Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
which knowledge about the treatmentthroughAIDS was being produced. This type of citizenofblurs the lines between expert andinvolvementand redistributes the balances ofnon-expert,To what extent is it the responsibility of1.to understand and engage withcitizensOften non-experts who get deeply involved2.scientific controversies do so throughinpersonal effort. To what extent is thisgreatfailing of science and politics to inspireaare contextual, meaning theyDisagreementsembedded in the historical, cultural,areor economic issues of the time, and canpoliticalon an importance much larger than thetakeminutiae at stake. A profoundtechno-scientificof this was AIDS denialism that tookexamplein South Africa in the 1990s and 2000s,holdstory that was ably illustrated by Michaelawriting in the New Yorker inSpecter,2007.Marchterms: New YorkerSearchThe denialistsSpectershort version of the story is that a group ofThesceptics in the 1990s, calling themselvesHIVGroup for the Scientific Reappraisal oftheHIV/AIDS Hypothesis, put forward thetheAIDS should not be treated with•drugs, which are poisonsantiretroviralfar worse side effects than thewithitself.diseaseSouth Africa did not have an AIDS•Instead, too much recreationalepidemic.these questions for discussion in mind, let’sWithat an example of the power of politicianslookbolster or undermine the credibility andtoof science in the public, and whatauthoritywhen science and politics clash on anhappensof public health.issueand confidence in the knowledgetrustthey make?claimsThink of a public controversy on a scientific3.relevant to your context currentlyissuerecently. What determines whetherorhow the public can engage with theandsharing and evaluation of scientificmaking,claims?knowledgeuse, and too little nutrition and cleandrugwere killing its people.water,group included scientists such as PeterThewhose ideas were introduced inDuesberg,The group’s scientific claims were seizedII.3.by policy-makers and political leaders inuponAfrica, in a discourse that was heavilySouthby the legacy of apartheid andcomplicatedclimate of widespread distrust towardsapharmaceutical companies. OtherWesternpeople were involved: a doctorinfluentialentrepreneur who marketed vitaminsturnedan alternative to retroviral drugs; localasand healers who used herbalentrepreneursand national leaders includingconcoctions;Thabo Mbeki and Health MinisterPresidentTshabalala-Msimang who were deeplyMantoof Western pharmaceuticals andscepticaldoctors who prescribed them. All of thistheto deny South Africans access toconspiredbest practice, as agreed upon by themedicalscientific community. In the followingglobalthe death rate from AIDS in South Africayears,the Harvard AIDS initiative produced asoared:in 2008 that estimated 300,000 preventablestudyresulting from delayed AIDS treatment.deathsII. PerspectivesII. Perspectivespower, credibility and trust.For discussionTrust and credibilityscientific issues of public importance?Box 7.6: Disagreement in the public eyefollowingclaims.• HIV does not cause AIDS.189
II. Perspectivesfar this section has been dealing withSoand politics in terms of public policy,sciencepolitical system and governance. In II.7 wetheto the politics of knowledge, examiningturnto science’s assumed neutrality, andchallengesits position in a wider cultural andexploringencounter between modern WesternTheand other systems and bodies ofsciencehas a deep history. Feministknowledgepost-colonial thinkers have produced aandliterature that explores how scientificscholarlyand practice have been defined andknowledgeto the exclusion of groups of peopleshapedgender, racial, sociopolitical and non-alongintellectual lines. These ideas haveWesternattracted wider interest, including onrecentlycampuses and online communities.universitysection does not aim to summarizeThisliterature or examine the intersectionthatthe natural sciences and every otherbetweentradition. It aims to highlightknowledgeof the tensions and what can be learnedsomein feminist theory as well as theDevelopmentssociology and philosophy of sciencehistory,the 1960s formed the intellectual backdropinthe critical conversation regardingforand science that has been ongoinggendersince. Many issues originally raisedeverthis conversation remain important andinPhilosopher Sandra Harding hasunresolved.writing about feminist critiques of sciencebeendecades. In the introduction to her book,forPostcolonial Science and Technology StudiesThe(2011), she summarizes the questionsReaderare still grappling with, remarking forwethat few women are managing orinstanceresearch today, while women aredesigningabsent from the social structures ofalmostsciences. She also questions the rolemodern“sexist sciences” play in supporting andthatthe claim that women are inferiorspreadingin encouraging unfair practices. Hardingandif schools’ curricula and educationasksrestrict women’s access to careers inmethodsand engineering. Finally, she considersscienceproblems posed by the traditional methodsthephilosophy of science and technology,andtheir overwhelmingly masculinewiththe link to: “The Egg and the Sperm:FollowScience has Constructed a Romance BasedHowterms: Martin Egg andSearchSperm Chicago Journalstheclassic 1991 study by Emily MartinThisthe scientific myth of the passive eggunravelsfertilized by an active sperm cell. Thisbeingpersistent myth played into popularsurprisinglyabout the romantic personalities ofstereotypesand females.malesfeminist critique of science includes,Therequires, the voices of anthropologists,andhistorians, philosophers, sociologists,scientists,and policy-makers looking at theireducatorsthrough a “gender lens”. While significantworkhas been focused on the experience ofattentionin science, it would be incorrect to saywomenfeminist critiques treat gender as anotherthatfor “woman”. Feminist scholarshipwordopened up the discourse to explore thehasbetween science and power morerelationshipgenerally.7historical context.II.7 Science and its others: Feministworld view.and post-colonial critiqueson Stereotypical Male-Female Roles”.fromthem.Making connectionsFemale scientistsChapter 3 discusses female scientists whoseachievements are downplayed or erased fromhistory. You may have noticed that this chapter to alarge extent quotes male scientists from Europeanbackgrounds. The visibility of female scientists andtechnologists is both an issue of due credit, and anissue of enabling a diverse set of STEM students to seethemselves reected in the professional community.190
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which knowledge about the treatment
through
AIDS was being produced. This type of citizen
of
blurs the lines between expert and
involvement
and redistributes the balances of
non-expert,
To what extent is it the responsibility of
1.
to understand and engage with
citizens
Often non-experts who get deeply involved
2.
scientific controversies do so through
in
personal effort. To what extent is this
great
failing of science and politics to inspire
a
are contextual, meaning they
Disagreements
embedded in the historical, cultural,
are
or economic issues of the time, and can
political
on an importance much larger than the
take
minutiae at stake. A profound
techno-scientific
of this was AIDS denialism that took
example
in South Africa in the 1990s and 2000s,
hold
story that was ably illustrated by Michael
a
writing in the New Yorker in
Specter,
2007.
March
terms: New Yorker
Search
The denialists
Specter
short version of the story is that a group of
The
sceptics in the 1990s, calling themselves
HIV
Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of
the
HIV/AIDS Hypothesis, put forward the
the
AIDS should not be treated with
•
drugs, which are poisons
antiretroviral
far worse side effects than the
with
itself.
disease
South Africa did not have an AIDS
•
Instead, too much recreational
epidemic.
these questions for discussion in mind, let’s
With
at an example of the power of politicians
look
bolster or undermine the credibility and
to
of science in the public, and what
authority
when science and politics clash on an
happens
of public health.
issue
and confidence in the knowledge
trust
they make?
claims
Think of a public controversy on a scientific
3.
relevant to your context currently
issue
recently. What determines whether
or
how the public can engage with the
and
sharing and evaluation of scientific
making,
claims?
knowledge
use, and too little nutrition and clean
drug
were killing its people.
water,
group included scientists such as Peter
The
whose ideas were introduced in
Duesberg,
The group’s scientific claims were seized
II.3.
by policy-makers and political leaders in
upon
Africa, in a discourse that was heavily
South
by the legacy of apartheid and
complicated
climate of widespread distrust towards
a
pharmaceutical companies. Other
Western
people were involved: a doctor
influential
entrepreneur who marketed vitamins
turned
an alternative to retroviral drugs; local
as
and healers who used herbal
entrepreneurs
and national leaders including
concoctions;
Thabo Mbeki and Health Minister
President
Tshabalala-Msimang who were deeply
Manto
of Western pharmaceuticals and
sceptical
doctors who prescribed them. All of this
the
to deny South Africans access to
conspired
best practice, as agreed upon by the
medical
scientific community. In the following
global
the death rate from AIDS in South Africa
years,
the Harvard AIDS initiative produced a
soared:
in 2008 that estimated 300,000 preventable
study
resulting from delayed AIDS treatment.
deaths
II. Perspectives
II. Perspectives
power, credibility and trust.
For discussion
Trust and credibility
scientific issues of public importance?
Box 7.6: Disagreement in the public eye
followingclaims.
• HIV does not cause AIDS.
189