Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang

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science, when new knowledge replaces old“Inwe can be confident that it is anknowledge,assumptions can you identify here aboutWhatscience works and changes over time?howwhat Popper and Kuhn might say inConsiderto this claim, and why.responsethe discovery of Uranus in 1781,Followingquickly found that it did notastronomersalso different meanings ofConsiderIs new knowledge an“improvement”.because it is more true,improvementbecause it is better able to explainorWhat is the difference betweenphenomena?two arguments?thesethe sun according to Newton’s laws oforbitThis strange result was replicatedgravity.times. Had the terms of falsificationnumerousapplied strictly, Newton’s theory wouldbeenbeen compromised. But the astronomershaveonto it. Could we say they had “faith”heldII. PerspectivesII. PerspectivesFigure 7.3 An illustration of th Ptolmai gontri systm by Portugus osmographr and artographr Bartolomu Vlho, 1568Practising skills: Evaluating claims and argumentsimprovement.”Case studyWhat do Neptune, neutrinos and theplanet Vulcan have in common?“Bad science”173
II. PerspectivesNewton’s theory? Perhaps that would beintoo far. But they were certainly notgoingwhat Popper says they should havedoingdoing.beenastronomers postualted the existenceInstead,a hidden planet that was pulling Uranus.ofappeared to explain Uranus’s strangeThisand, if true, would also redeemorbittheory. But it was all ratherNewton’sIn 1846, the astrophysicist Urbainoutlandish.Verrier even made a prediction aboutLethis hidden planet would be. Suchwherejarred with Popper’s viewsstubbornnessgood science, and indeed, the Frenchofof the time were unwilling toobservatoriesLe Verrier in his search for the hiddenassistso he asked friends in Germany forplanet,One night they set their telescopes inhelp.direction Le Verrier had predicted and,thea half hour, spotted another planet,withinwhere it was supposed to be. Leexactlystubbornness led to the discovery ofVerrier’snew planet, Neptune, and upheld Newton’salaws of gravity.universalwas a roaring success for Le VerrierThisNewtonian physics. However, it wasandthe end of the story. For many years,nothad known that Mercury’sastronomerswas also off the course predictedorbitNewtonian physics. And so Le Verrierbythe same trick, predicting in 1859triedanother hidden planet, this time closethatthe sun, was pulling Mercury off thetocourse. That planet was calledpredictedand was to Mercury what NeptuneVulcan,been to Uranus—except Vulcan washaddiscovered. For decades, astronomersneverfor the planet, carrying expensivehuntedtelescopes around the world to bepowerfulthe right place at the right time (during aateclipse). They stopped trying in 1877solarLe Verrier’s death, but the conundrumafterwas a fundamental mismatch betweenthereNewton’s physics predicted and whatwhatobserved. Yet, Newton’s physics waswasfalsified, at least not until Einstein‘snottheory was “verified” in 1919.alternativerelativity went on to make sense ofGeneralstrange orbit, along with manyMercury’sanomalies, that eventually led to theotherhas a bad reputation forVerificationismgood reasons—proving a scientificsometo be true is problematic, andtheoryscientists are better off focusing onsoHowever, attempts atfalsification.can help resolve a scientificverificationby legitimizing a new theory andcrisisa paradigm shift. This wasprecipitatingcase, for example, in May 1919, whenthepredictions were verified byEinstein’sEddington using measurementsArthurduring a solar eclipse. Eddingtontakenpictures of stars that appeared to betookof place; their position was predictedoutgeneral relativity, which said that lightbycurve due to the sun’s gravitationalraysThe quality of Eddington’sfield.was questioned butmeasurementsevent still ushered in a paradigmtheThe news was published all overshift.world. Though anomalies againstthephysics had accumulated forNewtonianthe theory was never falsified—years,to Popper’s scientific method—contraryEddington “verified” generaluntilSo, while verification does notrelativity.a theory is proven true, it can helpmeanaccept that a theory is goodscientists7paradigm shift away from Newton’s physics.Box 7.2: Should we rule outverification?enough for now.persisted for decades: if Vulcan did not exist,174
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THEORY OFO X F O R D I B D I P L O
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University Press is a department of
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ContentsCORE THEMEOPTIONAL THEMESiv
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lucky circumstance brings you to th
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I. Scopecan seem abstract, intimida
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I. Scopeis complicated by power and
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I. ScopeWhat factors limit our know
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I. ScopeII. PerspectivesTOK we exam
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II. Perspectivesmay have inherited
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II. Perspectivesto Quassim Cassam,
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III. Methods and toolsterms: NYT Ne
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III. Methods and toolsof it? What m
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III. Methods and toolsIV. Ethics(b)
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IV. Ethicsin TOK is about the explo
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Knowledgeand politics 2is concerned
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I. Scopehas been great concern, esp
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I. Scopeadministrative systems, had
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I. Scopethis book we engage with th
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II. Perspectives“Overton window
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II. Perspectivesopposed to scientif
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II. Perspectivesobjective “fact o
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II. Perspectives7 deals with public
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II. Perspectiveshe adds, ‘It wasn
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II. Perspectivesargued that interne
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II. Perspectivesmedia users report
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III. Methods and toolsLorde said yo
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III. Methods and toolsShould we tes
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III. Methods and toolsend of the po
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III. Methods and toolsIV. Ethicsthe
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IV. Ethicsoffence enters the pictur
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IV. Ethicsenabled by technology. Pr
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IV. Ethicsa 2018 article for the Ne
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Knowledgeand technology 3does it me
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I. Scopereach of human-made objects
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I. Scopeterms:SearchSubmarineTelege
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section explores what we know about
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3.5a shows Margaret Hamilton,Figure
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II. Perspectivesterms: How weSearch
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the challenges outlined in the disc
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2013 a team of researchers publishe
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III. Methods and toolsAccuracy (sel
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that object is a black hole, from w
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IV. Ethicsand when those who stand
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are instances in which the“[There
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example of ethical action amongAnoc
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IV. Ethics(using 840 billion words
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is trained on data sets. It is this
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I. Scopehaptr vnturs yond languags
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I. Scopelanguags ar only on spifiHu
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I. Scopedsriing mthods, prsptivs an
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II. Perspectivesthat 90% will disap
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no longr spokn, this knowldg may ar
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II. PerspectivesEmpir and postwar A
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II. Perspectivesin th pross. At th
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origin of languag—how did w as hu
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Garia Marquz appars oftn onGarillis
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plants, insts and animals ommuniatD
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III. Methods and toolstrms: Tahing
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IV. Ethicsontain parls of wisdom, s
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I. Scopesocieties have diverse idea
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only since 2019, their claims to be
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I. ScopeII. Perspectivesthe contour
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became clear only decadespreservati
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does it mean to think of land as a
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Page 135 and 136: we consider the contributions of TE
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Page 165 and 166: David Thoreau was a naturalist, wri
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Page 169 and 170: IV. Ethicswe have an ethical respon
Page 171 and 172: IV. EthicsSinger described conseque
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Page 185 and 186: II. PerspectivesWhat are some scien
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III. Methods and toolslack of diver
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III. Methods and toolssensitivity
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III. Methods and toolsMargaret Mead
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III. Methods and toolstheir presenc
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III. Methods and toolstold Mahbub,
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III. Methods and toolsY. Thinley, a
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III. Methods and toolsis the scope
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III. Methods and toolssignificant c
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III. Methods and toolsIV. Ethics7 d
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IV. Ethicschange … brings togethe
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last example brings together ideas
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to show it how it was.” This was
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I. Scope7 raises the question of wh
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I. Scopeis more than a matter of po
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II. Perspectivesqustion w xplord in
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was not alon in rflting dply aoutCa
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II. Perspectiveshistorial ontxt, ut
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of Yugoslavia and th Sovit Union;ra
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II. Perspectivesor indpndnt shools
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III. Methods and toolswith an intrs
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III. Methods and toolshistorian, jo
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III. Methods and toolsinstad of oth
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III. Methods and toolsmonks and lrg
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III. Methods and toolsh had n ordrd
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III. Methods and toolswould naiv,
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IV. Ethicsin Chaptr 5. Grgory Young
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IV. Ethicsis filld with xtraordinar
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10chapter explores the human encoun
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I. Scopethe historical development
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I. Scopehas the status of women art
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I. ScopeTruth and knowledge in art:
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I. Scopeterms: ElizabethSearchDesir
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II. Perspectivesby Vermeer were rar
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II. Perspectiveswas one thing van M
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II. Perspectivesare found in the br
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II. Perspectivesterms: CNN Business
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II. Perspectivesof the time, to dra
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II. Perspectivesthe last few hundre
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II. Perspectivesafter that date, bu
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II. Perspectiveshave been examples
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II. PerspectivesIII. Methods and to
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III. Methods and tools1. Is having
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III. Methods and toolsThe rst thing
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III. Methods and toolscan be deeply
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IV. Ethicsmay notice that many know
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IV. Ethicsartist’s intent to conf
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IV. Ethicsor moral boundaries of th
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IV. Ethicsfact that people far away
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IV. Ethicsterms: NorthrupSearchtrue
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I. Scopemathmatis arris an aura ofN
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I. Scopeof th arly xampls of this
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II. Perspectivesof mathmatial knowl
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II. Perspectivesonpts an appar so s
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II. Perspectivesdid th st minds of
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II. Perspectiveswrits that long for
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II. Perspectivesognitiv nurosintist
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II. Perspectivesprptuat inquality o
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III. Methods and toolsonsidr two on
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III. Methods and toolsproofs wr rit
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III. Methods and tools10 features a
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III. Methods and toolsmathmatis is
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III. Methods and toolswritrs of The
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IV. Ethicsthat “I hav nvr don any
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IV. Ethicsold adag, widly itd and o
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IV. Ethicswll-puliisd figur of 1 in
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IV. EthicsMathematics. Th artil prs
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I. THE EXHIBITIONquestions are ques
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I. THE EXHIBITION11. Can new knowle
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I. THE EXHIBITIONa new subject can
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I. THE EXHIBITIONthat objects do no
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I. THE EXHIBITIONyou describe them,
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I. THE EXHIBITIONdoubt, and a tweet
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II. THE ESSAYother way you demonstr
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II. THE ESSAYwhat extent do the con
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II. THE ESSAYAnother weak approach
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II. THE ESSAYto present the conclus
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as unspoken and unspeakable truthsa
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otherwise by measuring differentlyk
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J. 2017. “The Triage of Truth: Do
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H. 2017. “Cambridge Analytica, Tr
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Human Rights and Equal Opportunitie
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K. 2006b. “Leila Ahmed Muslim Wom
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HSD, Freeman, C, Jahoda, M, Pavitt,
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W. 2012. “Ethics and Historical R
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PJ, Hammel, EA and O’Connell, JW.
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Campbell and Justin Friesen: ‘Why
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Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang

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