Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
question for us is: in not rejectingThephysics earlier, despite theNewton’sanomalies, were these scientistsmounting“bad science”?practisingthe first example, their unwillingness toIna theory resulted in success—Neptunerejectdiscovered, and Newton was vindicated.wasthe second example, this approach failed.Inexamples could be considered “badBothaccording to the falsification criteriascience”out by Popper, and both are more alignedsetKuhn’s view of science than Popper’s.withfalsification continues to shape how weYet,about scientific practice. Imagine anthinktimeline in which Einstein’s generalalternativenever came along, and astronomersrelativityastrophysicists continued to believe anandplanet Vulcan was responsible forunseenunexplainable orbit. How long andMercury’smany more anomalies would it take forhowto give up on Newton’s physics? Morethemwhat Vulcans like this exist today,interestingly,us to cling onto flawed paradigms?allowinghistory of science suggests that this is veryThe1930 Wolfgang Pauli wrote to a friend:Indone a terrible thing, I have“Ihavea particle that cannot be detected”postulatedin Sutton 1992). He was referring(quotedthe neutrino, a tiny subatomic particle. Itto“terrible” because science was supposedwasbe concerned with falsification, andtopredictions that could not be tested.notthings that might be true butPostulatingbe tested was considered bad science.cannotwe saw how that approach succeeded inButdiscovery of Neptune. Why was Pauli inthewasn’t really. He may have suspected thatHewould eventually allow equipmenttechnologyPauli was inspired by Le Verrier,Perhapsdiscovery of Neptune temporarilywhosechallenge: a fundamental principle ofsimilarthe conservation of energy, was beingphysics,because of anomalies detected inquestioneddecay. Energy was being “lost”radioactivebut if Pauli could account for it,somewhere,might save the theory. He wrote: “I have hithea desperate remedy to save the energyupon(quoted in Brown 1978).theorem”remedy seemed a preposterousThatof a new particle with almostpredictionmass and no electric charge, called thezeroThe best equipment of the time,neutrino.detectors, had no way of detectingparticlea chargeless particle. It was likesuchNeptune, but knowing that noproposingalive could find it. Strangely, the physicsoneembraced Pauli’s hypothesis. Itcommunitytake almost three decades for scientistswoulddetect the neutrino, using new methods andtoincluding a nuclear reactor—technologies,it turned out that neutrinos are literallybutDoes the result justify the means?everywhere.suggested something invisible to savePaulitheory. Le Verrier did the same. Knowingahow much do you think falsificationthis,observability matter as guides to “goodandAt what point can a theory bescience”?falsified? What would happen if wedeemedto the idealized version of science—orstuckthis bad science necessary for scientificwasto “progress”? These are of courseknowledgequestions, but they might affectrhetoricalwe think about string theory, the mainhowof which are currently unfalsifiable andideasbut hold promise of providingundetectable,grand unified theory of physics. Someahave even argued that we shouldscientiststhe importance of falsification toreducestring theory from the usual standardsprotectof science.requiredPopper’s falsification criterion,Beforehad another ideal: observability. ThescienceII. PerspectivesII. Perspectivesmuch something to look out for.Pauli and the neutrinosuch despair?The question of observability: Atomsand electronsto detect the neutrino.controversy about atoms in the latter half ofsaved Newtonian physics. Pauli faced a175
II. Perspectives19th century reveals the extent to whichtheideal was held. Some scientists werethisby the explanatory power of atomicpersuadedBut no one had detected atoms, notheory.at the time could detect them,equipmentthey solved no new puzzle. Hundreds ofandsmaller than light waves, atoms weretimesby even the most powerfulunobservableMach was a brilliant and influentialErnstand philosopher, whose critiquephysicistNewton’s physics may have later helpedofpostulate general relativity. However,Einsteinwent so far as to say “I don’t believe thatheexist”, and that good science should notatomsexamples above serve to explain howTheon falsification and “goodperspectiveshave changed over time. Falsificationscience”be too strict to use as an everyday rule.mayscientists test Einstein’s theory usingWhenand photographic plates, they aretelescopestesting the focal theory, plussimultaneouslytheory of optics that goes into designingthe2014, 178 of the world’s greatest minds—Inthinkers, public intellectuals—scientists,the question: “What scientific ideaconsideredready for retirement?”isterms: Edge WhatSearchidea is ready forscientificyou read a few of their responses, you seeIfand complementing perspectives.contradictingidea was so influential that it causedThisKaufmann, a German physicist, toWalterwhat could have been the discovery ofignorein 1897: the particles he suspectedelectronstoo small to observe, so he stayedwereMonths later J.J. Thomson, an Englishsilent.suspected the same thing, calledphysicist,electrons, and went on to receive thethemturns out that Pauli, the man who posited theIt(one of the tiniest known subatomicneutrinovia a desperate and unobservableparticles)untestable “remedy”, had a famousandcalled Mach, the very same Mach whouncleproclaimed, “I don’t believe thatinfamouslyexist”. And thus we see why Pauliatomshis prediction of the existence ofdescribedmathematical analyses of the data, plus atheof other things that we take for granted inlotbackground. If there is a mismatch betweentheand observation, it is not enough to ruletheorythe theory immediately. A failure in oneoutthe many related theories and assumptionsofbe to blame instead. Reproduciblemighttested under a variety of conditionsanomaliesmay be happy, sad or surprised to seeYou“The Self” or “The Universe”“Calculus”,considered for retirement. In pairs, smallbeingor as a class discuss the followinggroupsWhat reasons are offered for qualifying a1.idea for retirement?scientificIf the reasons sound compelling to you,2.do you think some of the ideas persist?whyWhat does it mean for a scientific idea to be3.actually happens to it?retired—what7microscopes of the time.Nobel Prize.be concerned with finding them.neutrinos as a “terrible thing”.the telescopes, plus the assumptions behindare needed for falsification.For discussionScientific ideas ready for retirementquestions.retirement?176
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II. Perspectives
19th century reveals the extent to which
the
ideal was held. Some scientists were
this
by the explanatory power of atomic
persuaded
But no one had detected atoms, no
theory.
at the time could detect them,
equipment
they solved no new puzzle. Hundreds of
and
smaller than light waves, atoms were
times
by even the most powerful
unobservable
Mach was a brilliant and influential
Ernst
and philosopher, whose critique
physicist
Newton’s physics may have later helped
of
postulate general relativity. However,
Einstein
went so far as to say “I don’t believe that
he
exist”, and that good science should not
atoms
examples above serve to explain how
The
on falsification and “good
perspectives
have changed over time. Falsification
science”
be too strict to use as an everyday rule.
may
scientists test Einstein’s theory using
When
and photographic plates, they are
telescopes
testing the focal theory, plus
simultaneously
theory of optics that goes into designing
the
2014, 178 of the world’s greatest minds—
In
thinkers, public intellectuals—
scientists,
the question: “What scientific idea
considered
ready for retirement?”
is
terms: Edge What
Search
idea is ready for
scientific
you read a few of their responses, you see
If
and complementing perspectives.
contradicting
idea was so influential that it caused
This
Kaufmann, a German physicist, to
Walter
what could have been the discovery of
ignore
in 1897: the particles he suspected
electrons
too small to observe, so he stayed
were
Months later J.J. Thomson, an English
silent.
suspected the same thing, called
physicist,
electrons, and went on to receive the
them
turns out that Pauli, the man who posited the
It
(one of the tiniest known subatomic
neutrino
via a desperate and unobservable
particles)
untestable “remedy”, had a famous
and
called Mach, the very same Mach who
uncle
proclaimed, “I don’t believe that
infamously
exist”. And thus we see why Pauli
atoms
his prediction of the existence of
described
mathematical analyses of the data, plus a
the
of other things that we take for granted in
lot
background. If there is a mismatch between
the
and observation, it is not enough to rule
theory
the theory immediately. A failure in one
out
the many related theories and assumptions
of
be to blame instead. Reproducible
might
tested under a variety of conditions
anomalies
may be happy, sad or surprised to see
You
“The Self” or “The Universe”
“Calculus”,
considered for retirement. In pairs, small
being
or as a class discuss the following
groups
What reasons are offered for qualifying a
1.
idea for retirement?
scientific
If the reasons sound compelling to you,
2.
do you think some of the ideas persist?
why
What does it mean for a scientific idea to be
3.
actually happens to it?
retired—what
7
microscopes of the time.
Nobel Prize.
be concerned with finding them.
neutrinos as a “terrible thing”.
the telescopes, plus the assumptions behind
are needed for falsification.
For discussion
Scientific ideas ready for retirement
questions.
retirement?
176