Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
the 21st century the task of explaining natureInlargely fallen to science, but this is a relativelyhasoccurrence. Explanations of naturalrecenthave occupied religious thought andphenomena1967 Clarence Glacken published a fairlyInaccount of the relationshipscomprehensivereligion and nature in the WesternbetweenThis inspired other investigations intoworld.environmental impacts of Western culture,thephilosophy and science. These worksreligion,“an epic struggle in Western cultureportrayorganicist and mechanist worldviewsbetweenbetween those who view the natural world as…sacred and having intrinsic value, andsomehowwho view the Earth as a way station to athoserealm beyond the Earth …” (GlackenheavenlyReligion was viewed as both culprit and1967).in the environmental destruction story.saviourin 1967 Lynn White published an articleAlsoargued that Abrahamic religions (Judaism,thatand Islam) perpetuated modesChristianityliving that were inherently damaging toofenvironment, and argued, like Toynbee athelater, that the solution to this problemdecadealso be essentially religious” (White“mustIn these authors’ view, Buddhism or1967).were more sensitive to nature thanPaganismprevailing monotheism. Combined withtheforces of the era, the existential threatculturalthe Cold War, and growing alarm aboutofdegradation, this all madeenvironmentalmore curious about and receptiveWesternersnon-Western religious traditions. Max Webertohad already traced capitalism’s unbridled(1958)Buddhism, Hinduism, Paganism andideas.belief systems and traditions showedIndigenousto offer more environmentally sensitiveupand behaviours.valuesview was romantic and simplistic—White’sreligions were causing environmentalWesternand Asian or Indigenous traditionsdestructioninherently nature-friendly. Yi Fu Tuanwerean influential article in 1968 disputingpublishedideas, noting that deforestation predatedthesethat Asian nations did not have aChristianity,impressive environmental record,particularlythat many regions of the world hadandenvironmental decline, scaled forwitnessednumbers, well before the arrival ofpopulationWestern civilization.modernscholars agree that nature plays a roleNumerousshaping religion, and vice versa, but there isinless agreement on the importantcomparativelyThese include whether religion helps ordetails.adaption to the environment, and thehindersof this influence in relation to otherstrengthfeatures. For decades, anthropologistsculturalbeen investigating the role of religion and/havespiritual beliefs in Indigenous Peoples’ abilityorthrive in their environmental contexts. Atoevolutionary argument is based on “thecommonof the most sustainable”—or the ideasurvivalculture is a set of adaptations to a specificthatand that religions evolved to guideenvironment,towards successful adaptations. This waspeopleview of anthropologist Julian Steward, whotheIndigenous Peoples in North America’sstudiedBasin. Another anthropologist, MarvinGreatstated in the 1960s that the sacredness ofHarris,in India was ecologically advantageous,cowsto sustain the nutrient cycles of agroecosystemsservingand the carrying capacity of the land.III. Methods and toolsIII. Methods and toolsIII.3 Religion and natureThe present threat to mankind’s survival can beremoved only by a revolutionary change of heart inindividual human beings. This change of heart mustbe inspired by religion in order to generate the willpower needed for putting arduous new ideals intopractice.(Toynbee quoted in Porritt 1984)practice, and been reflected in it, for millennia.Harris subsequently generalized as follows.Beliefs and rituals that appear to the nonanthropologicalobserver as wholly irrational, whimsical, and evenmaladaptive have been shown to possess importantpositive functions and to be the dependent variable ofrecurrent adaptive processes.(Harris 1971)consumption of natural resources to religious155
view has been criticized for being overlyThisand simplistic and for perpetuatingromanticof Indigenous Peoples asconceptionsIt also ignores the stark fact of theunscientific.decline in animal populations (tigers,dramaticand elephants, for example) that has beenrhinosby demand in some traditional medicinedrivenWhile anthropologists may celebratesystems.and Indigenous knowledgenature-religionsgenerally, it is another thing to usesystemsto judge which of these are better orsciencefor the environment. Yet, that task may beworserelationship between nature and religionThedifficult to untangle and loaded withisimplications, especially so in thepoliticaland anti-colonial discourses.decolonizingare clearly individuals, groups andTherestructures that would benefit frompoweror understating the importanceoverstatingreligion in shaping human culture and ourofwith the environment. But therelationshipcan shine a light on our way forward,debateoffering hope against the existentialperhapsof climate and ecological crises.threatnumber of terms refer to the category ofAand spiritual traditions that arereligiousas more environmentally sensitive.describedinclude natural religion, nature worship,Thesereligion, Animism, Paganism, Heathenry,Earthand Pantheism. This category hasDruidryhistorically viewed by Western culture asbeenand in the case of Paganism even asprimitive,for failing to understand (or rejecting) theevil,as God’s creation and for worshippinguniverse6III. Methods and toolsconnectionsMakingIndigenous knowledge and natureReligion,is a sub-eld of anthropology thatEthnobotanyin early 20th-century attempts byoriginatedto document the uses of plantsanthropologistsIndigenous Peoples. This research graduallybyto study how plants were used to sustainexpandedhealth of people and their communities,thetheir environment, sometimes throughincludingspiritual connection. It is related to Indigenousasystems generally, and traditionalknowledgeecological knowledge (TEK) specically, whichinvolves the knowledge gained by IndigenousPeoples in their interactions with the environmentover time. Ecological knowledge is sometimesinseparably connected to religious beliefsand practices.Many leading scholars in the eld have assertedthat TEK can lead to sustainable use of naturalresources. Some researchers also believed thatwithin these religious practices were importantspiritual truths that did more than advanceenvironmental sustainability. This was a signicantshift in how mainstream scientic culturesaw Indigenous Peoples, but it was alsocriticized, as noted earlier, for its simplistic andromantic perspective.inevitable, and much needed.elements of God’s creation rather than God.156
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view has been criticized for being overly
This
and simplistic and for perpetuating
romantic
of Indigenous Peoples as
conceptions
It also ignores the stark fact of the
unscientific.
decline in animal populations (tigers,
dramatic
and elephants, for example) that has been
rhinos
by demand in some traditional medicine
driven
While anthropologists may celebrate
systems.
and Indigenous knowledge
nature-religions
generally, it is another thing to use
systems
to judge which of these are better or
science
for the environment. Yet, that task may be
worse
relationship between nature and religion
The
difficult to untangle and loaded with
is
implications, especially so in the
political
and anti-colonial discourses.
decolonizing
are clearly individuals, groups and
There
structures that would benefit from
power
or understating the importance
overstating
religion in shaping human culture and our
of
with the environment. But the
relationship
can shine a light on our way forward,
debate
offering hope against the existential
perhaps
of climate and ecological crises.
threat
number of terms refer to the category of
A
and spiritual traditions that are
religious
as more environmentally sensitive.
described
include natural religion, nature worship,
These
religion, Animism, Paganism, Heathenry,
Earth
and Pantheism. This category has
Druidry
historically viewed by Western culture as
been
and in the case of Paganism even as
primitive,
for failing to understand (or rejecting) the
evil,
as God’s creation and for worshipping
universe
6III. Methods and tools
connections
Making
Indigenous knowledge and nature
Religion,
is a sub-eld of anthropology that
Ethnobotany
in early 20th-century attempts by
originated
to document the uses of plants
anthropologists
Indigenous Peoples. This research gradually
by
to study how plants were used to sustain
expanded
health of people and their communities,
the
their environment, sometimes through
including
spiritual connection. It is related to Indigenous
a
systems generally, and traditional
knowledge
ecological knowledge (TEK) specically, which
involves the knowledge gained by Indigenous
Peoples in their interactions with the environment
over time. Ecological knowledge is sometimes
inseparably connected to religious beliefs
and practices.
Many leading scholars in the eld have asserted
that TEK can lead to sustainable use of natural
resources. Some researchers also believed that
within these religious practices were important
spiritual truths that did more than advance
environmental sustainability. This was a signicant
shift in how mainstream scientic culture
saw Indigenous Peoples, but it was also
criticized, as noted earlier, for its simplistic and
romantic perspective.
inevitable, and much needed.
elements of God’s creation rather than God.
156