Theory of Knowledge - Course Companion for Students Marija Uzunova Dang Arvin Singh Uzunov Dang
a major way of linking the brain to linguisticHistorically,has been through the study of brain injurybehaviourcaused individuals to lose (parts of) theirwhichability. Examples are the patients of Paul BrocalinguisticCarl Wernicke—two physicians and anatomists fromand19th century. Their famous work linked languagethe(aphasias) with damage to specic areas ofdisordersfrontal and temporal lobes of the brain. In the casetheBroca’s aphasia, damage to a region in the front of theofcalled the inferior frontal gyrus caused problemsbrainspeech production, while comprehension waswithpreserved. However, damage to the superiorrelativelylobe led to the opposite decit of normaltemporalproduction, but loss of comprehension, knownspeechof neuroscientic research since have helpedDecadesextend the basic insights of Broca and Wernickeusup a more rened model of language in theandbuildDevelopments in technology and data analysisbrain.led to the understanding that the machinery thathaveus to produce and understand words andenableslies in a network of brain regions much moresentencesthan previously thought. Methodologiesdistributedas functional magnetic resonance imagingsuchallow us to record metabolic brain activity with(fMRI)precision, but low temporal resolution. Toolsspatialas EEG and MEG are able to record brain activitysuchit oms to languag, xprts disagrWhnmany ntral qustions: whn and howaoutlanguag originat? Ar all languagsdidto on anothr on som lvl? To whatrlatdis languag a uniquly human apaity?xtntmaks som languags mor omplx orWhatis not our pla in TOK to try and rsolvItdats. But w an and shouldthsth ompting laims mad as partvaluatontrovrsis and opn qustions aoutofOther tools, such as transcranial magneticresolution.(TMS) allow us to disrupt the functioningstimulationa targeted brain area temporarily and to drawofabout its causal role in a given cognitiveconclusionsexample, new research shows that word meaningFornot represented in a purely symbolic fashion. Ratherisdening words by sole reference to other knownthanas is the case with a dictionary, our brainvocabulary,word meaning by calling upon more “basic”storessystems. Understanding a word is verysensorimotorfrom just retrieving a denition—it involvesdierentsimulating the various perceptual, motor andmentallyproperties that someone associates with theemotionalWhen you hear the word “cat”, your brain producesword.extremely fast simulation of what it would be likeansee a cat in front of you, to hear it or touch it, or howtofelt one time when a cat scratched you. From ayoupsychology perspective, this is quite a daringtraditionalbecause it seems to blur the distinctions betweenview,thinking and acting. However, this insightperceiving,hardly surprise any poet, knowing the visceralwillwords can have on us: they can lift our spirit andeecta joyous swelling of the chest, stir us to action,causeus to tears or infect us with stomach-hurtingbringThis emphasizes the fact that there are manylaughter.ways of knowing, through language,complementaryOn what asis ar th diffrnt laims mad1.on what asis an thy ontstd?andIf onfliting laims ar supportd y vry2.vidn—nurologial, ognitiv,diffrntand so on—to what xtnt is ittypologialto ompar thm?possilWhat is th diffrn twn laims3.ar dsriptions of how languagthatand xplanations of why it works aworksway?partiularIII. Methods and toolsIII. Methods and toolsprocess, such as language.as Wernicke’s aphasia.science or art—as presented in this book.with millisecond temporal precision, but lower spatialPractising skills: Evaluating claimsdiffiult than othrs?languag. Considr th following qustions.103
Garia Marquz appars oftn onGarillists of favourit authors. Howvr,popl’srading his work in English is atuallyanyona translation y Grgory Raassa, aradinglitrary translator, st known forrsptdvrsions of works y famousEnglish-languagAmrian novlists, among thm JorgLatinGarill Garia Marquz and JulioAmado,Famously, Garia Marquz had saidCortazar.Raassa’s translation of One Hundred YearsthatSolitude was ttr than th original. To whatofar English languag radrs assingxtntMarquz’s work? Or is it, as th PolishGariaand Nol laurat Wislawa Szymorskapotsaid (quotd in Popova 2016), “thatonmiral whn a translation stops ing araris it that maks a translation good, orWhator ttr than anothr? Clarly th ontxtad,translating a washing-mahin manualmattrs:a diffrnt proposition from translating aisnovl, rligious txt, sintifi papr orlitraryIn som ontxts prision is paramount,haiku.in othrs prision may sondary towhilasthti quality that is dsrid as artisti,anvarious polaritis hav n usd toIndd,translation: as an art or sin, as prisdsrirativ, as intrprtiv or ruls-asd. Youorsns that translation rquirs a alaningmightths tnsions. For xampl, omputr-assistdofsystms, whih us ruls aout wordtranslationand syntax, suggst options to a humanordrto mak th final, asthti, judgmnt.ingaddition, thr is th fundamntal qustion ofInomptny: you might assum, rightly,languagknowing th sour languag is a orthatfor translators. This assumption wasomptnwhn Ursula L Guin, a pionringhallngdstmd novlist and translator, produdandown “translation” of Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching,hrknowing no Classial Chins. Instaddspitusd a 1898 translation y Paul Carusshth assistan of JP Saton, a profssor ofanda translation ut as a lyrial “rndition”, asasand unsholarly”, xplaining“idiosynratilike that reader to see why people have lovedwouldbook for twenty-ve hundred years.theGuin mad important intrprtiv disionsLprsnt th author, Lao Tzu, and his ookthatlosly alignd with hr intrprtation ofmor“funny, kn, kind, modst, indstrutil,it:and inxhaustily rfrshing ”outragous,1998). Hrman, in a rviw of L(Hrmanook, notd that anything that wntGuin’sth spirit of th ook, as sh undrstoodagainstwas unapologtially altrd, inludingit,to th “king”, “sag”, “mpir” andrfrns(usd as a positiv trait), whih sh“proprity”rsptivly with “humankind,” “wisrplad“th puli good” and “odin”souls”,as a ngativ trait). Politial and war-(usdommntary was similarly dltd. Lrlatdappars to omit, rarrang or rintrprtGuinlashs with hr task of makingwhatvrintlltual and spiritual sns”“asthti,Lao Tzu’s work. Dspit th xtnt ofofhangs, L Guin’s work is dsridths“sholastially rsponsil” and rfltingasrsarh and onsidral“painstakingslf-onsiousnss”mthodologial1998).(Hrman4III. Methods and toolsIII.2 Problems with translationtranslation and oms … a sond original”?as follows.Tao Te Ching is partly in prose, partly in verse;Theas we dene poetry now, not by rhyme and meterbutas a patterned intensity of language, the wholebutis poetry. I wanted to catch that poetry, itsthingstrange beauty. Most translations have caughtterse,in their net, but prosily, letting the beautymeaningsthrough. And in poetry, beauty is no ornament;slipis the meaning. It is the truth … . Scholarlyitof the Tao Te Ching as a manual for rulerstranslationsa vocabulary that emphasizes the uniquenessusethe Taoist “sage,” his masculinity, his authority.oflanguage is perpetuated, and degraded, inThispopular versions. I wanted a Book of the Waymostto a present-day, unwise, unpowerful, andaccessibleunmale reader, not seeking esoteric secrets,perhapslistening for a voice that speaks to the soul. Ibut(Le Guin 1997)rativ, honst or dply fling.Chins. Sh dsrid th alaimd rsult not104
- Page 59 and 60: IV. Ethicsoffence enters the pictur
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a major way of linking the brain to linguistic
Historically,
has been through the study of brain injury
behaviour
caused individuals to lose (parts of) their
which
ability. Examples are the patients of Paul Broca
linguistic
Carl Wernicke—two physicians and anatomists from
and
19th century. Their famous work linked language
the
(aphasias) with damage to specic areas of
disorders
frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. In the case
the
Broca’s aphasia, damage to a region in the front of the
of
called the inferior frontal gyrus caused problems
brain
speech production, while comprehension was
with
preserved. However, damage to the superior
relatively
lobe led to the opposite decit of normal
temporal
production, but loss of comprehension, known
speech
of neuroscientic research since have helped
Decades
extend the basic insights of Broca and Wernicke
us
up a more rened model of language in the
andbuild
Developments in technology and data analysis
brain.
led to the understanding that the machinery that
have
us to produce and understand words and
enables
lies in a network of brain regions much more
sentences
than previously thought. Methodologies
distributed
as functional magnetic resonance imaging
such
allow us to record metabolic brain activity with
(fMRI)
precision, but low temporal resolution. Tools
spatial
as EEG and MEG are able to record brain activity
such
it oms to languag, xprts disagr
Whn
many ntral qustions: whn and how
aout
languag originat? Ar all languags
did
to on anothr on som lvl? To what
rlatd
is languag a uniquly human apaity?
xtnt
maks som languags mor omplx or
What
is not our pla in TOK to try and rsolv
It
dats. But w an and should
ths
th ompting laims mad as part
valuat
ontrovrsis and opn qustions aout
of
Other tools, such as transcranial magnetic
resolution.
(TMS) allow us to disrupt the functioning
stimulation
a targeted brain area temporarily and to draw
of
about its causal role in a given cognitive
conclusions
example, new research shows that word meaning
For
not represented in a purely symbolic fashion. Rather
is
dening words by sole reference to other known
than
as is the case with a dictionary, our brain
vocabulary,
word meaning by calling upon more “basic”
stores
systems. Understanding a word is very
sensorimotor
from just retrieving a denition—it involves
dierent
simulating the various perceptual, motor and
mentally
properties that someone associates with the
emotional
When you hear the word “cat”, your brain produces
word.
extremely fast simulation of what it would be like
an
see a cat in front of you, to hear it or touch it, or how
to
felt one time when a cat scratched you. From a
you
psychology perspective, this is quite a daring
traditional
because it seems to blur the distinctions between
view,
thinking and acting. However, this insight
perceiving,
hardly surprise any poet, knowing the visceral
will
words can have on us: they can lift our spirit and
eect
a joyous swelling of the chest, stir us to action,
cause
us to tears or infect us with stomach-hurting
bring
This emphasizes the fact that there are many
laughter.
ways of knowing, through language,
complementary
On what asis ar th diffrnt laims mad
1.
on what asis an thy ontstd?
and
If onfliting laims ar supportd y vry
2.
vidn—nurologial, ognitiv,
diffrnt
and so on—to what xtnt is it
typologial
to ompar thm?
possil
What is th diffrn twn laims
3.
ar dsriptions of how languag
that
and xplanations of why it works a
works
way?
partiular
III. Methods and tools
III. Methods and tools
process, such as language.
as Wernicke’s aphasia.
science or art—as presented in this book.
with millisecond temporal precision, but lower spatial
Practising skills: Evaluating claims
diffiult than othrs?
languag. Considr th following qustions.
103