Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
picks them up and moves away from thewhowith them. They display neutral facialmotherand the level of the stress hormoneexpressions,(as indicated in the saliva) declines …cortisollike these clearly indicate that assessmentResultsrelying on Western values andproceduresof behavior are inappropriate outsidestandardscultural territory.theira source of counterclaims to Keller, considerAsarguments put forth by Mesman et altheThe authors start with the point that it(2008).in 1950s Uganda, not one of the WEIRDwasthat developmental-psychologistcountries,Ainsworth “laid the foundations” forMaryIn how many countries and cultures1.a pattern of behaviour andmustoccur before we can callinterrelationshipuniversal?itIn some research, the aim is to interpret2.of behaviour in differentpatterns(a) Is it possible for researchers to achieve(b) What would qualify researchers to3. Consider assessing humans.Is it easier to assume human(a)or sameness?differenceWhich of these approaches is safer,(b)in what contexts?andconcerns arise in the context of theSimilaraccepted claim, and cliché, that teenagerswidelyprone to risky behaviour. The linked article isareof many that attributes this to a combinationoneauthors review a range of childbearingThein ethnographic evidence spanningpractices!Kung San of Botswana, Efé of the Iturithein Zambia, Hadza of Tanzania, Bofiforestthe Central African Republic and HausainNigeria. They also offer standardizedinof attachment and sensitivity inobservationsof Kenya, Dogon subsistence farmersGusiiMali, and mothers in South Africa, China,inNew Guinea, Taiwan, Japan, SouthPapuaIndonesia, Chile, Colombia, Peru,Korea,and Israel. Clearly this is not aMexicolist of the world’s countries,comprehensivecould we conclude it is not enough? Whatbutinformation or expertise would youadditionalto form a judgment about the issue? Ifneedremain, which assumptions are saferdoubtsmake? tociting neuroscientific studies using fMRIcontrol,scans that support the claim.brainterms: PsychologySearchbrains risk-takingTeenwidely-cited 2006 study boldly asserts thatAbehaviour “is biologically driven … andsuchto be remedied through educationalunlikelydesigned to change adolescents’interventionsappraisal, or understanding ofperception,and that our understanding and policyrisk”,“should begin from the premiseinterventionsadolescents are inherently more likely thanthatare deeply assertive claims aboutThesebehaviour and biology. Similar studiesteenagepointed towards a higher incidence ofhaveemotional challenges and irresponsibleanxiety,among teens because of biologicalbehaviourSuch claims verge on biologicalreasons.and biological reductionism. Theydeterminismalso rarely if ever accompanied with theare“American teenagers …” evenqualificationthe cited literature almost exclusivelythoughIII. Methods and toolsIII. Methods and tools(Keller 2018)important contributions to attachment theory.For ref lectionBehavioural research across culturescultures, in a way that reveals the truth.this?do this?adults to take risks” (Steinberg 2006).of reward-seeking and less-developed impulsestudies this group. Earlier in this chapter we227
III. Methods and toolsMargaret Mead’s anthropologicalencounteredthat Samoan adolescents’ experienceargumentpuberty was markedly different from theirofcounterparts’. Next we encounter newAmericanEpstein, former editor-in-chief ofRobertToday, wrote the following inPsychologyassuming that the brain“Automaticallybehavior is problematic becausecausesknow that an individual’s genes andwehistory—and even hisenvironmentalher own behavior—mold the brainortime. There is clear evidence thatoverunique features that may exist inanybrains of teens—to the limited extentthesuch features exist—are the result ofthatinfluences rather than the cause ofsocialargument confronts us withEpstein’sclassic problem of establishingthewhether it is brain biology or thecausation:that determines behaviour.environmentthere is disagreement among theWhenTOK helps us to evaluate the claimsexperts,counterclaims. Consider the followingandthen discuss your answers with aquestions,What would constitute sufficient and1.evidence that the source orcompellingof the set of “teenage” behaviourscausebiological? What would convince youisHow would this evidence need to be2.in order to be reliable?produced3. On what grounds can such evidence beshould examine whether the idea ofWeis more of a social construct“teenagehood”idea in II.2 in the context of the Mead-thiscontroversy. Epstein argues thatFreemanidea of teenagehood stems from the 1904theAdolescence by psychologist G. Stanleybookwritten in the context of the industrialHall,mass immigration and rapidrevolution,of US cities. Hall paid much lessurbanizationto teenagers from other contexts butattentionideas have nonetheless become entrenchedhisa popular imagination of teenagers. Ainreview of research on teens in 186 lessindustrialized1991societies found that:percent had no word for ‘adolescence’, that60spent almost all their time with adults, thatteensshowed almost no signs of psychopathology,theythat antisocial behavior in young males wasandabsent in more than half these culturescompletelyextremely mild in cultures in which it did occur.andon Epstein’s comments, you mightBasedthat teenagehood is a WEIRD construct.concludewould such a far-reaching conclusion beButThere is an important differencejustified?questioning ideas and casting thembetweenoutentirely.more signicant, a series of long-term studiesEvenin motion in the 1980s by anthropologistssetWhiting and John Whiting of HarvardBeatricesuggest that teen trouble begins toUniversityin other cultures soon after the introductionappearcertain Western inuences, especially Western-ofschooling, television programs and movies …stylewith these modern observations, manyConsistentnote that through most of recorded humanhistoriansthe teen years were a relatively peaceful timehistorytransition to adulthood. Teens were not trying toofaway from adults; rather they were learningbreakbecome adults. Some historians … suggest thattotumultuous period we call adolescence is a verythephenomenon—not much more than arecentold. century8perspectives on this theme.For reflectionProblems of causation in teenagerisk-seeking behaviourScientific Americanteen turmoil.” (Epstein 2007)(Epstein 2007)peer, in a small group or as a class.of Epstein’s argument?challenged?(Epstein 2007)than a fact of human biology. We explored228
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picks them up and moves away from the
who
with them. They display neutral facial
mother
and the level of the stress hormone
expressions,
(as indicated in the saliva) declines …
cortisol
like these clearly indicate that assessment
Results
relying on Western values and
procedures
of behavior are inappropriate outside
standards
cultural territory.
their
a source of counterclaims to Keller, consider
As
arguments put forth by Mesman et al
the
The authors start with the point that it
(2008).
in 1950s Uganda, not one of the WEIRD
was
that developmental-psychologist
countries,
Ainsworth “laid the foundations” for
Mary
In how many countries and cultures
1.
a pattern of behaviour and
must
occur before we can call
interrelationship
universal?
it
In some research, the aim is to interpret
2.
of behaviour in different
patterns
(a) Is it possible for researchers to achieve
(b) What would qualify researchers to
3. Consider assessing humans.
Is it easier to assume human
(a)
or sameness?
difference
Which of these approaches is safer,
(b)
in what contexts?
and
concerns arise in the context of the
Similar
accepted claim, and cliché, that teenagers
widely
prone to risky behaviour. The linked article is
are
of many that attributes this to a combination
one
authors review a range of childbearing
The
in ethnographic evidence spanning
practices
!Kung San of Botswana, Efé of the Ituri
the
in Zambia, Hadza of Tanzania, Bofi
forest
the Central African Republic and Hausa
in
Nigeria. They also offer standardized
in
of attachment and sensitivity in
observations
of Kenya, Dogon subsistence farmers
Gusii
Mali, and mothers in South Africa, China,
in
New Guinea, Taiwan, Japan, South
Papua
Indonesia, Chile, Colombia, Peru,
Korea,
and Israel. Clearly this is not a
Mexico
list of the world’s countries,
comprehensive
could we conclude it is not enough? What
but
information or expertise would you
additional
to form a judgment about the issue? If
need
remain, which assumptions are safer
doubts
make? to
citing neuroscientific studies using fMRI
control,
scans that support the claim.
brain
terms: Psychology
Search
brains risk-taking
Teen
widely-cited 2006 study boldly asserts that
A
behaviour “is biologically driven … and
such
to be remedied through educational
unlikely
designed to change adolescents’
interventions
appraisal, or understanding of
perception,
and that our understanding and policy
risk”,
“should begin from the premise
interventions
adolescents are inherently more likely than
that
are deeply assertive claims about
These
behaviour and biology. Similar studies
teenage
pointed towards a higher incidence of
have
emotional challenges and irresponsible
anxiety,
among teens because of biological
behaviour
Such claims verge on biological
reasons.
and biological reductionism. They
determinism
also rarely if ever accompanied with the
are
“American teenagers …” even
qualification
the cited literature almost exclusively
though
III. Methods and tools
III. Methods and tools
(Keller 2018)
important contributions to attachment theory.
For ref lection
Behavioural research across cultures
cultures, in a way that reveals the truth.
this?
do this?
adults to take risks” (Steinberg 2006).
of reward-seeking and less-developed impulse
studies this group. Earlier in this chapter we
227