Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
with barter, discover money, andbegineventually develop credit systems.thenhappened precisely the other wayItThe reason that economicaround.…now begin with imaginarytextbooksis because it has been impossiblevillagestalk about real ones. Even sometohave been forced to admiteconomistsSmith’s Land of Barter doesn’t reallythatThe question is why the myth isexist.has this myth been perpetuated forWhylong? The issue before us presents a richsoof knowledge claims, questions andstudyDoes the myth of barter supportimplications.myths, mainly the inevitability of money?otherassuredly, it displaces the importantMoreof gift and casual credit economies.historiesthe nature and popular understandingIndeed,tells how one day, after coming home hungryFreuchenan unsuccessful walrus-hunting expedition, hefromone of the successful hunters dropping off severalfoundpounds of meat. He thanked him profusely.hundredman objected indignantly: ‘Up in our country weThehuman!’ said the hunter. ‘And since we are humanarehelp each other. We don’t like to hear anybody saywefor that. What I get today you may get tomorrow.thankshere we say that by gifts one makes slaves and byUpone makes dogs.’whipslast line is something of an anthropologicalTheand similar statements about the refusal toclassic,barter myth naturalizes a calculating,Thepro quo version of human nature,quid“it possible to imagine a world thatmakingnothing more than a series of cold-bloodedissays Graeber (2011). The risk iscalculations”,alternative systems of exchange slowlythatit would be an absurd mistake toButthe ills of our economic systemsattributethe impersonal, acontextual, intertemporaltowardslogic of money; bought and soldbyand investors far-removed from thetradersenforced by watertight legal contractsdebtors,asset-seizure, and almost never, everandforgiven.may not be a coincidence that the governingItof many economic modelsassumptionshold onto the myth of the rationalsimilarlymaximizing their profits and benefits.human,is a very different understanding andThisof debt, and human life, than whatrealitynot very long ago. Let’s contrast thisexisteda story provided by Graeber, recountingwithFreuchen’s encounter with an InuitPeterfrom Greenland. Whether lyricalhunterliteral, the story reveals another form oforthat is entirely different from theexchangecredits and debits can be found throughoutcalculateanthropological literature on egalitarian huntingtheIt’s not that [the hunter], like untold millionssocieties.similar egalitarian spirits throughout history, wasofthat humans have a propensity to calculate.unawarehe wasn’t aware of it, he could not have said whatIfdid. Of course we have a propensity to calculate.hehave all sorts of propensities. In any real-lifeWewe have propensities that drive us in severalsituation,contradictory directions simultaneously… .differentreal question is which we take as the foundationTheour humanity, and therefore, make the basis of ourofthe supposed misguided acceptance oftoand money, and to lament our lost andbarterpast. The point being made hereromanticizedthat the way things are is not the way theyisto be, that by examining the buildinghaveof our knowledge, and undoing theblocksand taken-for-granted falsehoods, wemythsimagine a different future, and begin tocanII. PerspectivesII. Perspectivesperpetuated anyway.” (Graeber 2011)“quid pro quo” of barter.of credit, and debt, has shifted over timecivilization.” (Graeber 2011)disappear from our perceived possibilities.work towards it.221
II. PerspectivesIII. Methods and tools8.3 shows one of the foundational stories ofBoxbeing disputed by other disciplineseconomicsTo what extent is this kind of disagreement1.different disciplines desirable?betweenWhich factors determine whether it2.unproductive?becomesfollowing words of wisdom and warningTheWade Davis conclude this section.fromwe drift towards [a] blandly amorphous genericasview not only would we see the entire rangeworldabout human nature and societiesExplanationscome from the human sciences tend to bethatas having authority and legitimacy. This isseenwe believe there is something about thebecausethrough which they are producedmethodologywarrants it. This section takes a closerthatat the knowledge production practices,lookmethods and tools used by the differenttheand their associated challengesdisciplines,strengths.andhuman sciences study human phenomenaThethe goals of understanding andtowardsWould you say it is useful for students3.critically explore and understand thetoassumptions of a discipline beforefoundingon to acquire knowledge in thatgoingDoes having more knowledge in a4.make it easier or harder todisciplinethe assumptions on which itquestionbuilt? wasand preserving a plurality ofCultivatingin the human sciences keeps aliveperspectiveskind of moral imagination. Davis warns thatais being impoverished by the promotionthisnarrow and singular interpretations ofofnature.humanpatterns of activity, makingexplainingabout outcomes and guiding policypredictionsAs an AOK, this study caninterventions.impact human life in the present andprofoundlyHowever, in the last decade there hasfuture.a growing awareness, particularly withinbeenbehavioural sciences, that only a very smalltheof humankind is being systematicallysectiona 2003–07 study “of the top psychologystudied:found that 96% of subjects were fromjournalsindustrialized countries—which houseWestern12% of the world’s population” (Henrichjustal 2010a). There is even a WEIRD acronym foretWestern, Educated, Industrialized, Rich andit:As well as forming the acronym,Democratic.authors contend that “weird” is an accuratethe8For ref lectionCritical explorationsdiscipline?in the human sciences.the human imagination reduced to a more narrowofof thought … we would wake from a dreammodalityday having forgotten there were even otheronepossibilities.(Davis2003)I I I . M E T H O D S A N D T O O LSIII.1 Who are the humans in the humansciences?222
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with barter, discover money, and
begin
eventually develop credit systems.
then
happened precisely the other way
It
The reason that economic
around.…
now begin with imaginary
textbooks
is because it has been impossible
villages
talk about real ones. Even some
to
have been forced to admit
economists
Smith’s Land of Barter doesn’t really
that
The question is why the myth is
exist.
has this myth been perpetuated for
Why
long? The issue before us presents a rich
so
of knowledge claims, questions and
study
Does the myth of barter support
implications.
myths, mainly the inevitability of money?
other
assuredly, it displaces the important
More
of gift and casual credit economies.
histories
the nature and popular understanding
Indeed,
tells how one day, after coming home hungry
Freuchen
an unsuccessful walrus-hunting expedition, he
from
one of the successful hunters dropping off several
found
pounds of meat. He thanked him profusely.
hundred
man objected indignantly: ‘Up in our country we
The
human!’ said the hunter. ‘And since we are human
are
help each other. We don’t like to hear anybody say
we
for that. What I get today you may get tomorrow.
thanks
here we say that by gifts one makes slaves and by
Up
one makes dogs.’
whips
last line is something of an anthropological
The
and similar statements about the refusal to
classic,
barter myth naturalizes a calculating,
The
pro quo version of human nature,
quid
“it possible to imagine a world that
making
nothing more than a series of cold-blooded
is
says Graeber (2011). The risk is
calculations”,
alternative systems of exchange slowly
that
it would be an absurd mistake to
But
the ills of our economic systems
attribute
the impersonal, acontextual, intertemporal
towards
logic of money; bought and soldby
and investors far-removed from the
traders
enforced by watertight legal contracts
debtors,
asset-seizure, and almost never, ever
and
forgiven.
may not be a coincidence that the governing
It
of many economic models
assumptions
hold onto the myth of the rational
similarly
maximizing their profits and benefits.
human,
is a very different understanding and
This
of debt, and human life, than what
reality
not very long ago. Let’s contrast this
existed
a story provided by Graeber, recounting
with
Freuchen’s encounter with an Inuit
Peter
from Greenland. Whether lyrical
hunter
literal, the story reveals another form of
or
that is entirely different from the
exchange
credits and debits can be found throughout
calculate
anthropological literature on egalitarian hunting
the
It’s not that [the hunter], like untold millions
societies.
similar egalitarian spirits throughout history, was
of
that humans have a propensity to calculate.
unaware
he wasn’t aware of it, he could not have said what
If
did. Of course we have a propensity to calculate.
he
have all sorts of propensities. In any real-life
We
we have propensities that drive us in several
situation,
contradictory directions simultaneously… .
different
real question is which we take as the foundation
The
our humanity, and therefore, make the basis of our
of
the supposed misguided acceptance of
to
and money, and to lament our lost and
barter
past. The point being made here
romanticized
that the way things are is not the way they
is
to be, that by examining the building
have
of our knowledge, and undoing the
blocks
and taken-for-granted falsehoods, we
myths
imagine a different future, and begin to
can
II. Perspectives
II. Perspectives
perpetuated anyway.” (Graeber 2011)
“quid pro quo” of barter.
of credit, and debt, has shifted over time
civilization.” (Graeber 2011)
disappear from our perceived possibilities.
work towards it.
221