically recontextualizing somethingmeansto create a new work. There are at leastborrowedcategories of dubious appropriation: thetwoobvious is the appropriation of economicmostmaterial value, as many such artworks canorinvaluable. The Koh-i-Noor, for example, onebethe largest diamonds in the world, was takenofPunjab in 1849 and subsequently wornfromQueen Victoria in a brooch. It is currentlybyof the British Crown Jewels. Less obviouspartthe appropriation of cultural, artistic and/oriswe have the appropriation of narratives,First,told without the participation ofasgroups to whom an artwork’scontemporaryand/or significance can be traced.provenancethe last century, Indigenous Peoples’Overhas been interpreted, studied, exhibitedartNigerians claim a Nok sculpture“Whenpart of their patrimony, they areasfor a nation whose boundariesclaimingless than a century old, the works of aaremore than two millennia ago,civilizationby a people that no longer exists,createdwhose descendants we know nothingand(Appiah 2006)about.”corollary of this problem is how we canThefor instance, that an artwork or artefactknow,taken (or given) unjustly in the first place:wasis allowed to give something on behalf ofwhocultural group? Is it their kings, leaders oraIs consensus required?elders?systems of property rights may beLegalby these concepts, but progresschallengedrequired, especially given the many casesiscultural continuity to a contemporarywhereappropriated innumerable times withoutandparticipation. Painfully, cultural worktheirIndigenous People was often “treated asbyhistory, to be filed away with rocks andnaturalcarcasses, rather than treated as a vitalbirdin its own right” (Farago 2015). This isculturean ethical as well as knowledgesimultaneouslyto what extent can we understand theissue:and more broadly the materialartworks,immaterial culture, without the activeandof the subject group? In light ofparticipationwe have encountered in this chapter so far,whatyou say that this art can speak for itself,wouldbe spoken for by outsiders?orII. PerspectivesII. Perspectivesbeyond the category of property.out the following.group—the “moral descendents”—is traceable.II.4.2 AppropriationIn Paris, for example, pre-Columbian sculptures havemigrated over and over: from the Louvre and theMusée Guimet in the early-to-mid-19th Century, wherehistorical narratives.they were exhibited as antiquities; to the ethnographicTrocadéro in the late 19th Century, where aestheticswere irrelevant; and now to the Musée du Quai Branly,which proudly calls itself an art museum.(Farago 2015)301
II. Perspectiveshave been examples of progress: inThereUnited States, the Association of ArttheDirectors, the main authority forMuseummuseums, instructs its members to workUSIndigenous groups on display andwithThe Australian Museum ininterpretation.has been acknowledged for collaboratingSydneyindigenous communities to improve its“withand cultural artefacts are said to containArtknowledge, from the context andencodedof their creation. Sometimes the workcultureartistically inseparable from that context—isfor example, props and artwork usedconsider,ritualistic performance, such as masks andinHakananai’a (“lost or stolen friend”) is anHoabasalt statue that was taken fromeight-footIsland in 1868, and has been kept atEasterBritish Museum ever since. In Novemberthethe governor of Easter Island urged the2018,to return it, saying its keepers havemuseumcan these masks be comprehended byextentforeign audience, without the context of theaHow much context is enough for thedance?or sharing of knowledge to an artwork?transferart forms are more prone to thisSomethan others; film, for example, ispredicamentto be more readily transferable thanperceivediconography or fine art. It is the sharingreligioustransfer of art across social, cultural or linguisticorthat generally causes this problem. Evenbordersrecent decades, attempts to understand orinartwork out of its cultural context,appreciateexample art that has been geographicallyfortemporally displaced, has carried the risk oforexoticizing or further othering thetrivializing,and the subject culture to which it belongs.objectterms: You have ourSearchEaster IslandsoulAlarcón Rapu, Governor of Easter Island,Taritaasked the British Museum to lend therecentlyit is the right time to maybe send us“And(the statue) for a while, so our sonsbacksee it as I can see it. You have kept himcan150 years, just give us some months.”forBritish Museum released a statement toThethat described a “warm, friendly andCNNconversation” with the Easter Islandopenadding the following.delegation,was very helpful to gain a better“Itof Hoa Hakananani’a’sunderstandingfor the people of Rapasignificancetoday … . The museum is keenNuiwork collaboratively with partnerstocommunities across the globe andanddiscussions around future jointwelcomeswith Rapa Nui … . We believe thatprojectsis great value in presenting objectsthereacross the world, alongside the storiesfromother cultures at the British Museum.ofmuseum is one of the world’s leadingThe10interpretive displays” (Farago 2015).costumes used in ceremonial dance. To whatBox 10.6: “You have our soul”: Easter Island pleads with British for statue’s returnstatue back to Easter Island temporarily.the “soul” of the Easter Island people.(Rapu quoted in Holland 2018)302
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life of people of the collectivity”
political
2003).
(Thompson
an item of cultural property is very
When
linked to the identity of an existing
closely
it may be referred to as “cultural
collectivity,
According to James Cuno, this
patrimony”.
not something owned by a people, but
“is
of them, a part of their defining
something
identity” (Cuno 2001). The more
collective
the item, the more likely it is to pass
important
who counts as a member of a cultural
However,
It might be pointless to argue about a
group?
owning property if the members of that
culture
cannot be identified. But this should
culture
be used as an easy excuse to dismiss claims
not
patrimony. Kwame Anthony Appiah points
to
as an issue, is much more tangible
Ownership,
the issue of appropriation, which can have
than
for the authenticity of a work, and
implications
rewards accruing to it. In its technically
the
form, appropriation is recognized as a
legitimate
of artistically recontextualizing something
means
to create a new work. There are at least
borrowed
categories of dubious appropriation: the
two
obvious is the appropriation of economic
most
material value, as many such artworks can
or
invaluable. The Koh-i-Noor, for example, one
be
the largest diamonds in the world, was taken
of
Punjab in 1849 and subsequently worn
from
Queen Victoria in a brooch. It is currently
by
of the British Crown Jewels. Less obvious
part
the appropriation of cultural, artistic and/or
is
we have the appropriation of narratives,
First,
told without the participation of
as
groups to whom an artwork’s
contemporary
and/or significance can be traced.
provenance
the last century, Indigenous Peoples’
Over
has been interpreted, studied, exhibited
art
Nigerians claim a Nok sculpture
“When
part of their patrimony, they are
as
for a nation whose boundaries
claiming
less than a century old, the works of a
are
more than two millennia ago,
civilization
by a people that no longer exists,
created
whose descendants we know nothing
and
(Appiah 2006)
about.”
corollary of this problem is how we can
The
for instance, that an artwork or artefact
know,
taken (or given) unjustly in the first place:
was
is allowed to give something on behalf of
who
cultural group? Is it their kings, leaders or
a
Is consensus required?
elders?
systems of property rights may be
Legal
by these concepts, but progress
challenged
required, especially given the many cases
is
cultural continuity to a contemporary
where
appropriated innumerable times without
and
participation. Painfully, cultural work
their
Indigenous People was often “treated as
by
history, to be filed away with rocks and
natural
carcasses, rather than treated as a vital
bird
in its own right” (Farago 2015). This is
culture
an ethical as well as knowledge
simultaneously
to what extent can we understand the
issue:
and more broadly the material
artworks,
immaterial culture, without the active
and
of the subject group? In light of
participation
we have encountered in this chapter so far,
what
you say that this art can speak for itself,
would
be spoken for by outsiders?
or
II. Perspectives
II. Perspectives
beyond the category of property.
out the following.
group—the “moral descendents”—is traceable.
II.4.2 Appropriation
In Paris, for example, pre-Columbian sculptures have
migrated over and over: from the Louvre and the
Musée Guimet in the early-to-mid-19th Century, where
historical narratives.
they were exhibited as antiquities; to the ethnographic
Trocadéro in the late 19th Century, where aesthetics
were irrelevant; and now to the Musée du Quai Branly,
which proudly calls itself an art museum.
(Farago 2015)
301