Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang

recent human activity called science,
relatively
specific context of its origin, its global
the
its current challenges and the knowledge
reach,
it brings.
that
the natural sciences were described using the
If
of a map, we would see that it does not
metaphor
a fixed territory. Even a term such as “nature”
have
a domain of contestable boundaries. Sir Isaac
is
law of universal gravitation expanded
Newton’s
domain of nature by unifying the terrestrial
the
celestial realms, showing that the same forces
and
on apples on the ground and on the moon
act
the cosmos. More recently, astrobiology has
in
looking for life using eyes in the skies and
been
arms that probe worlds across our solar
robotic
Closer to home, the debate over the scope
system.
science touches on the problem of drawing a
of
between nature and culture—a debate
boundary
way to approximate the boundaries of
Another
science is to consider not what it applies
natural
is practically impossible to prove that a
It
statement is true because to do
universal
would require observing every possible
so
across space and time. It is
example
easy to show that a theory is
comparatively
true. Consider the statement “All swans
not
white”, which would require us to see all
are
in all possible spaces before we accept it
swans
obvious problem with this is that one
The
swan could be hiding somewhere.
black
if we observe millions of white swans,
Even
and perseveringly, the best we
meticulously
say is that the hypothesis is provisionally
can
In contrast, we can more easily prove
accepted.
“Not all swans are white”, by finding one
that
swan. Therefore scientists, according to
black
widely influential work, should focus
Popper’s
contradicting these universal laws, not on
on
but how science is and ought to be done. For
to,
one aim is to distinguish science from
example,
which is what Karl Popper called
pseudo-science,
demarcation problem (demarcation means to
the
a line between things). Popper proposed an
draw
to this problem, arguing that something
answer
scientific if it could be falsified; that is,
was
and proven false. This idea was called
tested
and has had a lasting effect on
falsificationism,
we think about certainty and the nature of
how
tells us that scientific facts and
Falsificationism
can only ever be proven false, not true,
theories
any claim to the contrary is more likely to
and
telemarketing than serious science. Scientific
be
after Popper is tentative, falsifiable
knowledge
replicable. Or is it? Later in this chapter we
and
the extent to which Popper’s definition is
explore
good or even viable way to define science.
a
even the theory “All swans are
However,
which we know to be untrue, is still
white”,
through empirical observation. This
testable
it an example of Popperian science,
makes
pseudo-science. A theory that “All swans
not
secretly communicating with each other
are
overthrowing humankind”, in contrast,
about
not falsifiable—the existence of this secret
is
cannot be proven false. Could
communication
in technology change this in
advancements
future? Advancements in technology and
the
do play a role in separating what is
methods
labelled the set of non-falsifiable claims
Popper
A surprisingly large set of
pseudo-science.
scholarship at the time of his writing,
accepted
as psychology and astronomy, fell under
such
category. Chapter8 explores where that
this
the human sciences. Later, this chapter
leaves
to what extent science actually
questions
through falsification.
progresses
7I. Scope
scientific knowledge.
relevant to the human sciences as well.
Box 7.1: More on falsificationism
as true.
science from what is not.
verifying them.
168